STATE THE DIFFERENT STAGES OF ELECTRONIC PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT.
1. Define MTTF AND TYPES OF REDUNDANCY
ANS. Mean Time To Failure (MTTF)=1/λ MTTF = - (t / ln [R(t)])
ANS. TYPES OF REDUNDANCY
 According to the level where it is applied in a system.
 System or component redundancy
 Partial redundancy etc
 According to the status and time of switching of a redundant system.
 Active (hot)Redundancy
 Standby (cold) or shared redundancy
 Warm redundancy
 Applications where redundancy is extensively used.
 Like Power system grid
2. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GROUNDING AND SHIELDING ANS.. •
Grounding means to connect electrical equipment to a common reference
ground or earth.
• Shielding is used both for immunity (protecting against external
interference) and emission (preventing interference to be radiated) • Shielding
is typically applied to enclosures to isolate electrical devices from their
surroundings, and to cables to isolate wires from the environment through
which the cable runs.Electromagnetic shielding that blocks radio frequency
(RF) electromagnetic radiation is also known as RF shielding.
1. WHAT IS ERGONOMICS IMPORTANCE OF ERGONOMICS IN PRODUCT DESIGN
WITH EXAMPLE
ANS. • It is defined as the relationship between man & Machine • Ergonomics
is related to the comfort between the man and machine while operating the
machine. • The objective of ergonomics is to make the machine fit for the user
rather than to make the user adapt himself or herself to the machine.
IMPORTANCE OF ERGONOMICS IN PRODUCT DESIGN
• The process of ergonomic design is to create an item that gives the end user a
comfortable, stress-free experience. This approach to design offers the
following benefits:
• Comfort – Products that you use or touch should be comfortable. It ensures
that items can be used without placing unnecessary strain on the user.
• Safety – Safety has never been as important as it is in today’s world. As
consumers become more aware, they expect high level of safety. Ergonomic
product design can vastly improve safety for both the manufacturer and the
consumer.
• Ease of Use – Products should be easy to use.. Ergonomic design can improve
usability. It can help ensure a consumer has no stress or hassle.
• Enjoyment –Aside from ease of use, a product should also be enjoyable. If a
product is enjoyable, consumers will be more likely to use it. Ergonomic design
can help to improve the consumer’s enjoyment and give them a favorable
experience when using the product.
• As this design approach really can help to create superb end products. The
whole process revolves around the end user – it is also known as usercentric
design.
• Look at what the consumer requires and figure out how to best meet their
needs through your product design.
EXPLAIN BATHTUB CURVE FOR RELIABILITY INDICATING ALL THE REGIONS IN
DETAIL. Stage 1: Idea Generation Internal idea sources: R & D  External
idea sources: Customers, competitors, distributors, Suppliers
• Brainstorm: A structured brainstorming session is an excellent source of
ideas. Remember to keep an entirely open mind,and take notes during the
session.
Stage 2: Idea Screening Product development costs increase dramatically in
later stages.  Ideas are evaluated against criteria;  most are eliminated.
Stage 3: Concept Development and Testing Product concepts provide
detailed versions of new product ideas.  Consumers evaluate ideas in
concept tests.
Stage 4: Marketing Strategy Development Strategy statements describe:
The target market, product positioning, and sales, share, and profit goals for
the first few years. Product price, distribution, and marketing budget for the
first year. Long-run sales and profit goals and the marketing mix strategy.
Stage 5: Business Analysis Sales, cost, and profit projections
Stage 6: Product Development • Prototype development • Testing Stage 7:
Test Marketing  Standard test markets Controlled test markets  Simulated
test markets
WHAT IS NOISE? WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF NOISE ANS. • Noise is a
generic word that refers to variations in voltage or current that are often
random, usually of relatively low amplitude, and always undesirable. • Noise
can “come from” anywhere: the air, the power supply, switching regulator, a
resistor.... • All modern measurement systems have electronic components
and Electronic components have inherent noise • Electrical noise is an
unwanted electrical interference signal, which is added to our main signal
(useful signal"), so that it can alter it producing effects that can be more or
less harmful.
Thermal Noise • It is called white noise or Johnson-Nyquist noise, this noise is
associated with the rapid, random movement of electrons in a conductor
produced by thermal agitation. • Thermal noise is manifested as random
voltage variations; it is related to temperature, resistance, and bandwidth. •
Higher temperature and higher resistance lead to higher noise amplitude. •
“Bandwidth” here refers to the range of frequencies that are relevant to the
circuit. If more frequencies are included in your analysis, more thermal noise
is observed.
Trigger noise • This noise is generated by random fluctuations in electrical
current through a conductor. • It is caused by the random arrival of electrons,
or holes, at the output of an electronic design element, such as diodes, field
effect and junction transistors, which is why it is also known as transistor
noise. • It was discovered in 1918 by W. Schottky.
Shot Noise • Shot noise is more prominent in semiconductors than in
conductors because semiconductors have potential barriers at the junctions. •
When electrons and holes cross the junction this noise is produced. • Higher
current leads to more shot noise, and so does wider bandwidth . • It is the one
in which there are modifications in the electrons or holes that travel from the
entrance to the exit of the circuit. • This produces irregular and random
variations. • When the time it takes for an electron to propagate through the
circuit is an appreciable part of the time of a signal cycle, the noise becomes
noticeable.
Flicker noise/ 1/f noise • Flicker noise is generated by most electronic
components and decreases in amplitude as frequency increases. • The name
“1/f” (i.e., “inversely related to frequency”) the relationship between
amplitude and frequency is a prominent characteristic of flicker noise. • It is
more prominent in FETs and bulky carbon resistors.
 Explain the importance of packaging in ep WHAT IS PCB WHAT ARE THE TYPES EXPLAIN • A printed circuit board or PCB,
is a plate or board used for placing the different elements that conform an
WhatAns. • The packaging is Why
the important
is it used?aspect of product presentation,making electrical circuit. • It provides electrical interconnections as thin metal tracks
is a silk screen in PCB? 4.Silkscreen Silkscreen is done to Criteria to decide modules:
it a vital marketing tool. • It is your silent salesman, convincing customers
represent the name or value of components so that user can easily identify the to on a dielectric substrate, which also supports the components. • PCB is a non
start and maintain a long-lasting relationship
practisewith your brand. the
• Time
component during soldering. This is a good while designing PCB.spent 1.Unique function:
conductive Each module
substrate should havesupport
that mechanically a unique
andfunction.
electrical2.connects
Only onethe
on an unforgettable
can be donepackage
on bothdesign is PCB
an investment that isside
sureortoonmake entry and exit components
electronic point: To avoid confusion,
using while
track pads andinteracting among
other features various
etched on a
Silk-screening sides of (on component
abundant returns for be
your business. modules there copper
laminated should sheet.
be onlyThere
one entry and exit
are mainly point.
three types3. of
Compilation: modules
PCBs 1. Single-sided
copper side). This can also used to indicate the name of the company or
manufacturer. mustPCB-----
be written such that
Component it should be compiled
placement/Routing onlyseparately.
on one side4.(TOP/BOTTOM)
Decision making:2.
1. This is a non conducting
PREVENTSlayer of a PCB.
PACKAGING PRODUCT BREAKAGE • The most obvious Important decisionPCB---
Double-sided making in the system
Component should be restricted
placement/Routing only onto higher level
both side (TOP &
function of packaging is to keep your product
TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC EMISSION • There are two typesintact
of before it module. 5.Number:The
BOTTOM) number
3. Multilayer of modules must
PCB----Component be limited
placement on both side and
electromagnetic reaches your customer. • Packaging should be•designed to protect
emission; conducted and radiated emission. Conducted Routing also internal layers.
integrity of breakable goods (Electronic products) during shipment
emission enters the system through power input lines and cables. • Radiated
• This prevents pricey returns and increases the chances of getting STATE AND EXPLAIN STAGES OF PCB FABRICATION /DESIGN 1. Overall board
emission happens due to electromagnetic waves from power and
highlyswitching
rated as adevices,
seller. and electrostatic discharges • design and layout of PCB board. 2. Hardware design specifications for
communication lines,
2. PACKAGING BRIDGES YOUfrom WITHhigh-frequency
YOUR CUSTOMERS • The Labels on appropriate placement of component and interconnection between them
Electromagnetic emissions may also occur traces.
packaging allow fromyou topower
communicate important
Similarly, they can be generated and ground planes, information
due to poor to PCB DESIGN STEPS 3.
your buyers.
This alsoThrough them, you can • currents,
brandish your
decoupling practices. results in unintentional such logo,
as • Insert 1. Apply photo resist on conductive surface of properly-cut PCB 2. Place a
do’s and don’ts with the product, • put in additional marketing negative image artwork of a signal traces on phot resist, 3. Expose artwork to
common-mode (CM) and differential-mode (DM) currents.
tools (like discount coupons) and • Indicate details about how to an untraviolet light or use proper etching tech.,so as to remove unwanted
PCB DESIGN ELEMENTSreach you if a problem
• Type arises. • Additionally, custom
of the circuit-analog,digital,mixed. packaging
• Board photo resist as well as conducting paths. 4. Drilling 5. Place the components
dimensions.-length labels
andcan be used
width to highlight
• Board thickness. your product’s
• Type of PCB.advantages
• Number over
of on PCB 6. Do soldering of components 7. Visual inspection of the soldering
competing
layers • Layer thickness brands.and
• Supply • For startups,
ground layerfirst impression
thickness. is last impression
• Number of quality 8 8. Replace loose components and resolder 9. Remove spreaded
mounting holes ,•and they can
Mounting make or break
techniques yourhorizontal,
- vertical, business. •mixed
So aim•to adopt
External solder,if any 10. Test PCB using std signal setup. 11. environment testing 12.
connections unique packaging style which will be able to convey your company Quality checking
values and brand personality that sells and the kind of label that
State the types of constructs
gets used in
your product software design.
remembered in a good• SEQUENCE
way. Construct:
It indicates3.the processing
PACKAGING steps in a program,
IMPACTS BUYINGsuch as multiplication,
DECISIONS • Well-packaged goods WHAT IS THE BENEFITS OF USING DOCUMENTATION IN SOFTWARE DESIGN :-
outputing, linearization,
are moresignal
likelyaveraging
to sell than• ones
CHOICE thatConstruct
are not. :This construct
4.Packaging is to
Helps • Documentation clarifies the quality of methods and objectives. • It ensures
basicaaly used toPromote
take a “decision”.
Brand Recognition• REPEAT Construct :consistency
• Packaging These typeshelps of create internal coordination when a customer uses software application. • It ensures
construct are also called as loops.
long-lasting • DERIVED
relationships withConstruct
customers : most frequently
and facilitate used
brand clarity about the stability of tasks and performance. • It provides feedback on
are • IF-THEN-ELSE • DO-WHILE
recognition Ex. RedandisDO-UNTIL.
associated with Coca Cola like blue is with preventive tasks. • It provides feedback for your planning cycle. • It creates
Pepsi. objective evidence for the performance of the quality management system. •
Different phases Activities performed
4. PACKAGING CAN HELPinPRODUCTeach stage Requirement
STAND OUT • The Gathering
key factor that If we write the test document, we can't forget the values which we put in the
stage prompts them to purchase a specific product is its presentation. • first phase. • It is a time-saving process because we can easily refer to the
Our brains are programmed to pick up the most obvious cues from text document. • It is also consistent because it is tested on the same value.
•During this phase, detailed requirements of the software system to be
our environment, and the ones that are likely to get our attention
developed are gathered from client Design Stage •Plan the programming WHAT IS THE GOALS OF THE SOFTWARE DESIGN PROCESS? EXPLAIN IN DETAIL
possess what is known to psychologists as“saliency.” • Visual
language, for Example Java.net •or database like Oracle, MySQL, etc. •Or other  1.Correctness: A good design should be correct i.e. it should correctly
saliency is the most important attribute that a packaging can
high-level technical details of the project Built Stage •After design stage, it is implement all the functionalities of the system.  2.Efficiency: A good
have,followed by tactile(touch).
built stage, that is nothing but coding the software Test Stage software design should address the resources, time, and cost optimization
5. THE PACKAGING DESIGN CAN EVOKE A SENSE OF BELONGINGNESS
• Does issues. 3.Understandability: A good design should be easily understandable,
•In this phase, you test your packaging
the software to make
verifyyour
that buyer feelassatisfied
it is built per the and proud of
purchasing from you? • Is yourstage
brand•Deploy
worth sharing with friends? for which it should be modular and all the modules are arranged in layers. 
specifications given by the client. Deployment the application in •
These are the feelings thatstage you should inspire if youiswant 4.Completeness: The design should have all the components like data
the respective environment Maintenance •Once your system readya loyal
to
clientele. structures, modules, and external interfaces, etc.
use, you may later require change the code as per customer request
5.Maintainability: A good software design should be easily amenable to
WHAT IS SOLDER MASK IN PCB? WHY IS IT USED You all have seen the change whenever a change request is made from the customer side.  6.User
green, red, blue or shiny coating on the PCB. This coating is known as friendly :The software must be user friendly. i.e easy to test and operate. 
solder mask. Masking is done to avoid the solder which accidently drops 7.Response:Processing time must be less.  8.Independent:The program
on PCB and soldering of component also become easy. This also prevents should be system independent.  9.Proper functioning :Only defined
the short circuit among close track. Being a beginner it may possible we functions should be performed by the software i.e. no unwanted outputs
use excess of solder while soldering which may short the tracks, if solder should be produced by the software.
mask is there it can be easily removed without melting. This is a non
conducting layer of a PCB. 6. Pads :-Pads are used to make connections between component and track
with the help of solder.Pads are small surface of copper available on printed
WHAT IS WATERFALL MODEL IN SOFTWARE DESIGN circuit board. They are basically used to solder the leads of the components
ANS. The waterfall model is a breakdown of project activities into linear on board to make the mechanical joint strong. Different kinds of pads are
sequential phases, where each phase depends on the deliverables of the used for Surface mount component and through hole component as shape
previous one and corresponds to a specialization of tasks. The approach and size of both the components vary from one another.
is typical for certain areas of engineering design.
What is via? State types. 8.Via Suppose you are designing multilayer PCB and
you want the connection between bottom layer and top layer then we use
via. Via allows the current to pass through the board. This can be seen in the
figure below. In this consider yellow colour pads as bottom layer and green
colour pads as top layer so the yellow color circle shown are via. TYPES