TOPICS:

GEOLOGIC PHYSIAL
MAPS PROPERTIES

ATTITUDE ROCK MECHANICAL

OF BEDS MECHANICS PROPERTIES
ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
ATTITUDE
OF BEDS
ATTITUDE
A general term for the orientation of a line or
plane. Attitude refers to the three dimensional
orientation of planar and linear features such as
a bed, a joint, a hornblende neddle or a fold.
The attitude of planar features, such as beds or
joints, is defined by their strike and dip.
ATTITUDE OF LINEAR
STRUCTURE
The attitude of linear structures is defined by the trend &
plunge (together they define a vector)
Trend is the bearing of the line & Plunge is the inclination of
the line.
Linear structure are also defined by their pitch / rake on a
given plane:
Pitch / Rake: The acute angle between the line and the strike
of the plane on which the line lies.
ATTITUDE OF LINEAR
STRUCTURE
Example of linear structures: Fold axis, hingeline, intersection of two
planes, stretched pebbles, slickenside, other lineations.
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR
STRUCTURE
❖ The attitude of planar structures is defined by the strike and dip,
strike and dip describe the orientation of a plane in space.

▪ Strike is the bearing of a horizontal line on the plane (a

scalar), i.e., N400E

▪ Dip is the inclination of the plane measured down. Dip

is a vector; it gives the direction and amount of dip of
the plane.
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR STRUCTURE

❖ TWO TYPES OF DIP

▪ True dip : The angle between a bed and a horizontal

plane measured in a vertical plane lying at right angles
to the strike of the bedding. It is the maximum vertical
angle of an inclined structural plane. It is denoted by d

▪ Apparent dip: Apparent dip is the angle measured in

any direction other than the true dip direction. The
amount is always less than the true dip. It is denoted by
r
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR STRUCTURE

❖ TWO TYPES OF DIP

▪ True dip : The angle between a bed and a
horizontal plane measured in a vertical plane d = true dip
lying at right angles to the strike of the bedding. r = apparent dip
It is the maximum vertical angle of an inclined a = azimuth
structural plane. It is denoted by d angle between strike line
and apparent dip direction
▪ Apparent dip: Apparent dip is the angle
measured in any direction other than the true
dip direction. The amount is always less than
the true dip. It is denoted by r
ATTITUDE OF PLANAR STRUCTURE

The relation between the apparent dip and true dip is

expressed by the following equation:-
tan r = tan d sin a
Compass-clinometer for measuring strike & dip
Taking a bearing of a rock feature - e.g. strike
Measuring the inclination (e.g. dip)
GEOLOGIC
MAPS
Geologic Maps
• are representations of
geologic formations
and structures at the
Earth’s surface,
including formations,
faults, folds, inclined
strata, and rock types.
• Each formation on the
map is indicated by a
color and a label.
Geologic Maps
Elements of Geological
Maps
Elements of Geological
Maps
Elements of Geological
Maps
Elements of Geological
Maps
Elements of Geological
Maps
 Cartographic unit
It is the representation of a volume of rock with a lithology or constant lithologic association, of a
determinate age, limited by surfaces that make contact with the adjacent bodies of rock.

CARTHOGRAPHC
UNIT
 Cartographic unit
It is the representation of a volume of rock with a lithology or constant lithologic association, of a
determinate age, limited by surfaces that make contact with the adjacent bodies of rock.
 Cartographic unit
It is the representation of a volume of rock with a lithology or constant lithologic association, of a
determinate age, limited by surfaces that make contact with the adjacent bodies of rock
CONTACT
 CONTACT
Contacts between
different geologic
formations.
 CONTACT

DEPOSITIONAL

INTRUSIVE
Contacts between

FAULT
different geologic
formations.
1 2 3
 DEPOSITIONAL

➢ Conformable
➢ Non-conformable

2 3
DEPOSITIONAL
➢ Conformable
--Conformable contacts represent
no time gap in the geologic
record. They are usually planar,
1 though they may have slightly
irregular topography. These
contacts represent continual,
uninterrupted deposition and
2 3
accumulation of sedimentary
rocks, or represent lava flows.
DEPOSITIONAL
➢ Non-Conformable

INTRUSIVE
-Unconformities are gaps in the
geologic record within a
stratigraphic unit. These gaps can

FAULT
1 be caused by periods of non-
deposition or by erosion.[3] As a
result, two adjacent rock units
may have significantly different
2 3
ages.
 3

FAULT
11

DEPOSITIONAL
INTRUSIVE
INTRUSIVE
• Intrusive contacts are the

DEPOSITIONAL
surfaces between host
(or country) rock and an
intrusive magmatic

FAULT
body. The older country
rock is crosscut by a
younger magmatic body.
The nature of3 the intruding
11
body depends on its
composition and depth.
1

DEPOSITIONAL
2

INTRUSIVE
FAULT
FAULT
• Fault and shear zone contacts

DEPOSITIONAL
can be represented by either

INTRUSIVE
discrete breaks and
discontinuities, or ductile
deformation without a physical
break in stratigraphy.[9] Fault
surface contacts show discrete
breaks and have an attitude
and position which describes
1 2
the contact between two
formations.
FOUR MAIN GROUPS OF GEOLOGICAL
CONTACTS

SEDIMENTARY LIMITS
CONTACTS METAMORPHIC
PROCESSES

IGNEOUS
MECHANICAL
CONTACTS
CONTACTS
FOUR MAIN GROUPS OF GEOLOGICAL
CONTACTS
SEDIMENTARY CONTACTS

• these are the contacts between

sedimentary rocks, or between these and
their substratum; the most common are the
"normal or conformable contact", the
"transitional or gradational contacts" and
the "unconformable contacts".
FOUR MAIN GROUPS OF GEOLOGICAL
CONTACTS
IGNEOUS CONTACTS
• these are the contacts between bodies
of intrusive igneous rocks and the rocks
where they intrude, or the contact
between themselves; in the case of the
volcanic rocks the base of the outflows
of lava is also considered in this way.
FOUR MAIN GROUPS OF GEOLOGICAL
CONTACTS
LIMITS METAMORPHIC PROCESSES
• these correspond to the outlines of the rocky
volumes affected by metamorphism, or in
other words, the limit of the aureole of
contact metamorphism, or the limits
between different metamorphic zones of
regional metamorphism.
FOUR MAIN GROUPS OF GEOLOGICAL
CONTACTS
MECHANICAL CONTACTS
• these are the contacts between rocky units
that correspond to fractured surfaces,
accompanied by a relative movement of
the two blocks that are delimited by them.
They can be of several types; the most
common are the "normal faults", the
"thrust faults" and the "reverse faults".
OTHER ELEMENTS
OTHER ELEMNTS
Shows the measured
orientation of rock
structures, such as
bedding, foliation, and
faults.
OTHER ELEMNTS
Shows the
measured
orientation of rock
structures, such
as bedding,
foliation, and
faults.
OTHER ELEMNTS
OTHER ELEMNTS
The Importance of Geological Maps
Geologic maps are the primary source of information for various aspects of land use planning, including the siting of buildings and transportation systems.
Represent where geologic formations, faults, folds, and inclined rock units are.
Uniquely suited to solving problems involving Earth resources, hazards, and environments.
 The Importance of Geological Maps
Geologic maps are the primary source of
information for various aspects of land use
planning, including the siting of buildings and
transportation systems.
Represent where geologic formations, faults, folds,
and inclined rock units are.
Uniquely suited to solving problems involving Earth
resources, hazards, and environments.
 ROCK
MECHANICS
ROCK MECHANICS
❖ Rock mechanics is a multidisciplinary subject
combining geology, geophysics, and engineering and
Fractures in rock
applying the principles of mechanics to study the
engineering behavior of the rock mass. With wide
application, a solid grasp of this topic is invaluable to
anyone studying or working in civil, mining,
petroleum, and geological engineering.
ROCK MECHANICS
❖ Rock mechanics is a multidisciplinary subject combining geology, geophysics, and engineering and applying
the principles of mechanics to study the engineering behavior of the rock mass. With wide application, a
solid grasp of this topic is invaluable to anyone studying or working in civil, mining, petroleum, and
geological engineering.

❑ FRACTURES IN ROCK ❑ GROUND WATER

❑ SCALE EFFECTS ❑ WEATHERING
❑ TENSILE STRENGTH
 ❑ Selection of ❑ Optimum
mining methods slope angle

❑ Design of ❑ Drilling and

support system blasting
parameters

APPLICATIONS IN GEOLOGY
THE IMPORTANCEOF ROCK
MECHANICS IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING
THE IMPORTANCEOF ROCK MECHANICS IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Rocks are the most common material which is

used in the construction of foundation. The local
geology of an area is important when planning a
major construction . The full knowledge of
geology increase the strength, stability, and
durability of civil engineering projects.
 PHYSICAL
&
MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
DENSITY
 DENSITY
❖ A measure of mass per unit of volume.
 DENSITY
❖ A measure of mass per unit of volume.
❖It is sometimes defined by
unit weight and specific
gravity. Most rocks have
density between 2,500 and
2,800 kg/m³.
❖It is used to estimate
overburden stress.
POROSITY
POROSITY
❖ describes how densely the material is packed.
It is the ratio the non-solid volume to the total
volume of material. Porosity therefore is a
fraction between 0 and 1.
POROSITY
 WATER
CONTENT
WATER CONTENT
❖ A measure indicating the amount of
water the rock contains.
❖ The ratio of the volume of the water
to the bulk volume of the rock
material
WATER CONTENT
❖ A measure indicating the
amount of water the rock
contains.
❖ The ratio of the volume of
the water to the bulk
volume of the rock
material
PERMEABILITY
PERMEABILITY
❖A measure of the
ability of the material
transmit fluids.
❖Permeability of rock
material is governed
by Porosity.
PERMEABILITY
❖A measure of the ability of the material transmit fluids.
❖Permeability of rock material is governed by Porosity.
HARDNESS
HARDNESS
❖ characteristics of a
solid material
expressing its
resistance to
permanent
deformation .
HARDNESS
 STRENGTH

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
➢COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

➢TENCILE STRENGTH

➢SHEAR STRENGTH

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
➢COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
is the capacity of a material to withstand axially
directed compressive forces. The most common
measure of compressive strength is the uniaxial
compressive strength or unconfined compressive
strength. Usually compressive strength of rock is
defined by the ultimate stress. It is one of the most
important mechanical properties of rock, used in
design, analysis, and modeling.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
➢COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

➢TENCILE STRENGTH

➢SHEAR STRENGTH

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
➢TENCILE STRENGTH
of rock material is normally defined by the ultimate strength
in tension, that is, maximum tensile stress the rock material
can withstand. Rocks generally have a low tensile strength
because of the existence of “micro cracks” in the rocks. The
existence of this may also be the cause of rock failing
suddenly in tension with a small strain. Tensile strength of
rocks can be obtained from several types of tensile tests:
Direct Tensile test, Brazilian test, and Flexure test.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
➢COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

➢TENCILE STRENGTH

➢SHEAR STRENGTH

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
➢SHEAR STRENGTH
is used to describe the strength of rock materials to resist
deformations due to shear stress. Rock resists shear stress by
two internal mechanism; Cohesion a measure of internal
bonding of the rock material and Internal friction that is caused
by contact between particles, and is defined by internal friction
angle, . Different rocks have different Cohesion and Internal
bonding. Shear strength of rock can be determined by Direct
Shear test and Tri-axial compression test.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
STRENGTH
➢COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

➢TENCILE STRENGTH

➢SHEAR STRENGTH

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 ELASTICITY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ELASTICITY
➢YOUNGS MUDULUS

➢POISSON’S RATIO

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ELASTICITY
➢YOUNGS MUDULUS
is modulus of elasticity measuring of the
stiffness of a rock material. It is defined as the
ratio, for small strains, of the rate of change of
stress with strain. Similar to strength, Young’s
modulus of rock materials varies widely with
rock type. For extremely hard and strong rocks,
they can be as high as 100GPa.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ELASTICITY
➢YOUNGS MUDULUS

➢POISSON’S RATIO

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ELASTICITY
➢POISSON’S RATIO

measures the ratio of lateral strain to axial strain

at linearly-elastic region. For most rocks, the
Poisson’s ratio is between 0.15 and 0.4. Lateral
strain increases fast than the Axial strain and
hence lead to a higher ratio.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ELASTICITY
➢YOUNGS MUDULUS

➢POISSON’S RATIO

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 PLASTICITY

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
PLASTICITY
While Elasticity is the property of a body to
recover it original configuration, PLASTICITY
on the other hand, is the property of a rock to
lose its property of elasticity and acquire a
permanent deformation on the removal of
deforming force.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES