Vector Algebra

Quick review
– complex numbers Z = x+ j⋅ y x = Re ( Z ) y = Im ( Z )
© complex conjugate
Z∗ = x − j ⋅ y
© magnitude
Z ⋅ Z ∗ = ( x + j ⋅ y ) ⋅ ( x − j ⋅ y ) = x2 + y2 = Z
2

Z =  Re ( Z )  +  Im ( Z ) 
2 2

– Euler,s formula e jθ = cos θ + j sin θ

– Euler,s formula for a complex number

( )
 y
j arctan 
Z = x + j ⋅ y = Z e jθ = Z ( cos θ + j sin θ ) = x2 + y2 e  x

 Im ( Z ) 
∠Z = arctan  
 Re ( Z ) 

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

The ”complex plane·

– the complex number Z = x + j–y can be plotted in two-dimensions

© the complex number Z

( )e
acts like a vector in 2- y, Im(Z) 2
j arctan  

space Z = 1+ j ⋅ 2 = 1 +2
2 2 1

© if Z is a function of a 2
variable ω (say, for
instance, frequency), then
the ”vector· is different Z = 1 + j–2
for different values of ω 1
– this is formally called
a ”vector field· θ
– we,ll look at this
more later 0
-2 -1 1 2 x, Re(Z)

-1

-2

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

The ”complex plane·

– ”unit circle·: Z =1
y, Im(Z)
© Z=1 1 (j)
– θ=0
θ = π/2
© Z=j
– θ = π/2
© Z = -1
– θ=π θ=π
© Z = -j
– θ = 3π/2 0
-1 1 x, Re(Z)
θ = 3π/2

-1 (j)

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Quick review
– easiest to use phasor form, i.e., Euler,s formula

( )
 y
j arctan  
Z = x + j ⋅ y = Z e jθ = x2 + y 2 e  x

( )e
 y

= ( Z e jθ ) = Z e j⋅n⋅θ =
n j ⋅n⋅arctan  
(Z )
n
x2 + y 2
n n  x

– examples
© square root of -1 (this should be j!)

1 π
= (1⋅ e )
1 j⋅

©
( −1) 2
jπ
square root of j (i.e., the fourth root of -1)
2 = 1⋅ e 2
= j

1
1  π
 π 1
j ⋅
2 π
π π 1 1
( j)
j j
2 = 1⋅ e 2
 = e 2 2
= e 4
= cos + j ⋅ sin = + j ⋅
  4 4 2 2

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

”Location· in three dimensional space

z
– Cartesian coordinates are easy
© three unit vectors, all orthogonal to
A = Ax x + Ay y + Az z
one another

Az
– infinitesimal surface area
dz
dx
© dx –dy
© dy –dz z y r dy
© dx –dz
A
– infinitesimal volume element x Ay
y
© dx –dy –dz

Ax

( Ax ) + ( Ay ) + ( Az )
x 2
A=
2 2

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Other coordinate systems: cylindrical coordinates

z
– cylindrical coordinates
© essentially polar coordinates in x-y
plane z
z φ
r
A = Aρ ρ + Aφφ + Az z
x = ρ cos φ ρ
ρ= x +y
2 2

y = ρ sin φ
ρ
– infinitesimal surface area y
φ

© dz –dρ x

© dz –(ρ dφ)
ρ dφ

z dz
© dρ –(ρ dφ)

– infinitesimal volume dρ
ρ
element
© dz –dρ –(ρ dφ)

φ y
x ρ dφ

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Spherical z

coordinates
– use spheres to define position
© radial distance r
© plus two ”angular· positions
θ

y
z φ

r
θ
φ x z

θ
r z = r cos θ θ
r
y
φ x = ρ cos φ y
φ ρ = r sin θ
x r
A = Ar r + Aθ θ + Aφφ x
r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

spherical
coordinates z

– differential area
© dr –(r dθ)
z = r cos θ θ
r
© dr –((r sinθ) dφ)
x = ρ cos φ y
© (r dθ) –((r sinθ) dφ)
φ ρ = r sin θ

– differential volume element x

© dr–(r dθ) –((r sinθ) dφ)

z
r sinθ dφ
dr
r dθ
θ

y
φ
r sin θ
x

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

”operations· defined in this space

– ”scalar operations·
© result is a simple number, without a ”direction·
© dot product
– ”vector operations·
© result has both direction and magnitude, i.e., it is still a vector
© vector addition / subtraction
© cross product

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Dot product
– dot product: scalar result v
© ”projection· of one vector onto another A
© properties θAB
A • B = A ⋅ B ⋅cos (θ AB )
– commutative
– distributive v
B
– since we need three unit vectors to specify a point in three dimensions, A and B can
be written as
r r
A = A1a1 + A2 a2 + A3 a3 B = B1a1 + B2 a2 + B3 a3
– now use distributive and commutative properties to multiply this out
r r
A • B = ( A1a1 + A2 a2 + A3a3 ) • ( B1a1 + B2 a2 + B3 a3 )
A • B = ( A1 ⋅ B1 )( a1 • a1 ) + ( A2 ⋅ B2 )( a2 • a2 ) + ( A3 ⋅ B3 )( a3 • a3 )
+ ( A1 ⋅ B2 + A2 ⋅ B1 )( a1 • a2 ) + ( A1 ⋅ B3 + A3 ⋅ B1 )( a1 • a3 ) + ( A2 ⋅ B3 + A3 ⋅ B2 )( a2 • a3 )
– if a1, a2 and a3 are normalized and orthogonal then

( a1 • a1 ) = 1 ( a2 • a2 ) = 1 ( a3 • a3 ) = 1 ( a1 • a2 ) = 0 ( a1 • a3 ) = 0 ( a2 • a3 ) = 0
A • B = ( A1 ⋅ B1 ) + ( A2 ⋅ B2 ) + ( A3 ⋅ B3 )
S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Dot products
– the dot product of a vector with a unit vector gives you z
the component of the vector in the direction of the unit
z
φ
vector
© we can use this to convert from one coordinate A ρ
system to another y
z
© example: convert from rectangular coordinates to
cylindrical
x φ φ
ρ

r r
A = Ax ax + Ay a y + Az az A = Aρ aρ + Aφ aφ + Az az
r r r
Aρ = A • aρ Aφ = A • aφ Az = A • az

Aρ = ( Ax ax + Ay a y + Az az ) • aρ = Ax ( ax • aρ ) + Ay ( a y • aρ ) + Az ( az • aρ )
1 424 3 1 424 3 1 424 3
cos φ sin φ 0
Ay
Aρ = Ax cos φ + Ay sin φ φ = arctan
Ax
S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Dot products
z
φ
– from rectangular coordinates to cylindrical z
r r
A = Ax ax + Ay a y + Az az A = Aρ aρ + Aφ aφ + Az az A ρ
y
ax • aρ = cos φ a y • aρ = sin φ a z • aρ = 0 z
r r r x φ φ
Aρ = A • aρ Aφ = A • aφ Az = A • az ρ
Aφ = ( Ax ax + Ay a y + Az az ) • aφ = Ax ( ax • aφ ) + Ay ( a y • aφ ) + Az ( az • aφ )
1 424 3 1 424 3 1 424 3
− sin φ cos φ 0
ax • aφ = − sin φ a y • aφ = cos φ az • aφ = 0

 Aρ   cos φ sin φ 0   Ax 
 A  =  − sin φ cos φ 0   A 
 φ   y
 Az   0 0 1   Az 

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

A vector coordinate example

r
– given in cylindrical coords :
A = 1aƹ ρ + 0aƹ φ + 0aƹ z φ = 3π 4
– recall: ax • aρ = cos φ a y • aρ = sin φ a z • aρ = 0
y
Ax = (1aƹ ρ ) • aƹ x = cos ( 3π 4 ) = −1 2 r
A
Ay = (1aƹ ρ ) • aƹ y = sin ( 3π 4 ) = +1 2 φ=3π/4

– note the this vector does start at the origin Ay aρ

x
Ax 1
– let,s check the results using the matrix
version:

 Aρ  
 cos φ = 3π
4 ( ) ( 4)
sin φ = 3π 0   Ax = −1   −1
 2  2
1
2
0   −1   1 + 1 
 2  2 2  1 
 A  =  − sin φ = 3π
 φ  4 ( ) cos (φ = 3π )
4
   
0   Ay = 1  =  − 1
2 2
−1
2
  
0   1  =  1 + −1  = 0 
2  2 2
 Az          0 
 0 0 1   Az = 0   0 0 1   0   0
      

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Another vector coordinate example

r
– given in cylindrical coords :
A = 0aƹ ρ + 1aƹ φ + 0aƹ z φ =π 4
– recall: ax • aφ = − sin φ a y • aφ = cos φ az • aφ = 0
y
Ax = (1aƹ φ ) • aƹ x = − sin (π 4 ) = −1 2 r
A
Ay aφ
Ay = (1aƹ φ ) • aƹ y = 1cos [π 4] = 1 2
Ax
φ=π/4
= /4
– note the this vector doesn,t ”start· at the origin!
x
1
– let,s check the results using the matrix
version:

 Aρ  
 cos φ = π
4 ( ) ( 4)
sin φ = π 0   Ax = −1 
 2
 1
 2
1
2
0   −1   − 1 + 1 
 2  2 2  0 
 A  =  − sin φ = π
 φ  4 ( ) cos (φ = π )
4
   
0   Ay = 1  =  − 1
2 2
1
2
  
0   1  =  1 + 1  = 1 
2  2 2 
 Az          0 
 0 0 1   Az = 0   0 0 1   0   0
      

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Dot products
– convert from rectangular coordinates to spherical

ax • ar = sin θ cos φ a y • ar = sin θ sin φ az • ar = cos θ

ax • aθ = cos θ cos φ a y • aθ = cos θ sin φ az • aθ = − sin θ

ax • aφ = − sin φ a y • aφ = cos φ az • aφ = 0
z

r
φ  Ar   sin θ cos φ sin θ sin φ cos θ   Ax 
θ
    
θ  Aθ  = cos θ cos φ cos θ sin φ − sin θ   Ay 
r  Aφ   − sin φ
  cos φ 0   Az 
y
φ – what are θ and φ in terms of x, y, and x?

x z y
= cos θ = tan φ
r x
S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Cross products
– cross product: vector result
© direction set by ”right hand rule·

A × B = aN A ⋅ B ⋅ sin (θ AB ) v
A× B
v
v v B
A × B = A ⋅ B ⋅sin (θ AB )

– cross product is not commutative aN θAB

© AxB=-BxA
v
A
– in rectangular coordinates x y z
r r
A × B = Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

”Fields·

– fancy name for a function whose argument is a vector

© roughly, a field is something that is a function of several variables
© for us, the variables will usually be position
– also need to identify the ”dimension· of the result of the function
© scalar field: result is a ”simple· number
– example: the temperature (a scalar quantity) in this room as a function of
position in the room
© vector field: result is a vector
– example: the air velocity (a vector quantity) in this room as a function of
position in the room

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Web resources

– cross product applet: http://www.phy.syr.edu/courses/java-suite/crosspro.html

– vector field analyzer http://math.la.asu.edu/~kawski/vfa2/
© a better version of the vector field analyzer:
http://www.physics.orst.edu/~tevian/microscope/

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

applets showing some vector fields

– 2-d view: http://www.physics.orst.edu/~tevian/microscope/

– 3-d view: http://www.falstad.com/vector/
© fields available: http://www.falstad.com/vector/functions.html
– 1/r single line: electric field around an infinitely long line of charge. It is
inversely proportional to the distance from the line.
– 1/r double lines: field around two infinitely long conductors. The distance
between them is adjustable.
– 1/r^2 single: field associated with gravity and electrostatic attraction;
gravitational field around a planet and the electric field around a single point
charge.
© This is a two-dimensional cross section of a three-dimensional field.
© In three dimensions, the divergence of this field is zero except at the
origin; in this cross section, the divergence is positive everywhere
(except at the origin, where it is negative).
– 1/r^2 double: field associated with gravity and electrostatic attraction.
gravitational field around two planets and the electric field around two
negative point charges are similar to this field.

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com

 Vector Algebra

Forces between charges

– let,s start with the ”fundamental· interaction between ”point charges·
– 1600: Gilbert publishes first major classification of electric and non-electric materials
– Charles Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806)
© 1761-1781 served as a initially a military engineer
© 1785 é1791: wrote seven important treatises on electricity and magnetism,
submitted to the Academie des Sciences (France)
© developed a theory of attraction and repulsion between bodies of the opposite
and same electrical charge
© demonstrated an inverse square law for such forces
© examined perfect conductors and dielectrics
– suggested that there was no perfect dielectric, proposing that every
substance has a limit above which it will conduct electricity
© put forward the case for action at a distance between electrical charges in a
similar way as Newton's theory of gravitation was based on action at a distance
between masses

S V Pandey 2008, last update 1 st June 2011 2EC301, Dept. of ECE, NU-IT, Ahmedabad

PDF created with FinePrint pdfFactory trial version http://www.fineprint.com