1 5078138287319679694

HEAT AND
MASS TRANSFER
Second Edition
HEAT AND
MASS TRANSFER
Second Edition
R. Rudramoorthy
Principal, PSG College of Technology
Coimbatore, India
K. Mayilsamy
Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Institute of Road & Transport Technology
Erode, India
Associate Acquisitions Editor: Sandhya Jayadev
Associate Production Editor: Jennifer Sargunar
Composition: MacroTex Solutions, Chennai
Printer:
Copyright © 2011 Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent,
resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher’s prior written consent in any form
of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including
this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser and without limiting the rights under
copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into
a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the
above-mentioned publisher of this book.
ISBN 978-81-317-3383-7
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Published by Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd., licensees of Pearson Education in South Asia.
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CONTENTS
Preface ix 2.4.2 A Solid Cylinder With Heat

1 Basic Modes of Heat Transfer 1 Generation 27
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1.1 Heat 1
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1.3 Heat Transfer Modes 1
Convection Heat Transfer
1.3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer 2
and Without Heat
1.3.2 Convection Heat Transfer 3
Generation 30
1.3.3 Combined Convection and
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Conduction and Overall Heat
Without Heat Generation 30
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1.3.4 Radiation Heat Transfer 6
Generation 31
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Radiation 7 for Hollow Cylinder and
1.4 Conclusions 8 Sphere 32
Example Problems 9 7KHUPDO&RQWDFW
Review Questions 12 Resistance 33
Objective Questions 12 &ULWLFDO7KLFNQHVVRI,QVXODWLRQ
Exercise Problems 13 )LQV
2 One-dimensional Steady-state 15 5HFWDQJXODU)LQ
Conduction 2.7.2 Triangular Fin 39
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6XUIDFH7HPSHUDWXUH:LWKRXW+HDW Example Problems 42
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2.3.1 In a Slab With Convection Objective Questions 71
Boundaries 20 Exercise Problems 72
2.3.2 One-dimensional Steady- 3 Transient Heat Conduction 75
state Conduction Through a ,QWURGXFWLRQ
Composite Slab 21 /XPSHG3DUDPHWHU$QDO\VLV,Q¿QLWH
2.3.3 A Slab With Heat Generation 7KHUPDO&RQGXFWLYLW\
and Uniform Thermal 6LJQL¿FDQFHRI%LRWDQG
Conductivity 22 Fourier Numbers 76
2.3.4 One-dimensional Steady- 6HPLLQ¿QLWH6ROLGV
state Heat Conduction in a 3.3.1 Constant Heat Flux on Semi-
Slab With Variable Thermal LQ¿QLWH6ROLG
Conductivity 24 3.3.2 Convection Boundary
$+ROORZ&\OLQGHU:LWKRXW+HDW Conditions 79
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2.4.1 A Hollow Cylinder With Charts 79
Convection Boundaries 27 3.3.4 Slab 80
vi | CONTENTS
/RQJ&\OLQGHU 5 Forced Convection 165

3.3.6 Sphere 83 &RQYHFWLYH+HDW7UDQVIHU
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Temperature Varied 7KHUPDO%RXQGDU\/D\HU
Periodically 94 (QHUJ\(TXDWLRQRIWKH%RXQGDU\
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Temperature Higher than &RQVWDQW+HDW)OX[
Freezing Point 96 ([WHUQDO)RUFHG&RQYHFWLRQ
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Example Problems 97 Plate 180
Review Questions 116 /DPLQDU)ORZ3DUDOOHOWR
Objective Questions 116 Plane Surfaces 180
Exercise Problems 117 )ORZ$FURVV&\OLQGHUV&URVV
Flow Over Cylinders) 182
4 Natural Convection 119 )ORZ2YHU$FURVV
4.1 Introduction 119 Spheres 184
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a Vertical Plate 119 RI7XEHV
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4.2.2 Heat Transfer )RUFHG&RQYHFWLRQ,QVLGH7XEHVDQG
&RHI¿FLHQW Ducts 189
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4.3.1 Vertical Planes and and Heat Fluid 189
Cylinders 128 7XUEXOHQW)ORZ
4.3.2 Horizontal Plates 129 &RQFOXVLRQV
4.3.3 Inclined Plates 131 Example Problems 193
4.3.4 Vertical Cylinders 132 Review Questions 217
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4.3.6 Spheres 132 Exercise Problems 218
)UHH&RQYHFWLRQLQ(QFORVHG 6 Boiling 221
Spaces 133 %RLOLQJ+HDW7UDQVIHU
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&RQFHQWULF6SKHUHV 6.2.1 Zone I: Free
&RPELQHG)UHHDQG)RUFHG Convection 221
&RQYHFWLRQ0L[HG&RQYHFWLRQ 6.2.2 Zone II: Nucleate Boiling 222
4.8 Combined Convection and Radiation 6.2.3 Zone III: Film Boiling 222
Heat Transfer 137 (PSLULFDO&RUUHODWLRQVIRU
4.9 Conclusions 137 %RLOLQJ
Example Problems 138 1XFOHDWH3RRO%RLOLQJ
Review Questions 161 &ULWLFDO+HDW)OX[IRU1XFOHDWH3RRO
Objective Questions 161 %RLOLQJ
Exercise Problems 162 )LOP%RLOLQJ
CONTENTS | vii
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ORZ%RLOLQJRU)RUFHG&RQYHFWLRQ Example Problems 269
%RLOLQJ Review Questions 294
&RQFOXVLRQV Objective Questions 294
Example Problems 227 ([HUFLVH3UREOHPV
Review Questions 232
9 Radiation Heat Transfer 297
Objective Questions 232
Exercise Problems 233 (PLVVLYH3RZHU
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7 Condensation 235 :LHQ¶V'LVSODFHPHQW/DZ
7.1 Condensation on Vertical Surfaces 6WHIDQ±%ROW]PDQ/DZ
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6XUIDFH 9.7 Intensity of Radiation (I
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7.4 Condensation Heat 3URSHUWLHVRI6KDSH)DFWRU
Transfer Coefficients from 6KDSH)DFWRU$OJHEUD
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Example Problems 241 Spheres 312
Review Questions 244 6PDOO%RG\/LHV,QVLGHD
Objective Questions 244 /DUJH(QFORVXUH
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8 Heat Exchangers 247
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Exercise Problems 346
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8.4 Log Mean Temperature Difference 10 Modeling and Analysis 349
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of Various Types of Heat Equation for Steady-state
Exchangers 261 Conduction Heat Transfer
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&RPSDFW+HDW([FKDQJHUV 10.4.2 Parabolic Governing
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viii | CONTENTS
Conduction Heat Transfer + LJKVSHHG*DV

3UREOHPV Flow Temperature
10.4.3 Hyperbolic Governing 0HDVXUHPHQW
Equations for Convection 11.3.6 Solar Radiation 387
Heat Transfer 11.4 Dimensional Analysis 387
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Example Problems 360 &RQFOXVLRQV
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11 Experimental Heat Transfer 373 Review Questions 397
11.1 Introduction 373 Objective Questions 397
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11.2.1 Thermal Conductivity 12 Mass Transfer 401
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Emissivity 380 /D\HU
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11.3.1 Thermometers 382 Example Problems 409
11.3.2 Fluid Expansion
Review Questions 412
Thermometer 382
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Exercise Problems 413
Using Electrical
0HWKRGV Appendix A 415
7HPSHUDWXUH0HDVXUHPHQW Appendix B 421
Using Thermal Appendix C 458
5DGLDWLRQ Index 459
PREFACE
This book is intended for engineering students and design engineers working on thermal systems.
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heat transfer is worth it, for updating the presentation on concepts and applications. The objective
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included some new topics and improved the treatment of other regular topics with data pertaining
to system design. Modelling and analysis and experimental heat transfer are the topics included,
which are usually dealt as separate books. These topics will help students to develop their own
experimental procedure to test thermal systems and also to simulate the heat transfer using computer
codes and software. The key concepts in a box and a summary at the end are added in each chapter
to help students remember the concepts presented. Additional problems are added to create a design
focus in various applications.
Chapter 1 gives an introduction to the three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection
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one-dimensional steady-state conduction. Development of a general energy equation and its one-
dimensional application in Cartesian, Cylindrical and Spherical coordinates, with and without heat
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insulation aspects are also included in this chapter. Chapter 3 provides transient heat conduction
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heat transfer. Heat transfer analysis of natural and forced convection forms part of Chapters 4 and
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transfer problems. Boundary layer analysis based on laminar and turbulent conditions are studied
in detail. Combined heat transfer analysis with free, forced and radiation modes adds value to the
contents of these chapters. Boiling and condensation heat transfer analysis are discussed in Chapters
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heat exchangers which is included in Chapter 8. Heat exchanger design requires a knowledge of all
heat transfer modes and material properties. Chapter 8 provides numerous examples to explain these
concepts. Radiation heat transfer is included in Chapter 9. All these chapters are provided with tables
and charts to help the designers choose appropriate values for an optimum design.
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numerical methods. The understanding of these techniques will help students in their attempt to solve
problems of their choice using these techniques. Chapter 11 introduces the experimental methods and
instruments used in heat transfer related experiments. This will serve as a guide to the students to
perform laboratory experiments with a better understanding. The topic on mass transfer is introduced
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are solved to help the students understand this subject. Design examples and data are provided in
appendices to help students effectively use this book for system design.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the help rendered in preparing this manuscript by several col-
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of School of Energy. It is a great pleasure to acknowledge Mr M. Solaiappan of Civil Engineering
x | PREFACE
department for his drawings and Ms B. Maheswari of Production Engineering department for typing
the manuscript.
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agement and for the facilities provided to prepare this manuscript. Our family members also deserve
special thanks for putting up with less attention than they had a right to expect from us.
—R. RUDRAMOORTHY
—K. MAYILSAMY
1
Basic Modes of Heat Transfer
1.1 HEAT
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1.2 TEMPERATURE
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1.3 HEAT TRANSFER MODES

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2 | HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
1.3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer

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BASIC MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER | 3
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1.3.2 Convection Heat Transfer

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1.3.2.1 Natural convection
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Heat
Tw
T∞
Heat
Figure 1.1 Natural or Free Convection of Air (Tw > T∞)
1.3.2.2 Forced convection

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Heat
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Figure 1.2 Forced Convection of Air (Tw > T∞)

1.3.2.3 Boundary layer
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Velocity Flow Temperature

profile profile
U∞ T∞
y
u dT
at y = 0
dy
T
Tw > T∞
Heated
surface (Tw)
Figure 1.3 Velocity and Temperature Profiles for Forced Convection Heat Transfer
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1.3.3 Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall Heat Transfer

Coefficient
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(Twi − Two )
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L
Twi Two
Th, hh TC, hC
L
Th Twi Two TC
1 L 1
R1 = R2 = R3 =
hh A kA hc A
Figure 1.4 Thermal Circuit with Conduction and Convection in Series

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Q
(Th − Twi ) =
hh A
Q
(Twi − Two ) =
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1.3.4 Radiation Heat Transfer

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1.3.5 Combined Convection and Radiation

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1.4 CONCLUSIONS
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EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
An asbestos board having thermal conductivity (K) of 0.1 W/mK is subjected to a temperature difference
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Heat transfer rate, Q = K A
L
0.1q 5 q10
= = 100 W
0.05
Q 100
Heat flux , q = = = 20 W/m 2 .
A 5
An iron plate of area (A) 2m2 conducts heat (Q) at the rate of 100 kW. When the temperature difference
ǻ7DFURVVWKHSODWHZKLFKLVPWKLFN/LVPDLQWDLQHGDW& what is the thermal conductivity
of the iron plate?
+T
Heat transfer (Q) = K A
L
70
i.e. 100 q103 = Kq 2 q
0.05
Thermal conductivity , K = 35.71 W/mK .
$ZLQGRZJODVVRIDUHD$Pq 1 m and thickness (L) 6 mm is placed in a wall. If the outer (T1 ) and
inner (T2 VXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHVDUH&DQG&UHVSHFWLYHO\FDOFXODWHWKHFRQGXFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU
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K A(T1 T2 )
Conduction heat transfer (Q) =
L
0.78 × (1.5×1) × (30 − 20)
=
6 ×10−3
= 1950 W.
The temperatures of two plates connected by a copper rod are maintained at (T1 ).DQG72 .
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of the rod.
K A(T1 T2 )
Heat transfer (Q) =
L
Q
4 × × (0.15)2 × (500 − 350)
= 4
1.5
= 0.707 kW.
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dT dT Q
The heat transfer (Q) = K A ; =
dx dx KA
dT 30,000
Therefore = = 797.9°C/ m.
d x 9.4 × 4
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K A(T1 T2 )
Rate of heat transfer (Q) =
L
45 × (0.8× 0.4) × (200 − 150)
=
3×10−3
= 240 kW.
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Temperature profile (T ) = 5 x 2 24 x
dT
Temperature gradient , = 10 x 24
dx
dT
therefore qx = 0.1m = K = 50(23)
dx x = 0.1 m
= 1150 W / m 2
qx = 0.2 m = 50(22)
= 1100 W / m 2.
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Heat transfer (Q) = hA(Ts Ta )
= 25 ×1× (100 − 25)
=1875 W.
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surface temperature (Ts LV&DQGWKHDLUWHPSHUDWXUH7a LV&$VVXPHWKHDYHUDJHFRQYHFWLYH
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Heat transfer (Q) = hA(Ta Ts )
= 8 × (15 ×15) × (45 − 30)
=27 kW.
A bulb of diameter 10 cm (d) is heated internally with an electric heater of 100 W (Q). The bulb dis
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ture (Ts ).
We know that Q = Ah(Ts Ta )
Q
therefore Ts = Ta +
Ah
100
= 35 + = 83.97°C.
(0.1)2 65
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Radiation flux, q = εσT 4
= 0.8 × 5.67 ×10−8 (500)4
= 2.84 kW / m 2.
If a black body at (T1 &LVKHDWHG72 WR&FDOFXODWHWKHLQFUHDVHLQLWVHPLVVLYHSRZHU
Increase in emissive power = T (T24 T14 )
= 5.67 ×10−8 (3734 − 3234 )
= 480.4 W /m 2.
Find the radiation heat transfer per unit area between two black plates maintained at (T1 &DQG
&72 ).
⎛Q ⎞
Radiation heat transfer ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = T (T14 − T24 )
⎜⎝ A ⎠
= 5.67 ×10−8 (11734 − 3134 )
= 106.8 kW / m 2.
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emissivity ( F RIDQGLVPDLQWDLQHGDW71 ) 1200 K. The interior walls of the furnace (T2 ) are at
900 K. Find the rate at which heat is lost from the rod per unit length and the radiation heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQW
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Q = A1ε1σ (T14 T24 ) where A1 = πdL
Q× 5 ×1
= × 0.8 × 5.67 ×10−8 (12004 − 9004 )
100
= 10.1kW.
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A1ε1σ (T14 T24 ) = A1hr (T1 T2 )
ε1σ (T14 T24 )
hr =
(T1 T2 )
0.8 × 5.67 ×10−8 × (12004 − 9004 )
=
(1200 − 900)
= 214.33 W /m 2 K.
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cients of hot gas (hg ) and cold air (ha ) sides are 60 and 10 W/m2K respectively. If the surface area (A)
of the wall is 3 m2¿QGLWKHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLLWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHµ4¶DQGLLL
the surface temperature of the wall (Tsg and Tsa ). Assume that the thermal conductivity (K) of the wall
PDWHULDOLV:P.
7KHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
1
U=
⎡ 1 L 1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ h + K
+
ha ⎥
⎢⎣ g ⎥⎦
1
= = 3.53 W/m 2 K
⎡ 1 0.25 1 ⎤
⎢ + + ⎥
⎢⎣ 60 1.5 10 ⎥⎦
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWH
Q = UA(Tg − Ta ) = 3.53× 3× (400 − 50) = 3705.9 W
Q = hg A(Tg Tsg ) = ha A(Tsa Ta )
*DVVLGHVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUH
Q 3705.9
Tsg = Tg − = 400 − = 379.4°C
hg A 60 × 3
$LUVLGHVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUH
Q 3705.9
Tsa = + Ta = + 50 = 173.5°C.
ha A 10 × 3
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2
One-dimensional Steady-state
Conduction
Conduction heat transfer will take place if there is a temperature gradient in a solid body. It will
continue till the temperature is identical at every location in the body and is associated with lattice
vibration and free electron transport. In this chapter, one-dimensional heat transfer analysis is carried
out with the application of Fourier’s law.
2.1 FOURIER’S LAW

Fourier’s law states that the rate of heat transfer per unit surface area is proportional to the temperature
gradient normal to the surface:
q wT
D (2.1)
A wx
where ‘q¶LVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHDQGTxLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHÀRZGLUHFWLRQ
The proportionality sign is replaced by an equality sign with the introduction of the thermal
conductivity ‘k’ of the material as
q ∂T
= −k . (2.2)
A ∂x
7KHQHJDWLYHVLJQLVLQWURGXFHGWRPDNHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHSRVLWLYHLQWKHÀRZGLUHFWLRQ
2.2 GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION
Rectangular co-ordinates
The three-dimensional time-dependent general conduction equation with internal heat generation of
now homogeneous material, i.e., the energy equation in cartesian co-ordinates (Fig. 2.1) is
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T qg ρ c ∂T 1 ∂T
+ + + = = (2.3)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k k ∂t α ∂t
where T is the temperature, k is the thermal conductivity, qg is the heat generation per unit volume, ȡ
⎛ k ⎞
is the density, cLVWKHVSHFL¿FKHDWDQGt is the time and Į ⎜ = ⎟ is the thermal diffusivity.
⎝ Uc ⎠
qy
2
∆x
qz
∆z 2
∆y
qx P qx
1
2
x
qz
1
qy
1
z
Figure 2.1 Control Volume with Cartesian Co-ordinates
The energy equation can also be written with Laplacian operator
qg 1 ∂T
∇ 2T + = . (2.4)
k D ∂t
The 3D steady-state conduction equation with internal heat generation is
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T q g
+ + + =0 (or)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 k
qg
∇ 2T + =0 (Poisson's equation). (2.5)
k
The 3D unsteady conduction equation without internal heat generation is
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T 1 ∂T
+ + = (or)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 D ∂t
1 dT
∇ 2T = (Fourier equation). (2.6)
D dt
The 3D steady-state conduction equation without internal heat generation is
∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ + =0 (or)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
∇ 2T = 0 (Laplace equation). (2.7)
The simplest form is the steady-state one-dimensional heat transfer without heat generation
which is
ONE-DIMENSIONAL STEADY-STATE CONDUCTION | 17
∂ 2T
= 0.
∂x 2
Cylindrical co-ordinates
The general equation is
⎛ ∂ 2T 1 ∂T 1 ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎞ qg 1 ∂T
⎜ 2 + + + ⎟+ = . (2.8)
⎝ ∂r r ∂r r 2 ∂φ 2 ∂z 2 ⎠ k α ∂t
Steady-state one-dimensional (radial direction) heat transfer (Fig. 2.2) is given by
r
∂r
∂z
y
∂Φ
Φ
r∂Φ
x
Figure 2.2 Heat Conduction in a Solid Element – Cylindrical Co-ordinate System
∂ 2T 1 ∂T q
+ + = 0.
∂r 2 r ∂r k
Spherical co-ordinates
1 ∂ 2T 1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ 1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T
2
⎞ qg 1 ∂T
+ 2 ⎜ sin θ ⎟ + ⎜γ ⎟+ = (2.9)
r sin θ ∂φ
2 2 2
r sin θ ∂θ ⎝ ∂θ ⎠ γ ∂r ⎝ ∂r
2
⎠ k α ∂t
,IWKHKHDWÀRZLVVWHDG\DQGLQRQHGLPHQVLRQDOUDGLDOGLUHFWLRQZLWKRXWKHDWVRXUFH)LJ
then the equation becomes
∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞
⎜J ⎟ = 0.
∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠
Ɣ 7KHUPDOGLIIXVLYLW\LVWKHPDWHULDOSURSHUW\JRYHUQLQJKHDWÀRZZKHQ
the temperature varies with time
KEY Ɣ It is closely related to thermal conductivity.
C
O Ɣ 0XOWLSO\LQJWRJHWKHUWKHUPDOGLIIXVLYLW\GHQVLW\DQGVSHFL¿FKHDW
N capacity of a material gives its thermal conductivity
C
E Ɣ Thermal diffusivity can be measured on small samples of a few
P millimeters in size, up to very high temperatures.
T
S
dθ
dΦ
x
Figure 2.3 Heat Conduction in a Solid Element – Spherical Co-ordinate System
2.3 PLANE WALL (SLAB): CONSTANT SURFACE TEMPERATURE

WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION
Figure 2.4 shows a slab and the general conduction equation is reduced to one-dimensional equation as
∂ 2T
= 0. (2.10)
∂x 2
The boundary conditions are
(i) x = 0; T = T1 and
(ii) x = L; T = T2
T1
q/A
T2
L
x1 = 0 x2
Figure 2.4 One-dimensional Heat Conduction in the Slab
To get the temperature distribution in the slab, integrate Equation (2.10)

∂T
= C1 and T = C1 x + C2 .
∂x
T2 − T1
Applying the boundary conditions, C2 = T1 and C1 = .
L
Substituting C1 and C2, the temperature distribution is
⎛ T −T ⎞
T = ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ x + T1 (2.11)
⎝ L ⎠
The rate of heat transfer through the slab is
∂T
q = −kA .
∂x
From Equation (2.11),
∂T (T2 − T1 )
=
∂x L
(T1 − T2 )
q = kA . (2.12)
L
Electrical analogy
$VSHU2KP¶VODZWKHÀRZRIFXUUHQWiIRUWKHSRWHQWLDOGULYLQJIRUFHë for a resistance R is as shown
in Fig. 2.5.
Δe E1 − E2
i= = . (2.13)
R R
q
TI T2
⎛ L ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ kA ⎠
i
E1 E2
R
Figure 2.5 Electrical Analogy
The importance of the electrical analogy is that the electrical circuit analysis technique can be used
to solve the one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction problems.
Then 1/R is called thermal conductance. Similar to electrical system, the heat transfer can be
written as
T1 − T2 T1 − T2
q= =
L R
kA
⎛ L ⎞
where R is called thermal resistance ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ kA ⎠
2.3.1 In a Slab With Convection Boundaries

,IWKHVODELVVXUURXQGHGRQERWKVLGHVE\ÀXLGDWGLIIHUHQWWHPSHUDWXUHVDVVKRZQLQ)LJVXFKWKDW
Th > T1 > T2 > Tc
where ThLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIKRWÀXLGZKLFKVXSSOLHVKHDWWRWKHVODEDQGTc is the temperature of the

FROGÀXLGZKLFKUHFHLYHVKHDWIURPWKHVODE7KHVWHDG\VWDWHRQHGLPHQVLRQDOKHDWWUDQVIHUHTXDWLRQ
then becomes
Th
T1
Hot fluid side
Th Rh T1 R1 T2 RC TC
T2
Tc
Cold fluid side
(b)
Electrical analogy
L (a)
Figure 2.6 One-dimensional Conduction Heat Transfer Through a Slab with Convection
Boundaries at Both Sides
(T1 − T2 )
q = hh A(Th − T1 ) = kA = hc A(T2 − Tc ). (2.14)
L
From this equation, we can write
(Th − T1 ) = q / h, A
(T1 − T2 ) = Lq / kA
and (T2 − Te ) = q / hc A
$GGLQJWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQWKH¿QDOIRUPLV
(Th − Tc ) (Th − Tc )
q= = .
1
+
1
+
1 Rh + R1 + Rc
hh A kA hc A
where Rh and Rc are the convective thermal resistances and R1 is the conduction thermal resistance.
The electrical equivalent thermal network for this condition is also shown in Fig. 2.6.
2.3.2 One-dimensional Steady-state Conduction Through a Composite Slab

Consider a composite slab made up of two layers as shown in Fig. 2.7.
A
T1 Th T1 T2 T3 TC
Th T2 TC
hh K1 K2 T3 hC Rh R1 Q R2 RC
L1 L2 Electrical Analogy
Figure 2.7 (a) Composite Slab; (b) Electrical Analogy
7KHWKHUPDOUHVLVWDQFHRIWKH¿UVWDQGVHFRQGOD\HUVDUH
L1 L2
R1 = and R2 =
k1 A k2 A
If the composite wall consists of ‘N’ slabs, then

T1 − TN +1
Q= .
1 N Ln
∑
A n =1 K n
If the condition occurs in a section with two different materials placed in parallel, as shown in
Fig. 2.8 with thermal circuit, heat transfer is given by
T1 T2
R1 = L/ka Aa
ka Aa
Q
T1 T2
kb Ab
T1 L T2 R2 = L/kb Ab
Physical systems Thermal circuit

Figure 2.8 Materials Connected in Parallel (a); Thermal Circuit (b)
T1 − T2 R1 R2
Q= where Rr = .
Rr R1 + R2
If the composite slab is exposed to convection environment with Th > T1 > T2 > T3 > Tc , then the
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
convection resistances are Rh = ⎜ ⎟ and Rc = ⎜ ⎟.
⎝ hh A ⎠ ⎝ hc A ⎠
(Th − Tc ) T −T
The heat transfer (Q) = = h c
1 L1 L2 1 Rt (2.19)
+ + +
hh A k1 A k2 A hc A
where Rt = Rh + R1 + R2 + Rc . , and hh, hc and Th, TcDUHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVDQGWHPSHUDWXUHV

at the hot and cold sides, respectively.
2.3.3 A Slab With Heat Generation and Uniform Thermal Conductivity

In this case, heat transfer and heat generation are considered together as shown in Fig. 2.9 and the
governing equation is
d 2T q g
+ = 0.
dx 2 k
The integrations of the equation give
dT −qg − qg
= x + C1 and T= x 2 + C1 x + C2 . (2.15)
dx k 2k
T1
T1
T2 T2
L L
x x
(a) (b)
Figure 2.9 Slab with Heat Generation
Case (a) Different wall temperatures

(i) at x = 0; T = T1 and
(ii) at x = L; T = T2 .
Using these conditions in Equation (2.15), we get
T2 − T1 qg L
C2 = T1 and C1 = + .
L 2k
The temperature distribution becomes
− qg ⎛ T −T ⎞ qg L
T= x2 + ⎜ 2 1 ⎟ x + x + T1
2k ⎝ L ⎠ 2k
⎡⎛ T − T ⎞ q g ⎤
= x ⎢⎜ 2 1 ⎟ + ( L − x) ⎥ + T1 (2.16)
⎣⎝ L ⎠ 2k ⎦
qg L2 ⎡⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ 2 ⎤ x
T= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + (T − T ) + T1
2k ⎢⎣⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦ L 2 1

Due to energy Due to temperature
generatio
on difference
In the dimensionless form,
T − T2 qg L2 ⎡⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ 2 ⎤ x
= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ − + 1.
T1 − T2 2k (T1 − T2 ) ⎢⎣⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦ L
Case (b) Wall surfaces at same temperature

If the both walls are at same temperature (T1 = T2 = Tw), then Equation (2.15) becomes
qg
T= ( L − x) x + Tw .
2k
qg L2 ⎡⎛ x ⎞ ⎛ x ⎞ 2 ⎤
T= ⎢⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ + Tw .
2k ⎢⎣⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎡ L⎤
The maximum temperature occurs at the center plane ⎢ x = ⎥ and the distribution of temperature
⎣ 2⎦
is parabolic about the mid-plane:
dT qg
= ( L − 2 x)
dx 2k
Heat transfer from one side of the wall is given by
⎛ dT ⎞ ALqg
Q = −kA ⎜ ⎟ = .
⎝ d x ⎠ x = 0 ( or ) L 2
For both sides, Q = ALqg = heat generated in the wall. If heat is transferred to surrounding
atmosphere at temperature (Ta) from the wall, then
ALqg qg L
= hA(Tw − Ta ) ⇒ Tw = Ta +
2 2h
dT
then heat transfer (Q) = −kA = Aqg .L.
dx x=L
2.3.4 One-dimensional Steady-state Heat Conduction in a Slab With Variable

Thermal Conductivity
Let the variation in thermal conductivity be linear with temperature as
k (T ) = ko (1 + CT )
where k0 and C are constants. The governing equation is

C(+ve)
T1
C=0 q/A
C(–ve)
T2
L
x1 = 0 x
Figure 2.10 Slab with Variable Thermal Conductivity
d ⎛ dT ⎞
⎜ k (T ) ⎟ = 0. (2.17)
dx⎝ dx⎠
Integrating and substituting the boundary conditions, we get
x=0 T = T1
x=L T = T2
Ako ⎛⎜ C 2 2 ⎞
Q= ⎜(T1 − T2 + (T1 − T2 )⎟⎟⎟
L ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
Ak ⎡ C ⎤
= o ⎢1 + (T1 + T2 )⎥ (T1 − T2 )
L ⎣ ⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
Ako
= (1 + CTm )(T1 − T2 )
L
T1 + T2
where km = (1 + CTm )ko = mean thermal conductivity of material and Tm = .
2
2.4 A HOLLOW CYLINDER WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION

Consider a hollow cylinder as shown in Fig. 2.11. If the entire inner and outer surfaces of the hollow
cylinder are maintained at constant temperatures of T1 and T2, then the heat transfer can take place
only in the radial direction. The governing equation for this one-dimensional steady-state problem is
d2 T 1 d T d ⎛ dT ⎞
+ = 0 i.e. ⎜r ⎟ = 0. (2.20)
d r2 r d r dr ⎝ dr ⎠
T1 Q T2
r r1 R
r2
T1 T2 Electrical analogy
L
k
Figure 2.11 Hollow Cylinder
(i) r = r1 T = T1 and
(ii) r = r2 T = T2 .
Integrating Equation (2.20), we get
d T C1
= and T = C1 ln (r) + C2.
dr r
Applying the above boundary conditions, the equation for the temperature distribution in the radial
direction is given as
ln (r / r1 ) T − T1 ln (r / r1 )
T = T1 − (T1 − T2 ) i.e. = (non-dimensional form). (2.21)
ln (r2 / r1 ) T2 − T1 ln (r2 / r1 )
Heat transfer rate
dT
(Q) = −kA
dr r = r1 or r2
(T1 − T2 ) (T − T )
Q = 2S kL ; Q= 1 2
⎛ r2 ⎞ R
ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠
1 ⎛r ⎞
where R is the thermal resistance and is equal to ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
2S kl ⎝ r1 ⎠
2.4.1 A Hollow Cylinder With Convection Boundaries
The heat transfer equations for cylinder with convection is
T1 − T2
Q = hh Ah (Th − T1 ) = 2S kL = hc ⋅ Ac (T2 − Tc ).
⎛ r2 ⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟
⎝ r1 ⎠
Simplifying the equation
Th − Tc
Q=
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜ 2 ⎟
r
+ ⎝ 1 ⎠+
1 1
hh Ah 2S kL hc Ac
where Ah = 2Q r1 L, Ac = 2Q r2 L.
The electrical analogy of this case is shown in Fig. 2.12.
Th Q TC
Rh R2 RC
Figure 2.12 Electrical analogy
Th − Tc T −T
Q= = h .
Rh + R2 + Rc Rt
2.4.2 A Solid Cylinder With Heat Generation

The governing equation for this case is
d 2 T 1 d T qg d ⎛ dT ⎞ qg r
+ + = ⎜r ⎟+ =0 (2.24)
d r2 r d r k d r ⎝ d r ⎠ k
Integrating the above equation, we get
d T −qg r C1 − qg r 2
= + and T = + C1 ln r + C2
dr 2k r 4k
Substituting the following boundary conditions:
dT
(i) r = 0 ; = 0,
dr qg R 2
(ii) at r = R; T = Tw, the values of constants are C1 = 0 and C2 = Tw + .
Thus the temperature distribution is 4k
qg
T = Tw + (R 2 − r 2 ) (2.25)
4k
The maximum occurs at the center and its value is given by
qg 2
Tmax = Tw + R .
4k
Then the dimensionless form of the temperature distribution becomes

2
T − Tw ⎛r⎞
= 1− ⎜ ⎟
Tmax − Tw ⎝R⎠
If the generated heat within the rod is transferred to the surroundings (Ta) by convection, then
(S R 2 L)qg = 2S hRL(Tw − Ta )
qg R
i.e. Tw = Ta + .
2L
2.5 A HOLLOW SPHERE WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION

Consider a sphere as shown in Fig. 2.13. According to Fourier’s Law, the heat transfer in the radial
direction is given by
r1 T1 T2
r2
T1 T2 R
Figure 2.13 Hollow Sphere
1 d ⎛ 2 dT ⎞
⎜r ⎟=0
r2 d r ⎝ d r ⎠
d ⎛ 2 dT ⎞
i.e. ⎜r ⎟ = 0. (2.26)
dr ⎝ dr ⎠
Integrating these equations, we get

d T C1 C1
= and T = − + C2 .
d r r2 r
Using the following boundary conditions:

(i) r = r1 T = T1
(ii) r = r2 T = T2
we obtain the following relations:
C1 C
T1 = − + C2 ; C2 = T1 + 1
r1 r1
C1
T2 = − + C2
r2
C1 C ⎛1 1⎞ (r − r )
T2 = − + T1 + 1 ; (T2 − T1 ) = C1 ⎜ − ⎟ = C1 2 1
r2 r1 ⎝ r1 r2 ⎠ r1r2
r1r2
C1 = (T2 − T1 )
(r2 − r1 )
1 ⎛ r1r2 ⎞
C2 = T1 + ⎜ ⎟ (T2 − T1 )
r1 ⎝ (r2 − r1 ) ⎠
The values of the constants are
(T1 − T2 )r1r2
C1 = and C2 = T1 + [(T1 − T2 )(r1r2 ) / r1 (r1 − r2 )].
r1 − r2
Substituting the values of constants, the temperature distribution becomes
C
T =− + C2
r
1 ⎡ (T1 − T2 )r1r2 ⎤ 1 ⎛ r1r2 ⎞

= ⎢ ⎥ + T1 + ⎜ ⎟ (T2 − T1 )
r ⎣ (r1 − r2 ) ⎦ r1 ⎝ r2 − r1 ⎠
r1r2 r2
= (T1 − T2 ) + T1 + (T2 − T1 )
r (r1 − r2 ) (r2 − r1 )
r1r2 r2
= T1 + (T1 − T2 ) +
r (r1 − r2 ) (r1 − r2 )
⎡ r r + rr2 ⎤
= T1 + (T1 − T2 ) ⎢ 1 2 ⎥
⎣ r (r1 − r2 ) ⎦
(T1 − T2 )r
(r1 − r2 )
T = T1 + .
⎛ r2 ⎞ (r − r1 )
⎜r⎟ r
⎝ ⎠
In non-dimensional form,
T − T1 r2 ⎡ r − r1 ⎤
= ⎢ ⎥
T1 − T2 r ⎣ r2 − r1 ⎦
Then the heat transfer is given by the expression

dT
(Q) = −kA .
dr r = r1 or r = r2
Simplifying this, we get
(T1 − T2 ) (T − T )
= 1 2
1 ⎛ r2 − r1 ⎞ R
⎜ ⎟
4S k ⎝ r1r2 ⎠
1 ⎛ r2 − r1 ⎞
where R is the resistance and is equal to ⎜ ⎟.
4S k ⎝ r1r2 ⎠
2.5.1 A Hollow Sphere with Convection Heat Transfer and Without Heat
Generation
Similar to plain wall and hollow cylinder equations, the heat transfer in a hollow sphere with
convection heat transfer (Fig. 2.14) is given by
(a) r2
Th TC
T1 T2
Th T1 T2 Q TC
(b)
Rh R1 RC
Figure 2.14 Hollow Sphere with Convection Heat Transfer
(Th − Tc )
Q=
R
where Rt = Rh + R1 + Rc;
1 ⎛ 1 ⎛r −r ⎞ 1 ⎞
Rt = ⎜⎜ 2
+⎜ 2 1 ⎟+ 2 ⎟⎟ . (2.28)
4S h r kr r
⎝ h 1 ⎝ 1 2 ⎠ c r2h ⎠
2.5.2 A Hollow Composite Sphere Without Heat Generation

Considering a two-layer composite sphere as shown in Fig. 2.14, and adopting the usual procedure we
get the following equation:
Th − Tc T −T
Q= = h c
1 r − r r − r 1 R
+ 2 1 + 3 2 +
hh Ah 4k1r1r2 4k2 r2 r3 hc Ac
Th T1 T2 T3 TC
Rh R1 R2 RC
If there are ‘n’ layers, then
Th − Tc
Q= .
1 1 1 n
⎡ rn +1 − rn ⎤
+ +
hh Ah hc Ac 4S
∑ ⎢ ⎥
n =1 ⎣ k n .rn +1 .rn ⎦
Then, the above equation with our convection can be written as
(Th − Tc )4S
Q= .
n
⎡ rn +1 − rn ⎤
∑ ⎢ ⎥
n =1 ⎣ k n .rn +1 ..rn ⎦
2.5.3 Solid Sphere With Heat Generation

Let a solid sphere of radius (R) be subjected with heat generation (qg) and surface temperature (Tw).
∂ 2T 2 ∂T q
The controlling equation is + + = 0;
∂r 2 r ∂r k
2
∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ r qg
i.e. ⎜r ⎟+ = 0.
∂r ⎝ ∂r ⎠ k
Integrating the above equation, we get
C1 r 2 qg
T = C2 − − .
r 6 k
dT
Using the boundary condition, i.e., r = 0; = 0; and r = R; T = Tw .
dr
qg R 2
we get C1 = 0; and C2 = Tw + .
6k
Therefore, the temperature distribution is given by
qg ⎡ ⎛r⎞ 2
⎤
T = Tw + R 2 ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥.
6k ⎢⎣ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎥⎦
The temperature distribution is parabolic and the maximum temperature occurs at the center (r = 0).
qg R 2
? Tmax = Tw + .
6k
In non-dimensional form,
2
T − Tw ⎛r⎞
= 1− ⎜ ⎟
Tmax − Tw ⎝R⎠
Therefore the heat transfer
dT 4
∴ (Q) = −kA = S R 3 .qg .
dr r=R 3
The wall temperature in terms of the ambient temperature (Ta):
4 qg R
∴ Q = S R 3 .qg = 4S R 2 (Tw − Ta ) ⇒ Tw − Ta +
3 3h
2.5.4 Logarithmic Mean Area for Hollow Cylinder and Sphere

The heat transfer through a hollow cylinder and sphere can be written in a form such that it is
equivalent to heat transfer through a plane wall having the thickness of (r2–r1) and area of Am with the
same temperature difference and thermal conductivity.
The heat transfer through a cylinder is given by
2S Lk (T1 − T2 )
(Q) = (2.29)
ln r2 / r1
The heat transfer through a plane wall is given by
Am k (T1 − T2 )
(Q) = . (2.30)
(r2 − r1 )
Equating Equations (2.29) and (2.30), we get
2S Lk (T1 − T2 ) Am k (T1 − T2 )
=
ln (r2 / r1 ) r2 − r1
2S L(r2 − r1 ) A2 − A1
∴ Am = =
ln(r2 / r1 ) ln( A2 / A1 )
This area Am is called the logarithmic mean area of the hollow cylinder.
Similarly, for a hollow sphere, we get
4S kr1r2 (T1 − T2 ) kA m (T1 − T2 )

=
(r2 − r1 ) (r2 − r1 )
∴ Am = 4S r1r2 = A1 A2
where Am is the geometric mean area of the sphere.
2.5.5 Thermal Contact Resistance

Consider two solid bars are brought into contact as shown in Fig. 2.15. The sides of the bars are
LQVXODWHGVRWKDWWKHKHDWÀRZVDORQJWKHD[LDOGLUHFWLRQ$WVWHDG\VWDWHFRQGLWLRQVWKHKHDWÀRZLV
constant. But there is no temperature drop in the contact plane between the two rods. This drop is
mainly due to resistance offered by gases entrapped in the void spaces created by the contact. The
resistance due to these gases is called the thermal contact resistance.
T1 T 2a T3
Q Ka Kb
Q
Xa T 2b Xb
T1
T 2a
T 2b T2
Figure 2.15 Thermal Contact Resistance in a Slab
(T1 − T2 )ka A k A(T2b − T3 )

+HDWÀX[ (Q) = = (T2 a − T2b )hc A = b
xa xb
1
where hcLVFDOOHGWKHFRQWDFWFRHI¿FLHQWVDQG is called the contact thermal resistance.
hc A
2.6 CRITICAL THICKNESS OF INSULATION

Insulation is usually provided around a system (Fig. 2.16) to reduce the heat transfer. But it actually
LQFUHDVHVWKHKHDWÀRZXSWRDFHUWDLQWKLFNQHVVRILQVXODWLRQLQWKHFDVHRIF\OLQGHUVDQGVSKHUHV
T1 T2 Ta
R1 R2
⎡ ln(r2 / r1 ) ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
R1 = ⎢ ⎥ ; R2 = ⎢ ⎥.
⎣ 2S kL ⎦ ⎣ A2 h ⎦
(a) Insulation
T2
r1 r2
Hollow cylinder
T = T1
(b)
Qmax
Heat
Loss, Q
(0, 0) r2 opt rC r2
Figure 2.16 (a) Insulated Cylinder; (b) Heat Loss as a Function of Insulation Thickness
Consider a cylindrical insulation around a cylinder of length L with inner radius r1 and outer radius
r2. The temperature at the inner surface is T1 and at the outer surface is T2. If the convection heat
WUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRQWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHLVh2 and thermal conductivity of the insulating material is k,
then the heat loss over the insulation in the radial direction can be given as
(T1 − Ta )
Q= (2.31)
ln (r2 / r1 ) 1
+
2S kL 2S r2 Lh2
where Ta is the surrounding temperature.

To determine the maximum heat loss with respect to r2, keeping all other parameters constants, we
differentiate w.r.t. ‘r2’ and equate the derivative equal to zero:
d ⎛ ln (r2 / r1 ) 1 ⎞
⎜ + ⎟=0
d r2 ⎝ 2S kL 2S r2 Lh2 ⎠
1 1 1
i.e. ⋅ − =0
2S kL r2 2S Lh2 r22
1 1 k
i.e. = 2 ⇒ r2 = = rc . (2.32)
kr2 hr2 h
k
The maximum heat loss occurs at r2 = and thereafter it decreases. This value of rc is known as
h2
critical radius. The thickness of the insulation should be always greater than the critical thickness.
For a hollow sphere, the critical insulation thickness is given by
2k
rc = . (2.33)
h2
2.7 FINS
The extended solid surfaces that are used in order to increase the heat transfer by increasing the
VXUIDFHDUHDDUHNQRZQDV¿QVFins are of different sizes, shapes, and dimensions. The commonly
used shapes are shown in Fig. 2.17. Fins are used in air-cooled engines, compressors, electric motor
bodies, automobile radiators, and transformers.
2.7.1 Rectangular Fin

&RQVLGHU D UHFWDQJXODU ¿Q DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ D DQG WKH FRQWURO YROXPH RI D VPDOO HOHPHQW
represented by Gx. The energy balance in the control volume, for a steady-state condition, is given by
the heat conducted into the element is equal to the sum of heat conducted out of the element and the
heat convected out of the element:
∂
Qx = Qx +d x + Qconv = Qx + (Qx )G x + Qconv (2.47)
∂x
∂
∴ (Qx )G x + Qconv = 0
∂x
dT
where Qx = −kA
dx
d2 T
∴ − kA G x + h( PG x)(T − Ta ) = 0
d x2
d 2 T hP
− (T − Ta ) = 0 (2.48)
d x 2 Ak
where P is the perimeter of the small element, kLVWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIWKH¿QPDWHULDODQGTa

is the atmospheric temperature. The above equation can be rewritten as
d2 T
− m 2T = 0 (2.49)
d x2
Figure 2.17 (a) Rectangular Fin; (b) Circular or Annular Fin; (c) Triangular Fin
(TXDWLRQLVFDOOHGWKHRQHGLPHQVLRQDO¿QHTXDWLRQIRUDXQLIRUPFURVVVHFWLRQ
hp
where T = (T − Ta ) and m 2 =
Ak
The second-order equation (2.49) has a general solution in the form of
T = B1 e mx + B2 e − mx = C1 cos hmx + C2 sin hmx (2.50)
where B1, B2, C1, and C2 are constants. It is necessary to specify the boundary conditions to evaluate
the constants based on the physical situation. The boundary condition and temperature distributions
are given in the following cases.
&DVHD7KHHQGRIWKH¿QLVLQVXODWHG>QHJOLJLEOHKHDWORVVDWWKHWLS@
,QWKLVFDVHWKHWLSRIWKH¿QLVDVVXPHGWREHLQVXODWHG
The boundary conditions for this case are
(i) at x = 0, T = Tb ; and T = Tb = Tb − Ta and
dT
(ii) at x = L; =0
dx
where TbLVWKHEDVHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKH¿n. Applying these boundary conditions in Equation (2.50) and

solving for constants C1 and C2, we get C1 = Tb and C2 = −Tb ⋅ tanh mL. . The temperature variation is
cos h[m( L − x)]

T = Tb (2.51)
cos h[mL]
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHRIWKH¿QLVFDOFXODWHGIURP(TXDWLRQDV
⎛ dT ⎞
Q = −kA ⎜ ⎟x = 0 (2.52)
⎝dx⎠
= −kAmTb tan h(mL) = Tb PhkA tan h(mL)
Case (b) Fin with convention heat transfer at the end

(i) at x = 0, T = Tb ; and T = Tb = Tb − Ta and
dT dT
(ii) at x = L, − kA = hT L = hA(TL − Ta ) i.e., −k = hT L .
d x dx
Applying these boundary conditions in Equation (2.50), the temperature variation is obtained as
T cos h[m( L − x)] + (h / mk ) sin h[m( L − x)]

= (2.53)
Tb cos hmL + (h / mk ) sin hmL
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHRIWKH¿QLV
⎛ sin hmL + (h / mk ) cos hmL ⎞

Q = (Tb ) hPkA ⎜ ⎟ (2.54)
⎝ cos hmL + (h / mk ) sin hmL ⎠
)RUDUHFWDQJXODU¿QKDYLQJZLGWKw) and thickness (t), then
hp h2 ( w + t ) 2h
m= = = (t is small compared to w).
kA k .wt kt
)RUDFLUFXODU¿QSLQ¿Q
hp 4h
m= = .
kA kd
&DVHF)LQWLSDWVSHFL¿FWHPSHUDWXUH
,IWKHHQGRIWKH¿QLVH[SRVHGWRDVSHFL¿FWHPSHUDWXUHWKHQWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDUH
(i) x = 0, T = Tb ; T = Tb = Tb − Ta and
(ii) x = L, T = TL ; ∴ T = T L = TL − Ta
Applying these boundary conditions in Equation (2.50), the temperature variation is given by
T (T L / Tb ) sin hmx + sin hm( L − x)

= (2.55)
Tb sin hmL
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHRIWKH¿QLV
⎛ cos hmL − (T L / Tb ) ⎞
Q = Tb hPkA ⎜ ⎟ (2.56)
⎝ sin hmL ⎠
&DVHG)LQWLSDWÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHLQ¿QLWHORQJ¿Q

,IWKH¿QLVVXI¿FLHQWO\ORQJWKHQWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRILWVWLSUHDFKHVDYDOXHHTXDOWRWKHWHPSHUDWXUH
RIWKHVXUURXQGLQJÀXLG
(i) at x = 0, T = Tb ; ∴ T = Tb
(ii) at x = α , T = Ta ; ∴ θ = 0.
Applying these boundary conditions in Equation (2.50), the values of constants C1 = Tb and
C1 = Tb Co + hmL. Then the temperature distribution
T = Tb [cos h(mx) − cos h(mL) ⋅ sin h(mx)] (2.57)
dT
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHRIWKH¿QLV Q = −kA = kAmTb Co + hmL
dx x =0
Q = Tb hPkA. (2.58)
2.7.2 Triangular Fin

In the WULDQJXODU ¿Q VKRZQ LQ )LJ F WKH DUHD RI WKH FURVV VHFWLRQ RI WKH ¿Q YDULHV LQ WKH x
direction.
Equation (2.48) becomes
d ⎛ d T ⎞ hP d Ax
⎜ Ax ⎟− (T − Ta ) = 0. (2.59)
dx⎝ dx ⎠ k dx
In terms of non-dimensional temperature T = (T − Ta ), equation (2.59) becomes
d ⎛ d T ⎞ hP d Ax
⎜ Ax ⎟− T = 0. (2.60)
dx⎝ dx⎠ k dx
⎛ wt ⎞
Let P | 2W and Ax = L ⎜ ⎟ x.
⎝ L ⎠
The equation (2.59) becomes
d 2 θ 1 d θ β 2θ
+ − =0 (2.61)
d x2 x d x x
2hl
where E 2 = . 7KLVLVDPRGL¿HGBessel equation.
kt
d2 θ dθ
x2 +x − β 2 xθ = 0
d x2 dx
The solution to this equation gives the temperature distribution as
( )
θ = B1 I o 2 β x + B2 K o 2 β x ( ) (2.62)
where Io and Ko are the Bessel functions and B1 and B2 are constants.
2.7.3 Efficiency of Fin

(I¿FLHQF\RIWKH¿QLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHDFWXDOKHDWWUDQVIHUWRWKHPD[LPXPSRVVLEOHKHDW
transfer under ideal condition. The maximum possible heat transfer occurs if the entire surface
WHPSHUDWXUHRIWKH¿QLVHTXDOWRWKHEDVHWHPSHUDWXUH
Qactual
Kf = (2.63)
Qmax
where Qmax = hAs (Tb − Ta ) = hAsTb and Tb is the base temperature and Ta is the atmospheric temperature.
∴ Qactual = η f As hθb .
K f is taken from the graph K version L 2 w / kt EDVHGRQ¿QJHRPHWULHV

2.7.4 Effectiveness of Fin

(IIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKH¿QLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIKHDWWUDQVIHUZLWK¿QWRWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUDWWKHEDVH
ZLWKRXW¿Q)LJ
Qfin η f As hθb tan hmL
ε fin = = = (2.64)
hAb (Tb − Ta ) hAbθb hA / kP
where AbLVWKH¿QEDVHDUHDAsLVWKHWRWDOVXUIDFHDUHDRI¿QVTb is the base temperature, and Ta is

WKHDWPRVSKHULFWHPSHUDWXUH7KHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRI¿QVPXVWDOZD\VEHJUHDWHUWKDQWRSURYHWKHLU
addition of surfaces.
(a) (b) Af
Ab ~
~
Af
~
Ab ~
T∞
Figure 2.18 Fin Area
2.8 CONCLUSIONS
7KHUPDOUHVLVWDQFHLVWKHUHVLVWDQFHRIDPHWDOIRUÀRZRIKHDWWKURXJKLW,WLVVLPLODUWRHOHFWULFDO
resistance. Thermal conductance is the reciprocal of the thermal resistance.
Materials used to reduce the heat transfer between an enclosure and its surroundings are called
insulating materials. Examples are rock wool, glass wool for low temperature insulation and
asbestos, magnesia are for high-temperature insulation. Refractory materials are used in applications
in which it is desired to have a material capable of withstanding high temperature without any
SK\VLFDOGHWHULRUDWLRQ([DPSOHVDUH¿UHFOD\EULFNVPDJQHVLWHFKURPHHWF,QVXODWLRQPDWHULDOV
used in the storage and transport cryogenic liquids maintained around 25K are known as super
LQVXODWRUV7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\LVDERXWP:P&([DPSOHVDUHJODVV¿EHUVIRDPV$OOUHDO
surfaces are not perfectly smooth and has some surface roughness. When two surfaces are made
to have physical contact, the joint is not 100% perfect and this is due to roughness of the surfaces.
Contact points are interspersed with air gaps. The air gaps add additional resistance to the heat
ÀRZ EHWZHHQ WKH VXUIDFHV DQG WKDW LV UHIHUUHG DV FRQWDFW UHVLVWDQFH 7KHUPDO FRQWDFW UHVLVWDQFH
depends on the surface roughness, material properties, pressure at the interface, and the nature of
WKHLQWHUIDFHÀXLG
A composite system is one that will have a number of layers with different thicknesses and thermal
conductivities.
,IWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIDPHGLXPGRHVQRWFKDQJHVZLWKWLPHWKHQWKHKHDWÀRZLVQDPHGDVDVWHDG\
VWDWHKHDWWUDQVIHU,IWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIDPHGLXPFKDQJHVZLWKUHVSHFWWRWLPHWKHQWKHKHDWÀRZLV
named as an unsteady-state heat transfer.
Fins are extended surfaces from the base or primary surface and they are used to increase the
KHDWWUDQVIHUVXUIDFHDUHDDYDLODEOHIRUFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU$SSOLFDWLRQVIRU¿QVDUHLQUDGLDWRUV
in automobiles, air-cooled IC engines, air-cooled compressors, electrical motors and transformers,
cooling and condenser coils in refrigerators and air conditioners.
*HQHUDODVVXPSWLRQVIRUWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUDQDO\VLVIRU¿QVDUHWKDWWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
is uniform, thermal conductivity of the material is constant, one-dimensional heat transfer,
negligible radiation and contact resistance and steady-state conditions, and no heat generation
ZLWKLQ¿Q
)LQVDUHPDGHDVXQLIRUPVWUDLJKW¿QWDSHUHGVWUDLJKW¿QDQQXODU¿QDQGSLQ¿QVVSOLQHV7KH\
are more effective with materials of large thermal conductivity. All though copper is having high
WKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\WKDQDOXPLQXPGXHWROLJKWZHLJKWDQGORZFRVWDOXPLQXP¿QVDUHJHQHUDOO\
XVHG 7KH\ DUH DUH FODVVL¿HG EDVHG RQ WKH ERXQGDU\ FRQGLWLRQV VXFK DV L ORQJ ¿QV ZKHQ HQG
WHPSHUDWXUHLVHTXDOWRDPELHQWWHPSHUDWXUHLLVKRUW¿QVZLWKHQGLVLQVXODWHGRUHQGKHDWWUDQVIHU
LVVPDOODQGVKRUW¿QVZLWKFRQYHFWLRQFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUDWWKHHQG
)LQHI¿FLHQF\LVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHDFWXDOUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUZLWKWKH¿QWRWKHUDWHRI
KHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKH¿QWKDWFRXOGEHREWDLQHGZKHQWKHHQWLUH¿QVXUIDFHLVPHQWLRQHGDWWKHEDVH
temperature.
)LQHIIHFWLYHQHVVLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUZLWKWKH¿QWRWKDWRIZLWKRXW
WKH ¿Q ,W LQFUHDVHV ZLWK GHFUHDVH LQ KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW ,Q ERLOLQJ DQG FRQGHQVDWLRQ KHDW
WUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVYHU\KLJKDQGWKHUHIRUHXVHRI¿QVPD\DFWXDOO\SURGXFHDUHGXFWLRQLQKHDW
transfer.
Ɣ Heat transfer rate increase relates to h and to A, or both simultaneously.

Ɣ The simplest method of increasing Q is to increase the area of the
KEY
Ɣ plate but this is limited by the fact that the spreading resistance also
C increases.
O
N Ɣ 7KHEHVWZD\WRLQFUHDVHFRQWDFWVXUIDFHDUHDEHWZHHQÀXLGDQGVROLGLV
C WRXVH¿QVDQGWKHYDVWPDMRULW\RIFRROHUVDUHSURYLGHGZLWKVXFK
E
P Ɣ Rather than adding surface area while spreading out horizontally, it is
T done vertically.
S
Ɣ 2QWKHSUDFWLFDODQGWKHRUHWLFDOVLGHWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRID¿QZLOOSUL-
marily depend on its thickness and height.
Ɣ (DFKSDUWRIWKH¿QVXUIDFHZLOOQRWH[FKDQJHWKHVDPHDPRXQWRIKHDW
VLQFHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGHFUHDVHVIURPWKHEDVHWRWKHWRSRIWKH¿Q
Ɣ 7KLVUHVXOWVLQDFRHI¿FLHQWHI¿FLHQF\UDQJLQJEHWZHHQDQG
ZKLFKZLOOEDODQFHWKH¿Q±ÀXLGFRQWDFWVXUIDFHDUHDVRWKDWWKH¿Q¶V
KHDWWUDQVIHUZLWKWKHÀXLGRFFXUVRQDQHIIHFWLYHDUHDVPDOOHUWKDQWKH
real contact area.
Ɣ *HQHUDOO\EH\RQGWKHSRLQWZKHUHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKH¿QLVQHDUO\
LGHQWLFDOWRWKDWRIWKHÀXLGWKHUHPDLQGHURIVXUIDFHH[FKDQJHVYLUWX-
DOO\QRKHDWWRWKHÀXLGDQGLVWKXVXVHOHVV
Ɣ 0RUHRYHUWKHKLJKHUWKH¿QWKHPRUHWKHYROXPHRIWKHFRROHUDQGLI
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convection.
Ɣ It is a matter of compromises, as in most situations.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
2.1. A composite wall is made up of two slabs with outermost surface temperatures maintained at (T1 )
1300°C and (T3 &7KH¿UVWVODEKDVDWKLFNQHVVRIPPL1 ) and thermal conductivity (K1 ) of
1.4 W/mK and the thickness and the thermal conductivity (K2 ) of the second slab are 161 mm (L2 ) and
0.35 W/mK respectively. Calculate the conduction heat transfer through this composite wall per square
metre and the temperature of the surfaces in contact.
(T1 T3 )
Heat transfer = Q =
R
L1 L 0.5 0.161
where R = R1 + R2 = + 2 = +
AK1 AK 2 1.4 ×1 0.35 ×1
= 0.817 K/W
1300 115
Therefore, Q = = 1450.18 W
0.817
T1 − T2
Again Q = ⇒ T2 = T1 − QR1 = 782.1D C
R1
Also
T2 T3
Q=
R2
Therefore, T2 = 782.1D C.
2.2. $
IXUQDFHZDOOVODELVFRQVWUXFWHGZLWK¿UHFOD\RIWKLFNQHVVPPL1 ) inside and red brick of thickness
450 mm (L2 ) outside. The temperatures inside and outside the furnace wall are 1100°C (T1 ) and 30°C
(T3 ), respectively. The thermal conductivity of the red brick (K2 LV:P.DQGWKDWRIWKH¿UHFOD\
(K1 ), is 0.3(1 + 0.001T) W/mK where T is the temperature of the clay in degrees Celsius. Assuming unit
VXUIDFHDUHD¿QGWKHFRQGXFWLYHKHDWORVVWKURXJKWKHIXUQDFHZDOODQGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHDWWKHLQWHUIDFH
RIWKH¿UHFOD\DQGUHGEULFN
We know that
T1 T2 Ta
T1 T2 T2 T3
Q= =
Rc Rb Rc Rb
Here
Lc
R1 =
K1 A
where
K1 = 0.3(1 + 0.001T )
⎡ ⎛ T + T2 ⎞⎟⎤
= 0.3 ⎢1 + 0.001⎜⎜ 1 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠⎥
⎦
⎡ ⎛1100 + T2 ⎞⎟⎤
= 0.3 ⎢1 + 0.001⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
= 0.3 + 0.00015(1100 + T2 )
0.09
Therefore, Rc =
[0.3 + 0.00015(1100 + T2 )]×1
L2 0.45
and Rb = = = 0.5625D C / W
K 2 A 0.8 q1
Therefore,
1100 − T2 T2 − 30
=
0.09 0.5625
0.3 + 0.00015(1100 + T2 )
i.e.
(1100 − T2 )[0.3 + 0.00015(1100 + T2 )]× 0.5625 = (T2 − 30)(0.09)
= 0.09T2 2.7
(1100 − T2 )[0.169 + 0.093 + 8.44 ×10−5 T2 ] = 0.09T2 − 2.7
185.9 + 102.3 + 8.44 ×10−5 T2 ×1100 − 0.169T2 − 0.093T2 − 8.44 ×10−5 T22 − 0.09T2 + 2.7 = 0
−8.44 ×10−5 T22 + 0.445T2 + 290.9 = 0
8.44 ×10−5 T22 + 0.2592T2 − 290.9 = 0
Solving the equation we can get T2 = 873.15D C.
2.3. A hollow cylinder of length 2 m (L) has inner and outer radii of 50 mm (r1 ) and 100 mm (r2 ). The inner
and outer surface temperatures of this cylinder are 300°C (T1 ) and 200°C (T2 ), respectively. Determine
the conduction heat transfer rate through this cylinder. Assume that the thermal conductivity (K) of the
cylinder is 70 W/mK.
The heat transfer rate

T1 T2
(T1 T2 )
Q= ,
R R
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠
where R =
2 KL
⎛ 0.1 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 0.05 ⎟⎟⎠
=
2 × 70 × 2
300 − 200
r1 = 7.88 ×10−4D C / W ; therefore Q =
7.88 ×10−4
= 634.52 kW.
2.4. The inner and outer radii of a hollow cylinder are 15 mm (r1 ) and 25 mm (r2 ), respectively. The
temperatures of the inner and outer walls are 400°C (T1 ) and 350°C (T2 ), respectively. The thermal
FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI WKH F\OLQGHU PDWHULDO REH\V WKH UHODWLRQVKLS . í7 :P. ZKHUH 7 LV LQ
degrees Celsius. Find the heat transferred from the hollow cylinder per unit length. The thermal
conductivity,
(T1 + T2 )
K = 400 − 0.05
2
(400 + 350)
= 400 − 0.05
2
= 381.25 W/mK
The heat transfer per unit length, Q = T/R .
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
1
Thermal resistance, R =
2QK a L ⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠
1 ⎛ 0.025 ⎞⎟
= ln ⎜⎜ ⎟ ( as L = 1 m )
2 ××381.25 ×1 ⎜⎝ 0.015 ⎟⎠
= 2.13q1014 K / W
(400 − 350)
Then Q =
2.13×10−4
= 234.741 kW .
2.5. Steam is carried in a steel pipe having inner radius 5 cm (r1 ) and outer radius 5.5 cm (r2 ). This pipe
is covered with two layers of insulation each 5 cm thick (t). The thermal conductivity of the steel
SLSH DQG WKH ¿UVW DQG VHFRQG OD\HUV RI LQVXODWLRQ DUH :P. .3 ), 50 (K1 ) and 0.06 (K2 ), re-
spectively. The temperature of steam is 225°C (T1 ) and the temperature of the outermost surface is
25°C (T4 ) Calculate the conduction transfer rate per unit length of pipe and the intermediate temperatures.
T1 T2 T3 T4
(a) Conduction transfer rate
R1 R2 R3
(T1 − T4 )
Q=
R1 + R2 + R3
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠
Here R1 =
2Q K 1 L
⎛ 5.5 ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 5.0 ⎠
= = 30.34 ×10−5D C/W
2 × 50 ×1
⎛r ⎞ ⎛10.5 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ r2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5.5 ⎟⎟⎠
R2 = = = 1.715D C/W
2Q K 2 L 2 × 0.06 ×1
⎛r ⎞ ⎛15.5 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ r3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝10.5 ⎟⎟⎠
and R3 = = = 0.517°C/W
2Q K 3 L 2Q × 0.12 ×1
(225 25)
Q= = 89.61 W
2.232
(b) Intermediate temperatures
We know that
T1 − T2
Q= ⇒ T2 = T1 − QR1
R1
= 225 − 89.61× 30.34 ×10−5
= 224.97D C
Also
T3 = T2 − QR2 = 224.97 − 89.61×1.715 = 71.29D C.
2.6. Determine the surface temperature of an insulated cable of radius 10 mm. When the cable was exposed
WRDLULWVVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUH7ZDV&7KHFRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKZLWKDQGZLWK-
out insulation was 5 W/m2K. The temperature (Ta RIDLUVXUURXQGLQJWKHFDEOHZDV&$OVR¿QGWKH
optimum thickness of the insulation. Assume that the intensity of current remains unchanged and that the
thermal conductivity (K) of the insulation material is 0.2 W/mK.
T T1 Ta
R1 R2
(a) The heat transfer rate without the insulation = Q1 = hA(T Ta )

= 5 × (2 × Q × 0.01×1) × (80 − 30)
= 15.71 W (' L = 1 m )
Optimum radius of the insulation,
K 0.2
rc = r2 = = = 0.04 m
h 5
The heat transfer rate with the insulation is
(T1 − Ta )
Q2 =
R1 + R2
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 40 ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 10 ⎠
where R1 = = = 1.103D C/W
2Q KL 2Q × 0.2 ×1
1 1
R2 = = = 0.796D C / W
2Qr2 Lho 2Qq 0.04 q1q 5
Therefore
(T1 30)
Q2 =
1.899
As the intensity of current remains uncharged, that is Q1 = Q2
T1 Ta
Therefore 15.71 =
1.899
T1 = 59.83D C
Therefore, the surface temperature of the cable, T1 = 59.83D C (after adding the insulation).
(a) With optimum thickness of insulation, the outer radius is
K 0.2
r2 = = = 0.04 m = 40 mm
h 5
Therefore thickness of the insulation = r2 r1 = rc r1 = 40 10 = 30 mm.
2.7. Plastic material of thermal conductivity (K1 N-PKU.LVXVHGWRLQVXODWHDFRSSHUZLUHRIUDGLXV
(r1 PPWRDWKLFNQHVVRIXSWRPP7KHFRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWK0 on the surface of
WKHZLUHLVN-P2hrK. What is the effect of the insulation on the heat transfer rate? What should be
the outer radius of insulation such that the surface temperature is kept at the same value as that without
insulation?
The critical radius of the insulation is
K 0.9
rc = = = 0.018 m
ho 50
= 18 mm
As the critical radius is greater than the outer radius of the insulated wire, this insulation helps to dis-
sipate more heat and therefore cools the wire.
The heat transfer without insulation,
(T1 T2 )
Q1 =
1
2Qr1Lho
The heat transfer through the insulated wire,
(T1 − T2 )
Q2 =
⎛ 1 ⎛ r ⎞⎞⎟
+ ⎜⎜⎜ ln ⎜⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟
1
2Qr2 Lh ⎝⎜ 2Q KL ⎝ r1 ⎟⎠⎟⎠
In order to obtain the same wire temperature with and without insulation, the conditions is
Q1 = Q2
⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
1 1 1
= +
2Qr1Lho 2Qr2 Lho 2Q KL ⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠
⎛r ⎞ K ⎛ r⎞
Therefore, ln ⎜⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜⎜1 − 1 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠ ho r1 ⎜⎝ r2 ⎟⎠
⎛ r ⎞ 0.9 ⎛ 0.01⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 0.001⎠ 50 × 0.001⎜⎜⎜⎝ r2 ⎟⎠
Solving, the outer radius of insulation = 0.037 m = 37 mm.
2.8. The electrical resistance of a copper rod is 15 q 10í ohmmí,WFRQGXFWVDFXUUHQWRI$DQGKDV

a radius of 1 cm (r1 ) It is insulated to a thickness of 5 mm (t1 ) using a material having a thermal con-
ductivity of 0.05 W/mK (K1 ) and then further covered to a thickness of (t2 ) 1.8 cm with plastic material
of thermal conductivity (K2 ) 0.5 W/mK. This plastic outer layer is exposed to air at 30°C (T0 ) and the
FRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLV:P2K (h). Determine the outer surface temperature of the
plastic insulation.
7KHKHDWJHQHUDWHGLQWKHFRSSHUURGGXHWRWKHÀRZRIFXUUHQW
Qg = I 2 R
= (900) 2 (15 ×10−6 )
= 12.15 W/m
For a steady-state condition, the heat generated in the copper rod should be convected to the air, such that
Ts Ta
Qg =
R
1
R=
2Qr3 Lh
1
=
2 q 0.033q1q15
= 0.325D C/W
Therefore,
Ts 30
12.15 =
0.3215
which means
Ts = 33.91D C.
2.9. A hollow sphere is made up of two layers. The inner radius (r1 ) is 5 cm. The radius (r2 ) of the
interface between the two layers is 15 cm. The outer layer thickness (t2 ) is 5 cm. The thermal con-
ductivity of the inner and outer layers are (K1 ) 70 and (K2 ) 15 W/mK, respectively. The inner- and
outer-most surface temperatures are (T1 DQG72 ) 20 K, respectively. Calculate the conduction
heat transfer rate through this hollow sphere and the interface temperature between the layers.
Heat transfer rate,
(T1 − T3 )
Q=
R1 + R2
Therefore
290 20
Q= = 11.23 kW
0.02404
Also
T1 T2
Q=
R1
Therefore
T2 = T1 − QR1 = 290 − 11230 × 0.0152
= 119.3 K
where
r2 r1
R1 =
4Qr1r2 K1
0.15 − 0.05
=
4Q × 0.05 × 0.15 × 70
= 0.0152D C/ W
and
r3 r2
R2 =
4Qr3r2 K 2
0.2 − 0.15
=
4Q × 0.2 × 0.15 ×15
= 0.00884D C/ W.
2.10. A long steel rod of diameter (d) 3 cm is attached to a wall. The wall temperature (Tb LV&DQGWKH
temperature (Ta ) of air surrounding the rod is 30°C. The thermal conductivity (K) of the rod is 45 W/ mK
DQGWKHFRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKLV:P2.&DOFXODWHWKHKHDWORVVIURPWKH¿Q
7KHORQJURGLVDVVXPHGWRKDYHLQ¿QLWHOHQJWK
Therefore the heat transfer,
Q = hP K A (Tb Ta )
where the circumference of the rod,
Qd 2 Q q 0.032
P = Qd = Q q 0.03 = 0.094 m; A= = = 0.000707 m 2
4 4
= 19 × 0.094 × 45 × 0.000707(190 − 30)
= 38.14 W.
2.11. A steel rod of length (L) 20 cm with a diameter (d) of 2 cm is attached to a surface maintained at 300°C
(Tb 7KHHQGRIWKHURGLVLQVXODWHG7KHÀXLGDLUVXUURXQGLQJWKHURGLVDW&7a ) Determine the
KHDWWUDQVIHUUHGWRWKHÀXLGIURPWKHURGLI. :P.DQGK :P2K.
The heat transfer at the insulated end, Q = hP K A (Tb Ta mL tanh )
The circumference,
P = Qd = (Qq 0.02) = 0.0628 m
The area of cross-section,
Qd 2 ⎛⎜ 0.022 ⎞⎟
A= = ⎜⎜Q× ⎟⎟ = 0.000314 m 2
4 ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
30 × 0.0628
m = hP/ K A = = 11.55 m −1
45 × 0.000314
Therefore, Q = 30 × 0.0628× 45× 0.000314 × (300 − 30) tanh (11.55× 0.2)

= 43.13 W.
2.12. $
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VXUIDFH,IWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\.RIWKH¿QPDWHULDOLV:P.DQGLWVVXUIDFHFRQYHFWLRQFRHI-
¿FLHQWKLV:P2.GHWHUPLQHWKH¿QHI¿FLHQF\
The critical length,
Lc = L = 0.05 m; t = 0.01 m
t 0.01q 0.05
Am = Lc =
2 2
= 2.5 ×10−4 m 2
⎛ h ⎞⎟
1/2
⎛ ⎞⎟
1/2
⎜ 45
c ⎜
L3/2 ⎟⎟ = (0.05)3/2 ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.3559
⎜⎜⎝ KAm ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝175 × 2.5 ×10 ⎟⎠
−4
)URPWKHJUDSK¿QHI¿FLHQF\ = 95% .
2.13. $
FLUFXPIHUHQWLDO¿QKDYLQJRXWHUDQGLQQHUUDGLLRIFPUi ) and 7 cm (r0 ), respectively with thick-
ness (t) 3 mm is attached to a cylinder. If the cylinder surface is maintained at 400°C Tb and the sur-
rounding air temperature is 30°C TaGHWHUPLQHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKH¿Q$VVXPHWKHFRQYHFWLYH
KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKDV:P2.DQGWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\.RIWKH¿QDV:P.
The heat transfer, Q = I As h(Tb Ta )
t
Lc = L + ;
2
L = (ro ri ) = 10 7 = 3 cm
0.3
Lc = 3 + = 3.15 cm
2
and
r2 c = ri + Lc = 0.1 + 0.0315 = 0.1315 m
Therefore,
r2 c 0.1315
= = 1.315
ri 0.1
Am = Lc × t = 0.0315 × 0.003 = 9.45 ×10−5 m 2
⎛ h ⎞⎟
1/2
⎛ ⎟⎟⎞ = 0.275
1/2
40
L ⎜⎜⎜
3/2
⎟⎟ = (0.0315)3/2 ⎜⎜
⎟
c
⎜⎝ KA ⎟ ⎜⎝175 × 9.45 ×10 ⎠
−
m⎠
5
)URPWKHJUDSK¿QHI¿FLHQF\ = 90%
Fin surface area,
As = 2Q[(ro2 − ri 2 ) + (t × ro )]
= 2 × Q[(100 − 49) + (0.3×10)]×10−4 m 2
= 0.034 m 2
Therefore, Q = 0.9 × 0.034 × 40(400 − 30)
= 452.9 W.
2.14. Heat is generated in a long chromium steel bar of thickness 3 cm (t) and width 30 cm (w) at the rate of
3000 kW/m3. If the surface temperature of the steel bar is (Tw &¿QGWKHPD[LPXPWHPSHUDWXUH
within the steel bar. The thermal conductivity of the chromium steel is 24 W/mK (K).
qg t 2
Tmax = + Tw
8K
3,000,000 × (0.03)2
= + 450D C
8 × 24
= 464.06D C.
2.15. In a nuclear reactor, a uranium fuel rod of diameter (d) 3 cm is used to heat the water. The rate of heat
generation (qg ) in the rod is 50,000 kW/m3 and the thermal conductivity (K) is 30 W/mK. If the surface
temperature of the rod is maintained at 120°C (Tw ), what is the maximum temperature inside the rod?
qg R 2
Tmax = + Tw
8K
⎛ 50,000,000 × 0.0152 ⎞⎟
= ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + 120
⎝ 4 × 30 ⎟⎠
= 213.75D C.
2.16. A hollow sphere of inner radius, r1 = 4 cm and outer radius, r2 = 6 cm is heated at the inner surface
at the rate of 105 W/m2T7KHRXWHUVXUIDFHLVH[SRVHGWRDÀXLGDWWHPSHUDWXUH7a ) of 100°C with
KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKRI:P2°C. Find the surface temperatures of the sphere. The thermal
conductivity (K) is 20 W/m2°C.
Here
T1 − Ta
Q=
R1 + R2
= 4Qr12 q
where T1 is the inner surface temperature
r2 r1
R1 =
4Q Kr1r2
0.06 − 0.04
=
4Q × 20 × 0.04 × 0.06
= 0.0332D C / W
and
1
R2 =
4Qr22 h
1
= = 0.0491D C / W
4Q (0.06) 2 q 450
Therefore,
(T1 − 100)
4Q (0.04) 2 ×105 = ⇒ T1 = 265D C
0.0823
Then
T2 − Ta T2 − 100
Q= = ⇒ T2 = 198.7D C (outside surface temperaturee).
R2 0.0491
2.17. A hollow sphere with an outer diameter (d1 ) of 4 cm and outer diameter of 12 cm is kept at an inner
surface temperature (T1 ) of 383 K and outer surface temperature (T2 ) of 323 K. Calculate the heat
transfer and temperature at d = 8 cm. The thermal conductivity of the sphere is 150 W/m°C.
Heat transfer,
T1 T2
Q=
R
where
r2 − r1 0.06 − 0.02
R= =
4Q Kr2 r1 4Q ×150 × 0.06 × 0.02
= 0.0177D C / W
383 323
Therefore, Q =
0.0177
= 3389.8 W
T1 T
Also, Q=
R1
r − r1 0.04 − 0.02
R1 = = = 0.0133D C / W
4Q Krr1 4Q ×150 × 0.04 × 0.02
383 − T
3389.8 = ⇒ T = 338 K (Temperature at d = 0.08 m).
0.0133
2.18. A spherical, thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at a temperature (T1 ) of
í&7KHFRQWDLQHUGLDPHWHUU1 ) is 0.5 m and it is covered with two insulating materials each of
thickness 25 mm and the outer surface is exposed to ambient air at 303 K (Ta ). The thermal conductivi-
WLHVRIWKH¿UVWDQGVHFRQGLQVXODWLQJOD\HUVDUH:P..1 ) and 0.0017 W/mK, respectively. If
RXWHUKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLV:P2K and the latent heat of vaporization (hfg ) of liquid nitrogen is
2 q 102N-NJ&'HWHUPLQHWKHUDWHRIYDSRUL]DWLRQRIOLTXLGQLWURJHQSHUKRXU
Heat transfer rate,
T1 − Ta
Q=
R1 + R2 + R3
r2 − r1 0.275 − 0.25
where R1 = = = 0.689D C / W
4Q K1r2 r1 4Q × 0.042 × 0.275 × 0.25
{Since r2 = r1 + t = 0.25 + 0.025 = 0.275 m}
r3 − r2 0.3 − 0.275
R2 = = = 14.185D C / W
4Q Kr3r2 4Q × 0.0017 × 0.3× 0.275
{Since r3 = r2 + t = 0.275 + 0.025 = 0.3 m}
1 1
R3 = = = 0.044D C/ W
4Qr32 h 4Q (0.3) 2 (20)
80 303
14.92
{Heat flows from the ambient air to nitrogen}
Also mh fg = Q
14.95
Therefore, m = Q/h fg = = 7.5 ×10−5 kg / s
2 ×102 ×103
= 0.27 kg / hr.
2.19. $
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rate and the interface temperatures also.
Let the width of the wall be 1 m
T3
1m
KB = 70 W/m°C
T1 = (200°C)
KA = 100 T2 KC = 70 T4 = 100°C
W/m°C W/m°C
KD = 20 W/m°C 1m
L1 = 4 cm L2 = 10 cm L3 = 5 cm
Heat transfer through the wall, Q = T1 T4 /Rtotal

RB
RC
T1 T2 T3 T4
RA Q
RD
Here, Rtotal = RA + R + RB
T1 T2 T3 T4
RA RB Q RC
L1 0.04
RA = = = 2 ×10−4D C/W
K A AA 100 × 2 ×1
RB RD
R=
RD + RB
L2 0.1
But RB = =
K B AD 70 q1q1
= 1.429 ×10−3D C / W
L2 0.1
RD = = = 5 ×10−3D C/W
K D AD 20 ×1×1
Therefore, R = 1.11×10−3D C/ W
L3 0.05
Then RC = = = 3.57 ×10−4D C/W
K C AQ 70 × 2 ×1
Therefore, Rtotal = 1.667 ×10−3D C/W
200 − 100
Therefore, Q = = 60 kW
1.667 ×10−3
Also we can write
T1 − T2
Q= ⇒ T2 = T1 − QRA
RA
= 200 − 60 ×10−3 × 2 ×10−4
= 188D C
T3 − T4
Also Q = ⇒ T3 = T4 − QRC
RC
= 100 − 60 ×10−3 × 3.57 ×10−4
= 121.42D C.
2.20. Consider a pipe with an inner radius (r1 ) of 5 cm and an outer radius (r2 ) of 7 cm. The inner surface is
kept at 100°C (T1 ) and the outer surface at 80°C (T2 ). Determine the heat loss per metre length of the
pipe if the pipe is made up of pure copper (Kc = 387 W/m°C), pure aluminium (Ka = 200 W/m°C) and
pure iron (Ki = 62 W/m°C).
T1 T2
Heat loss per metre length of copper pipe (Qc ) = (T1 T2 )/R
R
⎛r ⎞ ⎛7⎞
ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎠
where R = = = 1.384 ×10−4D C/W
2Q KL 2Q × 387 ×1
100 − 80
Therefore, Qc = = 144.535 kW
1.384 ×10−4
For a pure aluminium pipe
⎛7⎞
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 5 ⎠
R= = 2.68 ×10−4D C/W
2Q × 200 ×1
100 − 80
Therefore, Qa = = 74.695 kW
2.68 ×10−4
For a pure iron pipe, R = 8.637 ×10−4D C/ W
100 − 80
Therefore, Qi = = 23.155D C/ W.
8.637 ×10−4
2.21. A pipe of outer diameter 5 cm and thickness (t) 0.5 cm and thermal conductivity, K = 386 W/mK has
KRWJDVÀRZLQJLQVLGHDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRI7g of 200°C with hi = 30 W/m2K. The outer surface dissipates
heat by convection into the ambient air at 20°C (Ta ) with h0 = 15 W/mK. Determine the heat loss from
the pipe per metre length of the pipe.
Heat loss per metre length of the pipe,
Tg − Ta
Q=
R1 + R2 + R3
where
1 1
R1 = = = 0.265D C / W
Qd i Lhi Q (0.05 − 0.01) ×1× 30
⎛d ⎞ ⎛5⎞
ln ⎜⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ d i ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 4 ⎠
R2 = = = 9.2 ×10−5D C/W
2Q KL 2Q × 386 ×1
1 1
R3 = = = 0.424D C / W
Qd o Lho Qq 0.05 q1q15
200 20
Therefore, Q = = 261.21 W / m length .
0.689
2.22. Consider a steel pipe (K1 = 10 W/m°C) with an inner radius (r1 ) of 5 cm and outer radius (r2 ) of 10 cm.
7KHRXWHUVXUIDFHLVWREHLQVXODWHGZLWKD¿EUHJODVVLQVXODWLRQ.2 = 0.05 W/m°C) to reduce the heat
ÀRZUDWHWKURXJKWKHSLSHZDOOE\'HWHUPLQHWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKH¿EUHJODVVLQVXODWLRQ
The heat transfer without the insulation, Q1 = (T1 T2 )/R1
The heat transfer with the insulation, Q2 = T1 − T2 /R1 + R2
But Q2 = 0.5Q1 for the same temperature difference
Therefore,
R1 + R2 = 2 R1 ⇒ R2 = R1
That is,
⎛r ⎞ ⎛r ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r2 ⎟⎠ ⎝ r1 ⎟⎠
=
2QK 2 L 2QK1L
⎛10 ⎞⎟
⎜
⎛ r3 ⎞⎟ ⎛ r2 ⎞⎟⎛ K 2 ⎟⎞ ln ⎜⎝⎜ 5 ⎟⎟⎠× 0.05
⎜ ⎜ ⎜
Therefore, ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ =
⎜⎝ r2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ K1 ⎟⎠ 10
= 3.466 ×10−3
r3
That is, = 1.0035 º r3 = 10.0347 cm
r2
The thickness of the insulation is r3 r2 = 0.0347 cm.
2.23. A pipe having an outer diameter (r1 ) of 40 mm is to be insulated with two layers of insulation, each
having a thickness of 30 mm. The thermal conductivities of the inner and outer insulation materials are
(K1 ) 0.8 W/m2°C and (K2 ) 0.4 W/m2°C, respectively. Calculate the change in heat transfer rate if the
two insulators are interchanged, if the pipe temperature (T1 ) is 200°C and the temperature of the outer
insulation is 50°C (T3 ).
(a) The better insulator is outside
The heat transfer,
T1 − T3
Q1 =
R1 + R3
where
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜ 40 + 30 ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 40 ⎟⎠
R1 = = = 0.111D C / W
2Q K1L 2Q × 0.8 ×1
⎛r ⎞ ⎛100 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ r2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 70 ⎟⎟⎠
and R2 = = = 0.142D C/W
2Q K 2 L 2Q × 0.4 ×1
200 50
Therefore, Q1 = = 593.08 W/m length of the pipe
0.2529
(b) The better insulation is inside
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 70 ⎞
ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 40 ⎠
R1 = = = 0.223D C/W
2Q K1L 2Q × 0.4 ×1
⎛100 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 70 ⎟⎟⎠
and R2 = = 0.071D C / W
2Q × 0.8 ×1
200 50
Therefore, Q2 = = 510.2 W/m
0.294
Drop in heat transfer rate = Q1 Q2 = 82.88 W / m.
2.24. Two stainless steel blocks each having K = 20 W/m°C thickness (t) of 1 cm, length (b) of 8 cm and width
of 6 cm are pressed together. The contact conductance becomes h = 10,000 W/m2°C. The outer surfaces
of the blocks are at 120° and 70°&DOFXODWHWKHKHDWÀRZUDWHDQGWHPSHUDWXUHGURSDWWKHLQWHUIDFH
T1 T4
T2 T3
1 cm 1 cm
T1 T2 T3 T4
R1 R2 R3
The heat transfer,

T1 − T4
Q=
R1 + R2 + R3
where
L1 0.01
R1 = = = 0.1042D C/W
K1 A 20 q 0.08 q 0.06
The contact resistance, R2 = 1/hA = 110,000 q 0.08 q 0.06 = 0.021D C / W
and R3 = R1 = 0.1042D C / W
Therefore,
120 70
Q= = 217.96 W
0.229
Also
T2 T3
Q=
R2
That is, temperature drop across the contact,

T2 T3 = QR2
= 217.96 q 0.021
= 4.58D C.
2.25. Determine the interface temperature T2 and the surface temperature T4 of the composite wall shown in
WKH¿JXUH
K2 = 1.0 W/m°C
K3 = 2 W/m°C
K1 = 0.1 W/m°C
150°C 50°C T4
(T1) (T2) (T3)
2 cm 4 cm 3 cm
(L1) (L2) (L3)
2
Let A = 1 m
The heat transfer rate,
T1 − T4
Q=
R1 + R2 + R3
T1 − T3 T3 − T4 T1 − T2
= = =
R1 + R2 R3 R1
here
L1 0.02
R1 = = = 0.2D C/W
K1 A 0.1q1
L2 0.04
R2 = = = 0.04D C/W
K 2 A 1q1
and
L3 0.03
R3 = = = 0.015D C/W
K 3 A 2 q1
Therefore,
150 − 50
Q= = 416.7 W / m 2
(0.2 + 0.04)
Also
T3 − T4
= Q ⇒ T4 = T3 − QR3 = 50 − 416.7 × 0.015
R3
= 43.75D C
Similarly,
T2 = T1 − QR1 = 150 − 416.7 × 0.2
= 66.7D C.
2.26. The surface of a slab of thickness 20 cm (L) is kept at 30°C (Ta ) and the other surface is at 110°C (Tb )
&RPSDUHWKHKHDWÀX[DFURVVWKHVODELIWKHVODEZHUHPDGHRISXUHFRSSHU.c :V&SXUHDOX-
minium (Ka = 200 W/m°C) and steel (Ks = 50 W/m°C).
Heat transfer across a copper slab,

(Tb Ta ) K c A
qc =
L
1× 390(110 − 30)
= = 156.0 kW / m 2
0.2
Heat transfer across an aluminium slab,
(Tb Ta ) K a A
qa =
L
1× 200(110 − 30)
= = 80 kW / m 2
0.2
Heat transfer across a steel slab,
K s A(Tb Ta )
qs =
L
50 ×1× (110 − 30)
= = 20.0 kW / m 2.
0.2
2.27. A wall of a building is made up of 8 cm of brick (K1 :P&FPRIFHORWH[.2 = 0.048 W/m°C)
and 2 cm of an asbestos cemented board (K3 = 0.74 W/m°C). Glass wool (K4 = 0.038 W/m°C) is to be
DGGHGEHWZHHQWKHFHORWH[DQGDVEHVWRVLQRUGHUWRUHGXFHWKHKHDWÀRZUDWHWKURXJKWKHZDOOE\
Determine the thickness of the glass wool.
Let the area of the wall considered be 1 m2
T1 T2 T3 T4
R1 R2 R3
Heat transfer across the three layers,

T1 − T4
Q=
R1 + R2 + R3
where
L1 0.08
R1 = = = 0.116D C/W
K1 A 0.69 q1
L2 0.02
R2 = = = 0.417D C/W
K 2 A 0.048 q1
L3 0.02
and R3 = = = 0.027D C/W
K 3 A 0.74 q1
Addition of glass wool reduces the heat transfer by 50% due to an increase in the thermal resistance for
the same temperature difference.
That is,
Q ⎛⎜ T1 − T4 ⎞⎟ 1 T1 − T5
=⎜ ⎟⎟ =
2 ⎜⎜⎝ R1 + R2 + R3 ⎟⎠ 2 R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
where T5 = T4 and R4 = L4 /K 4 q A for the glass wool layer
Therefore,
2( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
R4 = R1 + R2 + R3
L4
= 0.116 + 0.417 + 0.027
AK 4
Therefore, L4 = 2.13 cm thickness of glass wool.
2.28. A container wall made of a 2-cm-thick (L) iron plate (K = 62 W/m°C) is exposed to hot gas at 530°C (Tg )
ZLWKKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRI:P2°C (hg ) and the other side is in contact with cool air at 30°C (Ta )
ZLWKDKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRI:P2°C (ha &DOFXODWHWKHKHDWÀRZLQJWKURXJKWKHZDOOSHUXQLW
surface area and the wall temperature.
Heat transfer per unit area, q = (Tg − Ta )/( R1 + R2 + R3 )

Tg T1 T2 T3
R1 R2 R3
where
1 1
R1 = = = 0.01D C/ W
hg A 100 q1
L 0.02
R2 = = = 0.00032D C/W
KA 62 q1
1 1
R3 = = = 0.05D C/ W
ha A 20 q1
530 30
Therefore, q = = 8.29 kW/m 2
0.0632
If the wall temperatures are T1 and T2, then
Tg − T1 530 − T1
q= = ⇒ T1 = 447.1D C
R1 0.01
Also
T2 − Ta T2 − 30
q= = ⇒ T2 = 444.5D C.
R3 0.05
2.29. A styrofoam ice box (K = 0.033 W/m°C) has inner dimensions 25 cm q 40 cm q 100 cm. The thickness
of the wall is 5 cm. The outside of the box is exposed to air at 25°C with h = 10 W/m2°C. If the box is
FRPSOHWHO\¿OOHGZLWKLFHFDOFXODWHWKHWLPHUHTXLUHGIRUWKHLFHWRFRPSOHWHO\PHOW6WDWH\RXUDVVXPS-
WLRQV7KHKHDWRIIXVLRQIRUZDWHULVN-NJ/HWWKHKHDWEHWUDQVIHUUHGWRWKHDLUWKURXJKWKHZDOOV
only and assume that density of ice is 1000 kg/m3.
Mass of the ice, m = volume of the box q the density of ice
= 0.25 q 0.40 q1q1000 = 100 kg
The heat that has to be supplied

= mq heat of fusion
to melt the ice completely
= 100 q 330 = 33000 kJ
Total heat transfer area =LH+BH+LB×2
= 2[0.25×1 + 0.4 ×1 + 0.25 × 0.4]
= 1.5 m 2
Therefore the heat transfer rate, Q = (Ta − T )/( R1 + R2 ), where T = temperature of ice
L 0.05
where R1 = = = 1.01D C/W
KA 0.033q1.5
1 1
R2 = = = 0.067D C/ W
LA 10 q1.5
(25 0)
1.077
and the time taken for melting = 395.1 h.
2.30. A long hollow cylinder of inner radius (r1 ) 5 cm and outer radius (r2 ) 15 cm is considered. The inner
surface is heated uniformly at a constant rate of (q) = 105 W/m2. If the inner surface is maintained at
0°C, T1, calculate the temperature of the outer surface for K = 75 W/m°C.
Total heat transfer,
Q = q q 2Qr1L
2Q K L
Also Q = (T1 T2 ) = q 2Qr1L
r
ln 2
r1
⎛r ⎞
qr1 ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ r1 ⎟⎠
Therefore, T1 − T2 =
K
⎛15 ⎞
105 × 0.05 × ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 5 ⎠
=
75
Outer surface temperature, T2 = 1073D C.
2.31. A hollow sphere of inner radius (r1 ) 10 cm and outer radius (r2 ) 20 cm is considered. The inner surface
is uniformly heated at a constant rate q = 1.6 q 105 W/m2 with an electric heater, while the outer sur-
face is maintained at zero temperature, calculate the inner surface temperature for K = 40 W/m°C.
Total heat transfer,
Q = q q 4Qr12
4Qr2 r1 K
Also Q = (T1 T2 ) = q 4Qr12
r2 r1
qr1 (r2 r1 )
Therefore, T1 T2 =
Kr2
1.6 ×105 × 0.1(0.2 − 0.1)
=
40 × 0.2
Therefore the inner surface temperature, T1 = 200D C.
2.32. A long cylindrical rod of radius R = 5 cm; K = 10 W/m°C contains radioactive material which gener-
ates heat uniformly within the cylinder at a constant rate of qg = 3 q 105 W/m3. The rod is cooled by
convection taking place from its cylindrical surface into the ambient air at Ta = 50°C with a heat trans-
IHUFRHI¿FLHQWK :P2°C. Determine the temperature at the centre and the outer surface of this
cylindrical rod.
Temperature at the centre,

qg R 2
Tmax = Tw +
4K
where
qg R
Tw = Ta +
2h
3×105 × 0.05
= 50 +
2 × 60
= 175°C, the outer surface temperature
Therefore
3×105 × (0.05) 2
Tmax = 175 + = 193.75D C.
4 ×10
2.33. An electric resistance wire of radius R = 1 mm, with K = 25 W/m°C is heated by the passage of electric
current which generates heat within the wire at a constant rate of qg = 2 q 10 W/m3. Determine the in-
crease in centre-line temperature above the surface temperature of the wire if the surface is maintained
at a constant temperature.
qg R 2
The centre-line temperature increase = Tmax Tw =
4K
2 ×10 (1×10−3 ) 2
9
= = 20D C.
4 × 25
2.34. A solid sphere of radius R = 5 cm and K = 20 W/m°C is heated uniformly at a rate of 20000 W/m3 and
convection heat transfer takes place into the ambient air at Ta = 25°C.7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWK
is 20 W/m2°C. Determine temperature at the centre and the outer surface of the sphere at steady-state
conditions.
qg R
The outer surface temperature, Tw = Ta +
3h
20000 × 0.05
= 25 + = 41.67D C
3× 20
qg R 2
The temperature at the centre, Tmax = Tw +
6K
20000 × (0.05)2
= 41.67 + = 42.1D C.
6 × 20
2.35. An iron rod is attached horizontally to a large tank at temperature Tb = 200°C. The diameter of the rod
(d) is 1 cm, length (L) is 30 cm and thermal conductivity (K) is 65 W/m°C. The rod dissipates heat by
convection into the ambient air at Ta = 20°C, with h = 15 W/m2°C. What is the temperature of the rod
DWFPDQGFPIURPWKHWDQN"&DOFXODWHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHWKH¿QHI¿FLHQF\DQGHIIHFWLYHQHVV
6LQFHWKHOHQJWKWRGLDPHWHUUDWLRLVKLJKLWLVDVVXPHGWREHDORQJ¿Q
hP 4h 4 ×15
m= = = = 9.61 m −1.
KP Kd 65 × 0.01
Rb = Tb Ta = 200 20 = 180D C
Therefore
Rx =10 = Rb e −mx = 180 ×e −9.61×0.1
= 68.85D C
That is
Tx =10 = 68.85 + 20 = 88.85D C
Similarly
Rx = 20 = 180 ×e −9.61×0.2 = 26.34D C
That is
Tx = 20 = 46.34D C
The heat transfer rate,
Q = Rb hP K A
(0.01)2
= 180 15 q Q q (0.01q 0.3) q 65 q Q
4
= 4.84 W
The maximum heat transfer,
Qmax = As hRb
= (Qq 0.01q 0.3) q15q180
= 25.45 W
Q 4.84
Efficiency of the fin = = = 19%
Q max 25.45
Q
Effectiveness of the fin, =
AhRb
4.84
= = 22.82.
Q
q (0.01)2 q15 q180
4
2.36. &RSSHUSODWH¿QVRIUHFWDQJXODUFURVVVHFWLRQKDYLQJWKLFNQHVVW PPKHLJKW/ PPDQGWKHU-
mal conductivity K = 380 W/m°C are attached to a plane wall maintained at a temperature Tb = 230°C.
Fins dissipate heat by convection into ambient air at Ta = 30°C with h = 40 W/m2°C. Fins are spaced
DWPPWKDWLV¿QVP$VVXPHKHDWORVVIURPWKH¿QWLSWREHQHJOLJLEOH'HWHUPLQHWKH¿QHI-

¿FLHQF\KHDWWUDQVIHUSHUVTXDUHPHWUHRIZDOOVXUIDFHDQGKHDWWUDQVIHUZLWKRXW¿QV
hP 2h 2 × 40
m= = = = 14.51 m −1
KA Kt 380 × 0.001
Rb = Tb Ta = 230 30 = 200D C
Total heat transfer = Q f + Qunfinned

+HDWWUDQVIHUWKURXJK¿Q
Q f = nRb q ph KA tanh mL
= nRb q K Am tanh mL (assume the width of fin to be 1m)
Q f = 125 q 200 q 380 q (1q 0.001) q14.51q tanh (14.51q 0.01)
= 19862.1W
+HDWWUDQVIHUWKURXJKWKHXQ¿QQHGDUHD = XQ¿QQHGDUHD qh q Rb
Qunfinned = (1 − 125 × 0.001) × 40 × 200 = 7000 W
Therefore total heat transfer = 26.86 kW

0D[LPXPSRVVLEOHKHDWWUDQVIHUWKURXJKWKH¿Q
Qmax = nAs h¸ b
= 125 q (1q 0.01q 2)40 q 200
= 20,000 W
Qf 19,848.6
Efficiency of the fin= = = 0.992.
Qmax 20,000
That is,
tanh mL
If = = 0.993
mL
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUZLWKRXW¿QV
Q = AhRb
= 1q1q 40 q 200
= 8000 W
2.37. Consider two very long rods of equal diameters; one is of aluminium and has a thermal conductivity
Ka = 200 W/m°C but the thermal conductivity of the other rod is not known. One end of each rod is
inserted into the furnace that is maintained at a temperature Tb. Both rods lose heat by convection,
ZLWKDKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKLQWRWKHDPELHQWDLUDW7a. The surface temperature of each rod is
measured at various distances from the hot base surface. The temperature of the aluminium rod at a
distance (xa ) 40 cm from its base is the same as that of the rod of unknown K at a distance (x) 20 cm
from its base. Determine the thermal conductivity of the latter rod.
ma xa
The temperature ratio for the aluminium rod = Rq /Rb = e .
7KHUHDVRQIRUWKLVLVWKDWWKHURGLVLQ¿QLWHO\ORQJ
ma xa
Therefore, (T Ta )/(Tb Ta ) = e
− ma xa
T = Ta + (Tb − Ta ) e
For the other rod, we can write T = Ta + (Tb − Ta )e−mx , for the same Ta and Tb .
Equating the two expressions for T ,
ma xa
e = e mx
Because
ma x 20
ma xa = mx º = = = 0.5
m xa 40
But
ma hPa KA K
= q = = 0.5
m Ka A hP Ka
The thermal conductivity of the other rod is given by
K = K a (0.5) 2 = 50 W/mD C.
2.38. $
PHUFXU\WKHUPRPHWHULVSODFHGLQDQRLOZHOOWRPHDVXUHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHDLUÀRZLQJLQDSLSH
The wall material has K of 60 W/m°C, length L of 15 cm and thickness, t,of 1 mm. The heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQWKHDLUDQGWKHZHOOZDOOLVK :P2°C. The temperature reading in the ther-
mometer is Th = 100°C and pipe wall temperature is Tb = 50°C. Calculate the temperature of the air
and the percentage of error.
$VVXPLQJWKDWWKHZHOOWLSLVLQVXODWHGZHREWDLQWKHIROORZLQJH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHWHPSHUDWXUHSUR¿OH
TL T f cosh m( L x) 1
= =
Tb T f cosh mL cosh mL
(because L = x ),
hP
where m =
KA
That is,
P = Q (d + 2t ) = Qd
(as 2t is small)
A = Qdt
Therefore,
h 25
m= = = 20.41m −1
Kt 60 × 0.001
Therefore mL = 20.41q 0.15 = 3.062
100 T f 1
= = 0.093
50 T f cosh (3.062)
Therefore the temperature for air, T f = 105.1D C.
Error in the reading is 5.1D C.
Therefore percentage of error= 5.1/105.1 = 4.85%.
2.39. 3
LQ¿QVDUHSURYLGHGWRLQFUHDVHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHIURPDKRWVXUIDFH7KHIROORZLQJGDWDJLYHWKH
GHWDLOVRIWKHLQVXODWHGHQGFRQGLWLRQ7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIWKH¿Q. :P.
+HDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQWKH¿QVXUIDFHDQGWKHVXUURXQGLQJDLU h = 30 W/m 2 K
'LDPHWHURIWKH¿Q d = 1.5 cm
%DVHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKH¿Q Tb = 250D C
Surrounding air temperature, Tc = 25D C
)LQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHDQGHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKH¿QVIRU
D ¿QVRIOHQJWK(L) 15 cm
E ¿QVRIOHQJWK(L) 7.5 cm
F ¿QVRIOHQJWKFP
Here
Q 2 Q
A= d = q (0.015)2 = 1.77 m 2
4 4
P = d = q0.015 = 0.0471 m
Therefore,
hP 4h 4 × 30
m= = = = 5.66 m −1
KA Kd 250 × 0.015
D ¿QVRIOHQJWK(L) 15 cm
Heat transfer, Q = n[ K Am(Tb Ta ) tanh mL]
(as the tip is insulated)
⎡ Q ⎤
Q = 6 ⎢ 250 × × (0.015)2 × 5.66 × (250 − 25) tanh (5.66 × 0.15)⎥
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
= 233.1W
E ¿QVRIOHQJWK(L) 7.5 cm
Q
Heat transfer, Q = 12[250 × × (0.015)2 × 5.66 × (250 − 25) tanh (5.66 × 0.07)]
4
= 286.6 W
F ¿QVRIOHQJWK(L) 30 cm
⎡ Q ⎤
Q = 3 ⎢ 250 × × (0.015)2 × 5.66 × (250 − 25) tanh (5.66 × 0.3)⎥
⎢⎣ 4 ⎥⎦
= 157.8 W
(IIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKH¿QV
Q 233.1
(i ) ε= = = 32.57
nAh¸ b 6 q π q (0.015)2 q 30 q 225
4
(ii ) ε = 20.0
(iii ) ε = 44.1.
2.40. To determine the thermal conductivity of a long solid rod of diameter (d) 2.5 cm, one half is inserted
into a furnace while the other half projects into the air at 27°C (Ta ). After a steady-state had been
reached, the temperature at two points 7.6 cm apart were measured as 126°C (T1 DQG°C (T2 ),
UHVSHFWLYHO\7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQWKHDLUDQGWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHURGZDVHVWLPDWHGDV
22.7 W/m2K. What is the thermal conductivity of the rod?
6LQFHLWLVDORQJ¿QWKHHTXDWLRQIRUWKHWHPSHUDWXUHLV
R = Rb e mx
mx1
But R1 = Rb e at distance x1 from the furnace
mx2
and R2 = Rb e at distance x2 from the furnace
Therefore,
R1 m( x x )
= e 2 1 where x2 x1 = 7.6 cm
R2
{Since R1 = T1 Ta and R2 = T2 Ta }
Therefore,
126 − 27
= e m×0.076⇒ m = 5.74 m −1
91 − 27
Therefore,
4h 4h 4 × 22.7
= 5.74 ⇒ K = =
Kd (5.74)2 d (5.74)2 × 0.025
= 110.2 W/mDC.
2.41. $
PHWDOURGLVFRROHGE\LQVHUWLQJLWLQDVOHHYHKDYLQJ1ORQJLWXGLQDO¿QVRQLWVRXWHUVXUIDFH
Thermal conductivity (k) of sleeve material is 210 W/mK and thickness (b) of the sleeve base is 1 mm.
The contact resistance (Rc ) of the sleeve-rod interface is 0.002 m2k/W. The rod radius (r1 ) and length (L)
DUHPDQGPUHVSHFWLYHO\7KH¿QVDUHPKHLJKW+DQGPPWKLFNQHVVW$LU
at a temperature (Ta RI&ÀRZVRYHUWKH¿QVXUIDFHZLWKDKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKRI:P2K.
If the surface temperature (Ts ) of the rod is maintained at 100°C, compare the heat transfer rates with
sleeve and without sleeve.
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWHIURPWKHURGZLWKRXW¿Q (Q) = Ah(Ts − Ta ), where A = 2Qr1L
Q = (2 × 0.0025 × 0.008) × 30 ×[100 − 30]

= 0.264 W
+HDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKH¿QVXUIDFHQf ) for convection heat transfer tip

⎛ h ⎞
sin h( mH ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ cos h(mH )
⎜⎝ mk ⎠
= hPkA Rb
⎛ h ⎞
cos h(mH ) + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟sin h(mH )
⎜⎝ mk ⎠
where P = 2( L + t ) = 2(0.008 + 0.0008) = 0.0176 m
Ac = L × t = 0.008 × 0.0008 = 6.4 ×10−6 m 2
hP 30 × 0.0176
∴ m= = = 19.82 m−1
kAc 6.4 ×10−6 × 210
∴ mH = 19.82 × 0.015 = 0.297
h 30
= = 0.0072
mK 19.82 × 210
and
hPkAc = 30 × 0.0176 × 210 × 6.4 ×10−6 = 0.0266 W/k
⎡ sinh (0.297) + 0.0072 cosh (0.297) ⎤

∴ Q f = 0.0266 Rb ⎢ ⎥ = 0.079 Rb
⎢ cosh (0.0297) + 0.0072 sinh (0.297) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Rb
%XW¿QUHVLVWDQFHIRUDVLQJOH¿Q =
Qf
1
(R f ) = = 126.6 k/W
0.0079
Rf
∴ Fin resistance for 12 fins = k/W
12
126.6
R ′f = = 10.55 k/W
12
Contact resistance,
Rc 0.002
( Rc′ ) = = = 15.92 k/W
2Qr1L 2Q × 0.0025 × 0.008
Sleeve resistance,
ln( R / r )
Rs = {where R = r1 + b}
2QkL
⎛ 0.0035 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 0.0025 ⎟⎟⎠
= = 0.032 k/W
2Q × 210 × 0.008
Resistance from the exposed base,
1
Rb =
h(2Q R − 12t ) L
1
= = 2973.9 k/W
30(2Q × 0.0035 − 12 × 0.0008)0.008
Fin resistance and resistance from the exposed base are parallel.
−1
⎡ 1 1⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
−1
∴ Equivalent resistance (Re ) = ⎢⎢ + ⎥⎥ =⎢ + ⎥ = 10.51 k/W

⎢⎣ R f Rb ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣10.55 2973.9 ⎥⎦
∴ Total resistance, Rtot = Re +Rc + Rs

= 10.51 + 15.92 + 0.032
= 26.46 k/W
Heat transfer with sleeve,
⎛ T − T ⎞⎟
Q ′ = ⎜⎜⎜ s a⎟
⎜⎝ Rtot ⎟⎟⎠
70
= = 2.65 W
26.46
2.42. (
QJLQHRLOLV¿OOHGLQEHWZHHQWZRSODWHVNHSWDWDGLVWDQFHRI/PP7KHWRSSODWHLVPRYLQJZLWK
a velocity (U) of 15 m/s and maintained at a temperature (TL ) of 40°C. The bottom plate is stationary
and its temperature (To LV&)LQGWKHKHDWÀX[WRHDFKRIWKHSODWHVDQGGHWHUPLQHWKHPD[LPXP
temperature of the oil.
⎛ 40 + 20 ⎞⎟
Oil properties at ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
30°C are:
S = 882.0 kg/m3; H = 571 q 10–6 m2/s; k = 0.145 W/mK; N = 0.504 N-s/m2

∂u
The continuity equation becomes = 0 ; momentum equation in x direction is
∂x
⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂P ∂ ⎧⎪⎪ ⎡⎢ ∂u 2 ⎛⎜ ∂u ∂v ⎞⎟⎤⎥ ⎫⎪⎪ ∂ ⎡⎢ ⎛⎜ ∂u ∂v ⎞⎟⎤⎥

ρ ⎜⎜u + v ⎟⎟⎟ = − + ⎨μ 2 − ⎜ + ⎟ ⎬ + μ⎜ + ⎟ + X
⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂x ∂x ⎪⎪⎩ ⎢⎢⎣ ∂x 3 ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎟⎠⎥⎥⎦ ⎪⎪⎭ ∂y ⎢⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ ∂y ∂x ⎟⎟⎠⎥⎥⎦
∂u
=0 & O =0
∂x
∂ 2u
The above equation is reduced to = 0,
∂y 2
By integration, u = C1 y + C2
Applying the boundary conditions u = 0; at y = 0; u = U at y = C
⎛y ⎞
We get u = ⎜⎜ U ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ L ⎠
∂u
Energy equation becomes, when U = 0, = 0 ; (heat generated) q = 0
∂x
⎛ du ⎞⎟
2
⎜⎜ ⎟ = −N ⎛⎜U ⎞⎟⎟
2
∂ 2T
k = −N ⎜⎝ dy ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜ ⎟
dy 2 ⎝L⎠
N ⎛⎜U ⎞⎟ 2
2
By integration, T =− ⎜ ⎟ y + ay + b
2k ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠
Using boundary condition, y = 0, T = To & y = L; T = TL
The temperature distribution
N 2 ⎡⎢ y ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟ ⎤
2
T = To + U ⎢ − ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ + (T − T ) y / L
⎜ ⎥
⎢⎣ L ⎝ L ⎠
L o
2k ⎥⎦
+HDWÀX[WRVWDWLRQDU\SODWH
dT −NU 2 k
qo = −k = qo = − (TL − To )
dy y =0
2L L
+HDWÀX[WRPRYLQJSODWH
dT NU 2 k
qL = −k ; qL = − (TL − To )
dy y=L
2L L
0.504 × (15) 2 0.145

∴ qo = − − (40 − 20)
2 × 0.005 0.005
= 11340 − 580 = −11920 W/m 2
IIIly qL = 11340 − 580

= 10760 W/m 2
The temperature gradient

dT N ⎡ 1 2 y ⎤ T − To
= U2 ⎢ − 2 ⎥ + L
dy 2k ⎢⎣ L L ⎥⎦ L
dT
For maximum temperature = 0;
dy
⎡ k 1⎤
y=⎢ (T − To ) + ⎥ L = ymax where T = Tmax
⎢ NU 2 L 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
⎡ 0.145 1⎤
∴ ymax = ⎢ (40 − 20) + ⎥ 0.005
⎢ (0.504)(15) 2 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
= 2.63 mm
⎡⎛ y ⎞ ⎛ y ⎞2 ⎤
NU 2
Hence Tmax = To + ⎢⎜⎜ max ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ max ⎟⎟ ⎥ + (T − T ) ymax
2k⎢⎝⎜ L ⎟⎠ ⎝⎜ L ⎟⎠ ⎥ L o
L
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
(0.504)(15) 2 ⎡⎢ 2.63 ⎛⎜ 2.63 ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥ ⎛ 2.63 ⎞⎟
2
= 20 + −⎜ ⎟ + (40 − 20) ⎜⎜
2 × 0.145 ⎢⎣ 5 ⎢ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎥
⎟ ⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎟⎠
⎥⎦
= 127.63°C
2.43. A wall is made up of two layers ‘A’ and ‘B’ and the layer ‘A’ has uniform heat generation (qA ) of
2 q 106 W/m3, thermal conductivity (kc ) of 80 W/m°C and thickness (LA ) of 6 cm. The outer surfaces of
layer A and B are well insulated and cooled by water respectively. The layer ‘B’ has no heat generation
and thermal conductivity (kB ) is 160 W/m°C. The temperature (Ta) of water is 25°C and heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQWKEHWZHHQOD\HUµ%¶DQGZDWHULV:P2K. Determine the outer surface and interface
temperatures if thickness of layer ‘(LD )’ is 3 cm.
Heat balance:
Here heat transfer to water = heat transferred through the layer ‘B’ = heat generated in the layer ‘A’
For a unit surface area,
K B (T2 − T3 )
h(T3 − TB ) = = qc × Lc
LB
qLc 2 ×106 × 6 ×10−2

∴ T3 = + TB = + 25
h 1100
= 134.1°C
T2 − TB
Also, q =
RB + RA
LB 3×10−2
where RB = = = 1.88 ×10−4 m 2c/W
KB 160
1 1
& RA = = = 9.09 ×10−4 m 2c/W
h 1100
∴ T2 = TB + q ( RB + RA )
∴ T2 = TB + q A ( LA )( RB + RA )
= 25 + 2 ×106 (0.06) [(1.88 + 9.09) ×10−4 ]
= 156.6°C
Temperature of insulated surface
q ( Lc ) 2 2 ×106 × (0.06) 2
T1 = + T2 = + 156.6 = 201.6°C
2kc 2 × 80
2.44. A water pipe line is placed below the earth surface to avoid freezing for a period (t) of 50 days. The
soil temperature (Ti ) is 30°C initially and surface temperature (Ts ) is –20°C. Determine the minimum
distance between pipe and earth surfaces to avoid the freezing of water. (Assume B = 0.14 q 10–6 m2/s).
7KHWHPSHUDWXUHUDWLRIRURQHGLPHQVLRQDODQGVHPLLQ¿QLWHPHGLXP
T( x ,t ) − Ts ⎛ x ⎞⎟
= erf ⎜⎜ ⎟
T −T ⎜⎝ 2 Bt ⎟⎠
i s
For, T(x,t) = 0°C

0 − (−20) 20
∴ = = 0.4
30 − (−20) 50
From the table,

x
= 0.37
2 Bt
∴ Minimum distance, x = 0.37 × 2 × Bt

= 0.37 × 2 ×[0.14 ×10−6 × 50 × 24 × 3600]0.5
= 0.58 m
2.45. A journal bearing has a radius of 5 cm (r) runs at 60 rps (N) and is lubricated using oil with viscosity (N)
of 0.52 kg/ms and thermal conductivity (k) of 0.25 W/mK. The inner moving and outer stationary tem-
peratures are 52°C (T1 ) and 32°C (T2 ) respectively. The radial clearance (t) between them is 0.15 mm.
'HWHUPLQHWKHPD[LPXPWHPSHUDWXUHLQOXEULFDWLQJRLODQGVXUIDFHKHDWÀX[
The temperature distribution in the oil
NU ⎡ y ⎛ y ⎞2 ⎤
T = T2 + ⎢ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ + (T − T ) y
2k ⎢ t ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎥ 1 2
t
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
where U = 2QSN
= 2Q q 0.05 q 60
= 18.85 m/s
(0.52)(18.85) 2 ⎡ y ⎛ y ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥
2
y
∴ T = 32 + ⎢ ⎜⎜
2 × 0.25 ⎢1.5 ×10−4 ⎜⎝1.5 ×10−4 ⎟⎠ ⎥ + (52 − 32) 1.5 ×10−4
− ⎟
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
= 32 + 246.4 ×104 y − 164.2 ×108 y 2 + 13.3×104 y
= 30 + 246.4 ×104 y − 164.2 ×108 y 2
dT
For maximum temperature =0;
dy
dT
= 259.7 ×104 − 164.2 ×108 × 2 y = 0
dy
∴ ymax = 0.0789 mm
∴ Tmax = 32 + 259.7 ×104 × 0.079 ×10−3 − 164.2 ×108 × (0.079 ×10−3 ) 2 y = ymax
= 134.7°C
At the outer surface, (y = 0)
⎛ dT ⎞
q = −k ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ dy ⎟⎠
y =0
⎛ dT ⎞ ⎡ NU 2 (T1 − T2 ) ⎤
−k ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = −k ⎢ + ⎥ = −0.25 × 259.77 ×104
⎝ dy ⎟⎠ y = 0 ⎢ 2kt t ⎥
⎣ ⎦
q = −64.93×104 W/m 2
Heat transfer to inner surface:
⎛ dT ⎞ ⎡ NU 2 (T1 − T2 ) ⎤
−k ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = −k ⎢ + ⎥ = −K (259.7 ×104 − 164.2 ×108 × 2 y ) y = t
⎜⎝ dy ⎟⎠ ⎢ 2kt t ⎥
y =t ⎣ ⎦
= −0.25(259.7 ×104 − 164.2 ×108 × 2 ×1.5 ×10−4 )
q = 58.23×104 W/m 2
REVIEW QUESTIONS
'H¿QH)RXULHU¶VODZ 2.8 Derive an expression for the temperature dis-

2.2 Derive the general energy equation. tribution for one-dimensional steady-state
2.3 Discuss the heat transfer in a plane wall with heat conduction in a slab with variable ther-
constant surface temperature without heat mal conductivity.
generation. 2.9 Derive an expression for the temperature dis-
2.4 Discuss the concept of an electrical analogy. tribution in a hollow cylinder without heat
generation.
2.5 Derive an expression for heat transfer in a slab
with convection boundaries. 2.10 Derive an expression for temperature distri-
2.6 Derive an expression for the temperature dis- bution in a hollow cylinder with convection
tribution for one-dimensional steady-state boundaries.
conduction through a composite slab. 2.11 Derive an expression for heat transfer in a
2.7 State the equation for the temperature distribu- solid cylinder with heat generation.
tion in a slab with heat generation, if the slab 2.12 Derive an expression for heat transfer in a
has uniform thermal conductivity. hollow sphere without heat generation.
2.13 Derive an expression for heat transfer in a 2.21 Derive an expression for heat transfer if the
hollow sphere in the case of convection heat HQGRIWKH¿QLVLQVXODWHGQHJOLJLEOHKHDWORVV
transfer and without heat generation. at the tip).
2.14 Derive an expression for heat transfer in a 2.22 Derive an expression for heat transfer
hollow composite sphere without heat gener- WKURXJKD¿QZLWKFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUDW
ation. the end.
2.15 Derive an expression for heat transfer in a 2.23 Derive an expression for heat transfer when
solid sphere with heat generation. WKH¿QWLSLVDWDVSHFL¿FWHPSHUDWXUH
2.16 What is the logarithmic mean area for a hol- 2.24 Derive an expression for heat transfer with
low cylinder and sphere? WKH¿QWLSDWÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHLQ¿QLWHO\ORQJ
2.17 What is meant by thermal contact resistance? ¿Q
'H¿QHFULWLFDOWKLFNQHVVRIDQLQVXODWLRQ 2.25 Derive an expression for heat transfer in a tri-
DQJXODU¿Q
&ODVVLI\¿QV
'H¿QHHI¿FLHQF\RID¿Q
2.20 Derive an expression for heat transfer through
DUHFWDQJXODU¿Q 'H¿QHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRID¿Q
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
2.1 Fourier’s law states that the rate of heat transfer 2.7 The thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder
per unit surface area is proportional to the gradi- (L = 1 m, K = 381.25 W/mK) of inner diam-
ent normal to the surface eter 15 mm and outer diameter 25 mm is
(a) Viscosity (b) Temperature (a) 2.13 q 10í°C/W (b) 2.13 q 10í°C/W
(c) Pressure (d) Velocity (c) 21.3 q 10í°C/W (d) 0.213°C/W
7KHWKHUPDOGLIIXVLYLW\LVGH¿QHGDV.ȡ.
K 2.8 An insulated cable (K = 0.2W/mK) is exposed
SK
(a) (b) to an environment with h = 5W/m2 K. The
Sc c optimum thickness of the insulation is
SK cK
(c) (d) (a) 0.4 m (b) 4 m
M S
(c) 0.04 m (d) 0.02 m
2.3 The critical radius for a cylindrical insulation is K h
K h 2.9 The three-dimensional steady-state conduc-
(a) rc = (b) rc = tion equation with internal heat generation is
h K
known as equation
2K K
(c) rc = (d) rc = (a) Laplace (b) Fourier
h 2h
(c) momentum (d) Poisson
2.4 The maximum possible heat transfer occurs
LI WKH VXUIDFH WHPSHUDWXUH RI WKH ¿Q LV WKH EDVH 2.10 The three-dimensional unsteady-state con-
temperature duction equation without internal heat gener-
(a) half (b) twice ation is known as equation
(c) equal to (d) less than (a) Laplace (b) Fourier
(IIHFWLYHQHVVRID¿QLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIKHDW (c) Poisson (d) momentum
WUDQVIHUZLWKWKH¿QWRWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUDWWKHEDVH
without
(a) the insulation (b) convection
FFRQGXFWLRQ GWKH¿Q
7KH KHDW ÀX[ LQ :P2) across a 10-cm-thick Answers:
plate (K = 20 W/mK) having a temperature gradi-
ent of 500°Cis 2.1 (b), 2.2 (a), 2.3 (a), 2.4 (c), 2.5 (d), 2.6 (a), 2.7 (b),
(a) 100 (b) 10 (c) 1 (d) 1000 2.8 (c), 2.9 (d), 2.10 (b).
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
2.1 A pipe with inner diameter of 16.83 cm and K = 0.28 + 0.00023T and that of the red
thickness 10 cm is insulated with a material brick is K = 0.7 W/mK. Find the amount
having thermal conductivity 0.0847 W/mK. The of heat lost and the interfacial temperature.
temperatures on the outer surface of the pipe and (Ans. 1090 kW/m2 , 1102 K)
on the outside of the insulation are 450°C and )
LQGWKHUDWHRIKHDWÀRZWKURXJKP2 of the
50°C, respectively. Find the heat loss per metre KHDWLQJ VXUIDFH RI WKH ERLOHU LI WKH ÀXH JDV
length of the pipe. (Ans. 270 W) temperature is 1273 K. The boiling water
2.2 A wall of thickness 50 mm is subjected to differ- WHPSHUDWXUH LV .7KH FRHI¿FLHQW RI KHDW
ential temperature on both sides at made of 373 K WUDQVIHUIURPWKHÀXHJDVHVWRWKHZDOOVLV
DQG.)LQGWKHKHDWÀX[LIWKHZDOOLVPDGHRI kW/m2 and that from the walls to the water is 5
(a) Steel, K = 40 W/mK kW/m. The thermal conductivity of the mater-
ial is 0.05 kW/mK. Wall thickness is 1.2 cm.
(b) Concrete, K = 1.1 W/mK (Ans. 8kW/m, 0.22
2.9 The loops of a boiler are made from tubes of
kW/m2)
steel with internal and external diameters
7KH KHDW ÀX[ DFURVV D SODQH ZDOO RI WKLFNQHVV 3.2 cm and 4.2 cm, respectively and the thermal
0.05 m is 10 kW/m2. If it is made from (a) Brass conductivity is 0.014 kW/mK. The temperature
(K = 70 W/mK) (b) Red brick (K = 0.7W/mK), outside is 853 K and inside is 723 K. Find the
¿QGWKHGLIIHUHQFHLQWHPSHUDWXUHDFURVVWKHZDOO heat loss per metre length. (Ans. 42.05 kW/m)
IRUWKLVKHDWÀX[Ans. 7.14, 714.3)
2.10 A pipe with inner and outer diameters equal
2.4 The heat from a surface will not exceed to 15 and 16 cm, respectively, is covered by
450 W/m2. The temperature of this surface a layer of insulating material of thickness
beneath the layer of insulation is 723 K and 10 cm. The thermal conductivity of the tube
the temperature of the external surface of the material is 0.05 kW/mK and conductivity of
insulating layer is 323 K. Determine the thick- the insulating material is 8q10í kW/mK. The
ness of the insulation if its thermal conductivity temperature inside the pipe is 673 K and that
K = 0.09 + 0.000087T W/mK. (Ans. 99.4 mm) outside is 323 K. Find the heat loss and the
$ SODQH ZDOO LV PDGH XS RI ¿QH FOD\ EULFN WR D interfacial temperature. (Ans. 216 W; 673 K)
thickness of 0.25 m. The temperatures of the 2.11 A pipeline of inner and outer diameters equal
wall surfaces are 1623 K and 323 K. The ther- to 10 and 11 cm, respectively, with a thermal
PDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI ¿UH FOD\ EULFN LV D IXQFWLRQ conductivity 0.05 kW/mK is covered with
of temperature, K = 0.838(1 + 0.0007T). Find two layers of insulation of thickness 5 cm
the temperature distribution and the temperature each. The temperature of the tube’s inner sur-
at a point 5 cm from the hot end. (Ans. 1143°C, face is 523 K and temperature on the outside
1193 K) of insulation is 323 K. Find the loss of heat
$
IXUQDFHLVEXLOWRXWRIOD\HUVRI¿UHFOD\DQG if the corresponding thermal conductivities
red brick with the space between them being are 0.06 and 0.12 W/mK for the insulations.
¿OOHGZLWKFUXVKHGEULFN7KHWKLFNQHVVRIWKH (Ans. 369.3)
¿UH FOD\ OD\HU LV P WKDW RI WKH ¿OOLQJ LV 2.12 Take a pipe of outer diameter 0.1 m and
0.05 m and the red brick is 0.25 m. The con- inner diameter 0.08 m whose conductivity
ductivities are 0.93, 0.13, 0.7 W/mK, respect- varies as K = 5 + 0.01T W/m°C, where T is
ively. Find the thickness of the red-brick layer expressed in °C. The temperatures inside and
LIWKHEULFNVDUHODLGZLWKRXW¿OOLQJDQGWKHKHDW outside are 373 K and 293 K, respectively.
transfer rate remains the same? (Ans. 0.5 m) Find the heat loss if the pipe is of length 2 m?
2.7 A furnace is made of a layer of foamed (Ans. 25.23 kW)
¿UH FOD\ RI WKLFNQHVV P DQG D OD\HU 2.13 A pipeline with inner and outer diameters
of red brick of thickness 0.5 m. The wall equal to 16 and 17 cm is covered with a layer
temperature inside is 1373 K and the wall of insulation of thickness 10 cm with its ther-
temperature outside is 323 K. The thermal conductivity depending on temperature as
PDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI WKH ¿UH FOD\ YDULHV DV K = 0.062(1 + 0.000363T)W/m°C. Find the
heat loss per metre length of the pipe if the covered with an insulator at critical radius and
temperature of the outer pipeline surface is without an insulation. The length of the pipe is
573 K and the temperature of outer insulation 2 m. (Ans. 0.038 m, 7.3 kW, 7.125 kW)
is 323K. (Ans. 0.205 kW) 2.15 A rod 25 mm in diameter and 0.15 m long
$ SLSH ZDV LQVXODWHG DQG H[SRVHG WR ÀXLG protrudes from a wall which is maintained
at 313 K with a convection heat transfer at 533 K. The rod is exposed to an environ-
FRHI¿FLHQW RI q 10í kW/m2 K. Find the ment at 333 K. The convection heat transfer
FULWLFDO UDGLXV RI WKH LQVXODWLRQ$OVR ¿QG WKH FRHI¿FLHQW LV N:P2 K. Find the heat
heat loss from a 7-cm-diameter pipe at 673 K, loss from the rod. (Ans. 0.046 kW)
3
Transient Heat Conduction
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In transient heat conduction, the thermal boundary conditions are time dependent. The mathematical
model for a transient heat conduction problem includes the temperature distribution within the body
and the thermal boundary conditions at the surface of the body.
3.2 LUMPED PARAMETER ANALYSIS (INFINITE THERMAL

CONDUCTIVITY)
If a body at uniform temperature is suddenly exposed to a different temperature, then the temperature
change in the interior of the body depends on the resistance to heat transfer internally and at its surface.
If the resistance at the surface is much greater than at internal, then the internal body temperature will
be almost uniform. In transient heat conduction problems, this situation can be obtained neglecting the
internal thermal resistance of a body. The analysis of heat transfer under such an assumption is called
lumped system analysis.
7KHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKH¿UVWODZRIWKHUPRG\QDPLFVWRDERG\VKRZQLQ)LJZKRVHLQWHUQDO
thermal resistance is neglected, gives
q
Ta
ρVC
Figure 3.1 Nomenclature for Single-Lump Heat-Capacity Analysis
dT
q = −( UV ) C = hA(T − Ta )
dt
where ‘V’ is the volume (mµȡ’ is the density (kg/mµC¶LVWKHVSHFL¿FKHDW-NJ.µT’ is the
temperature of the body, ‘A’ is the surface area (m2µt¶LVWKHWLPHVDQGµh’ is the heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQW:P2.DWWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHERG\
5HZULWLQJ(TXDWLRQDQGLQWHJUDWLQJZHJHW
dT −hA
∫ (T − T ) = ∫ UVC dt
a
⎛ hA ⎞
ln (T − Ta ) = − ⎜ ⎟t + D
⎝ U CV ⎠
where ‘D’ is the constant and it can be evaluated using the initial condition t = 0, T = Ti as
D = ln (Ti − Ta ) .
(TXDWLRQEHFRPHV

(T − Ta ) −[ hA / UCV ]t − mt Ah
=e =e where m = .
(Ti − Ta ) ( U CV )
The parameters can be non-dimensionalized as follows:
Temperature, ș = (T – Tași = (Ti –TaFKDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWKLc = V/A
L
Lc = for a slab,
2
r ⎫
= 0 for cylinders ⎪
2 ⎪
⎬ onlyy for lumped system analysis
r
= 0 for spheres ⎪
3 ⎭⎪
L
= for cubes
6
Thermal diffusivity, α = k ρ C, where k is the thermal conductivity of the solid body.

The equation can be written as
⎛ hL ⎞⎛ α t ⎞
−⎜ c ⎟ ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ Lc ⎠
θ = θi e = θi e − Bi ⋅ Fo
where
hLc ⎫
Biot number, Bi = ⎪⎪
k
Dt ⎬
Non-dimensional numbers used in transient heat conduction problems..
Fourier number, Fo = 2 ⎪
Lc ⎪⎭
3.2.1 Significance of Biot and Fourier Numbers

The Biot number is the ratio of internal conduction resistance to external convection resistance. The
lumped parameter analysis is valid for Bi ZLWKDQHUURURIOHVVWKDQ7KLVVKRZVWKDWWKH
lumped parameter analysis should be used when convective heat exchange controls the heat transfer
with larger convective resistance.
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION | 77
Ɣ 3K\VLFDOSURSHUWLHVRIÀXLGVJHQHUDOO\YDU\ZLWKWKHWHPSHUDWXUH
Ɣ But these variations are assumed negligible and the following properties
KEY
are considered to be constants
C Ƈ Thermal conductivity K:P.RIPDWHULDOV

O
N Ƈ 6SHFL¿FKHDWc-NJ.
C
E Ƈ Density ȡ (kg/m
P
T Ƈ iscosity μNJPV
S
Ɣ At ambient temperature and pressure, values of these properties for air
and water are
)OXLG K c ȡ μ
:DWHU 0.6
Air 0.026 0.00002
7KH)RXULHUQXPEHULVDOVRDQRQGLPHQVLRQDORQH,WLQGLFDWHVWKHGHJUHHRIKHDWLQJRUFRROLQJHIIHFW
WKDWSHQHWUDWHVLQWRWKHVROLGIRUDJLYHQWLPH+LJKHU)RXULHUQXPEHULQGLFDWHVWKHPRUHSHQHWUDWLRQRI
KHDWLQWRDERG\)RUVPDOOYDOXHVRI D L2c , more time is required for temperature change in the solid.
The instantaneous heat transfer rate relationship in lumped parameter analysis can be derived from
(TXDWLRQVDQGDV
dT
Qi = U CV
dt
)URP(TXDWLRQZHJHW
d ⎡ ⎟t ⎤
⎛ hA ⎞
−⎜
Qi = U CV ⎢Ta + (Ti − Ta )e ⎝ U CV ⎠ ⎥
dt ⎢ ⎥⎦
⎣
⎛ hA ⎞
−⎜ ⎟t
= −hA(Ti − Ta )e ⎝ U CV ⎠
= −hA (Ti ) e − ( Bi.Fo ) .

The total heat loss or gain to the solid body up to a time ‘t’ is
t t
Qt = ∫ Qi dt = ∫ −hAθi e − mt dt
0 0
t
⎡ hAθi − mt ⎤
= −⎢ e ⎥
⎣ m ⎦0
= ( ρVC ) θi ⎡⎣e − mt − 1⎤⎦
= ( ρVC )θi ⎡⎣e − ( Bi ⋅ Fo ) − 1⎤⎦ .
3.3 SEMI-INFINITE SOLIDS

$VROLGLVVDLGWREHVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLGLILWLVH[WHQGHGWRLQ¿QLW\LQWKHy and z directions as shown
LQ)LJ,QDVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLGDWDQ\LQVWDQWRIWLPHWKHUHLVDOZD\VDSRLQWZKHUHWKHHIIHFWRI
heat transfer at one of its boundaries is not felt at all. The temperature at the point remains unchanged.
&RQVLGHU D VHPLLQ¿QLWH VROLG DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ 7KH HQWLUH ERG\ LV PDLQWDLQHG DW XQLIRUP
temperature (TiZKHQt = 0. Then the surface temperature is suddenly changed and maintained at that
temperature (T0
T0
Ti
⎛ ∂T ⎞
q0 = −KA ⎜
⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ x = 0
Figure 3.2 Nomenclature for Transient Heat Flow in a Semi-Infinite Solid
The differential equation for the temperature distribution T(x, tZKLFKLVDIXQFWLRQRIGLVWDQFHDQG

time is given by
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
=
∂x 2 D ∂t
The boundary and initial conditions are

T(x Ti and
T(0, t T0 for t > 0.
The solution of this may be obtained using Laplace transform technique as
T − T0 x
= erf
Ti − T0 2 Dt
( )
where erf x 2 D t LVNQRZQDVWKH*DXVVLDQHUURUIXQFWLRQDQGLVGH¿QHGDV
x 2 x 2 αt
∫ e −η dη .
2
erf =
2 αt π 0
(
The value of erf x 2 D t ) is taken from the Tables for a given erf ( x 2 D t ) .
7KHKHDWÀRZDWDQ\SRVLWLRQxPD\EHREWDLQHGIURP
dT
Qx = kA .
dx
2
Also dT = Ti − T0 e 4α t
x
−
[ ' partial differentiation of Equation (3.8)]
dx πα t
Then Q at x = 0
kA(T0 − Ti )
Q0 = .
πα t
3.3.1 Constant Heat Flux on Semi-infinite Solid

7KHVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLGLVH[SRVHGWRVXGGHQDSSOLFDWLRQRIDVSHFL¿HGKHDWÀX[q0 as, for example,
exposing the surface to radiation.
The initial and boundary conditions are
dT
T( x , 0 ) = Ti and q0 = −k ; for t > 0.
dx x =0
The temperature distribution for this case is

0.5
⎛ αt ⎞
2q0 ⎜ ⎟
π ⎛ − x 2 ⎞ q0 x ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞⎤
(T − Ti ) = ⎝ ⎠ exp ⎜ ⎟− ⎢1 − erf ⎜ ⎟⎥ .
k ⎝ 4α t ⎠ k ⎣ ⎝ 2 α t ⎠⎦
3.3.2 Convection Boundary Conditions

,QPRVWRIWKHSUDFWLFDOVLWXDWLRQVWKHVROLGVXUIDFHLVH[SRVHGWRDÀXLGDWDGLIIHUHQWWHPSHUDWXUH
WKURXJKDXQLIRUPDQGFRQVWDQWKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWh
The initial and boundary conditions are
T( x , 0 ) = Ti when t = 0
dT
and − k = h (Ta − T ) x = 0 when t > 0.
dx x =0
The temperature distribution for this case is
T − Ti ⎛ x ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ hx h 2D t ⎞ ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ x h D t ⎞⎤
= 1 − erf ⎜ ⎟ − ⎢ exp ⎜ + 2 ⎟ ⎥ ⎢1 − erf ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎥ .
Ta − Ti ⎝ 2 D t ⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎝ k k ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ 2 Dt k ⎟⎠ ⎦⎥
)LJXUHVDQGVKRZVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQV
3.3.3 Use of Transient – Temperature Charts

In lumped system analysis, there is no temperature gradient within the solid, i.e., the temperature
is constant. But in many situations, temperature changes in the solid with respect to the positions
from the surface. In heat conduction problems, the temperature distribution is a function of time and
position and it is a complicated one. Simple problems such as one-dimensional, time-dependent heat
conduction, as in the following cases with no internal energy generation, can be solved by the method
of separation of variables.
$QLQ¿QLWHSODWHRIZLGWKµL’ – plate width is small compared to the other dimensions.
1.0
0.8
T ( x, τ ) − T0
0.6
Ti − T0 0.4
0.2
0
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
x
2 ατ
Figure 3.3 Temperature Distribution in the Semi-Infinite Solid
$QLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHURIUDGLXVµR’ – diameter is small compared to length.

$VSKHUHRIUDGLXVµR’.
The boundary and initial conditions for all three geometries are similar. Results of the analysis for
these geometries have been presented in graphical form by Heisler charts.
3.3.4 Slab
Consider a slab wall of thickness ‘2L¶DVVKRZQLQ)LJ,QLWLDOO\WKHVODELVDWDXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUH
Ti7KHQERWKERXQGDU\VXUIDFHVRIWKHVODEDUHVXEMHFWHGWRFRQYHFWLRQZLWKKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
h into ambient temperature Ta and are maintained when t > 0. Since the wall is symmetric about
WKHFHQWHUSODQHZHFRQVLGHUWKHFRQGXFWLRQIRURQO\KDOIWKHUHJLRQ7KHEDVLFHTXDWLRQIRU
transient conduction problem is given as
∂ 2T 1 ∂T
= when 0 < x < L, for t > 0.
∂x 2 D ∂t
∂T
= 0 at x = 0 for t > 0
∂x
∂T
k = h(T − T∞ ) for x = L, for t > 0;
∂x
T = Ti for t = 0, 0 < x < L.
The above equation can be written in non-dimensional from as

∂ 2T ∂T
= in 0 < x < 1, for Fo > 1
∂x 2
∂Fo
∂θ
= 0 at x = 0, for Fo > 1
∂α
1.0
0.8
0.4
0.2
h
Ti − T∞
T − T∞
ατ
k
= 1−
∞
3
T∞ − Ti
0.1
T − Ti
0.08
0.5
0.3
0.06
0.1
0.0
0.04
5
0.02
0.01
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
Figure 3.4 Temperature Distribution in the Semi-Infinite Solid with Convection Boundary
Condition
Ti Ti
T∞ T∞
L L
Figure 3.5 Infinite Plate of Thickness 2L
∂T
+ Bi = 0 at x = 1, for Fo > 1
∂x
T = 1 in 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, for Fo > 1
T − Ta x hL αt
where θ = ; X = ; Bi = ; Fo = 2 )RXULHUQXPEHU
Ti − Ta L x L
The results for the dimensionless temperatures at the center plane for different values of Bi and Fo
DUHJLYHQLQWKHFKDUWDVVKRZQLQ)LJV±7KHFKDUWJLYHVWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQZLWKUHVSHFW
WRBi for different x/L values. The chart gives the ratio ș/ș0 against the parameter Bi2Fo for different
values of Bi. Q is the total heat loss by the body up to time ‘t’ and ș0 is the initial internal energy of the
body relative to ambient temperature (TsLH Q0 = U C pV (Ti − Ta ) .
3.3.5 Long Cylinder

Consider one-dimensional transient heat conduction in a long cylinder of radius r0 as shown in
)LJ6LPLODUWRWKHVODEWKHEDVLFHTXDWLRQLQWKHGLPHQVLRQOHVVIRUPLV
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂T
R = in 0 < R < 1, for Fo > 1
R ∂R ⎜⎝ ∂R ⎟⎠ ∂Fo

∂T
= 0 at R = 0, for Fo > 0
∂R
∂T
+ Bi = 0 at R = 1; for Fo > 0
∂R
r0
Figure 3.6 Infinite Cylinder of Radius r0
T = 1 in 0 < R < 1 for Fo = 0;
hr0 αt T − Ta r
where Bi = ; Fo = 2 ; θ = and R = .
k r0 Ti − Ta r0
7KHHTXDWLRQLVVROYHGDQGWKHUHVXOWVIRUWKHFHQWHUWHPSHUDWXUHDUHJLYHQLQ)LJV±DV
a function of Fo DQG Bi7KH ¿JXUHV DOVR VKRZV WKH UDWLR RI WHPSHUDWXUH DW DQ\ UDGLXV WR FHQWHU
temperature (ș/ș0DVDIXQFWLRQRIr/r0DQGBi and the dimensionless heat transfer Q/Q0 as a function
of Fo and Bi.
3.3.6 Sphere
A sphere of radius r0 LV FRQVLGHUHG DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ 6LPLODU WR WKH F\OLQGHU SUREOHP WKH
GLPHQVLRQOHVVSDUDPHWHUVDUHGH¿QHGLQVSKHUHSUREOHPV7KHEDVLFHTXDWLRQLQWKHGLPHQVLRQOHVV
form is
r0
Figure 3.7 Sphere of Radius r0
1 ∂ ⎛ 2 ∂T ⎞ ∂T
R = in 0 < R < 1, for Fo > 0.
R 2 ∂R ⎜⎝ ∂R ⎟⎠ ∂Fo
The boundary conditions are the same as a cylinder problem. The temperature distribution and heat
WUDQVIHUDUHJLYHQWKH+HLVWHUFKDUWVDVVKRZQLQ)LJV±
84
|
1.0
0.4
90 100
14 80
7
10 12 60 0
0.1 1 9
50
HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER
0. . 0 8 40 45
0. 8
6 0 7 35
6
0.04 0. .7
5
5
30 25
0
0
16
0.4 0.3 .2
20 18
2.5
θ0 / θi = (T0 − T∞ ) /(Ti − T∞ )
0.1 0.06
1.2
L
2 1.8
0.01 k/h
1.6 1.4
0.003
0.001
0 1 2 3 4 8 12 20 30 80 110 150 300 500 700
2
ατ / L = F0
Figure 3.8 Midplane Temperature for an Infinite Plate of Thickness 2L: (a) Full Scale
100
25
18
16
10
8
7
6
3
K / hL = 1/ Bi
2.5
θ0 / θi = (T0 − T∞ ) /(Ti − T∞ )
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.
0.
0.
1.
0.3
0
0.4
6
8
2
0.5
0.1
0.2
0 1 2 3 4
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
ατ
= F0
L2
|
Figure 3.9 Expanded Scale for 0 < Fo < 4, from Reference 2

85
86
|
1.0
0.5
5
3.5 4
0.2 25
2.
5 3 20
1
1.
1 8 10
8
2 14 6 90
1.4
0.07
12 80
1.
6
10 70
9 60
8
1.2
7
1.0
6
4
0.8
0.03
50 5
3
40 5
30
0
0.6 0.5
0.4 0.3
Bi
0.01 1/
0.2 0.1
θ0 / θi = (T0 − T∞ ) /(Ti − T∞ )
r 0=
k/h
0.004
0.001
0 1 2 3 4 8 12 16 20 26 30 60 100 150 350
Figure 3.10 Axis Temperature for an Infinite Cylinder of Radius r0: (a) Full Scale
1.0 100
50
25
0.7 20
16
14
12
0.5
9
8
7
K / hL = 1/ Bi
0.3 6
θ0 / θi = (T0 − T∞ ) /(Ti − T∞ )
5
0.2
3.5
0.1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 3.0
0 1 2 3 4
TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
ατ
= F0
r02
|

87
88
|
1.0
100
50
35
0.7 30
25
18
14
0.5
12
10
9
8
0.3 7
θ0 / θi = (T0 − T∞ ) /(Ti − T∞ )
6
K / hr0 = 1/ Bi
0.2
5
4
3 .5
0.7
1. 2.
0.20
1.0
2.
1.2
0.05
6 0 8 3.0
0.50
5
0.35
2.
4
0.1
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
ατ
= F0
r02

0
1.0
x/L = 0.2
0.9
0.8 0.4
θ / θ0 = (T − Tα ) /(T0 − Tα )
0.7
0.6 0.6
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.9
0.2
0.1
1.0
0
0.01 0.05 0.2 1.0 3.5 20 100
K 1
=
hL Bi
Figure 3.13 Temperature as a Function of Center Temperature in an Infinite Plate of Thickness
2L, from Reference 2
0
1.0
r/r0 = 0.2
0.8 0.4
θ / θ0 = (T − Tα ) /(T0 − Tα )
0.6 0.6
0.4
0.8
0.2 0.9
1.0
0
0.01 0.05 0.2 1 5 20 100
K 1
=
hr0 Bi
Figure 3.14 Temperature as a Function of Axis Temperature in an Infinite Cylinder of Radius

r0, from Reference 2
0
1.0
r/r0 = 0.2
0.8 0.4
= (T − Tα ) /(T0 − Tα )
0.6
0.6
0.4
θ0
θ
0.8
0.2 0.9
1.0
0
0.01 0.05 0.2 1.0 5 20 100
K 1
=
hr0 Bi
Figure 3.15 Temperature as a Function of Center Temperature for a Sphere of Radius r0, from
Reference 2
1.0 0.10
PLATE : m = 1
CYLINDER : m = 2
0.06
SPHERE : m = 3
0.8
RANGE OF 0.04
THESE LINES
ατ / s 2 > 0.2
0.6 hs / k < 0.01 0.02
θ0
θi
0.01
0.4
0.3 0.004
0.2
0.002
0.1 0.001
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.2 2.2 3 4 5 6 7
mατ h
= mF0 Bi
sK
Figure 3.16 Center Temperature for Plates, Cylinders and Spheres, for Small Values of h,
According to Reference 2 (s = L for plate; s = r0 for Cylinder and Sphere)
1.0
0.8
0.2
0.1
0.5
2
5
0.05
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.00
1
2
10
20
50
0.6 =
Q
hL/k
Q0
0.4
0.3
0
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103 104
h 2ατ
= Fo Bi 2
K2
Figure 3.17 Dimensionless Heat Loss Q/Q0 of an Infinite Plane of Thickness 2L with Time,
from Reference 6
1.0
0.8
01
0.02
0.1
0.5
0.05
0.2
5
0.01
2
0.00
0.00
= 0.0
1
2
50
5
20
Q 0.6
10
Q0
hr /k
0
0.4
0.3
0
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103 104
h 2ατ
= Fo Bi 2
K2
Figure 3.18 Dimensionless Heat Loss Q/Q0 of an Infinite Cylinder of Radius r0 with Time, from
Reference 6
1.0
0.8
0.00 1
0.02
0.1
0.5
0.05
0.2
5
0.01
2
0.00
0.00
1
2
50
20
0.6
10
Q
=
hr /k
Q0
0
0.4
0.3
0
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 1 10 102 103 104
h 2ατ
= Fo Bi 2
K2
Figure 3.19 Dimensionless Heat Loss Q/Q0 of a Sphere of Radius r0 with Time, from Reference 6
3.4 MULTIDIMENSIONAL SYSTEMS

:KHQWKHWHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQWVFKDQJHLQWZRGLIIHUHQWGLUHFWLRQVZLWKLQDVROLGWKHQWKHSUREOHP
is two-dimensional transient heat conduction in a solid. If there is no heat generation in the medium,
the solution for a two-dimensional problem can be obtained by combining the one-dimensional
solutions from the charts. The basis for obtaining two- and three-dimensional solutions from one-
dimensional charts in the manner in which partial differential equations can be separated into the
product of two or three ordinary differential equations. Such an approach is known as product
solution method.
The product solution method can be explained by considering a short cylinder as shown in
)LJ7KHF\OLQGHULVLQLWLDOO\DWDXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUHTi. Then the cylinder surface is exposed to
FRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU7KHOHQJWKDQGGLDPHWHUDUHFRPSDUDEOHLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHU6XSSRVHZHZLVK
to determine the transient temperature at a point P, the temperature depends on the radial and the x
direction heat transfers.
The appropriate heat transfer equation is
1 ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ T 1 ∂T
2
r
r ∂r ⎜⎝ ∂r ⎟ ∂x 2 = D ∂t .
+
⎠
The solution may be expressed in the following form:
T (r1 , x1 , t ) − Ta ⎛ T( x , t ) − Ta ⎞ ⎛ T( r , t ) − Ta ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟
Ti − Ta ⎝ Ti − Ta ⎠ Planewall ⎝ Ti − Ta ⎠ Infinite cylinder
T( x,r ) ⎛ T ( x ,t ) ⎞ ⎛ T ( r ,t ) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ×⎜ ⎟ .
Ti ⎝ T i ⎠ Planewall ⎝ Ti ⎠ Infinite cyliinder
P(X) S(X1) P(X1) S(X2)
2L1 2L2 2L1

(a) (b)
S(X1) P(X1) P(X2) P(X1) P(X2) P(X3)
2L3
2L2 2L1 2L2 2L1

(d)
(c)
C(Ĭ) S(X) C(Ĭ) P(X)
2L
2r0 2r0
(e) (f)
Figure 3.20 Multidimensinal Systems
6LPLODUO\WKHUHVXOWVIRURWKHUPXOWLGLPHQVLRQDOJHRPHWULHVVKRZQLQ)LJFDQEHZULWWHQ7KH
one-dimensional solutions can be written as
T(x,t) − Ta
S ( x, r ) ≡ , for semi-infinite solid
Ti − Ta
T( x ,t ) − Ta
P ( x, t ) ≡ , for plane wall
Ti − Ta
T( r ,t ) − Ta
C (r , t ) ≡ , for infinite solid.
Ti − Ta
Here x LV PHDVXUHG IURP WKH VXUIDFH IRU VHPLLQ¿QLWH VROLGV ZKHUH DV IRU WKH SODQH ZDOO LW LV
measured from the mid plane.
The heat transfer solution for a multidimensional body formed by the intersection of two
bodies is
⎛Q ⎞ ⎛Q ⎞ ⎛Q ⎞ ⎡ ⎛Q ⎞⎤
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ Q0 ⎠combined ⎝ Q0 ⎠1 ⎝ Q0 ⎠ 2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ Q0 ⎠1 ⎦⎥
and for intersection of three bodies
⎛Q ⎞ ⎛ Q ⎞ ⎛ Q ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ Q ⎞ ⎤ Q ⎡ ⎛ Q ⎞ ⎤⎡ ⎛ Q ⎞ ⎤
⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥+ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥.
⎝ Q0 ⎠combined ⎝ Q0 ⎠1 ⎝ Q0 ⎠ 2 ⎢⎣ ⎝ Q0 ⎠1 ⎦⎥ Q3 ⎢⎣ ⎝ Q0 ⎠1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ Q0 ⎠ 2 ⎥⎦
3.5 PERIODIC HEAT FLOW

6ROLGV ZLWK KLJK YDOXH RI WKHUPDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ ZKHQ H[SRVHG WR ÀXLG ZLWK SHULRGLF WHPSHUDWXUH
variation have the following temperature distributions:
⎛ 2πτ ⎞
T f = Ta cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ τ0 ⎠
⎛ 2π ρ CV ⎞
δ = tan −1 ⎜ . ⎟
⎝ τ 0 hA ⎠

Ts 1
= .
Ta (1 + tan 2 G ) 0.5
3.5.1 Semi-infinite Solid-surface Temperature Varied Periodically
3.5.1.1 Surface temperature variation

2πτ
Tw = Ta cos
τ0 Tf – ÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHDWDQ\WLPH
Ta – Amplitude of temperature variation
Tsx t – Time
= e x (π / ατ 0 ) 0.5
Ta į – Angle of lag in the temperature
variation of the solid with reference
WRÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHYDULDWLRQ
δ x =0.5x(τ 0 /απ )0.5 . ȡ – Solid density
C – 6ROLGVSHFL¿FKHDW
3.5.1.2 Depth of penetration V – Solid volume
A – Solid surface area
x0 =1.6(πατ 0 )0.5 Ts – Temperature of the solid
q π 2πτ
= kTa (2π / ατ 0 )0.5 ⋅ sin − Ts – Amplitude ratio
A 4 τ0
Ta
T – Surface temperature
τ0
δq = Į – Thermal diffusivity of solid
8
į – Angle of lag in the temperature at
Q 2τ depth x, with reference to surface
= k ⋅ Ta 0 . temperature.
A πα
xo – Depth upto which the temperature
3.5.1.3 Semi-infinite solid surface exposed variation penetrates
to fluid with periodic temperature variation q +HDWÀRZUDWHDWWLPH:P2 or kcal/
– 2
A m hr
2πτ
T f = Ta cos įq – 7LPHODJRIKHDWÀRZZLWKUHIHUHQFH
τ0
to the surface temperature variation
Tsx 1 Q
– 7RWDOKHDWÀRZGXULQJKDOISHULRG
= A
Ta [1 + 2 A0.5 + 2 A]0.5
Ts – Temperature at depth x from
surface
where A = (π k 2 / ατ 0 h 2 ) . k – Solid thermal conductivity
h – &RQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
3.6 FREEZING/MELTING
3.6.1 Flat Liquid/Solid Surface

x – thickness melted/frozen from
Liquid or solid at melting temperature Tfr suddenly surface upto time t
H[SRVHGWRÀXLGDWT:
x* – dimensionless distance parameter
x* = [2W * +1] − 1 0.5
t* – dimensionless time parameter
2 ks, k – thermal conductivity of solid, liquid
W * = x * +0.5 x *
ȡsȡ – density of solid, liquid
where
hsf – enthalpy of melting/freezing
x.hf h – FRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
x*= (melting )
k1 at surface
T – IUHHVWUHDPWHPSHUDWXUHRIÀXLG
x.h ÀRZLQJRYHUVXUIDFH
x*= f (freezing )
ks Tfr – melting/freezing temperature
t – time
h∞2 (T∞ − T fr )
τ∗ =τ (melting )
k1 .ρ s .hsf
h∞2 (T fr − T∞ )
τ∗ =τ (greezing ).
k s .ρ1 .hsf
3.6.2 Freezing of Liquid at a Temperature Higher than Freezing Point
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡
2
1 − H *T * x* ⎤ h – FRQYHFWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWDW
W∗ = ⎜ ⎟ ln ⎢ − ⎥ the liquid solid interface
⎝ H *T * ⎠ ⎣ 1 − H * T * (1 + x*) H * T * ⎦
T – Temperature of liquid
T1 − T fr xh∞ x – thickness from surface
where T ∗ = , x* = frozen upto time t.
T fr − T∞ ks
r – UDGLXVDWWKHIUHH]LQJVROLG
liquid interface at time t
h (T fr − T∞ )
2
∞ h1
τ∗ =τ , H* = . r0 – tube outside radius
k s .ρ s .hsf h∞
3.7 CONCLUSIONS
,QVROLGWRÀXLGKHDWWUDQVIHUSURFHVVLIWKHLQWHUQDOUHVLVWDQFHLVDVVXPHGQHJOLJLEOHLQFRPSDULVRQ
ZLWKLWVVXUIDFHUHVLVWDQFHWKHQLWLVFDOOHGDV1HZWRQLDQKHDWLQJRUFRROLQJSURFHVV,IWKHKHDWÀRZ
and temperature distribution at any location of the system vary continuously with time, then it is
known as transient state. Examples are cooling of IC engines, heating and cooling of metal billets,
and brick burning.
:KHQWKHVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHRIDVROLGERG\LVVXGGHQO\FKDQJHGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHZLWKLQWKH
body begins to change with the position and time. If the variation of temperature with position is
negligible during the transients, the analysis of heat transfer with time only is known as lumped
system analysis.
7KH%LRWQXPEHULVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHLQWHUQDOUHVLVWDQFHRIDERG\WRWKHH[WHUQDOUHVLVWDQFH
IRUKHDWWUDQVIHU/XPSHGSDUDPHWHUDQDO\VLVLVDSSOLFDEOHRQO\ZKHQWKH%LRWQXPEHULVOHVVWKDQ
7LPHFRQVWDQWLVWKHWLPHUHTXLUHGIRUDWHPSHUDWXUHPHDVXULQJV\VWHPWRUHDFKRIWKHLQLWLDO
WHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFH7KH)RXULHUQXPEHULVDQRQGLPHQVLRQDOSDUDPHWHUXVHGLQWUDQVLHQWKHDW
FRQGXFWLRQDQDO\VLV,WLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHUDWHRIKHDWFRQGXFWHGWRWKHUDWHRIVWRUDJHRI
thermal energy in a solid.
$VROLGZKLFKH[WHQGVLWVHOILQ¿QLWHO\LQDOOGLUHFWLRQVRIVSDFHLVNQRZQDVLQ¿QLWHVROLGV,IDQ
LQ¿QLWHVROLGLVVSOLWLQWRWZRSDUWVWKHQHDFKKDOISDUWLVNQRZQDVVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLGV. The Heisler
chart is used to determine the transient temperature at different locations of large plane wall, long
cylinder, and sphere.
The mathematical expressions of the thermal condition at the boundaries of the system are called
boundary conditions. Two boundary conditions are required for one-dimensional problem, four for
two-dimensional problems, and six for three-dimensional problems. Boundary conditions mostly
XVHGDUHWKHVSHFL¿HGWHPSHUDWXUHVSHFL¿HGKHDWÀX[FRQYHFWLRQDQGUDGLDWLRQERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQ
,IWKHFRQGLWLRQRISDUDPHWHULVVSHFL¿HGDWWLPHHTXDOWR]HURWKHQWKHFRQGLWLRQLVFDOOHGLQLWLDO
condition. In heat transfer, only one initial condition is needed irrespective of the dimension since the
FRQGXFWLRQHTXDWLRQLV¿UVWRUGHULQWLPH
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
A slab made up of carbon steel is initially at a temperature of 500°C (Ti) and it is exposed to air at
30°C (Ta). The thickness of the slab is 1 cm (L). What will be the temperature of the slab after one
PLQXWH W" $VVXPH WKDW WKH FRQYHFWLYH KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW K RQ WKH VXUIDFH RI WKH VODE LV
40 W/m2K.
The properties of carbon steel are given as
S = 7833 kg/m 3, C = 0.465 kJ/kg K ,
K = 38.5 W/mK and B = 1.474 ×10−5 m 2 /s
This problem can be solved by the lumped system analysis if Bi < 0.1 .
Characteristic length,
Volume of the slab L q A L 0.01

Lc = = = =
Surface area of the slab 2 q A 2 2
= 0.005 m
hLc 40 × 0.005
Biot number, Bi = = = 5.195 ×10−3
K 38.5
$VWKH%LRWQXPEHULVOHVVWKDQOXPSHGSDUDPHWHUDQDO\VLVFDQEHXVHG
)RXULHUQXPEHU
Bt 1.474 ×10−5 × 60
Fo = = = 35.376
L2c (0.005)2
The temperature distribution is given by
(T Ta )
= e ( BiFo )
(Ti Ta )
(T − 30) −3
= e −(5.195×10 ×35.376)
(500 − 30)
= 0.832
Temperature of the slab after one minute,
T = 30 + (500 − 30) × 0.832
= 421D C.
An aluminium rod which is initially at a temperature of 200°C (Ti ) is exposed to air at 30°C (Ta ). The
diameter of a pipe is 10 cm. Find the time required for the rod to reach a temperature of 50°C (T ). As-
VXPHWKDWWKHVXUIDFHFRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKLV:P2K.
)URP WKH SURSHUWLHV WDEOH S = 2707 kg/m3 , the average thermal conductivity K = 210 W/mK,
B = 8.418 ×10−5 m 2 /s and C = 0.896 kJ/kgK.
Check whether Bi < 0.1 to apply lumped system analysis.
hLc t
Bi = ; Fo =
K Lc
The characteristic length,
Volume Qro2 L ro 0.1

Lc = = = = = 0.025 m
Area 2Qro L 2 2 q 2
50 × 0.025
Bi = = 5.95×10−3
210
8.418 ×10−5 × t
Fo = = 3.367 ×10−3 t
0.025
As Bi < 0.1 , lumped parameter analysis can be used.
T Ta
= e BiFo
Ti Ta
50 − 30 −3 −3
= e −(5.95×10 )×(3.367×10 ×t )
200 − 30
−5 ×t
0.1176 = e −2.003×10
Time taken for the rod to reach a temperature of 50D C = V = 29.68 hr.
$FDUERQVWHHOEDOOLQLWLDOO\DWDWHPSHUDWXUHRI&7i ) is suddenly dropped into water at a tem-

perature of 30°C (Ta ) The radius of the ball is 5 cm (ro). Assuming that the convection heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQWKLV:P2K¿QGWKHFHQWUHSRLQWWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHVSKHUHDIWHUPLQW.
The properties of carbon steel are K = 54 W/mK ; B = 1.474 ×10−5 m 2 /s
hro 210 × 0.05 ⎪⎧ r ⎪⎫

Bi = = = 0.0648 ⎨Since Lc = o ⎬
3K 3× 54 ⎪⎪⎩ 3 ⎪⎪⎭
As Bi < 0.1 , lumped parameter analysis can be used.
Bt 1.474 ×10−5 × 30 × 60
Fo = = = 95.52
⎛ 0.05 ⎟⎞
2
L2c
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
T Ta
= e BiFo
Ti Ta
= e −0.0648×95.52 = 0.002
Therefore T = 31.78°C.
A sphere of 10 mm diameter (do) made of Tungsten steel is initially at a temperature (Ti) of 300°C. It is
suddenly exposed to a stream of air at a temperature of 30°C (Ta ). The surface convective heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQWKLV:P2K Find the time required for the sphere to reach a temperature of 100°C (T).
Also calculate the instantaneous heat transfer rate after one minute from the start of the cooling process
and the total heat transferred from the sphere in one minute.
The properties of tungsten steel are ρ = 7897 kg/m3 , C = 0.452 kJ/kgK, α = 2.026 ×10−5 m 2 /s and
K = 73 W/mK.
4/3 Qro3 ro 0.005

Lc = = = = 1.67 ×10−3 m
4Qro2 3 3
Biot number,
hLc hro
Bi = =
K 3K
100 × 0.005
= = 2.29 ×10−3
73× 3
As Bi < 0.1 , we can apply lumped system analysis in this problem.
)RXULHUQXPEHU
Bt 2.026 ×10−5 × t
Fo = = = 7.26t
L2c (1.67 ×10−3 ) 2
L 7HPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQ
T Ta
= e BiFo
Ti Ta
100 − 30 −3
= e −(2.29×10 ×7.26 t )
300 − 30
Time taken to reach 100°C, t = 81.2 s.
LL 7KHLQVWDQWDQHRXVKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHDIWHUPLQLV
Qt = hA(Ti Ta ) e ( BiFo )
−3 ×7.26×60)
= −100 × 4 × Q × 0.0052 × (300 − 30) e −(2.29×10
= 8.48 e 0.997 = 3.13 W (Heat loss from the system)
LLL 7KHWRWDOHQHUJ\WUDQVIHULQRQHPLQXWH
Qt = SVC (Ti Ta )[e( BiFo ) 1]

−3 ×7.26×60)
= 7897 × 4/3× Q × (0.005)3 × 0.452 × (300 − 30)[e−(2.29×10 − 1]
= 0.5046 × (e−0.998 − 1) = 0.319 kW.
A copper slab of surface area 0.25 m2 (As) and thickness 10 mm (L) has a uniform temperature of 300°C. Its
temperature is suddenly lowered by convection in ambient temperature of 40°C (Ta ZLWKK :P2°C.
&DOFXODWH WKH WLPH UHTXLUHG IRU WKH VODE WR UHDFK WKH WHPSHUDWXUH RI & 7 7DNH ȡ NJP3;
C = 0.38 kj/kg°C and K = 370 W/m°C.
Volume
Lc =
Surface area
Aq L L 0.01
= = = = 0.005 m
2q A 2 2
hLc 90 × 0.005
Bi = = = 1.216 ×10−3
K 370
As Bi < 0.1 . Therefore, lumped system analysis can be applied.
αt Kt 370 q t
Fo = = = = 4.33 t
Lc ρC p Lc 9000 q (0.38q1000) q (0.005)2
2 2
Therefore,
T Ta
= e BiFo
Ti Ta
110 − 40
= e −0.001216×4.33 t
300 − 40
Therefore, t = 249.2 s.
A stainless steel ball of diameter 2 cm (doȡ NJP3& NMNJ&DQG. :P&LV

uniformly heated to a temperature Ti = 800°C. It is to be hardened by suddenly dropping it into an
oil bath at Ta = 50°C. If the quenching occurs when the ball reaches 100°C (T) and the heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQWKIRUWKHRLODQGVSKHUHLV:P2&KRZORQJVKRXOGWKHEDOOEHNHSWLQWKHRLOEDWK"
ro 0.01
Lc = = = 3.3×10−3 m;
3 3
K 61
α= = = 1.69 ×10−5 m 2 /s
ρC (7865× 0.46) ×103
Therefore
hLc 300 × 3.3×10−3

Bi = = = 0.0162
K 61
As Bi < 0.1 , therefore we can use lumped system analysis.
Bt 1.69 ×10−5 × t
Fo = = = 1.552t
L2c (3.3×10−3 ) 2
But
T Ta
= e ( BiFo )
Ti Ta
100 − 50
= e−0.0162×1.552 t
800 − 50
Therefore, t = 107.71 s
Time taken for the ball to reach 100°C = 107.71 s .
6HPLLQ¿QLWH6ROLGV
An oil bath maintained at 30°C (Ta LVXVHGWRFRRODODUJHFDUERQVWHHOÀDWVODEDWDXQLIRUPWHPSHUD-
ture of 800°C (Ti ). Find the time needed (t) to cool the slab to 500°C at a depth of 2 cm (x) from the
surface.
The thermal diffusivity of carbon steel, B = 1.474 ×10−5 m 2 /s. As the thickness of the slab is not given,
WR¿QGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHDWDGHSWKRIFPIURPWKHVXUIDFHWKHVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLGVROXWLRQVKRXOGEH
used.
(T − Ta ) ⎛ x ⎞⎟
Therefore , = erf ⎜⎜ ⎟
(Ti − Ta ) ⎜⎝ 2 t ⎟⎠
(T Ta ) (500 30)
= = 0.6104
(Ti Ta ) (800 30)
⎛ x ⎞⎟
= erf ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 Bt ⎟⎠
( )
)URPHUURUIXQFWLRQWDEOHIRUWKHYDOXHRI erf x/2 Bt = 0.6104 the value of x/2 Bt = 0.6125
x
Therefore, t=
2 B q 0.6125
⎛ ⎞⎟
2
x
t = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 B × 0.6125 ⎟⎠
⎛ ⎞⎟
2
0.02
= ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 2(1.474 ×10 ) × 0.6125 ⎟⎠
−5 1/2
= 18.08 s.
Soil at an uniform temperature of 20°C (Ti ) has its surface subjected to an uniform temperature of
í&7o ) continually for two months. A water pipe is to be buried in the soil at a depth from the sur-
face to prevent freezing of water in winter. What is the minimum depth needed to prevent freezing in the
pipe? Assume = 0.2q 10ím2VIRUWKHVRLODVSLSHWHPSHUDWXUHVKRXOGEHPRUHWKDQ&
7R¿QGWKHGHSWKIURPWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHVRLOVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLGVROXWLRQVKRXOGEHXVHG
x x
= −6
= 0.491x
2 xt 2(0.2 ×10 × 60 × 24 × 3600)
0.5
Here (T − To )/(Ti − To ) = 0 + 10/20 + 10 = 0.33
( )
But (T − To )/(Ti − To ) = erf x/2 Bt = 0.33
( )
)URPWKHHUURUIXQFWLRQWDEOHIRUWKHYDOXHRIHUI x/2 Bt = 0.33, the value of x/2 Bt = 0.3, that is,
0.491q x = 0.3 .
Therefore, x = 0.61 m.
WKLFNFRSSHUVODEĮ q 10ím2/s and K = 380 W/m°C) is initially at an uniform temperature

$
of 10°C (Ti ). Suddenly the surface is exposed to 100°C (To &DOFXODWHWKHKHDWÀX[DWWKHVXUIDFHDW
5 (t1 ) and 10 min (t2 ) after the exposure of the surface to the temperature of 100°C. How long will it
WDNHIRUWKHPHWDOSRVLWLRQDWDGHSWKRIFP[IURPWKHVXUIDFHWRUHDFK&7"
+HDWÀX[ZKHQ t1 = 5 min ) ,
K (To Ti )
q1 = W/m 2
παt
380 × (100 − 10)

= = 106.22 kW/m 2
(Q ×1.1×10−4 × 5 × 60)0.5
380 × (300 − 10)

6LPLODUO\KHDWÀX[ZKHQ t2 =10 min q2 = = 242 kW/m 2
(Q ×1.1×10−4 ×10 × 60)0.5
Here
T − To ⎛ x ⎞⎟
= erf ⎜⎜ ⎟
Ti − To ⎝⎜ 2 Bt ⎟⎠
That is,
90 − 100 ⎛ x ⎞⎟
= erf ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.11
10 − 100 ⎝⎜ 2 Bt ⎟⎠
)URPWKHHUURUIXQFWLRQWDEOHIRUWKHYDOXHRIHUI ( x/2 Bt ) = 0.11, the value of x/2 Bt = 0.1
Therefore,
x2
t=
4Bq (0.1) 2
(0.05)2
=
4 ×1.1×10−4 × (0.1)2
= 568.2 s.
A thick wood piece is initially at an uniform temperature of Ti = 20°C. Suddenly the surface is raised
to 120°C (To).&DOFXODWHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHFPIURPWKHVXUIDFH[DWDQGPLQDIWHUWKHH[SRVXUH
$VVXPHĮ q 10í m2/s and K = 0.15 W/m°C.
7KLVSUREOHPLVRQHRIDVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLGEHFDXVHWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHZRRGSLHFHLVQRWJLYHQ
D t = 2 min ,
x 0.02
= −7
= 3.23
2 Bt 2(0.8 ×10 × 2 × 60)0.5
⎛ x ⎞⎟
Therefore, erf ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1 (from the error function table)
⎜⎝ 2 Bt ⎟⎠
T − To ⎛ x ⎞⎟
But = erf ⎜⎜ ⎟=1
Ti − To ⎜⎝ 2 Bt ⎟⎠
Therefore
T = To + (Ti − To ) = 120 + (20 − 120)
= 20°C
E t = 20 min,
x 0.02
= −7
= 1.021
2 Bt 2(0.8×10 × 20 × 60)
0.5
⎛ x ⎞⎟
erf ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.85
⎜⎝ 2 Bt ⎟⎠
Therefore
T = To + 0.85(Ti − To )
= 120 + 0.85(20 − 120)
= 35°C.
A large slab made up of steel is initially at a temperature of 500°C (Ti ). It is suddenly exposed
to the atmospheric air at 30°C (Ta ). Assuming that the convective heat transfer coefficient
(h) is 300 W/m2 K find the centre-line temperature (Tm) of the slab after 2 minutes (t). If the
VODE WKLFNQHVV LV PP / ZKDW ZLOO EH WKH WHPSHUDWXUH DW D GLVWDQFH PP [ IURP WKH
centre-line?
The properties of steel are K = 42.5 W/mK; B = 0.043 m 2 /hr = 1.2 ×10−5 m 2 /s
Slab thickness, L = 40 mm
Characteristic length, Lc = L/2 = 20 mm
Biot number,
hLc 300 × (20 ×10−3 )
Bi = = = 0.141
K 42.5
)RXULHUQXPEHU
Bt 1.2 ×10−5 ×120

Fo = = = 3.6
L2c (20 ×10−3 ) 2
$VWKH%LRWQXPEHULVJUHDWHUWKDQOXPSHGSDUDPHWHUDQDO\VLVLVQRWDSSURSULDWHIRUWKLVSUREOHP
+HLVOHUFKDUWVIRUWKHLQ¿QLWHVODEFDQEHXVHGDV 0 < Bi < 100.
D&HQWUHOLQHWHPSHUDWXUH
)RU1/Bi = 7.1 and Fo = 3.6, from Heisler’s chart, we get
Ro Tm Ta
= = 0.68
Ri Ti Ta
(Tm − 30)
Therefore, = 0.68 and Tm = 349.6°C
(500 − 30)
E)URPSRVLWLRQFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRUFKDUWIRU 1/Bi = 7.1 and x/L = 10/20 = 0.5
(T Ta ) (T 30)
= 0.95; = 0.95
(Tm Ta ) (349.6 30)
7HPSHUDWXUHDWPPIURPWKHFHQWUHOLQH T = 333.62°C.
A long cylindrical carbon steel rod is heated to 700°C (Ti ) in a furnace and then suddenly quenched
in a coolant at 30°C (Ta ). The diameter of the rod is 200 mm (ro). Assuming that the convective heat
WUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKLV:P2K¿QGWKHWLPHWDNHQIRUWKHFHQWUHOLQHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHURGWR
reach 100°C (Tm ).
The properties of carbon steel are K = 54 W/mK; B = 1.474 ×10−5 m 2 /s
hro 200 q 0.1

Bi = = = 0.185
2K 2 q 54
As the Bi > 0.1, lumped parameter analysis is not valid. But 0 < Bi < 100, and hence Heisler’s chart
IRUDQLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHUFDQEHXVHG
Here
hro 200 q 0.1 1
Bi = = = 0.37; = 2.7
K 54 Bi
(Tm Ta ) (100 30)

= = 0.104
(Ti Ta ) (700 30)
)URP+HLVOHU¶VFKDUWIRUDF\OLQGHU Fo = 3.6 and Ro /Ri = 0.104, we get
Bt
Fo = = 3.6
ro2
3.6 × R 2 3.6 × (0.1)2

t= = = 2442.3 s.
B 1.474 ×10−5
,Q¿QLWH6ROLG3UREOHPV²6ODE
An iron plate of thickness 5 cm (L) is initially at 250°C (Ti ). Suddenly both surfaces are exposed to a
ÀXLGDW7a = 50°C with h = 500 W/m2°C. Calculate the (i) centre temperature of the plate after (t) 120
seconds of cooling; (ii) temperature at a depth (x) of 1.0 cm from the surface during this time; (iii) heat
WUDQVIHUUHGWRWKHÀXLGIURPRQHVTXDUHPHWUHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHSODWHGXULQJWKLVWLPH$VVXPHWKDW
. :P&&p -NJ&= 7850 kg/m3 q 10í5 m2/s.
Check for Bi < 0.1 to apply the lumped system analysis. o
hLc 500 × 0.05 ⎛ ⎞

Bi = = ⎜⎜Since Lc = L ⎟⎟
K 60 × 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
= 0.208
P
Since Bi > 0.1 , we have to use Heisler’s charts to solve the problem.
Bt 1.6 ×10−5 ×120 L/2 L/2

Fo = = = 3.07
⎛ 0.05 ⎞⎟
2
L2c
⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
x
L )URPWKHFKDUWIRU1/Bi = 4.8 and Fo = 3.07, we get
To Ta
= 0.57
Ti Ta
Therefore,
To = Ta + 0.57(Ti − Ta )
= 50 + 0.57(250 − 50) = 164°C

LL +HUH1/Bi = 4.8, 2 x/L = (2.5 − 1) × 2/5 = 0.6
)URPWKHSRVLWLRQFRUUHFWLRQFKDUWIRU1/Bi = 4.8 and x/L = 0.6, we have
T Ta
= 0.94
To Ta
Therefore,
T = Ta + 0.94(To − Ta )
= 50 + 0.94 × (164 − 50) = 157.2°C
LLL +HUH Bi 2 Fo = 0.137
)URPWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWLRFKDUWIRUWKHYDOXHRI1/Bi = 4.8 and Bi 2 Fo = 0.137, we have Q/Qo = 0.46
But
Qo = (SCV )(Ti − Ta ) (Since V = L × A)
= 7850 × 460 × (5 ×10−2 ×1)(250 − 50) (Since A = 1 m 2)
= 35.3q103 kJ / m 2
+HDWWUDQVIHUWRWKHÀXLGDIWHUVHFRQGV Q = 0.46Qo = 0.46 q 35.3q103 = 16.24 kJ/m 2 .
A solid iron rod of diameter 10 cm (do LQLWLDOO\ DW D WHPSHUDWXUH RI & 7i ) is suddenly
exposed to an oil bath at 50°C (Ta ZLWKDVXUIDFHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKRI:P2 C. De-
termine the centre-line temperature (t) of the rod 10 min after exposure to oil and time taken for the
centre-line temperature to reach 200°C and heat loss per one metre length of rod during this time.
$VVXPH. :P& q 10í& -NJ.DQG NJP3.)
hLc
Bi = (Since Lc = ro /2)
K
⎛ 0.05 ⎞⎟
500 ×⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
= = 0.21
60
Since Bi > 0.1 , we have to use Heisler’s chart to solve the problem.
In this case,
hro 500 q 0.05
Bi = = = 0.42
K 60
Bt 2.0 ×10−5 ×10 × 60

Fo = = = 4.8
ro2 (0.05)2
L &HQWUHOLQHWHPSHUDWXUHDIWHUPLQt
)URPWKH+HLVOHU¶VFKDUWIRUWKHYDOXH1/Bi = 2.4 and Fo = 4.8
:HJHW
To Ta
= 0.02
Ti Ta
Therefore,
To = Ta + 0.02(Ti − Ta )
= 50 + 0.02 × (1000 − 50) = 69°C
LL 7LPHWDNHQIRUWKHFHQWUHOLQHWHPSHUDWXUHWRUHDFK&
To Ta 200 50
= = 0.16
Ti Ta 1000 50
)URPWKHVDPHFKDUWIRUWKHYDOXHRI1/Bi = 2.4 and To Ta /Ti Ts = 0.16 we have Bt/ro2 = 2.5.
Therefore
2.5 × ro2 2.5 × (0.05)2
t= =
B 2.0 ×10−5
= 312.5 s
LLL +HDWORVVIURPWKHURG
Bi 2 Fo = 0.43
)URPWKHGLPHQVLRQOHVVKHDWWUDQVIHUFKDUWIRUWKHYDOXHRI Bi = 0.42 and Bi 2 Fo = 0.43, we get
Q
= 0.92
Qo
Here
⎛ πd 2 ⎞
Qo = (ρCV )(To − Ti ) ⎜⎜⎜Since V = L⎟⎟⎟
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
⎡ Q × (0.1)2 ⎤
= 7850 × 460 × ⎢ ×1⎥ (1000 − 50) (Since L = 1 m)
⎢ 4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 26.943q106 J / m
Therefore, Q = 24.79 q106 J/m.
An apple of radius 5 cm (ro ) is initially at an uniform temperature of 30°C (Ti ). It is placed in a fridge
in which the air temperature is 5°C (Ta ). Determine the time required for the centre of the apple to
reach 10°C (To ). Also determine the amount of heat lost from the apple. (Assume that = 1.4 q 10í m2V
. :P&h = 50 W/m2& = 1000 kg/m3DQG& N-NJ.
hLc ⎛ ⎞
Bi = ⎜⎜ Since Lc = ro ⎟⎟
K ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
50 × 5 ×10−2
= = 1.41
0.59 × 3
Since Bi > 0.1 , we have to use Heisler’s chart to solve the problem
But in chart
hro 50 × 5 ×10−2
Bi = = = 4.24
K 0.59
To Ta 10 5
= = 0.2
Ti Ta 30 5
)URP+HLVOHU¶VFKDUWIRUWKHYDOXHRI1/Bi = 0.24 and (To Ta )/(Ti Ta ) = 0.2 we get Fo = Bt/ro2 = 0.5.
Therefore,
0.5 × ro2 0.5 × (5 ×10−2 ) 2
t= = = 8928.6 s
1.4 ×10−7
= 2.48 hr
Rate of heat transfer

Bi 2 Fo = 8.7
)URP WKH GLPHQVLRQOHVV KHDW WUDQVIHU FKDUW IRU WKH YDOXH RI Bi = 4.2 and Bi 2 Fo = 8.7 , we have
Q/Qo = 0.8
But
⎛ ⎞
Qo = (ρCV )(Ti − Ta ) ⎜⎜Since V = 4 πro3 = 5.2 ×10−4 m3 ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 3 ⎟⎠
= 1000 × 4.2 ×1000 × 5.2 ×10−4 (30 − 5) = 55 kJ
Therefore,
Q = 0.8 Qo = 44 kJ.
A potato of 5 cm radius (roLQLWLDOO\DWDQXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUHRI&7i ) is suddenly dropped into

boiling water at 100°C. Determine the time required for the centre temperature of the potato to reach
&7oDQGWKHHQHUJ\WUDQVIHUUHGWRWKHSRWDWRGXULQJWKLVWLPH7DNHK :P2& q
10í m2V. :P&& N-NJ& NJP3.)
Here also we have to use Heisler’s chart to solve the problem because Bi > 0.1
In charts,
hro 6000 × 5 ×10−2
Bi = = = 441.2
K 0.68
To Ta 95 100
= = 0.071
Ti Ta 30 100
)URPWKH+HLVOHUFKDUWIRUWKHYDOXHRI1/Bi = 0.002 and (To Ta )/(Ti Ta ) = 0.071 .
:HKDYH Fo = Bt/ro2 = 0.35
Therefore,
0.35 × ro2 0.35 × (5 ×10−2 ) 2
t= = = 5469 s
B 1.6 ×10−7
Energy transferred to potato, Q = Bi 2 Fo =
Since Bi 2 Fo is higher than the maximum value in the chart,
Therefore,
Q = Qo = SCV (Ti Ta )
⎛4 ⎞ ⎡4 ⎤
= ρ ⎜⎜ πro3 ⎟⎟⎟C (Ti − Ta ) = 1000 × ⎢ π × (0.05)3 ⎥ × 4200 ×((30 − 100)
⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ ⎢⎣ 3 ⎥⎦
= 154 kJ.
0XOWLGLPHQVLRQDO3UREOHPV
A short cylindrical bar of diameter do FPDQGKHLJKW/ FPLVLQLWLDOO\DWDQXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUH

of Ti = 175°C. The bar is suddenly subjected to convective cooling with h = 250 W/m2°C into ambient
air at Ta = 25°C. Calculate the centre temperature To of the cylinder at t = 1 min after the start of the
cooling. (Assume K = 200 W/m°C and = 8.4 q 10í m2/s.)
7KHVROXWLRQRIWKLVSUREOHPLVDSURGXFWRIWKHVROXWLRQIRUDQLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHURIGLDPHWHU d o = 6 cm
DQGWKHVROXWLRQIRUDQLQ¿QLWHVODERIWKLFNQHVV L = 3 cm.
L ro = ro x L
T( r , z ,t ) − Ta ⎛ T − Ta ⎞⎟ ⎛ T( z ,t ) − Ta ⎞⎟
= ⎜⎜⎜ ( r ,t ) ⎟×⎜⎜ ⎟
Ti − Ta ⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎟⎠
L 7HPSHUDWXUHFDOFXODWLRQIRUDF\OLQGHU
hro 250 × 3×10−2 1

Bi = = = 0.0375 That is , = 26.7
K 200 Bi
Bt 8.4 ×10−5 × 60
Fo = = = 5.6
ro2 (3×10−2 ) 2
1
)URPWKH+HLVOHUFKDUWIRULQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHUVIRUWKHYDOXHRI = 26.7 and Fo = 5.6, we get
Bi
To Ta
= 0.7.
Ti Ta
LL 7HPSHUDWXUHFDOFXODWLRQIRUDQLQ¿QLWHVODE
1 2K 2 × 200
= = = 53.3
Bi hL 250 × 3×10−2
Bt 8.4 ×10−5 × 60
Fo = = = 22.4
⎛ L ⎞⎟
2
(1.5×10−2 ) 2
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
)URPWKH+HLVOHUFKDUWIRUDVODEIRUWKHYDOXHV1/Bi = 53.3 and Fo = 22.4 , we get
To Ta
= 0.6.
Ti Ta
Then the dimensionless centre temperature for a short cylinder is given by the relation
⎛ T − T ⎞⎟ ⎛ T − T ⎞⎟ ⎛ T − T ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ o a⎟
= ⎜⎜⎜ o a⎟
×⎜⎜⎜ o a⎟
⎜⎜⎝ T − T ⎟⎟⎠ ⎟
⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎟⎠
i a short cylinder cylinder slab
= 0.7 q 0.6
= 0.42
Therefore,
To = (Ti − Ta ) × 0.42 + Ta
= (175 − 25) × 0.42 + 25
= 88D C.
,QWKHDERYHSUREOHPFDOFXODWHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHDWDUDGLDOSRVLWLRQRIFPDQGDWDGLVWDQFHRI
0.5 cm from one end of the cylinder and calculate the heat loss from the cylinder. (Take = 2707 kg/m3
DQG& -NJ.
L 7HPSHUDWXUHFDOFXODWLRQ
)RUDQLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHUIRUWKHVDPHYDOXHVRIDERYHSUREOHP
r 1.5
= = 0.5
ro 3
)URP WKH SRVLWLRQ FRUUHFWLRQ FKDUW IRU WKH YDOXH RI r/ro = 5 and 1/Bi = 26.7 we have
(T Ta )/(To Ta ) = 0.95
T − Ta ⎛⎜ To − Ta ⎞⎟⎛⎜ T − Ta ⎞⎟
=⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟⎟
Ti − Ta ⎜⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎠⎜⎜⎝ To − Ta ⎟⎠
= 0.7 q 0.95 = 0.67
)RUDQLQ¿QLWHSODWH
x 1.5 0.5
= = 0.67
L 1.5
)URPWKHSRVLWLRQFRUUHFWLRQFKDUWIRUWKHYDOXHRI x/L = 0.67 and 1/Bi = 53.3,
we get (T Ta )/(To Ta ) = 0.98 .
T − Ta ⎛⎜ To − Ta ⎞⎟⎛⎜ T − Ta ⎞⎟
Therefore, =⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ ⎟⎟
Ti − Ta ⎜⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎠⎜⎜⎝ To − Ta ⎟⎠
= 0.6 q 0.98 = 0.59
Then we have
⎛ T − T ⎞⎟ ⎛ T − T ⎞⎟ ⎛ T − T ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ a⎟
= ⎜⎜⎜ a⎟
× ⎜⎜ a ⎟
⎜⎜⎝ T − T ⎟⎟⎠
i a cylinder
⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ T − T ⎟⎟⎠
o a infinite plate
infinite cylinder
= 0.67 q 0.59 = 0.4
Therefore,
T = 0.4(Ti Ta ) = To
= 0.4 × (175 − 25) + 25
= 85°C ( temperature at r =1.5 cm and x =1.0 cm).
LL +HDWORVVFDOFXODWLRQ
)RUDQLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHU Bi = 0.04 and Bi 2 Fo = (0.04) 2 q (5.6) = 0.09
:HKDYH (Q/Qo )ic = 0.3 .
)RU DQ LQ¿QLWH VODE IURP WKH GLPHQVLRQOHVV KHDW WUDQVIHU FKDUW IRU WKH YDOXHV RI Bi = 0.02 and
Bi 2 Fo = 0.08 , we have (Q/Qo )ip = 0.4.
Then
⎛ Q ⎞⎟ ⎛ Q ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤
⎜⎜ ⎟ = ⎜⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ Q ⎟⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ Q ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎜⎜⎝ Q ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ Q ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ Q ⎟⎟⎠ ⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ Q ⎟⎟⎠ ⎥
o c o ic o ip ⎢⎣ o ic ⎥⎦
= 0.3 + 0.4(1 − 0.3) = 0.58
But
Qoc = (ρVC )(Ti Ta ) (Since V = πro2 L)
= 2707 × (Q × (0.03) 2 × 0.03) × 896 × (175 − 25)

= 30.86 kJ
7KHUHIRUHWKHDFWXDOKHDWORVVLQPLQ
Q = 0.58Qoc
= 17.9 kJ.
A brick column with cross-sectional area 20 cm q 10 cm is initially at an uniform temperature of
Ti &6XGGHQO\WKHVXUIDFHVDUHVXEMHFWHGWRFRQYHFWLYHFRROLQJZLWKK :P2C into an
ambient at Ta = 25°C. Calculate the centre temperature To at t = 1 hr after the start of cooling. (Take
K = 0.7 W/m°C and = 0.5 q 10í m2/s.)
7KHEULFNFROXPQLVDQLQ¿QLWHEDUWKHVROXWLRQLVREWDLQHGDVDSURGXFWRIWKHVROXWLRQVRIWZRLQ¿QLWH
slab problems.

= x
L2
L1
L1 L2
⎛ T − T ⎞⎟ ⎛ T − T ⎞⎟ ⎛ T − T ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ o a⎟
= ⎜⎜⎜ o a⎟
× ⎜⎜⎜ o a⎟
⎜⎜⎝ T − T ⎟⎟⎠
i a
⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎟⎠
column infinite slab of L
1 thickness infinite slab of L
2 thickness
)RUWKHVODERIWKLFNQHVV L1 = 20 cm
1 K 0.7
= = = 0.12
Bi ⎛ L ⎞ 60 ×10 ×10−2
h ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
Bt 0.5 ×10−6 × 3600

Fo = = = 0.18
⎛ L1 ⎞⎟
2
(10 ×10−2 ) 2
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
)URP WKH +HLVOHU FKDUW IRU DQ LQ¿QLWH VODE IRU WKH YDOXH RI 1/Bi = 0.12 and Fo = 0.18 , we get
(To Ta )/(Ti Ta ) = 0.8 .
)RUWKHVODERIWKLFNQHVV L2 = 10 cm
1 K 0.7
= = = 0.23
Bi ⎛ L ⎞ 60 ×10 ×10−2
h ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
Bt 0.5 ×10−6 × 3600

Fo = = = 0.72
⎛ L2 ⎞⎟
2
(5 ×10−2 ) 2
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
)URPWKHVDPHFKDUWIRUWKHYDOXH1/Bi = 0.28 and Fo = 0.72 , we have (To Ta )/(Ti Ta ) = 0.3.
Therefore
⎛ T − T ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ o a⎟
= 0.8 × 0.3 = 0.24
⎜⎜⎝ T − T ⎟⎟⎠
i a column
Temperature of the centre of the column,
To = 0.24(Ti − Ta ) + Ta
= 0.24(225 − 25) + 25 = 73D C.
$VHPLLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGULFDOLURQEDURIGLDPHWHUGo = 5 cm is initially at an uniform temperature of

Ti = 300°C. The surfaces are suddenly subjected to convection with h = 200 W/m2°C into ambient
air at Ta &'HWHUPLQHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHDWWKHD[LVRIWKHEDUFPIURPWKHÀDWVXUIDFHPLQ
WDIWHUWKHVWDUWRIWKHFRROLQJ7DNH. :P&DQG q 10í m2/s.)
7KHVROXWLRQIRUWKLVEDULVDSURGXFWRIWKHVROXWLRQVIRUDQLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHUDQGDVHPLLQ¿QLWHVODE
= x P
P 3 cm
3 cm
ro
ro
⎛ T( p ,t ) − Ta ⎞⎟ ⎛ T − T ⎞⎟ ⎛ T − T ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ o a⎟
×⎜⎜⎜ o a⎟
⎜⎜⎝ T − T ⎟⎟⎠ = ⎜⎜⎜⎝ T − T ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎟⎠
i a i a infinite cy
ylinder semi -infinite solid
)RUDQLQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHU
1 K 60
= = = 12.0
Bi hro 200 × 2.5 ×10−2
Bt 1.6 ×10−5 ×120

Fo = = = 3.1
ro2 (2.5×10−2 ) 2
)URPWKH+HLVOHUFKDUWIRULQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHUVIRUWKHYDOXHRI
1
= 12 and Fo = 3.1,
Bi
we have
To Ta
= 0.6
Ti Ta
)RUDVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLG
x 3×10−2
= −5
= 0.34
2 Bt 2(1.6 ×10 ×120)
0.5
⎛ x ⎞⎟ ⎛ Tp − Ta ⎞⎟
erf ⎜⎜ ⎟ = erf (0.34) = 0.3694 = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 2 Bt ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Ti − Ta ⎟⎟⎠
Therefore,
⎛ Tp ,t − Ta ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜⎝ T − T ⎟⎟⎠ = 0.6 × 0.3694 = 0.22
i a ba
Temperature at the axis (Tp ,t =3 cm) from the flat surface = 0.22(Ti − Ta ) + Ta
= 0.22(300 − 30) + 30
= 89.4D C.
0DWHULDOG PPDWWHPSHUDWXUH7VLRI&PRYHVLQWRDÀXLGL]HGEHGH[FKDQJHUDQGJHWV

cooled by air at room temperature (Ta) of 20°C. Both air and solid leave at a temperature (Tso) of
&,IWKHDLUYHORFLW\8RLVPVDWDWPSUHVVXUH3¿QGKRZORQJLWZLOOWDNHWRFRROWKH
VROLGWRDWHPSHUDWXUH7RI&IRUKHDWORVV
The properties of solid are found to be
ȡs = 2600 kg/mks :P.Cps -NJ.Į qí m2/s

$LUSURSHUWLHVDW&DUH
μa qí kg/ms`
ka ::P.
Cpa -NJ.
ȡa NJP
7KHFRUUHODWLRQIRUKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWhEHWZHHQWKHPDWHULDODQGDLULV
ka ⎡ ⎛ dU 0 ρ a ⎞ ⎛ C pa μ a ⎞ ⎤
0.5 0.333
h= ⎢ 2 + 0.6 ⎜ ⎥
d ⎢ ⎜ μ ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ k ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ a ⎠ ⎦
0.0575 ⎡ ⎛ 0.5 × 10−3 × 0.5 × 0.5 ⎞ ⎛ 1093 × 36.19 × 10−6 ⎞ ⎤

0.5 0.55
= ⎢ 2 + 0. 6 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
0.5 × 10−3 ⎢ ⎝ 36.19 × 10−6 ⎠ ⎝ 0.0575 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
= 334.4 W/m 2 K.
D $VVXPLQJSDUWLFOHFRQGXFWLRQFRQWUROVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHU
d Q
)RUVSKHUH L = =0.83 × 10−4 m and = 0.1,
6 Qmax
Dt
)RXULHUQXPEHU Fo = = 1.6
L2
1.6 L2 1.6 × (0.83 × 10−4 ) 2

∴ t= = = 0.069 s.
D 1.59 × 10−7
E $VVXPLQJ¿OPUHVLVWDQFHFRQWUROVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHU
⎛ ht ⎞
−⎜ ⎟
Q T − Tso ⎜ LU C ⎟
= = e ⎝ s ps ⎠
Qmax Tsi − Tso
⎛ LU C ⎞ ⎛ Q ⎞
∴ t = ⎜ s ps ⎟ ln ⎜ max ⎟
⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ Q ⎠
⎛ 0.83 × 10−4 × 2600 × 800 ⎞

=⎜ ⎟ ln(10) = 1.189 s.
⎝ 334.4 ⎠
F $VVXPLQJIRUERWKUHVLVWDQFHV
hL 334.4 × 0.83 × 10−4

Bi = = = 0.084
ks 0.33
Q
)URPFKDUWIRUBi DQG = 0.1 . The value of Fo
Qmax
Dt F L2 23 × (0.83 × 10−4 ) 2
Fo = , t= o = = 1.0 s.
L2
D 1.59 × 10−7
$PXOWLVWDJHÀXLGL]HGEHGLVXVHGWRFRRODVWUHDPRIKRWVROLGVIURP7si ) 840°C to 240°C (Tso ) with

gas available at 40°C (Ta,IWKHÀRZUDWHVRIJDVDQGVROLGDUHDGMXVWHGWRREWDLQWKHVDPHWKHUPDO
XWLOL]DWLRQIRUWZRVWUHDPV¿QGWKHQXPEHURIVWDJHVQHHGHGDQGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHÀRZLQJVWUHDPV
LQWKHH[FKDQJHU$VVXPHFRXQWHUÀRZLQÀXLGL]HGEHG
)RUVROLGV
ΔTs T −T 240 − 840
Ks = = so si = = 0.75
(ΔTs ) max Ta − Tsi 40 − 840
Equal thermal utilization gives Șs = Șg
N
∴ Ks =
N +
Number of stages, N
ΔTg T1 − Ta T − 40
Since K s = K g = = = 1 = 0.75
(ΔTg ) max Tsi − Ta 840 − 40
? Exit temperature of the gas (T &
But
T1 − Tsi = I (T2 − T1 )
where ĳ KHDWÀRZUDWLRVRIWKHWZRÀRZLQJVWUHDPV
(640 − 840) = 1(T2 − 640)
T2 = 444D C
Also, T2 − T1 = I (T3 − T2 )
(440 − 640) = 1(T3 − 440)
∴ T3 = 440D C.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Discuss heat transfer using lumped parameter an- 'LVFXVVVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLGZKRVHVXUIDFHWHP-
alysis. perature is varied periodically.
([SODLQWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRI%LRWDQG)RXULHUQXP- Explain surface temperature variation.
bers.
Explain depth of penetration.
Derive an expression for heat transfer in semi-
LQ¿QLWHVROLGV 'LVFXVV KHDW WUDQVIHU LQ D VHPLLQ¿QLWH VROLG
VXUIDFH H[SRVHG WR D ÀXLG ZLWK D SHULRGLF
Derive an expression for heat transfer with con-
temperature variation.
VWDQWKHDWÀX[RQDVHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLG
Derive an expression for heat transfer with con- Discuss heat transfer in freezing or melting.
vection boundary conditions. 'LVFXVV KHDW WUDQVIHU LQ ÀDW OLTXLG RU VROLG
Explain the use of transient-temperature charts. surface.
Discuss the use of multidimensional systems for Discuss heat transfer in the process of freez-
heat transfer analysis. ing of a liquid at a temperature higher than its
:KDWLVSHULRGLFKHDWÀRZ" freezing point.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
,IDERG\DWDQXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUHLVVXGGHQO\ DP EP
exposed to a different temperature, then the tem- FP GP
perature in the interior of the body depends on
+
HLVOHU FKDUWV DUH SUHIHUUHG LQ WUDQVLHQW KHDW
DUHVLVWDQFHWRKHDWWUDQVIHULQWHUQDOO\ conduction if Biot number falls in the range of
EUHVLVWDQFHWRKHDWWUDQVIHUDWLWVVXUIDFH D± E±
FUHVLVWDQFHWRKHDWWUDQVIHUDWWKHFHQWUHRIWKH F± G±
body $ VROLG LV VDLG WR EH DQ LQ¿QLWH VROLG LI LW
GERWKDDQGE H[WHQGVLWVHOILQ¿QLWHO\LQGLUHFWLRQ
7 KH WLPHGHSHQGHQW GLPHQVLRQOHVV WHPSHUD- DRQH EWZR
WXUH ș RI WKH ERG\ FDQ EH ZULWWHQ LQ WHUPV RI FDOO GUDGLDO
%LRW%LDQG)RXULHU)RQXPEHUVDVí%L)R 7
KH RQHGLPHQVLRQDO xGLUHFWLRQ VWHDG\
%L)R state transient-temperature distribution for
D R = e−( BiFo ) E R = e( BiFo ) WKHLQ¿QLWHVODELVFDOFXODWHGXVLQJ
⎛ Bi ⎞
−⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎛ Fo ⎞
−⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎛ x ⎞⎟ ⎛ x 2 ⎞⎟
F R = e ⎝ Fo ⎟⎠
G R = e ⎝ Bi ⎟⎠
D erf ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ E erf ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟

⎝ 2 Bt ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ 2 Bt ⎟⎠⎟
/XPSHGSDUDPHWHUDQDO\VLVLVYDOLGLIWKHYDOXHRI
Biot number is less than ⎛ x ⎞⎟ ⎛ x ⎞⎟
D E F erf ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ G erf ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5 Bt ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2Bt ⎟⎠
F G
7KHHUURUH[SHFWHGLIOXPSHGSDUDPHWHUDQDO\VLV $FDUERQK :P.VWHHOEDOORIGLDP-
LVXVHGZLWK%LRWQXPEHUOHVVWKDQLVOHVVWKDQ HWHU FP LV VXGGHQO\ H[SRVHG WR D ÀXLG
D E ZLWK FRQYHFWLRQ KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW RI
F G :P2 .7KH%LRWQXPEHULV
)RU VPDOO YDOXHV RI )RXULHU QXPEHU WLPH LV D E
required for temperature change in the solid F G
DOHVV EPRUH
7KH%LRWQXPEHURIDVSKHUHKDYLQJUDGLXVUR
FYHU\VPDOO GQR
in the Heisler chart is
$QDOXPLQLXPURGRIGLDPHWHUFPLVVXE-
jected to lumped parameter analysis. The hr0 hr0
D E
characteristic length is 3K K
hr0 hr02 ,Q OXPSHG SDUDPHWHU DQDO\VLV WKH WHPSHUD-

F G ture in a solid with respect to position.
2K K
DYDULHV ELVDFRQVWDQW
)RXULHUQXPEHURIDF\OLQGHUKDYLQJGLDPHWHU F]HUR GLVYHU\VPDOO
GRLVFDOFXODWHGIURPWKHHTXDWLRQĮWĮW
Bt Bt
D E
ro do $QVZHUV
G D E F E F
Bt 2 Bt
F G GFDEED
ro 2ro E
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
$VWHHOVODERIWKLFNQHVVPPDW.LVVXG- GLIIXVLYLW\ LV q í m2/s. The thermal
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4
Natural Convection
4.1 INTRODUCTION
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4.2 NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER OVER A VERTICAL PLATE

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x
Temperature profile
Velocity profile
Tw
Boundary layer
u max
T u
T∞
L
x
Figure 4.1 Natural Convection Heat Transfer on Hot Vertical Plate
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4.2.1 Integral Method

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∂u ∂u
u +v = 0.
∂x ∂y
NATURAL CONVECTION | 121
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⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂p ∂ 2u
ρ ⎜u + v ⎟ = − − ρg + μ 2 ,
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂x ∂y
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⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂ 2u
ρ ⎜ u + v ⎟ = g ( ρ∞ − ρ ) + μ 2 .
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎠ ∂y
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1 ⎛ ∂V ⎞ 1 ⎛ V − V∞ ⎞ 1 ⎛ ρ∞ − ρ ⎞
β= ⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟= ⎜ ⎟.
V ⎝ ∂T ⎠ P V∞ ⎝ T − T∞ ⎠ ρ ⎝ T − T∞ ⎠
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⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂ 2u
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δ ⎡ ∂u ∂u ⎤ δ δ ∂ 2u
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ρ ⎢u + v ⎥ dy = ∫ ρβ g (T − T∞ ) dy + ∫ μ 2 dy.
⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦ 0 0 ∂y

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δ ⎡ ∂u ∂u ⎤ δ ⎡ ∂u ∂ ∂v ⎤
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⎣ ∂x ∂y ⎦ 0
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0 ∂x 0 ∂y
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⎤
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2
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2
⎢ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥ = 0,
u x dy ⎢⎣ G ⎝ G ⎠ ⎥⎦
G 2 − 4 y + 3 y 2 = 0,
(G − y )(G − 3 y ) = 0,
G
y = G or y = .
3
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um =
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∂ ⎡⎛ y⎞ ⎤
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m
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u x ⎜ ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟ dy = β g ∫ θ m ⎜1 − ⎟ dy − v ⎢u x ⋅ ⎜1 − ⎟ ⎥ .
0
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y =0
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(u x ⋅ δ ) = β g θ m − x .
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−1 / 2 1/ 4 −1 / 4
⎛v⎞ ⎛ v 20 ⎞ ⎛ β g θm ⎞
C2 = 3.93 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ + ⎟ ⎜ v2 ⎟ .
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−1 / 2 1/ 2
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1/ 4 −1 / 4
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δ = 3.93 ( Pn )
−1 / 2
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1/ 4 −1 / 4
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1/ 4
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⎢ ⎥
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⎡ dT ⎤
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2
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y =0
hx x 2 x
=
K G

hx x 2 x
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K 3.93 ⎢⎣ ( Pn + (20 / 21) ) ⎥⎦
1/ 4
⎡ ( Pn ) 2 (Grx ) ⎤
= 0.508 ⎢ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ ( Pn + (20 / 21) ) ⎥⎦
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1 L 4
L ∫0
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1/ 4
⎡ ( P ) 2 (Grl ) ⎤
= 0.667 ⎢ n ⎥
⎢⎣ ( Pn + 0.952 ) ⎥⎦
= 0.667 ( Pn )1 / 2 ( Pn + 0.952) −1 / 2 (Grl )1 / 4 .
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XVHG LQ WKH DERYH HTXDWLRQ LV WKH KHLJKW RI WKH SODWH7KH FULWLFDO *UDVKRI QXPEHU IRU DLU LV Grl
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,IWKHSODWHLVLQFOLQHGZLWKDQDQJOHșWRWKHYHUWLFDOWKHDYHUDJH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
1/ 4
hL ⎡ ( P ) 2 (Grl ) cos T ⎤
Nua = a = 0.667 ⎢ n ⎥ .
K ⎢⎣ ( Pn + 0.952 ) ⎥⎦
,IWKHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQWWKHQWKHDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRYHUWKHZKROHVXUIDFHRIWKHSODWH
LVJLYHQE\
2/5
ha L ⎡ (Grl ) ⎤
Nua = = 0.0246 ⎢ 2/3 ⎥
( Pn )7 / 15 .
K ⎣ 1 + 0 .495 ( P n ) ⎦
7KHSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHVRIWKHÀXLGDUHWREHWDNHQDWWKHDYHUDJHWHPSHUDWXUHYDOXHRIZDOOVXUIDFH
WHPSHUDWXUHDQGDPELHQWDLUWHPSHUDWXUH
4.3 EMPIRICAL RELATIONS FOR FREE CONVECTION

7KHDYHUDJHIUHHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUYDULRXVFLUFXPVWDQFHVLVREWDLQHGXVLQJ
Nu f = C ( Grf Pf )
m
,
ZKHUHfUHSUHVHQWVWKDWWKHSURSHUWLHVVKRXOGEHHYDOXDWHGDWWKH¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH
Tf Tw + T
7KHFKDUDFWHULVWLFGLPHQVLRQXVHGLQGrDQGNuDUHLKHLJKWRIWKHSODWHLIRUYHUWLFDOSODWHVDQG
LLGLDPHWHUdIRUKRUL]RQWDOF\OLQGHU7KHDSSUR[LPDWHYDOXHVRICDQGmIRUYDULRXVJHRPHWULHVXVHG
DUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH
4.3.1 Vertical Planes and Cylinders

4.3.1.1 Uniform wall temperature or isothermal surface
0F$GDPVGHYHORSHGWKHPHDQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLQWKHIRUP
Nu Gr Pr RaIRU < Ra/DPLQDUÀRZ
DQG Nu Gr Pr RaIRU < RaWXUEXOHQWÀRZ
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIWKHÀXLGDUHWREHIRXQGDW¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH Tf = ( (Tw + TD ) / 2 ) . ,Q(TXDWLRQV

DQGWKH3UDQGWOQXPEHUUDQJHLVQRWPHQWLRQHG
&KXUFKLOO DQG &KX SURSRVHG WKH IROORZLQJ FRUUHODWLRQV ZLWK WKH OLPLWDWLRQV RI 3UDQGWO
QXPEHU
Table 4.1 Constants for isothermal surfaces

Geometry Grf Prf C m
(i) Upper surface of plates heated 2 q 104 – 8 q 106 0.54 1/4

8 q 106 – 1011 0.15 1/3
(ii) Lower surface of plates heated 105 – 1011 0.27 1/4
(iii) Horizontal cylinders 104 – 109 0.53 1/4

109 – 1012 0.13 1/3
10–10 – 10−2 0.68 0.06
10–2 – 102 1.02 0.15
102 – 104 0.85 0.19
104 – 107 0.48 1/4
107 – 1012 0.13 1/3
(iv) Vertical planes and cylinders 104 – 109 0.59 1/4

109 – 1013 0.021 2/5
109 – 1013 0.10 1/3
0.67( Ra )0.25
Nu = 0.68 + 4/9

⎡1 + ( 0.492 / Pr )9 / 16 ⎤
⎣ ⎦
IRUODPLQDUÀRZRQO\RaDQGPr <
2
⎧ ⎫
⎪ 0.387 Ra1 / 6 ⎪
Nu = ⎨0.825 + ⎬ IRUWXUEXOHQWÀRZRa!

9 / 16 8 / 27
⎪ ⎡1 + ( 0.492 / Pr ) ⎤ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎭
)RUOLTXLGPHWDOVPrWKHHTXDWLRQLV
Nu Gr Pr
4.3.1.2 Uniform wall heat flux

7KHIROORZLQJFRUUHODWLRQVZHUHSURSRVHGE\9OLHWDQG&./LQIRUXQLIRUPKHDWÀX[FRQGLWLRQV
for local Nu,QWKLVPRGL¿HG*UDVKRIQXPEHU (Grx ) LVXVHGWR¿QGWKHW\SHRIÀRZ
g E qw x 4
Grx* = Grx Nu x = ,
kv 2
ZKHUHqwLVWKHFRQVWDQWZDOOKHDWÀX[
Nu x = 0.6(Grx∗ Prf )0.22 for laminar flow (105 < Grx∗ < 1011 ),
Nu x = 0.17(Grx ∗ Prf )0.22 for turbulent flow (2×1013 < (Grx∗ Pr ) < 1016 ).
7KHQPHDQNuIRU(TXDWLRQVDQGDUH
Nu = 1.25( Nul ),
DQG Nu = 1.136( Nul ).
4.3.2 Horizontal Plates

7KHDYHUDJHNuXVHGIRUIUHHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHURQDKRUL]RQWDOSODWHEDVHGRQZKHWKHUWKHKRW
DQGFROGVXUIDFHVDUHIDFLQJXSRUGRZQDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
4.3.2.1 Uniform wall temperature

+HUHWKHPHDQ1XVVHOWQXPEHU
hL
Nu = ,
k
Hot surface Cold surface
Cold surface Hot surface
(a) (b)
Figuer 4.2 Natural Convection on Horizontal Plates
DQG
g β (Tw Tα ) L3
Grasof number Gr = ,
v2
ZKHUHµL¶LVWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWKRIWKHSODWHZKLFKLVGH¿QHGDV
surface area of the plate ( A)

.
perimeter of the plate ( P)
7KHIROORZLQJFRUUHODWLRQVZHUHJLYHQE\0F$GDPVIRUPHDQ Nu
)RUKRWVXUIDFHIDFLQJXSZDUG
Nu RaIRUODPLQDUÀRZ < Raq
Nu RaIRUWXUEXOHQWÀRZq < Raq
,QFDVHRIKRWVXUIDFHIDFLQJGRZQRUFROGVXUIDFHIDFLQJXSWKHSODWHEORFNVWKHÀXLGÀRZ6LQFH
WKHYHORFLW\LVORZRQO\ODPLQDUÀRZLVH[LVWLQJLQWKLVFDVH7KHPHDQNuLVJLYHQE\
Nu RaIRUq < Ra
4.3.2.2 Uniform heat flux

+HDWHGVXUIDFHIDFLQJXSZDUG
Nu RaIRUODPLQDUÀRZRaq
Nu RaIRUWXUEXOHQWÀRZq < Ra
+RWVXUIDFHIDFLQJGRZQDUG
Nu RaIRUODPLQDUÀRZ < Ra

4.3.3 Inclined Plates
7KH LQFOLQDWLRQ RI D SODWH IURP WKH YHUWLFDO LV VKRZQ LQ )LJ +HUH WKH WUDQVLWLRQ IURP ODPLQDU
WRWXUEXOHQWÀRZGHSHQGVRQWKHDQJOHRILQFOLQDWLRQ7KHDQJOHLVSRVLWLYHLIWKHKRWVXUIDFHIDFHV
XSZDUGDQGQHJDWLYHLIWKHKRWVXUIDFHIDFHVGRZQZDUG
Hot surface
Hot surface
–θ
+θ
Figure 4.3 Co-ordinate System for Inclined Plates
4.3.3.1 Uniform wall temperature

)XMLLDQG,PXUDUHFRPPHQGHGWKDWWKHKRUL]RQWDOSODWHFRUUHODWLRQVFDQEHXVHGIRULQFOLQDWLRQ
EHWZHHQDQGDQGIRUOHVVWKDQWKHYHUWLFDOSODWHFRUUHFWLRQVFDQEHXVHG
4.3.3.2 Uniform heat flux

,IWKHKRWVXUIDFHIDFHVGRZQZDUG
Nu Ra cos șIRUșDQG < Ra

DQG
Nu RaIRUșDQG < Ra
,IWKHKRWVXUIDFHIDFHVXSZDUGWKHQWKHFRUUHODWLRQIRUDQJOHVEHWZHHQíDQGíLV
Nu >RaíGrc Pr@Ra cos ș
ZKHUH Grc is the transition Gr ZKLFK GHSHQGV RQ WKH DQJOH RI LQFOLQDWLRQ DV JLYHQ7DEOH 7KH
SURSHUWLHVRIDÀXLGDUHWDNHQDWPHDQWHPSHUDWXUH
Tm TwíTwíTĮ

DQGȕLVWDNHQDWTĮTwíTĮ
Table 4.2 Angle of inclination
ș Grc
15 5 q 109
30 2 q 109
60 108
4.3.4 Vertical Cylinders

,QWKHFDVHRILVRWKHUPDOF\OLQGHUVZLWKWKHLUDUHDVYHUWLFDOWKHH[SUHVVLRQVSUHVHQWHGIRUYHUWLFDOSODWH
FDQEHXVHGSURYLGHGWKHFXUYDWXUHHIIHFWLVQHJOLJLEOH$YHUWLFDOF\OLQGHUFDQEHHYDOXDWHGXVLQJ
FRUUHODWLRQVIRUYHUWLFDOSODWHVZKHQ
D 35
t ,
L Gr1 / 4
ZKHUHDDQGLDUHGLDPHWHUDQGKHLJKWRIWKHF\OLQGHUVUHVSHFWLYHO\
,QFDVHRIDYHUWLFDOF\OLQGHUVXEMHFWHGWRXQLIRUPDOOKHDWÀX[WKHORFDONuFDQEHGHWHUPLQHGIURP
(TXDWLRQVDQG
4.3.5 Horizontal Cylinders

&KXUFKLOODQG&KXKDYHSURSRVHGWKHIROORZLQJFRUUHODWLRQIRULVRWKHUPDOKRUL]RQWDOF\OLQGHU
1/ 6
⎡ ⎤
⎢ ( RaD ) ⎥
[ Nu D ]1/2 = 0.6 + 0.387 ⎢ for 10−5 < RaD <1012 ,
9 / 16 16 / 9 ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎡⎣1 + ( 0.559 / Pr ) ⎤⎦ ⎥⎦
ZKHUH Nu DQGRaDDUHGHWHUPLQHGXVLQJWKHF\OLQGHUGLDPHWHUDVFKDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWK
)RUODPLQDUUDQJHDORQHWKHIROORZLQJHTXDWLRQLVXVHG
0.518( RaD )1 / 4
Nu D = 0.36 + .
[1 + (0.559 / Pr )9 / 16 ]4 / 9
3URSHUWLHVIRUWKHGLPHQVLRQDOQXPEHUVLQWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQVDUHWREHGHWHUPLQHGEDVHGRQ¿OP
WHPSHUDWXUH
)RUURWDWLQJKRUL]RQWDOF\OLQGHUWKHFRUUHODWLRQLVJLYHQDV
0.35
NuD = 0.11 ⎡⎣0.5 Re 2D + RaD ⎤⎦
ZKHUH ReD = wS D 2 / v , wLVWKHURWDWLRQDOVSHHGRIWKHF\OLQGHU
4.3.6 Spheres
7KHIROORZLQJFRUUHODWLRQVDUHXVHGWRFDOFXODWHWKHDYHUDJHNuIRULVRWKHUPDOVSKHUHV
Nu RaDIRURaDDQG Pr 1,
Nu RaDIRUq < RaDq
&KXUFKLOOVXJJHVWHGWKHIROORZLQJJHQHUDOIRUPXODIRUVSKHUHV
0.589( RaD )0.25

Nu = 2 + for RaD < 1011 and Pr > 0.5.
[1 + (0.469 / Pr )9 / 16 ]4 / 9
4.4 FREE CONVECTION IN ENCLOSED SPACES
7KHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQDQGQRPHQFODWXUHRIDUHFWDQJXODUHQFORVXUHVRODUFROOHFWRUDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWHGHSHQGVRQWKHDQJOHRIWLOWșDVSHFWUDWLR(H/LDQGGLPHQVLRQOHVVSDUDPHWHUV
(PrDQGRa
T2
T1 > T2
T1
θ
L
Figure 4.4 Natural Convection in an Enclosure
)OXLGSURSHUWLHVDUHHYDOXDWHGDWPHDQWHPSHUDWXUH ( (T1 + T2 ) / 2 ) DQG5D\OHLJKQXPEHU
g E (T1 − T2 ) L3
Ra = Pr.
v2
For vertical enclosure, ș °
&DWWRQSURSRVHGWKHIROORZLQJFRUUHFWLRQVIRUYHUWLFDOHQFORVXUH
0.29
⎛ Pr ⋅ Ra ⎞
Nu = 0.18 ⎜ ⎟ IRUH/L
⎝ 0.2 + Pr ⎠
± < Pr
( Ra ⋅ Pr )
< ,
(0.2 + Pr )
0.28 −0.25
⎛ Pr ⋅ Ra ⎞ ⎛H⎞
Nu ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ,
⎝ 0.2 + Pr ⎠ ⎝L⎠
IRUH/LPrDQGRa,
−0.3
⎛H⎞
Nu = 0.42 Ra 0.25 Pr 0.012 ⎜ ⎟ ,
⎝L⎠
IRUH/LPrqDQG < Ra
Nu RaIRUH/LPrDQG < Ra
)RUKRUL]RQWDOHQFORVXUHș
*OREHDQG'URSNLQSURSRVHGWKHIROORZLQJFRUUHODWLRQ
hL
Nu = = 0.069 Ra1 / 3 Pr 0.074 for 3 × 105 < Ra < 7 × 109.
K
ZKHUHș
When RaWKHFRQYHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHVXUIDFHVLVQHJOLJLEOHDQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUWDNHV
SODFHE\SXUHFRQGXFWLRQDQGNuWHQGVWRXQLW\
)RULQFOLQHGHQFORVXUHș
+ROODQGHWDOKDYHJLYHQWKHIROORZLQJFRUUHODWLRQIRULQFOLQHGHQFORVXUHV
1708 ⎤ ⎡1 − 1708 sin(1.8T )1.6 ⎤ ⎡⎛ Ra cos T ⎞ ⎤

1/ 3
⎡
Nu = 1 + 1.44 ⎢1 − ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢⎜
+ ⎟ − 1⎥
⎣ Ra cos T ⎦ ⎣ Ra cos T ⎦ ⎢⎣⎝ 5830 ⎠ ⎥⎦
H
for ≥ 12; 0 < T < 70°.
L
7KHEUDFNHW>@ LPSOLHVWKDWLIWKHTXDQWLW\LVQHJDWLYHLWPXVWEHHTXDOWR]HUR
$\\DVZDP\DQG&DWWRQKDYHUHFRPPHQGHGWKHIROORZLQJFRUUHODWLRQVIRUDOODVSHFWUDWLRV
(H/L
Nu Nu v (sin șIRUș
Nu > Nu v í@VLQșIRUș
4.5 CONCENTRIC CYLINDERS

+HDW WUDQVIHU LQ WKH DQQXODU VSDFH EHWZHHQ ORQJ KRUL]RQWDO FRQFHQWULF F\OLQGHUV E\ QDWXUDO
FRQYHFWLRQ GXH WR WHPSHUDWXUH GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ WKH ZDOOV KDV EHHQ VWXGLHG E\ 5DLWKE\ DQG
+ROODQGV7KHFRUUHODWLRQVIRUKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHqSHUXQLWOHQJWKIRUFRQ¿JXUDWLRQDVLQ
)LJLVH[SUHVVHGDV
2S keff (Ti − To )
q=
ln( Do / Di )
ZKHUH keff LV HIIHFWLYH WKHUPDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI ÀXLG ,W LV GH¿QHG DV WKHUPDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI D
VWDWLRQDU\ ÀXLG VKRXOG KDYH WR WUDQVIHU WKH VDPH DPRXQW RI KHDW LV WKH PRYLQJ ÀXLG ,W FDQ EH
FDOFXODWHGDV
To Ti > To

Fluids
Di
t Ti
Do
Figure 4.5 Annual Space Between Concentric Cylinders or Spheres
1/ 4
keff ⎡ Pr ⎤
= 0.386 ⎢ ⎥ ( Rac )1 / 4 IRU < Rac
k ⎣ 0.861 + Pr ⎦
⎡ln ( Do / Di ) ⎤⎦ Rat
4
ZKHUH Rac = ⎣3 − (3 / 5)

t [ Di + Do− (3 / 5) ]5
Here
( Do − Di ) g E ( Ti − To )t 3 Pr
' t' = and Rat =
2 r2
4.6 CONCENTRIC SPHERES

5DLWKE\DQG+ROODQGSURSRVHGWKHIROORZLQJHTXDWLRQV¶FRUUHODWLRQIRUFRQFHQWULFVSKHUHVIRU
total heat transfer (Q
⎛ S Di Do ⎞ Do − Di
Q = keff ⎜ ⎟ (Ti − To ), ZKHUH t =
⎝ t ⎠
7KHHIIHFWLYHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\keffLV
1/ 4
keff ⎡ Pr ⎤
= 0.74 ⎢ ⎥ ( Ras∗ )1 / 4 ,
k ⎣ 0.81 + Pr ⎦
ZKHUH
⎡ t Rat ⎤
Ras* = ⎢ −7 / 5 −7 / 5 5 ⎥
.
⎣ ( Di Do ) ( Di + Do ) ⎦
4
7KLVFRUUHODWLRQLVYDOLGIRUWKHUDQJH < Rac

4.7 COMBINED FREE AND FORCED CONVECTION (MIXED CONVECTION)

,Q IRUFHG FRQYHFWLRQ WKH IORZ LQGXFHG E\ GHQVLW\ JUDGLHQW LV QHJOLJLEOH FRPSDUHG ZLWK WKH
IOXLGPRWLRQLPSRVHGE\H[WHUQDOGHYLFHVEXWLQFDVHRIORZIORZYHORFLW\WKHIUHHFRQYHFWLRQ
IDFWRU DOVR SOD\V DQ LPSRUWDQW UROH $ GLPHQVLRQOHVV SDUDPHWHU Gr/Re SUHGLFWV WKH UHODWLYH
LPSRUWDQFH RI IUHH FRQYHFWLRQ ZLWK IRUFHG FRQYHFWLRQ7KH YDULRXV FRQGLWLRQV RI FRQYHFWLRQ
FRQGLWLRQVDUH
for free convection,
Gr
t1
Re 2
IRUPL[HGFRQYHFWLRQIUHHIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQ
Gr ~
Re
IRUIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQ
Gr
d 1.
Re 2
Correlations for local NuxIRUPL[HGFRQYHFWLRQRQYHUWLFDOSODWHVDUHJLYHQDV
⎛ Gr ⎞
Nux Rax (Pr if ⎜ x ⎟ < A
DQG ⎝ Rex ⎠
Grx
Nux PrPr± (Grx if > A
Rex
ZKHUHA ~IRUPr <DQGA ~IRUPr
,QFDVHRIKRUL]RQWDOSODWHZKHUH (Grx / Rex2.5 ) WKHIROORZLQJHTXDWLRQPD\EHXVHG
Nu x = 10.32 Rex2.5 Pr1 / 3 .
)RUPL[HGFRQYHFWLRQWKURXJKKRUL]RQWDOWXEHVZLWKODPLQDUÀRZReD <WKHUHFRPPHQGHG

correlation is
0.14
⎛P ⎞
Nu D ⎜ b ⎟ >GzGz · Gr]
⎝ Ps ⎠
ZKHUHGz*UDHW]QXPEHU ReD Pr ('/DQGμbDQGμs±YLVFRVLWLHVRIWKHÀXLGDWWKHEXONPHDQ

WHPSHUDWXUHDQGVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHUHVSHFWLYHO\
)RU PL[HG FRQYHFWLRQ ZLWK WXUEXOHQW ÀRZ LQ KRUL]RQWDO WXEHV 0HWDLV DQG (FNHUW
UHFRPPHQG
Nu D = 4.69 ReD0.27 Pr 0.21GrD0.07 ( D / L)0.36 .
4.8 COMBINED CONVECTION AND RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

,QPDQ\SUDFWLFDOSUREOHPVWKHKHDWORVWE\UDGLDWLRQIURPWKHVXUIDFHLVRIFRQVLGHUDEOHPDJQLWXGH
FRPSDUHGZLWKWKHKHDWORVVE\QDWXUDOFRQYHFWLRQ7KLVLVSDUWLFXODUO\WUXHZKHQWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRI
WKHVXUIDFHLVFRQVLGHUDEO\KLJK
7KHWRWDOKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKHVXUIDFHE\FRPELQHGQDWXUDOFRQYHFWLRQDQGUDGLDWLRQLVJLYHQE\
Qt Qc + Qr
hc A(TwíThr A(TuíT
ZKHUHhcDQGhrDUHWKHDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVE\QDWXUDOFRQYHFWLRQDQGUDGLDWLRQ
?Qt hc + hrA(TwíT UA (TwíT
ZKHUHULVNQRZQDVRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWZKLFKWDNHVWKHKHDWÀRZE\ERWKWKHPRGHV
LQWRDFFRXQW
7KHYDOXHVRIhcLVJLYHQE\WKHHTXDWLRQ
hc Lc
= C (Gn Pn ) n ,
K
DQGZHFDQFDOFXODWHWKHKHDWORVWE\FRQYHFWLRQ
7KHKHDWORVVE\UDGLDWLRQLVJLYHQE\
Qr = V A ∈ ⎡⎣Tw4 − T∞4 ⎤⎦ .
$IWHUFDOFXODWLQJWKHKHDWORVVE\FRQYHFWLRQDQGUDGLDWLRQDQGDGGLQJWKHWZRZHFDQ¿QGRXWWKH
FRPELQHGDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWE\XVLQJ(TXDWLRQ
4.9 CONCLUSIONS
:KHQÀXLGÀRZVRYHUDVROLGVXUIDFHRULQVLGHDERG\ZLWKGLIIHUHQWWHPSHUDWXUHVRIWKHÀXLGDQG
WKHVROLGVXUIDFHVKHDWWUDQVIHUEHWZHHQWKHÀXLGDQGWKHVROLGWDNHVSODFHE\SK\VLFDOFRQWDFWRIWKH
SDUWLFOHV0RYLQJÀXLGSDUWLFOHVH[FKDQJHKHDWZLWKWKHVXUIDFHFRQWLQXRXVO\DQGWKLVPHFKDQLVPRI
KHDWWUDQVIHULVNQRZQDVFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU
,Q FRQYHFWLRQ KHDW WUDQVIHU LI WKH ÀXLG PRWLRQ LV VHW XS E\ EXR\DQF\ IRUFH EHFDXVH RI GHQVLW\
GLIIHUHQFHFDXVHGE\WHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHÀXLGOD\HUVWKHQWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUPHFKDQLVPLV
NQRZQDVIUHHFRQYHFWLRQRUQDWXUDOFRQYHFWLRQ
1DWXUDOFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUPHFKDQLVPLVDSSOLHGLQPDQ\¿HOGVRIHQJLQHHULQJIRUFRROLQJ
SXUSRVHV
)OXLGYHORFLW\LQIUHHFRQYHFWLRQLVYHU\ORZFRPSDUHGZLWKWKDWLQIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQ$ERXQGDU\
OD\HUIRUPVQHDUWKHVXUIDFHDQGÀXLGYHORFLW\LV]HURDWWKHVROLGVXUIDFH
7R ¿QG WKH KHDW WUDQVIHU IURP D YHUWLFDO SODWH WR WKH VXUURXQGLQJ ÀXLG E\ QDWXUDO FRQYHFWLRQ
FRQWLQXLW\PRPHQWXPDQGHQHUJ\HTXDWLRQVDUHWREHVROYHG
1XVVHOWQXPEHULVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUWRÀXLGFRQGXFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU
XQGHUWKHVDPHFRQGLWLRQV
7KHGrLVWKHUDWLRRIWKHEXR\DQF\WRYLVFRXVIRUFHDFWLQJRQDÀXLG
7KHFKDUDFWHULVWLFGLPHQVLRQXVHGLQGrDQGNuDUHLKHLJKWRIWKHSODWHLIRUYHUWLFDOSODWHVDQG
LLGLDPHWHUdIRUKRUL]RQWDOF\OLQGHU
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find the rate of convective heat transfer from a 0.4 m (L) vertical square plate maintained at an uniform
temperature (Tw ) 130°C in ambient air at 25°C (TĮ).
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
⎛ T + TB ⎞⎟ ⎛130 + 25 ⎞⎟
T f = ⎜⎜ w =⎜
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ ⎟⎟ = 77.5 C
D
2 ⎠
O = 20.75 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 0.697; K = 0.03 W/mK
*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Tw − Tα ) L3
Gr =
ν2
1
where C= = 2.86 ×10−3 K −1
T
f
9.8 × 2.86 ×10−3 × (130 − 25)(0.4)3

Gr =
(20.75×10−6 ) 2
= 4.37 ×108 (laminnar flow)
GrPr = 4.3q108 q 0.69 = 3.046 q108
)URP7DEOHRU(TXDWLRQZHJHWWKHYDOXHRI1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.59(GrPr )1/4
= 0.59 q (4.37 q108 q 0.697)1/4 = 77.95
+HDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
Nu q K
h=
L
77.95 q 0.03
= = 5.85 W/m 2 K
0.4
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWHIURPERWKVLGHV
Q = 2hA(Tw − TB )
= 2 × 5.85 × (0.4 × 0.4)(130 − 25)
= 196.56 W
8VLQJ&KXUFKLOO¶VFRUUHODWLRQ
⎪⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
0.67( Ra ) 0.25
⎪⎪
Nu = ⎪⎨0.68 + 4/9 ⎬
⎪⎪ ⎡ ⎛ 0.492 ⎞9/16 ⎤ ⎪⎪
⎪⎪ ⎢1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ⎪
⎪⎪ ⎢ ⎜⎝ Pr ⎟⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎪⎪⎪
⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
0.67 × (4.37 ×108 × 0.697)0.25

Nu = 0.68 + = 68.66
⎡ ⎛ 0.492 ⎞9/16 ⎤
4/9
⎢1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0.697 ⎠⎟ ⎥⎦
68.66 × 0.03
∴ h= = 5.15 W/m 2 K
0.4
%RWKFRUUHODWLRQVJLYHFORVHYDOXHVRI h
)LQGWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPDYHUWLFDOSODWHRIKHLJKWP/DQGZLGWKPZZKLFKLVPDLQ-

tained at 333 K (Tw ) and exposed to atmospheric air at 283 K (Tw ).
Tw + TB
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH T f = = 308 K
2
O = 16.5 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 0.7; K = 0.027 W/mK
*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Tw Tα ) L3
Gr =
ν2
1 1
C= = = 3.25 ×10−3 K −1
T f 308
9.8 × 3.25×10−3 × (333 − 283) × (4)3

Gr =
(16.5×10−6 ) 2
= 3.74 ×1011 ( turbuulent flow)
)URP(TXDWLRQ
1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.13(GrPr )1/3
= 0.13q 3.74 q1011 q 0.7 = 824.4
Nu q K
( h) =
L
824.4 q 0.027
= = 5.56 W/m 2 K
4
5DWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPRQHVLGHRIWKHSODWH
Q = hA(Tw − TB )
= 5.56 × (4 ×10)(333 − 283)
= 11.129 kW.
Find the surface temperature of 4 m (L) square vertical metal plate insulated on one side with the other
VLGHH[SRVHGWRDVRODUUDGLDWLRQÀX[TRI:P2. The exposed surface has 100% absorptivity and
WKHLQFRPLQJUDGLDWLRQLVORVWE\IUHHFRQYHFWLRQWRWKHDPELHQWDLUDW&7Į).
$VWKHVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHLVQRWNQRZQOHW h = 8 W/m 2 K
q
q = h(Tw − TB ) ⇒ Tw = TB +
h
800
= 30 + = 130D C
8
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH T f = (Tw + TB )/2 = (130 + 30)/2 = 80D C
O = 20.8 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 0.697; K = 0.03 W/mK
$VVXPLQJXQLIRUPKHDWÀX[WKHPRGL¿HG*UDVKRIQXPEHU Gr = g C qx 4 /kv 2 |x = L
1 1
C= = = 2.83×10−3 K −1
T f 353
9.8 × 2.83×10−3 × 800 × (4) 4

Gr * = = 4.38 ×1014
0.03× (20.8×10−6 ) 2
7KHQ
Gr * Pr = 4.38 q1014 q (0.697)
= 3.05 q1014 ( turbulent flow )
1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu x = 0.17(Gr * Pr )0.22
= 0.17 q (3.05q1014 )0.22 = 872.94
Nu x q K
hx =
L
872.94 q 0.03
= = 6.55 W/m 2 K
4
7KHQDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
h = 1.136 q hx = 1.136 q 6.55 = 7.4 W/m 2 K

7KHZDOOWHPSHUDWXUH
q
Tw = TB +
h
800
= 30 + = 138.1D C
7.4
7KH¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH T f = (138.1 + 30)/2 = 84D C
6LQFHDVVXPHG¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH°&LVYHU\FORVHWR°C,WKHFDOFXODWLRQQHHGQRWEHUHSHDWHG
A plate of size 2 m q 1 m (l q b) is kept horizontally in water and maintained at a temperature of 20°C
(TĮ)LQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDQGWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHULILWKHWRSVXUIDFHRIWKHSODWHLV
maintained at 60°C (Tw ) and (ii) the bottom surface of plate is maintained at 60°C (Tw ).
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
⎛ T + TB ⎞⎟
T = ⎜⎜ w
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
= 40D C
f
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 ; ν = 0.657 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 4.34; K = 0.628 W/mK;
1
C= = 3.19 ×10−3 K −1
T
f
L 7KHWRSVXUIDFHLVKHDWHG
g β (Tw Tα ) L3
Gr =
ν2
&KDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWK
Area of the plate 2 ×1

L= = = 0.33 m
Perimeter 2(2 + 1)
9.81× 3.19 ×10−3 (60 − 20)(0.33)3

Gr = = 104.2 ×109
[0.657 ×10−6 ]2
7KHQ
Ra = GrPr = 104.2 q109 q 4.34
= 452.3q109
7KHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQWDQGIURP(TXDWLRQ
Nu = 0.14( Ra )0.33
= 0.14 q (452.3q109 )0.33 = 982.7
Nu q K
h=
L
982.7 q 0.628
= = 1870 W/m 2 K
0.33
5DWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHU
Q = hA(Tw − TB )
= 1870 × 2 ×1(60 − 20)
= 149.6 kW
LL 7KHERWWRPVXUIDFHLVKHDWHG
7KHFRUUHODWLRQLV
Nu = 0.27( Ra )1/4
= 0.27(452.3q109 )1/4 = 221.42
Nu q K 221.42 q 0.628
h= = = 421.4 W/m 2 K
L 0.33
5DWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHU
Q = hA(Tw − TB )
= 421.4 × 2 ×1(60 − 20) = 33.712 kW
8QGHUVLPLODUFRQGLWLRQVWKHKRWVXUIDFHIDFLQJGRZQZDUGVWUDQVIHUVOHVVKHDWGXHWRWKHEORFNLQJRIWKH
XSZDUGÀRZRIWKHÀXLGVWUHDP
Find the rate of heat transfer from a 2 m (L) square plate maintained at temperature of 210°C (Tw ) in
ambient air at 30°C (TĮ ) in (i) vertical and (ii) horizontal positions.
Tw + TB 210 + 30
T = = = 120D C
f 2 2
H = 25.45 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 0.686
K = 33.4 ×10−3 W/mK;
1
C=
Tf
1
= = 2.54 ×10−3 K −1
393
L 9HUWLFDOSRVLWLRQ
g β (Tw − Tα ) L3
Grashof number, Gr =
ν2
9.8 × 2.54 ×10−3 × (210 − 30) × (2)3
=
(25.45×10−6 ) 2
= 5.53×1010 (Turbulent flow )
)URP(TXDWLRQ
Nusselt number, Nu = 0.13(GrPr )1/3
= 0.13q (5.53q1010 q 0.686)1/3 = 433.3
Nu q K 433.3q 0.0334
h= = = 7.24 W/m 2 K
L 2
5DWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHURQERWKVLGHV
Q = 2 × h × A(Tw − TB )
= 2 × 7.24 × 2 × 2 × (210 − 30) = 10.42 kW
LL +RUL]RQWDOSRVLWLRQ
g β (Tw Tα ) L3
ν2
Area 4
L= = = 0.5 m
Perimeter 8
9.8 × 2.54 ×10−3 × (210 − 30) × (0.5)3

Gr =
(25.45×10−6 ) 2
= 8.6 ×108
7KHQ GrPr = 8.6 q108 q 0.686 = 5.9 q108. )URP(TXDWLRQZKHQWKHWRSVXUIDFHLVKHDWHGWKH1XV
VHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.14 q (GrPr )1/3
= 0.14 q (5.9 q108 )1/3 = 116.6
Nu q K 116.6 q 0.0334
h= = = 7.8 W/m 2 K
L 0.5
+HDWWUDQVIHUIURPWRSVXUIDFH
Qt = hA(Tw TB ) = 5.616 kW
)URP(TXDWLRQZKHQWKHERWWRPVXUIDFHLVKHDWHGWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.27(GrPr )1/4
= 0.27 q (8.6 q108 q 0.686)1/4 = 38.3
h = 2.56 W/m 2 K
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUHGIURPWKHERWWRPVXUIDFH
Qb = 1.84 kW
Total heat transfer = Qt + Qb = 7.458 kW.
A pipe with outer diameter 20 cm (Do DQGOHQJWKP/FDUULHVVDWXUDWHGVWHDPDW&7w ). The

WHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHVXUURXQGLQJDLULV&7Į). Find the rate of heat loss if the pipe is kept in (i) a ver-
tical position and (ii) a horizontal position.
100 + 30
Tf = = 65D C
2
K = 0.03 W/m 2 K; Pr = 0.697;
O = 20.76 ×10−6 m 2 /s
L 9HUWLFDOSRVLWLRQ
g β (Tw Tα ) L3
ν2
1 1
C= = = 2.96 ×10−3 K −1
T f 65 + 273
9.8 × 2.96 ×10−3 × (100 − 30) × (3)3

Gr =
(20.76 ×10−6 ) 2
= 12.7 ×1010
Ra = GrPr
= 12.7 q1010 q 0.697 = 8.85 q1010
)RUWKLVYHUWLFDOF\OLQGHU
D 35
p
L (Gr )1/4
0.2 35
≥ ⇒ 0.0667 > 0.0286.
3 (12.7 ×1010 )1/4
7KHFRUUHODWLRQIRUWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU Nu, FDQEHREWDLQHGIURPWKHH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKDWRIDYHUWLFDO

SODWHDQGIURP(TXDWLRQWKLVLVIRXQGWREH
Nu = 0.13( Ra )1/3
= 0.13q (28.85q1010 )1/3 = 574.5
Nu q K
h=
L
574.5 q 0.03
= = 5.75 W/m 2 K
3
Heat loss,
Q = h(π DL)(Tw − Tα )
= 5.75 × (π × 0.2 × 3)(100 − 30) = 758.7 W
LL +RUL]RQWDOSRVLWLRQ
*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Tw − Tα ) D 3
Grx =
ν2
9.8 × 2.96 ×10−3 × (100 − 30) × (0.2)3
= = 3.77 ×107
(20.76 ×10−6 ) 2
RaD = GrD Pr = 3.77 q107 q 0.697 = 2.63q107
)URP7DEOHWKHYDOXHRI Nu D PD\EHREWDLQHG
Nu D = C (GrD Pr ) m
= 0.13q (2.63q107 )0.333 = 36.96
( Nu D ) q K 36.96 q 0.03
h= = = 5.54 W/m 2 K
D 0.2
Heat loss, Q = h× Q × 0.2 × 3× (100 − 30)

= 5.54 × Q × 0.2 × 3× (100 − 30) = 731 W.
$SLSHRIGLDPHWHUP'DQGOHQJWKPZKLFKLVPDLQWDLQHGDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRI&7w ) is kept

under water at 30°C (TĮ ). Find the rate of heat loss.
50 + 30
Tf = = 40D C
2
For this case,
K = 0.628 W/mK; Pr = 4.34;
O = 0.657 ×10−6 m 2 /s
g β (Tw Tα ) D 3
Grashof number, GrD =
ν2
1
C=
Tf
1
= = 3.195 ×10−3 K −1
40 + 273
9.8 × 3.195 ×10−3 × (50 − 30) × (0.2)3

GrD =
(0.657 ×10−6 ) 2
= 1.16 ×1010
RaD = GrD Pr
= 1.16 q1010 q 4.34 = 5.4 q1011
)RUWKHDERYHUDQJHRI RaD , WKHFRUUHODWLRQIRU1XVVHOWQXPEHUIURP7DEOHLV
Nu = 0.125( RaD )1/3

= 0.125(5.4 q1011 )1/3 = 1008.8
Nu D q K
h=
Q
1008.8 q 0.628
= = 3167.6 W/m 2 K
0.2
+HDWORVVSHUPHWUHOHQJWKRIWKHSLSH
Q = h π D(Tw − Tα )
= 3167.6 × (π × 0.2) × (50 − 30) = 39.81 kW.
$ZLUHRIGLDPHWHUPP'DQGOHQJWKPLVSODFHGKRUL]RQWDOO\DQGLWVVXUIDFHLVPDLQWDLQHGDWD

constant temperature of 60°C (Tw ). The wire is exposed to air at 20°C (TĮ ). Find the heat loss from the
wire.
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
60 + 20
Tf = = 40D C
2
O = 16.96 ×10−6 m 2 /s; K = 26.56 ×10−3 W/mK; Pr = 0.7
*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Tw Tα ) D 3
GrD =
ν2
1
C= = 3.2 ×10−3 K −1
Tf
9.8 × 3.2 ×10−3 × (60 − 20) × (0.2 ×10−3 )3

GrD = = 3.5 ×10−2
(16.96 ×10−6 ) 2
RaD = GrD Pr
= 2.4 ×10−2
For RaD LQWKHDERYHUDQJHIURP7DEOHWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU Nu, LVJLYHQE\
Nu = 1.02( RaD )0.148

= 1.02 × (2.4 ×10−2 )0.148 = 0.59
Nu × K
h=
D
0.59 × 26.56 ×10−3
= = 78.2 W/m 2 K
0.2 ×10−3
+HDWORVVSHUPHWUHOHQJWK
Q = h π D(Tw − Tα )
= 78.2(π × 0.2 ×10−3 )(60 − 20) = 1.97 W.
$:EXOEDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRI&7w ) is exposed to air at a temperature of 20°C (TĮ ). If the bulb

GLDPHWHULVPP'¿QGWKHKHDWORVVDVVXPLQJWKDWLWLVDVSKHUH
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
120 + 20
Tf = = 70D C
2
K = 29.64 ×10−3 W/mK;
O = 20.2 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 0.695

*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Tw Tα ) D 3
GrD =
ν2
1
C=
Tf
1
= = 2.92 ×10−3 K −1
70 + 273
9.8 × 2.92 ×10−3 × (120 − 20) × (0.06)3

GrD =
(20.2 ×10−6 ) 2
= 1.5 ×106
RaD = GrD Pr
= 1.5 q106 q 0.694 = 1.04 q106
)URP(TXDWLRQ
Nusselt number, Nu D = 2 + 0.5( RaD )1/4

= 2 + 0.5(1.04 ×106 )0.25 = 17.97
Nu D × K
h=
D
17.97 × 29.64 ×10−3
= = 8.88 W/m 2 K
0.06
+HDWORVVE\FRQYHFWLRQ
Q = hπ D 2 (Tw − Tα )
= 8.88 × π × (0.06)2 (120 − 20) = 10.04 W.
$KRWPHWDOF\OLQGHURIGLDPHWHUP'UHMHFWVKHDWZKLOHPDFKLQLQJDWDVSHHGRIUSP1LQ

air. The metal and air temperatures are 65°C (Tw ) and 15°C (TĮ ), respectively. Find the rate of heat
loss.
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
65 + 15
Tf = = 40D C
2
O = 16.96 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 0.7;
K = 27.56 ×10−3 W/mK

*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Tw Tα ) D 3
GrD =
ν2
1
C=
Tf
1
= = 3.195 ×10−3 K −1
40 + 273
9.8 × 3.195 ×10−3 × (65 − 15) × (0.5)3

GrD =
(16.96 ×10−6 ) 2
= 6.8×108
RaD = GrD Pr
= 6.8 q108 q 0.7 = 4.76 q108
8VLQJ(TXDWLRQ
wQ D 2
ReD =
r
⎛ 2Q N ⎞⎟ Q D 2
= ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 60 ⎟⎟⎠ r
⎛ 2Q × 300 ⎞⎟ Q × (0.5)2
= ⎜⎜ = 1.46 ×106
⎜⎝ 60 ⎟⎟⎠16.96 ×10−6
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu D = 0.11[0.5( ReD ) 2 + RaD ]0.35

= 0.11× ⎡⎣⎢0.5× (1.46 ×106 ) 2 + 4.76 ×108 ⎤⎦⎥
0.35
= 1783
Nu D q K
h=
D
1783q 0.02756
= = 98.3 W/m 2 K
0.5
5DWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHU
Q = h(π DL)(Tw − Tα ) = 98.3(π × 0.5 ×1)(65 − 15)

= 7.72 kW/m.
Find the rate of heat transfer by free convection across the air space between two square parallel ver-
tical plates of area 1 m qPVHSDUDWHGE\DGLVWDQFHRIFP/HQFORVLQJDLUDWDSUHVVXUHRIDWP
The temperatures of hot (To ) and cold (Ti ) plates are 100°C (Ti ) and 20°C (To ), respectively.
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
Ti + To 100 + 20
Tf = = = 60D C
2 2
O = 18.97 ×10−6 m 2 /s; K = 28.96 ×10−3 W/mK; Pr = 0.696
7KH5D\OHLJKQXPEHURaLVJLYHQE\
g β (Ti To ) L3
Ra = Pr
ν2
L = 0.05 cm;
1
C=
Tm
1
= = 3.0 ×10−3 K −1
60 + 273
7KHUHIRUH
9.81× 3×10−3 × (100 − 20) × (0.05)3 × 0.696
Ra = = 5.2 ×105
(18.97 ×10−6 ) 2
7KHDVSHFWUDWLR H/L = 1/0.05 = 20
7KHVXLWDEOHFRUUHODWLRQIRUWKLVUDQJHRIH/LDQGRaLV
−0.3
⎛H ⎞
Nu = 0.42( Ra )0.25 Pr 0.012 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ L ⎠
= 0.42(5.2 ×105 )0.25 (0.696)0.012 (20)−0.3 = 4.57
Nu q K
h=
L
4.57 q 0.02896
= = 2.65 W/m 2 K
0.05
Heat transfer rate,
Q = hA(Ti − To )
= 2.65 ×1×1× (100 − 20) = 211.82 W.
The surface of a tube of outer diameter (Di ) 0.1 m is maintained at a temperature of 400 K (Ti ). An
LQVXODWLRQLVSURYLGHGFRQFHQWULFWRWKHWXEHZLWKDQDLUJDSRIPPDQGWKHLQVXODWLRQLVDW.7o ).
)LQGWKHKHDWORVWSHUPHWUHOHQJWKRIWXEH
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
Ti + To
Tf = = 355 K
2
O = 21.1×10−6 m 2 /s; K = 30.47 ×10−3 W/m K; Pr = 0.692
)RUFRQFHQWULFF\OLQGHUVWKHKHDWORVWSHUXQLWOHQJWKQ,LVJLYHQE\
2Q K eff (Ti To )
Q=
ln ( Do /Di )
)URP(TXDWLRQ
⎡ ⎤
1/4
Pr
K eff = K (0.386) ⎢ ⎥ ( Rac )1/4
⎢⎣ 0.861 + Pr ⎥⎦
ZKHUH
[ln ( Do /Di )]4 Rat
Ra = and
t 3[ Di−3/5 + Do−3/5 ]5
g β (Ti To )t 3 Do Di
Rat = Pr , where t = .
ν2 2
7KHUHIRUH
9.8 × 2.82 ×10−3 × (400 − 310) × (15 ×10−3 )3 × 0.692

Rat =
(21.1×10−6 ) 2
= 13047.6
⎡ ⎛ 0.13 ⎞⎤
4
⎢ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎢ ⎜⎝ 0.1 ⎟⎟⎠⎥ ×13047.6
Rac = ⎣ ⎦ = 835.4
(0.015)3[(0.1)−3/5 + (0.13)−3/5 ]5
7KHHIIHFWLYHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\
⎛ ⎞⎟
1/4
0.692
K eff = 0.03047 × 0.386⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 0.861 + 0.692 ⎟⎟⎠
(835.4)1/4
= 0.052 W/mK
Heat loss,
2Q× 0.052 × (400 − 310)

Q= = 111.35 W/m.
⎛ 0.13 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 0.1 ⎟⎠
$LUDWEDU¿OOVWKHVSDFHEHWZHHQWZRFRQFHQWULFVSKHUHVKDYLQJGLDPHWHUVFP'i ) and 15 cm

(Do ), respectively. The surface temperatures of the inner and outer spheres are maintained at 50°C
(Ti ) and 20°C (To ), respectively. Find the heat transfer rate and compare it with the heat transfer
rate for air at atmospheric pressure.
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
50 + 20
Tm = = 35D C
2
Pr = 0.7; K = 26.65 ×10−3 W/m K; N = 18.8 ×10−6 N m 2
P
Density, S =
RTm
5 q105
= = 5.66 kg/m3
287 q 308
7KHUHIRUH
18.8 ×10−6
O= = 3.32 ×10−6 m 2 /s
5.66
*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Ti To )t 3
Grt =
ν2
1 1 D − Di
C= = = 3.25 ×10−3 K −1; t = o = 2.5 cm
Tm 308 2
7KHUHIRUH
9.8 × 3.25×10−3 × (50 − 20) × (2.5×10−2 )3

Grt = = 1.35 ×106
(3.32 ×10−6 ) 2
Rat = Grs Pr = 1.35 q103 q 0.7 = 9.45 q105
)URP(TXDWLRQWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWH
⎛ QD D ⎞
Q = K eff ⎜⎜ i o ⎟⎟⎟ (Ti − To )
⎜⎝ t ⎠
⎛ ⎞⎟
1/4
Pr
K eff = K × 0.74 ×⎜⎜ ( Ras∗ )1/4
⎜⎝ 0.81 + Pr ⎟⎟⎠
⎡⎛ t ⎞⎟ Rat ⎤
Ras* = ⎢⎢⎜⎜⎜ 4⎟
⎟ ⎥ = 4.94 ×103
−7/5 5 ⎥
⎜ ⎟ −7/5
⎢⎣⎝ ( Di Do ) ⎠ [(0.1) + (0.15) ] ⎥⎦
7KHUHIRUH
⎛ ⎞⎟
1/4
0.7
K eff = 0.02665 × 0.744 ×⎜⎜ (4.94 ×103 )1/4
⎜⎝ 0.861 + 0.7 ⎟⎟⎠
= 0.136 W/mK
Heat transfer rate,

0.136 × Q × 0.1× 0.15 × (100 − 20)
Q=
0.025
= 20.51 W
)RUDLUDWDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUH
S = 1.15 kg/m3
O = 16.43×10−6 m 2 /s
*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Ti To )t 3
Grt =
ν2
9.8 × 3.25×10−3 × (50 − 20) × (2.5×10−2 )3

= = 5.53×104
(16.43×10−6 ) 2
7KHUHIRUH
Rat = 5.53q104 q 0.7
= 3.87 q104
⎡⎛ t ⎞⎟ Ra ⎤
Ras* = ⎢⎢⎜⎜⎜ 4⎟
⎟ −7/5 t −7/5 5 ⎥
⎥
⎜ ⎟
⎢⎣⎝ ( Di Do ) ⎠ ( Di + Do ) ⎥⎦
⎡⎛ 0.025 ⎞ 3.87 ×104 ⎤
= ⎢⎢⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
4⎟
⎥ = 2.02 ×103
⎟ − − ⎥
⎣⎢⎝ (0.1× 0.15) ⎠ [(0.1) + (0.15) ] ⎥⎦
7/5 7/5 5
7KHUHIRUH
⎡ ⎤
1/4
Pr
K eff = K × 0.744 ⎢ ⎥ ( Ras* )1/4
⎢⎣ 0.861 + Pr ⎥⎦
⎡ ⎤
1/4
0.7
= 0.02665 × 0.744 ⎢ ⎥ (2.02 ×103 )1/4
⎣⎢ 0.861 + 0.7 ⎥⎦
= 0.109 W/mK
Heat transfer rate,

⎛ QD D ⎞
Q = K eff ⎜⎜ i o ⎟⎟⎟ (Ti − To )
⎜⎝ t ⎠
0.109 × Q × 0.1× 0.15 × (50 − 20)
= = 6.15 W
0.025
+LJKHUWKHDLUSUHVVXUHEHWZHHQFRQFHQWULFVSKHUHVKLJKHULVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWH
Air at 1 bar and 30°C (TĮÀRZVZLWKDYHORFLW\8RIPVWKURXJKDKRUL]RQWDOWXEHRIGLDPHWHU

cm (D). If the tube surface is maintained at 130°C (Tw¿QGWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUSHUXQLWOHQJWKRI
the tube.
)LOPWHPSHUDWXUH
130 + 30
Tf =
2
= 80D C
O = 21.09 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 0.692; K = 0.03047 W/mK
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
UD
ReD =
O
0.250.02
= = 237.08 (laminar flow )
21.09 ×10−6
*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Tw Tα ) D 3
GrD =
ν2
1 1
C= = = 2.833×10−3 K −1
T f 80 + 273
7KHUHIRUH
9.8 × 2.83×10−3 × (130 − 30)(0.02)3
GrD = = 5.0 ×104
(21.09 ×10−6 ) 2
Hence,
Gr 5.0 q104
2
= = 0.89 1 (This is mixed convection probllem.)
( ReD ) (237.08)2
7KHUHIRUHWKHUHTXLUHGFRUUHODWLRQLVJLYHQE\(TXDWLRQ
⎛N ⎞
0.14
Nu = 1.75⎜⎜⎜ b ⎟⎟⎟ ⎡Gz + 0.012(GzPr 1/3 ) 4/3 ⎤

1/3
⎜⎝ Ns ⎟⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
Here,
The dynamic viscosity at temperature TB ,
Nb = 18.63×10−6 Ns/m 2
The dynamic viscosity at tube wall temperature Tw ,
Ns = 23.29 ×10−6 Ns/m 2
⎛ D⎞
The Graetz number, Gr = ReD Pr ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ L ⎠
⎛ 0.02 ⎞⎟
= 237.08 × 0.692⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 1 ⎟⎟⎠
7KHUHIRUH
⎛ 18.63 ⎞⎟
0.14
Nu = 1.75⎜⎜ ⎡3.28 + 0.012 × (3.28× 0.6921/3 ) 4/3 ⎤

1/3
⎜⎝ 23.29 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
= 2.532
7KHUHIRUH
Nu q K 2.532 q 0.03047
h= =
D 0.02
= 3.86 W/m 2 K
Heat transfer rate,
Q = hA(Tw − Tα )
= 3.86 × π × 0.02 ×1× (130 − 30) = 24.25 W/m.
&DOFXODWHWKHUDWHRIFRQYHFWLRQKHDWORVVSHUXQLWOHQJWKIURPDKRUL]RQWDOHOHFWULFDOZLUHRIGLDPHWHU
.002 mm and maintained at 124°C. The temperature of the room air is 30°C. If the wire is kept in a car-
ERQGLR[LGHDWPRVSKHUHDW&¿QGWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU
)RUD¿OPWHPSHUDWXUHRI&WKH5D\OHLJKQXPEHULV
g βδTD 3
RaD = Pr
ν2
9.8 × (350)−1 × 94 × (0.002)3
= = 46.84
(2.12 ×10−5 ) 2
= 1.51
(1.51)(0.0291)
hc = = 21.97 W/m 2 K
0.002
Q = 21.97 q Q q 0.002 q1q 94 = 12.1 W
)RUD¿OPWHPSHUDWXUHRI&WKHSURSHUWLHVRIFDUERQGLR[LGHDUHVXFKWKDW
RaD = 168.15
Nu D = 1.995
h c = 20.42 W/m 2 K and
Q = 12.05 W.
Find the electrical power required to maintain the vertical heater surface at 120°C (Ts ) in air at 30°C (TĮ ).
7KH SODWH LV FP KLJK / DQG FP ZLGH : ,I WKH SODWH LV FP KLJK /1 WKHQ ¿QG WKH SRZHU
UHTXLUHG$VVXPHWKDWWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUUDGLDWLRQ h r , LV:P2K.
L FPKLJKSODWH
)RU¿OPWHPSHUDWXUHRI&
GrL = 4.68 q107 ; Pr = 0.71; GrPr = 3.32 q1011
$VWKH*UDVKRIQXPEHULVOHVVWKDQ,WKHÀRZLVODPLQDU7KHDYHUDJH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
K 35.9 × 2.9 ×10−2

h c = 35.9 = = 5.21 W/m 2 K
L 0.2
Q = A(h c + h r )(Ts − T∞ )
= (2 × 0.2 × 0.15)(5.21 + 9.0) × 90 = 76.73 W
LL FPKLJKSODWH
)RU¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH&Ra q7KHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQW7KHDYHUDJH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
DQG h c = 6.1 W/m 2 K
Q = (2 × 4.5 × 0.15)(6.1 + 9.0) × 90 = 1834 W.
)LQGWKHUDWHRIFRQYHFWLRQKHDWORVVIURPWKHWRSDQGERWWRPVLGHVRIDÀDWKRUL]RQWDOVTXDUHSODWHRI
area 2 m2, heated to 224°C (Tw ) and surrounded by air at 30°C (TĮ ).
&KDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWK(LcRIWKHVTXDUHSODWHLV L2 /4 L = 0.25 m. )RUSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDW¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH

of &
g β (Tw − Ta ) L3c Pr
RaL =
γ2
9.8 ×194 × (0.25)3 0.71
= = 7.23×107
400 × (2.7 ×10−5 ) 2
8VLQJ(TXDWLRQ1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKHERWWRPRIWKHSODWHKRWVXUIDFHIDFLQJ

GRZQZDUGVLVREWDLQHG
Nu L = 0.27(7.23q107 )0.25 = 24.9
h = (24.9)(0.032)/(0.25) = 3.18 W/m 2 K
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKHWRSVXUIDFHKRWVXUIDFHIDFLQJXSZDUGVLVGHWHUPLQHG

XVLQJ(TXDWLRQDVIROORZV
Nu L = 0.14( Ra )1/3
= 0.14(7.23q107 )0.33 = 58.83
(58.83)(0.032)
h= = 7.53 W/m 2 K
(0.25)
7KHWRWDOFRQYHFWLRQKHDWORVV
Q = 2 × (3.18 + 7.53) ×194

= 4155 W.
A closed pan with water to a depth of 4 cm (L) is placed on a stove and the bottom of the pan is main-
tained at 105°C (Tw ). If the water is initially at room temperature, 15°C, (Ta ) what will be the rate
of heat transfer from the burner to the water? Assume the pan to be circular and its diameter to be
20 cm (d).
3URSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW&JLYHV H = 0.478 ×10−6 ; Pr = 3.02
g β (Tw − Ta ) L3 Pr
Ra =
γ2
9.8 × 90 × (0.04)3 × 3.02
=
333× (0.478×10−6 ) 2
= 2.24 ×109
Nu E = 74.24
K 74.24 q 0.657
h = Nu = = 1219 W/m 2 K
E 0.04
⎛ Q × (0.2)2 ⎞⎟
Q = 1219 ×⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟× 90 = 3446 W.
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
$VWHHOVKDIWRIGLDPHWHUFPLVKHDWHGWR&DQGWKHQDOORZHGWRFRROLQDLUDW&ZKLOHURWDWLQJ
about its own (horizontal) axis at 5 revolutions per minute. Find the rate of convection heat transfer from
RQHPHWUHOHQJWKRIWKHVKDIWZKHQLWKDVFRROHGWR&
7KHURWDWLRQVSHHGRIWKHVKDIWLV
2π q 5
ω= = 0.52 rad/s
60
)RUSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDW&
π × (0.075)2 × 0.52
Reω = = 473.6
1.94 ×10−5
9.8 × (333)−1 × 70 × (0.15)3 × 0.71

Ra = = 1.312 ×107
(1.94 ×10−5 ) 2
)RUDURWDWLQJKRUL]RQWDOF\OLQGHU
Nu D = 0.11[0.5(473.6)2 + 1.312 ×107 ]0.35 = 34.19
34.19 q 0.0279
hc = = 6.36 W/m 2 K
0.15
Q = 6.36 q (Q q 0.15 q1) q 70 = 209.68 W.
:DWHUHQWHUVDWXEHDW&7i ) and is heated to 30°C (To ). The inner diameter of the tube is 0.03 m (D)
DQGWKHPDVVÀRZUDWHRIZDWHUPLVNJV7KHWXEHLVZUDSSHGZLWKDQLQVXODWHGHOHFWULFKHDWLQJ
HOHPHQWZKLFKSURGXFHVDXQLIRUPÀX[RI:P2 (q) on the surface. Find (i) the Reynolds number
LLWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDQGLLLOHQJWKRIWKHSLSHQHHGHG
3URSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW& are
S = 997 kg/m3
c p = 4180 J/kgK
K = 0.608 W/mK
N = 910 ×10−6 N s/m 2
ρUD 4m 4 × 0.01

L ReD = = = = 467
μ π Dμ π × 0.03× 910 ×10−6
LL )RUXQLIRUPKHDWÀX[ Nu D = 4.36
K 0.608
h c = 4.36 = 4.36 q = 88.36 W/m 2 K
D 0.03
LLL 7KHOHQJWKRISLSHQHHGHGIRUDWHPSHUDWXUHULVHRI&LVREWDLQHGIURPWKHKHDWEDODQFH
p (Tout Tin )
q" Q DL = mc
pδT
mc
L=
π Dq"
0.01q 4180 q10
= = 0.44 m.
π q 0.03q10000
(QJLQHRLOÀRZVWKURXJKDFRSSHUWXEHRILQQHUGLDPHWHUFPDQGWKLFNQHVVFPDWWKHUDWHRI
NJV7KHRLOHQWHUVDW&DQGLVKHDWHGWR&E\VWHDPFRQGHQVLQJRQWKHRXWVLGH)LQGWKHKHDW
WUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDVVXPLQJWKDWWKHSUHVVXUHRIWKHVWHDPLVEDU
3URSHUWLHVRIRLODW&DUHDVIROORZV
c p = 1964 J/kgK
S = 876 kg/m3
K = 0.144 W/mK
N = 0.210 N s/m 2
Pr = 2870
4m 4 q 0.06
ReD = = = 18.19
μπ D π q 0.210 q 0.02
7KHÀRZLVODPLQDUDQG Nu D = 3.66
K 0.144
h c = Nu D = 3.36 q = 24.2 W/m 2 K.
D 0.02
)LQGWKHDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUÀRZRIQEXW\ODOFRKRODWDEXONWHPSHUDWXUHRI.
WKURXJKDPqPVTXDUHGXFW7KHOHQJWKRIWKHGXFWLVPZLWKDZDOOWHPSHUDWXUHRI.
7KHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\RIWKHÀXLGLVPV
⎛ 0.1× 0.1⎞⎟
DH = 4 ×⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 4 × 0.1 ⎟⎟⎠
= 0.1 m
3URSHUWLHVRInEXW\ODOFRKRODW.DUHDVIROORZV
S = 810 kg/m3
c p = 2366 J/kgK
N = 29.5 ×10−4 N s/m 2
O = 3.64 ×10−6 m 2 /s
K = 0.167 W/mK
Pr = 50.8
UDH ρ
ReD =
H μ
0.05 × 0.2 × 810
= = 274.5
29.5 ×10−4
7KHÀRZLVODPLQDU
h c DH
Nu DH = = 2.98
K
7KHDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
0.167
h c = 2.98 q = 2.49 W/m 2 K.
0.2
$GHYLFHLVFRROHGE\ZDWHUÀRZLQJWKURXJKFDSLOODU\KROHVGULOOHGLQLWVFDVLQJ7KHWHPSHUDWXUHRI
WKHGHYLFHFDVLQJLV.7KHFDSLOODU\KROHVDUHPORQJDQGq 10í m in diameter. If water
HQWHUVDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRI.DQGÀRZVDWDYHORFLW\RIPV¿QGWKHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKH
water.
3URSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW.DUHDVIROORZV
S = 983 kg/m3
c p = 4181 J/kgK
N = 4.72 ×10−4 Ns/m 2
K = 0.658 W/mK
Pr = 3.00
ρUD 983× 0.3× 0.003

ReD = = = 1874
μ 4.72 ×10−4
7KHÀRZLVODPLQDU
⎛ T + T2 ⎞⎟
Q = h c Q DL ⎜⎜Ts − 1 ⎟ = mc p (T2 − T1 )
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
$W. Ns = 3.56 ×10−4 Ns/m 2
⎡1874 × 3.00 × 0.003) ⎤ ⎛ 4.72 ⎞⎟

0.33 0.14
Nu D = 1.86 ⎢ ⎥ ⎜⎜
⎢⎣ 0.5 ⎥⎦ ⎜⎝ 3.56 ⎟⎟⎠
= 6.18
K Nu D
hc =
D
0.658 q 6.18
= = 1355 W/m 2 K
0.003
7KHPDVVÀRZUDWHLV
πD2
m = ρ U
4
983× π × (0.003)2 × 0.03
=
4
= 2.1×10−3 kg/s
⎛ 333 + T2 ⎞⎟
Q = 1355 × Q × 0.003× 0.5⎜⎜355 − ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
= 2.1×10−3 × 4181× (T2 − 333)
Therefore, T2 = 345 K.
$SULQWHGFLUFXLWERDUGLVWREHFRROHGE\IRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQFRROLQJZLWKDLUDW&ÀRZLQJDWDYHORFLW\
RIPV7KHERDUGLVPPVTXDUHDQGPPKLJKDQGVSDFLQJEHWZHHQWKHERDUGVLVPP)LQG
WKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVIRUWKHVHFRQGLQWHJUDWHGFLUFXLWDORQJWKHÀRZSDWK
$W&WKHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDUH O = 15.7 ×10−6 m 2 /s DQG K = 0.0251 W/mK.
UH c
ReH =
c O
2 × 0.02
= = 2548
15.7 ×10−6
Nu2 = 29
Nu2 K 42 q 0.0251
hc,2 = =
L 0.03
= 27.0 W/m 2 K.
Find the rate of convective heat loss from a horizontal wire with a surface area of 0.002 m2, held at
402 K in quiescent air at 302 K.
g βδTD 3
RaD = Pr
ν2
9.8 × (3.53)−1 ×100 × (0.002)3 × 0.71
= = 35.5
(2.109 ×10−5 )−22
)URP7DEOH Nu = 1.02( Ra )0.151
2.34 q 0.0304
hc =
0.002
= 35.6 W/m 2 K
7KHUDWHRIKHDWORVVSHUXQLWOHQJWK
q = 35.56 q100 q 0.002

= 7 W.
$SLSHFDUU\LQJVWHDPKDVPRIRXWHUGLDPHWHU'ZLWKVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUH7s ) of 210°C passes

WKURXJKDURRP7KHURRPZDOOVDQGDLUDUHNHSWDW&7a ). Determine the heat loss from the pipe if
HPLVVLYLW\RIWKHSLSHİs ) is 0.75.
$LUSURSHUWLHVDWTf &DUH
k qí:P.
Pr
Ȗ qí m/s
g β (Ts − Ta ) D
3 ⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
Grashof number (GrD ) = ⎨∴ E = ⎬
γ
2
⎩⎪ T f ⎪⎭
9.81 × (1 / 393) (210 − 30)(0.2)3

= = 5.55 × 107
(25.45 × 10−6 ) 2
2
⎧ ⎫
⎪ 0.387(Gr Pr )1/6 ⎪
Nu D = ⎨0.6 + ⎬
9 / 16 8 / 27
⎪ ⎡1 + ( 0.559 / Pr ) ⎤ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎭
2
⎧ ⎫
⎪ 0.387(5.55 × 107 × 0.68)1/6 ⎪
= ⎨0.6 + 8 / 27 ⎬
⎪ ⎡1 + ( 0.559 / 0.68 )9 / 16 ⎤ ⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎭
= 42.23
k × Nu D
∴ h=
D
33.38 × 10−3 × 42.23
= = 7.05 W/m 2 K
0.2
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5
Forced Convection
Ɣ 7KHWHUPIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQLVXVHGLIÀXLGPRWLRQDQGPL[LQJLV
FDXVHGE\DIDQRUSXPS
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5.1 CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER

Most industrial applications such as heat transfer in heat exchangers, boilers, quenching of metals, and
,&HQJLQHVLQYROYHKHDWWUDQVIHUEHWZHHQDVROLGVXUIDFHDQGDÀXLG&RQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUGXHWR
WHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQDVXUIDFHDQGÀXLGLVLQÀXHQFHGE\WKHÀXLGSURSHUWLHVWKHJHRPHWU\
RIWKHVXUIDFHDQGWKHÀXLGYHORFLW\7KHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHULVGHWHUPLQHGXVLQJWKH1HZWRQ¶V
law of cooling
Q = hA(Ts − TB )
where ‘h¶LVWKHFRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW, A is the area of contact between solid surface and

WKHÀXLGTs and TĮDUHVXUIDFHDQGÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHVUHVSHFWLYHO\$VWKHÀRZFRQGLWLRQVFKDQJHIURP
point to point, the value of hDOVRYDULHV7KHYDOXHRIhDWDQ\ORFDWLRQLVNQRZQDVORFDOFRQYHFWLRQ
FRHI¿FLHQW (hx &RQVLGHUDÀRZFRQGLWLRQRYHUDÀDWSODWHDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHURYHUµGx¶LV
dQ = hdA(Ts − TB )
where dA is the area of the elemental length ‘dx¶

7KHWRWDOKHDWWUDQVIHULVJLYHQE\
Q = (Ts − TB ) ∫ h dA.

L
Uα
Tα
Leading edge
dQ
y
x Ts
dx Ts >Tα
Figure 5.1 Convection Heat Transfer
%XWWKHWRWDOKHDWWUDQVIHUEDVHGRQWKHDYHUDJHFRQYHFWLYHFRHI¿FLHQW (h ) for the entire surface is

expressed as
Q = hA(Ts − TB ).
(TXDWLRQVDQGJLYH
h = ∫ h dA.
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1 L
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Q = −kA
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where kLVWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIWKHÀXLGDQGGT/dyLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQWLQWKHÀXLG

SHUSHQGLFXODUWRWKHVXUIDFH7KHWHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQW changes in the x and yGLUHFWLRQV
(TXDWLRQVDQGJLYH
−k (dT / dy ) y =0
h= .
(Ts − TB )
5.2 VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER

,IDÀXLGÀRZVRYHUDVROLGVXUIDFHDVVKRZQLQ)LJWKHQWKHORFDOÀXLGYHORFLW\ (uLV]HURDW
the solid surface and increases with the distance (yDQGWKHQUHDFKHVIUHHÀRZYHORFLW\ (uĮ7KLV
YHORFLW\YDULDWLRQLVGXHWRYLVFRVLW\RIWKHÀXLG7KHWKLFNQHVVįRIWKHYHORFLW\ERXQGDU\OD\HU is
determined from the locus of the values of ‘y¶DWZKLFKu uĮ from the leading edge9HORFLW\
gradient and shear stressHVDUHODUJHZLWKLQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUDQGWKH\DUHQHJOLJLEOHRXWVLGHWKH
ERXQGDU\OD\HU
FORCED CONVECTION | 167
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Ƈ Surface roughness
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Z
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viscous force
Laminar Transition Turbulent
Velocity boundary layer

u∞
y Laminar
u∞ sublayer
X u
Figure 5.2 Velocity Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate
uB x
Rex =
v
where uĮLVWKHIUHHÀXLGYHORFLW\, x is the distance from leading edge, and ȞLVWKHNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\

RIWKHÀXLG
5.3 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER ON A FLAT PLATE

$Q HOHPHQWDO FRQWURO YROXPH DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ LV FRQVLGHUHG IRU WKH DQDO\VLV 7R GHULYH WKH
HTXDWLRQRIPRWLRQIRUWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKHIRUFHDQGPRPHQWXPEDODQFHLVWREHGRQHRQWKLV
HOHPHQW$VVXPSWLRQVUHTXLUHGIRUWKLV'DQDO\VLVDUHWKHIROORZLQJ
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∂v
v+ dy
∂y
⎡ ∂u ∂ ⎛⎜ ∂u ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥
N d x ⎢⎢ + ⎜ ⎟d y
⎣ ∂ y ∂ y ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
Boundary layer u ∂u
y ud u+ dy
∂y
p dy ⎛⎜ ∂p ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ p + d x⎟d y
dy ⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠
dx
x su
udx
dx sy
v
Figure 5.3 Force Balance for Elemental Control Volume
F x LQFUHDVHLQPRPHQWXPÀX[LQWKHxGLUHFWLRQ
7KHPRPHQWXPÀX[LVWKHSURGXFWRIWKHPDVVÀRZWKURXJKDSDUWLFXODUVLGHRIWKHFRQWUROYROXPH
and the xFRPSRQHQWRIYHORFLW\DWWKDWSRLQW
$PDVVEDODQFH on the element in the x and y directions is
⎛ ∂u ⎞⎟ ⎛ ∂υ ⎞⎟
ρu dy + ρv dx = ρ ⎜⎜u + dx⎟⎟ dy + ρ ⎜⎜⎜υ + dy ⎟ dx
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎟⎟⎠
where u and u are velocities in the x and y directions and ȡLVWKHÀXLGGHQVLW\

7KHFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQIRUWKHERXQGDU\OD\HU is
∂u ∂V
+ = 0.
∂x ∂y
7KHVXPRIWKHYLVFRXVVKHDUDQGSUHVVXUHIRUFHV is equal to the net momentum transfer in the x
direction, and hence
∂ 2u ∂p ⎛ ⎞
2
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
μ d xd y − d x d y = ρ ⎜⎜u + ∂u dx⎟⎟ dy − ρu 2 dy + ρ ⎜⎜υ + ∂u d y ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜u + ∂u d y⎟⎟ d x − ρυu d x
∂y ∂x ⎜⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎟ ⎜ ∂y ⎟ ⎜
⎟⎠ ⎝ ∂y ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
where ȝLVWKHG\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\RIWKHÀXLGDQGȡLVWKHÀXLGSUHVVXUHLQWKHxGLUHFWLRQ
8VLQJWKHFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQDQGQHJOHFWLQJVHFRQGRUGHUGLIIHUHQWLDOV
⎛ ∂u ∂u ⎞ ∂ 2 u ∂p
ρ ⎜⎜⎜υ + + υ ⎟⎟⎟ = μ 2 − .
⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠ ∂y ∂x
7KLV LV WKH PRPHQWXP HTXDWLRQ RI WKH ODPLQDU ERXQGDU\ OD\HU ZLWK FRQVWDQW SURSHUWLHV 7KH
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&RQVLGHU D ERXQGDU\OD\HU ÀRZ DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ /HW WKH IUHHVWUHDP YHORFLW\ outside the
ERXQGDU\OD\HULVUfDQGWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVLVį7RPDNHDPRPHQWXPDQGIRUFHEDODQFH
RQWKHFRQWUROYROXPHDVVKRZQLQ)LJWKHYHORFLW\FRPSRQHQWVQRUPDOWRWKHZDOODUHQHJOHFWHG
and those in the xGLUHFWLRQRQO\DUHFRQVLGHUHG
Control volume
4 3
u∞ u∞
H
y
dy
δ
x
dx
1 2
Figure 5.4 Integral Momentum Analysis of Elemental Control Volume
7KHQHWPRPHQWXPÀRZ out of the control volume is
d ⎛ H 2 ⎞⎟ d ⎛ H ⎞
⎜⎜ ∫ Su d y ⎟⎟ d x − u∞ ⎜⎜ ∫ Su d y ⎟⎟⎟ d x
dx ⎝ 0 ⎠ dx ⎝ 0 ⎠
d ⎛ H ⎞ d ⎛ H ⎞ du ⎛ H ⎞
u∞ ⎜⎜ ∫ Su d y ⎟⎟⎟ d x = ⎜⎜u∞ ∫ Su d y ⎟⎟⎟ d x − ∞ ⎜⎜ ∫ Su d y ⎟⎟⎟ d x
dx ⎝ 0 ⎠ dx ⎝ 0 ⎠ dx ⎝ 0 ⎠

d ⎛ H ⎞⎟ d u∞ ⎛ H ⎞⎟
d x ⎜⎝ ∫0 d x ⎝⎜ ∫0
= ⎜ Suu∞ d y ⎟⎟ d x − ⎜ Su d y ⎟⎟ d x.
⎠ ⎠
7KHIDFWRUufPD\EHSODFHGLQVLGHWKHLQWHJUDODVLWLVQRWDIXQFWLRQRIy
7KHVKHDUIRUFH at the wall is
∂u ⎤⎥
−τ w d x = −μ d x .
∂y ⎥⎦ y =0
$VWKHIRUFHVRQWKHHOHPHQWDUHHTXDOWRWKHQHWLQFUHDVHLQPRPHQWXP
dp d H du H
−τ w −
dx
H = −ρ ∫
dx 0
(u∞ − u )u d y + ∞
dx ∫ 0
ρu d y.
(TXDWLRQLVWKHLQWHJUDOPRPHQWXPHTXDWLRQRIWKHERXQGDU\OD\HU,ISUHVVXUHLVFRQVWDQW

WKURXJKRXWWKHÀRZ
dp du
− = 0 = −Su∞ ∞
dx dx
DVWKHSUHVVXUHDQGIUHHVWUHDPYHORFLW\DUHUHODWHGE\WKH%HUQRXOOLHTXDWLRQ)RUFRQVWDQWSUHVVXUH
FRQGLWLRQWKHLQWHJUDOERXQGDU\OD\HUHTXDWLRQ becomes
d H d u ⎤⎥
ρ
dx ∫ 0
(u∞ − u )u d y = τ w = μ
d y ⎥⎦ y =0
.
7KHXSSHUOLPLWRIWKHLQWHJUDOEHFRPHVįDVWKHLQWHJUDOLV]HURIRUy > į as u = uf

,IWKHYHORFLW\SUR¿OHLVNQRZQDQDSSURSULDWHIXQFWLRQFRXOGEHXVHGLQ(TXDWLRQWR¿QGWKH
ERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVV)RUDSSUR[LPDWHDQDO\VLVWKHYHORFLW\IXQFWLRQPXVWVDWLVI\WKHIROORZLQJ
u=0 at y = 0
u = u∞ at y = E
∂u
= 0 at y = E.
∂y
)RUDFRQVWDQWSUHVVXUHFRQGLWLRQ(TXDWLRQ\LHOGV
∂ 2u
= 0 at y = 0
∂y 2
as the velocities u and vDUH]HURDWy $VVXPLQJWKDWWKHYHORFLW\SUR¿OHVDWYDULRXVx positions are
VLPLODUWKHUHDUHIRXUFRQGLWLRQVWRVDWLVI\7KHVLPSOHVWIXQFWLRQWKDWFDQEHFKRVHQWRVDWLVI\WKHVH
FRQGLWLRQVLVDSRO\QRPLDOZLWKIRXUDUELWUDU\FRQVWDQWV
u = C1 + C2 y + C3 y 2 + C4 y 3 .
8VLQJWKHFRQGLWLRQVWKDWWKLVYHORFLW\IXQFWLRQPXVWVDWLVI\
3 y 1 ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟
3
u
= − ⎜ ⎟ .
u∞ 2 E 2 ⎜⎝ E ⎟⎠
8VLQJWKLVYHORFLW\LQ(TXDWLRQZHJHW
⎧ ⎡ 3 y 1 ⎛ y ⎞3 ⎤ ⎫⎪⎪
d ⎪⎪ 2 δ ⎡⎢ 3 y 1 ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥ ∂u ⎤⎥
3
⎢1− ⎜ ⎟⎥ 3 μu∞
⎨ρu∞ ∫ ⎢ − ⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎢ 2 δ − 2 ⎜⎜⎝ δ ⎟⎟⎠ ⎥ d y⎬⎪ = μ ∂y ⎥ = .
d x ⎪⎪ 0 2 δ
⎢⎣ 2 ⎜⎝ δ ⎠ ⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎦ y =0 2 δ
⎪⎩ ⎦ ⎦⎥ ⎪⎪⎭
Integrating the above,
d ⎛⎜ 39 2 ⎟
⎞ 3 μu∞
⎜⎜ ρu∞ δ ⎟⎟ = .
d x ⎝ 280 ⎠ 2 δ
$Vȡ and uf are constants,

140 μ 140 v
δ dδ = dx= dx
13 ρu∞ 13 u∞
and
E 2 140 vx
= +C
2 13 u∞
where CLVDFRQVWDQW
$Wx = 0, į = 0, so that
vx
E = 4.64 .
u∞
,QWHUPVRIWKH5H\QROGVQXPEHU
E 4.64
= 1/ 2
x Rex
u∞ x
ZKHUHWKH5H\QROGVQXPEHU Rex =
v
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E 5.0
= .
x Re1x / 2
5.4 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER
:KHQDÀXLGÀRZVRYHUDVXUIDFHDQGERWKDUHPDLQWDLQHGDWGLIIHUHQWWHPSHUDWXUHVWKHQDWKHUPDO
ERXQGDU\OD\HUDOVRIRUPVDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHUHJLRQRIWKHÀXLGQHDUWKHVXUIDFHLQZKLFK
WHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQWH[LVWVLVNQRZQDVWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HU7KHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVV
(įtLVGH¿QHGDVWKHYDOXHRIµy¶IRUZKLFKWKHWHPSHUDWXUHTs – T TsíTBZKHUHT, Ts,
and TfDUHWKHÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHZLWKLQWKHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\VXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHDQGIUHHVWUHDP
ÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVDOVRLQFUHDVHVDORQJWKHÀRZ
GLUHFWLRQIURPWKHOHDGLQJHGJHDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
u∞
T∞
y
δt
T
x
Ts Q
Leading edge
Figure 5.5 Thermal Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate
If the value of (TsíTBUHPDLQVFRQVWDQWWKHQWKHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVLQFUHDVHVLQ

WKHÀRZGLUHFWLRQWHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQWVZLWKLQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUGHFUHDVHZLWKx and heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQWGHFUHDVHVZLWKLQFUHDVLQJx7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUEHWZHHQWKHÀXLGDQGWKHVXUIDFHGHSHQGV
RQWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHWHPSHUDWXUHSUR¿OHLQWKHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUDQGWKHYHORFLW\SUR¿OH
LQ WKH YHORFLW\ ERXQGDU\ OD\HU7KH UHODWLYH WKLFNQHVV RI WKH WKHUPDO DQG YHORFLW\ ERXQGDU\ OD\HUV
DIIHFWVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUEHWZHHQWKHVXUIDFHDQGWKHÀXLG7KHUHODWLYHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHERXQGDU\OD\HU
depends on the Prandtl number (PrRIWKHÀXLGDQGWKH3UDQGWOQXPEHULVGH¿QHGDV
molecular diffusivity of momentum

Pr =
molecular diffusivity of heatt (α )
μc p (μ / ρ ) v
= = =
k (k / ρc p ) α
where NLVWKHG\QDPLFYHORFLW\vLVWKHNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\cpLVWKHVSHFL¿FKHDWk is the thermal

FRQGXFWLYLW\DQGSLVWKHGHQVLW\RIWKHÀXLG
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L /RZ3UDQGWOQXPEHUÀXLGOLTXLGPHWDOV
LL 0RGHUDWH3UDQGWOQXPEHUÀXLGOLJKWOLTXLGVDQG
LLL /DUJH3UDQGWOQXPEHUÀXLGVRLOV
%DVHGRQWKHLU5H\QROGVQXPEHUWKHÀRZLQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HULVFODVVL¿HGDVODPLQDU, transition,
and turbulent ,I WKH ÀXLG SDUWLFOHV PRYH DORQJ VWUHDP OLQHV LQ D KLJKO\ RUGHUHG PDQQHU WKHQ WKH
ÀRZLVNQRZQDVODPLQDUÀRZ,QWXUEXOHQWÀRZWKHPRWLRQRIÀXLGSDUWLFOHVLVKLJKO\LUUHJXODUDQG
LQYROYHVFURVVZLVHPL[LQJ,QWKHWXUEXOHQWUHJLRQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVLVPRUHDQGERXQGDU\
OD\HUSUR¿OHVDUHÀDWWHUWKDQWKRVHLQODPLQDUÀRZ,QWKHWUDQVLWLRQUHJLRQWKHÀRZFKDQJHVIURP
ODPLQDUWRWXUEXOHQW,QPRVWRISUDFWLFDOFDVHVWKHWUDQVLWLRQRFFXUVZKHQ
Rex = Rec 5 ×105
where Rex and RecDUHWKHORFDODQGFULWLFDO5H\QROGVQXPEHUUHVSHFWLYHO\

/DPLQDUYHORFLW\SURILOHVDUHSDUDEROLF, but the turbulent profiles have a linear portion near
WKH VXUIDFH DQG D UHODWLYHO\ IODW SRUWLRQ DIWHU WKDW7KH OLQHDU SRUWLRQ LV NQRZQ DV WKH ODPLQDU
VXEOD\HU
7KHGLVWDQFHPHDVXUHGDORQJWKHSODWHLVWKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWKDQGLWLVXVHGWRFDOFXODWHWKH
5H\QROGVQXPEHU7KHFKDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWKGHSHQGVRQWKHJHRPHWU\RIWKHERG\,QFDVHRIÀRZ
DFURVVDVSKHUHRUDF\OLQGHUWKHGLDPHWHUFDQEHXVHGDVFKDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWK
7KHÀRZLQVLGHDWXEHDQGWKHUHVXOWLQJERXQGDU\OD\HUVDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
Boundary layer
Starting Fully developed

length flow
(a)
Laminar sublayer
Turbulent
core
(b)
Figure 5.6 Velocity Profile for (a) Laminar Flow in a Tube; (b) Turbulent Tube flow
7KHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVLV]HURDWWKHOHDGLQJHGJHDQG¿OOVWKHHQWLUHWXEHDIWHUVRPHGLVWDQFH
IURPWKHOHDGLQJHGJH:KHQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVLVHTXDOWRWKHUDGLXVRIWKHWXEHWKHQWKH
ÀRZLVVDLGWREHIXOO\GHYHORSHG
,QDWXEHÀRZWKHFULWLFDO5H\QROGVQXPEHULVZKLFKFDQEHFDOFXODWHGDV
uB D
Re =
v
where ‘D¶LVWKHGLDPHWHURIWKHWXEH
5.5 ENERGY EQUATION OF THE BOUNDARY LAYER
7KH ÀXLG G\QDPLFV RI D ODPLQDUERXQGDU\OD\HU ÀRZ V\VWHP LV FRQVLGHUHG KHUH WR GHYHORS
WKH HQHUJ\ HTXDWLRQ DQG WKHQ DQ LQWHJUDO PHWKRG RI VROXWLRQ LV XVHG WR VROYH LW ZLWK UHVSHFW
WR WKH HOHPHQWDO FRQWURO YROXPH VKRZQ LQ )LJ 7KH DQDO\VLV LV PDGH XQGHU WKH IROORZLQJ
assumptions:
⎡ ∂T ∂ ⎛⎜ ∂T ⎟⎞ ⎤⎥
−Kdx ⎢⎢ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ dy ⎥
⎣ ∂y ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎦
⎛ ∂v ⎞⎟⎛⎜ ∂T ⎞
Net viscous work Sc p ⎜⎜⎜v + dy ⎟⎟⎜⎜T + dy ⎟⎟⎟ dx
⎝ ∂y ⎠ ⎝ ⎟ ∂y ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂u ⎞
2
y
−N d x ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ d y
⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠
⎛ ∂u ⎞⎟⎛⎜ ∂T ⎞
Sc p ⎜⎜u + d x ⎟⎟⎜T + d x ⎟⎟⎟ dy
⎜⎝ ∂ x ⎠ ⎜⎝ ∂ x ⎠
x U c puT d y
ud
dy
dy
dx
dx
∂T
−K d x dx ȡvc pT d x
∂y
Figure 5.7 Energy Analysis of an Element in Laminar Boundary Layer
)ORZLVLQFRPSUHVVLEOHDQGVWHDG\
9LVFRVLW\WKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\DQGVSHFL¿FKHDWUHPDLQFRQVWDQW
+HDWFRQGXFWLRQLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIÀRZLVQHJOLJLEOH
7KHHQHUJ\EDODQFH for the element is written as follows:
&RQYHFWHGHQHUJ\LQWKHOHIWIDFHFRQYHFWHGHQHUJ\LQWKHERWWRPIDFH
FRQGXFWHGKHDWLQWKHERWWRPIDFH
QHWYLVFRXVZRUNGRQHRQWKHHOHPHQW
FRQYHFWHGHQHUJ\IURPWKHULJKWIDFH
FRQYHFWHGHQHUJ\IURPWKHWRSIDFH
FRQGXFWHGKHDWIURPWKHWRSIDFH
7KHHQHUJ\TXDQWLWLHVDUHLQGLFDWHGLQ)LJ7KHYLVFRXVZRUNLVFRPSXWHGDVDSURGXFWRIWKHQHW
YLVFRXVVKHDUIRUFHDQGWKHGLVWDQFHWKLVIRUFHPRYHVLQXQLWWLPH
su
N d x.
sy
7KHHQHUJ\EDODQFHDVVXPLQJXQLWGHSWKLQWKHzGLUHFWLRQDQGQHJOHFWLQJVHFRQGRUGHUGLIIHUHQWLDOV
gives
⎡ ∂T ⎛ ∂u ∂υ ⎞⎟⎤ ∂ 2T ⎛ ∂u ⎞⎟
2
⎢
ρ c p ⎢u ⎜ ⎥ ⎜
+ T ⎜ + ⎟⎟⎥ d x d y = k 2 d x d y + μ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ d x d y.
⎢⎣ ∂y ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠⎥
⎦ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎟⎠
∂u ∂V
8VLQJWKHFRQWLQXLW\HTXDWLRQ + = 0 DQGGLYLGLQJE\ȡFp(TXDWLRQEHFRPHV
∂x ∂y
μ ⎛⎜ ∂u ⎞⎟
2
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T
u +υ =α 2 + ⎜ ⎟ .
∂x ∂y ∂y ρc p ⎜⎝ ∂y ⎟⎟⎠
7KLVLVWKHHQHUJ\HTXDWLRQRIWKHODPLQDUERXQGDU\OD\HU
)RUORZYHORFLW\LQFRPSUHVVLEOHÀRZ
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T
u +υ =α 2 .
∂x ∂y ∂y
7KLVGHULYDWLRQRIWKHHQHUJ\HTXDWLRQLVVLPSOL¿HGZLWKVHYHUDOWHUPVOHIWRXWRIWKHDQDO\VLVDV
WKH\DUHVPDOOLQFRPSDULVRQZLWKRWKHUVWRDUULYHDWWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUDSSUR[LPDWLRQ
7KHUHLVDVLPLODULW\ with the momentum equation for constant pressure,
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
u +V = v 2 .
∂x ∂y ∂y
7KHVROXWLRQWRWKHWZRHTXDWLRQVZLOOEHVDPHZKHQB = O7KXVWKHUHODWLYHPDJQLWXGHVRIWKH
WKHUPDOGLIIXVLYLW\DQGNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\ZLOOLQÀXHQFHWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU
5.6 THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER ANALYSIS

$WKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HULVGH¿QHGDVWKHUHJLRQZKHUHWHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQWVDUHSUHVHQWLQWKH
ÀRZ DV D UHVXOW RI KHDW H[FKDQJH EHWZHHQ WKH ÀXLG DQG WKH ZDOO &RQVLGHU D V\VWHP DV VKRZQ
LQ)LJ/HWWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHZDOOEHTwWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHÀXLGRXWVLGHWKHWKHUPDO
ERXQGDU\ OD\HU EH Tf DQG WKH WKLFNQHVV RI WKH WKHUPDO ERXQGDU\ OD\HU EH Et$W WKH ZDOO WKH
YHORFLW\RIWKHÀXLGLV]HURDQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUWRWKHÀXLGLVE\FRQGXFWLRQ7KHORFDOKHDWÀX[
per unit area is
q ∂T ⎤⎥
= q ′′ = −k .
A ∂y ⎥⎦ wall
1HZWRQ¶VODZRIFRROLQJJLYHV
q ′′ = h[Tw − T∞ ]
where hLVWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW)URPWKHVHHTXDWLRQV
u∞
T∞
y
δt
Tw Q
Figure 5.8 Thermal Boundary Layer Temperature Profile
∂T
−k
∂y
h= wall
.
(Tw − T∞ )
7KH WHPSHUDWXUH JUDGLHQW DW WKH ZDOO LV WR EH HYDOXDWHG WR ¿QG WKH KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW$
temperature distributionWKDWVKRXOGVDWLVI\WKHIROORZLQJFRQGLWLRQVLVWREHXVHG
T = Tw at y = 0
∂T
= 0 at y = Et
∂y
T = T∞ at y = Et .
and at y = 0, with no viscous heating,
∂ 2T
= 0 at y = 0
∂y 2
DVWKHYHORFLWLHVDUH]HURDWWKHZDOO
8VLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVLQDFXELFSRO\QRPLDODVLQWKHFDVHRIWKHYHORFLW\SUR¿OHZH
can get
3 y 1 ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟
3
θ T − Tw
= = − ⎜ ⎟⎟
θ∞ T∞ − Tw 2 δt 2 ⎜⎜⎝ δt ⎟⎠
where R = (TíTw 7KHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVPD\EHREWDLQHGE\WKHLQWHJUDODQDO\VLV of the

HQHUJ\HTXDWLRQ&RQVLGHUWKHFRQWUROYROXPHDVVKRZQLQ)LJZLWKWKHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\
OD\HU ZLWKLQ WKH K\GURG\QDPLF ERXQGDU\ OD\HU )LJ /HW WKH ZDOO WHPSHUDWXUH EH Tw WKH IUHH
stream temperature be TfDQGWKHKHDWJLYHQWRWKHÀXLGRYHUWKHOHQJWKGx be dqw7KHHQHUJ\EDODQFHLV
(QHUJ\FRQYHFWHGLQWRWKHYROXPHYLVFRXVZRUNZLWKLQWKHHOHPHQWKHDWWUDQVIHUDWZDOO
HQHUJ\FRQYHFWHGRXWRIWKHYROXPH
4 3
ud
ud Td
H
y
u į
įt
x 1 Tw
dx
2
dT
d qw = −K d x
dy wall
Figure 5.9 Integral Energy Analysis of Laminar Boundary Flow in Control Volume
Figure 5.10 Hydrodynamic and Thermal Boundary Layers on a Flat Plate
⎡ ⎤
μ ⎢ H ⎛⎜ d u ⎞⎟ ∂T ⎤⎥
2
d ⎡ H ⎤ ⎥
⎢∫ (T − T )u d y ⎥ + ⎢ ∫ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ d y ⎥ = α . (5.43)
⎥⎦ ρc p ⎢ 0 ⎝ d y ⎟⎠ d y ⎥⎦ w
∞
d x ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Equation (5.43) is the integral energy equation of the boundary layer for constant properties and
free-stream temperature Tf.
Using the temperature and velocity distributions and neglecting the viscous-dissipation term,
d ⎡ H ⎤ d ⎡ H ⎤
⎢ ∫ (T∞ − T )u d y ⎥ =
⎥⎦ d x ⎢⎣ ∫0 ∞
⎢ (θ − θ )u d y ⎥
d x ⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
⎧ ⎫
d ⎪⎪ H ⎡⎢ 3 y 1 ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥ ⎡⎢ 3 y 1 ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥ ⎪⎪
3 3
= θ∞ u∞ ⎨∫ ⎢ 1 − + ⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⎥ ⎢ − ⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⎥ d y⎬
d x ⎪⎪ 0 ⎢ 2 δt 2 ⎜⎝ δt ⎠ ⎥ ⎢ 2 δ 2 ⎜⎝ δ ⎠ ⎥ ⎪⎪
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭
∂T ⎥⎤ 3αθ∞
=α = . (5.44)
∂y ⎥⎦ y =0 2δt
Performing the necessary calculations and integration, with the substitution of b = Et /E,
d ⎡⎢ ⎛⎜ 3 2 3 4 ⎞⎟⎤⎥ 3 αθ∞
θ∞ u∞ δ⎜ b − b ⎟= .
d x ⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 20 280 ⎟⎠⎥⎦ 2 δb
With the assumption of Et < E, bDQGWKHWHUPZLWKb is small compared with the b term and
hence
3 d 3 αθ∞
θ∞ u∞ (δb 2 ) = .
20 dx 2 δb
7KHGLIIHUHQWLDWLRQJLYHV
1 ⎛ db d δ ⎞⎟ α
u∞ ⎜⎜2δb + b2 ⎟=
10 ⎜
⎝ dx d x ⎟⎠ δb
or
1 ⎛ db d E ⎞⎟
u∞ ⎜⎜2E 2 b 2 + b3E ⎟ = E.
10 ⎜
⎝ dx d x ⎟⎠
But
140 v
E dE = dx
13 u∞
and
280 vx
E2 = .
13 u∞
Hence,
d b 13 B
b3 + 4 xb 2 = .
d x 14 v
$OVR
db 1 d 3
b2 = b .
dx 3 dx
7KHVROXWLRQLV
13 B
b3 = Cx−3 / 4 + .
14 v
)RUWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV
Et = 0 at x = x0
b=0 at x = x0
WKH¿QDOVROXWLRQEHFRPHV
⎡ ⎛ x ⎞3 / 4 ⎤
1/ 3
E 1
b= t = Pr −1 / 3 ⎢⎢1− ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟⎟ ⎥⎥ .
E 1.026 ⎜⎝ x ⎠ ⎥
⎣⎢ ⎦
7KHDVVXPSWLRQbLVVDWLVIDFWRU\IRUÀXLGVKDYLQJ3UDQGWOQXPEHUVJUHDWHUWKDQ0RVWRI
WKHJDVHVDQGOLTXLGVIDOOZLWKLQWKLVFDWHJRU\
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
−k (∂T / ∂y ) w 3 k 3 k
h= = = .
Tw − T∞ 2 Et 2 bE
6XEVWLWXWLQJIRUWKHK\GURG\QDPLFERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVV
−1 / 3
⎛ u∞ ⎞⎟
1/ 2 ⎡ ⎛ x ⎞3 / 4 ⎤
hx = 0.332 kPr 1/ 3 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎢1− ⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎜⎝ vx ⎟⎠ ⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
7KH HTXDWLRQ PD\ EH QRQGLPHQVLRQDOL]HG E\ PXOWLSO\LQJ ERWK VLGHV E\ x/k, producing the
GLPHQVLRQOHVV1XVVHOWQXPEHU on the left side,
hx x
Nu x =
k
−1 / 3
⎡ ⎛ x ⎞3 / 4 ⎤
Nu x = 0.332 Pr 1/ 3 1/ 2 ⎢1− ⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ⎥
Re x ⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
)RUWKHSODWHKHDWHGRYHULWVHQWLUHOHQJWKx0 = 0 and hence
Nu x = 0.332 Pr1 / 3 Re1x / 2 .
7KHHTXDWLRQH[SUHVVHVWKHORFDOYDOXHVRIWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW7RREWDLQWKHDYHUDJHKHDW
WUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDQG1XVVHOWQXPEHU
ha =
∫ h d x = 2h
0
x

L L
∫ dx 0
hL
Nua = = NuL
k
hL
Nua = Nu = 0.664 ReL1 / 2 Pr1 / 3
k
where
ρud L
ReL = .
μ
,IWKHUHLVDQDSSUHFLDEOHYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQZDOODQGIUHHVWUHDPFRQGLWLRQVWKHSURSHUWLHVPXVWEH
HYDOXDWHGDWWKH¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH Tf as
Tw + T∞
Tf = .
2
5.7 CONSTANT HEAT FLUX

)RUWKHFRQVWDQWKHDWÀX[RQWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHZDOOWKHORFDO1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUODPLQDUÀRZLV
JLYHQE\
hx
Nu x = = 0.453 Rex1 / 2 Pr1 / 3
k
DQGLWPD\DOVREHH[SUHVVHGLQWHUPVRIWKHZDOOKHDWÀX[DQGWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHDV
qw x
Nu x = .
k (Tw − T∞ )
)RUWKHFRQVWDQWKHDWÀX[FRQGLWLRQWKHDYHUDJHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHDORQJWKHSODWHPD\EH
obtained as
1 L 1 L qw x
(Tw − T∞ ) = ∫
L 0
(Tw − T∞ ) d x = ∫
L 0 kNu x
dx
qw L / k
=
0.6795 Re1L/ 2 Pr1 / 3
or
3
qw = hL (Tw − T∞ ) a .
2
5.8 EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFDOFXODWLRQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHÀRZRIDÀXLGSDVWWKHH[WHULRUVXUIDFHRIDSODQH
VSKHUHRUF\OLQGHULVLPSRUWDQWWRGHVLJQKHDWH[FKDQJHUV7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUHVWLPDWLRQLVFRPSOLFDWHG
ZKHQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUVHSDUDWLRQLVDOVRFRQVLGHUHGLQWKHVHDSSOLFDWLRQV
5.8.1 Laminar Flow on Isothermal Plate

)RUDYHU\ZLGHUDQJHRI3UDQGWOQXPEHUVWKHIROORZLQJUHODWLRQIRUODPLQDUÀRZRQDQLVRWKHUPDO
ÀDWSODWH is used:
0.3387 Re1x / 2 Pr1 / 3

Nu x = for Rex Pr > 100.
⎡ ⎛ 0.0468 ⎞2 / 3 ⎤
1/ 4
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ Pr ⎟⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
5.8.2 Laminar Flow Parallel to Plane Surfaces

7KHERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVDQGRWKHUSDUDPHWHUVIRUH[WHUQDOÀRZSDUDOOHOWRSODQHVXUIDFHVIRU
laminar range (Rexq5DUHHVWLPDWHGXVLQJWKHIROORZLQJUHODWLRQVKLSV
7KHK\GURG\QDPLFERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVEhDWDGLVWDQFHxIURPWKHOHDGLQJHGJHLVJLYHQE\
Eh
= 5× Re−x 0.5 .
x
7KHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVDWDGLVWDQFHx from the leading edge (ETLVJLYHQE\
ET
= Ehx Pr −0.333 .
x
'LVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVV at a distance x from the leading edge (ExLVJLYHQE\
Eh
Ex = .
3
7KHPRPHQWXPWKLFNQHVV at a distance x from the leading edge (Eix
Eh
Eix = .
7
7KHORFDOIULFWLRQFRHI¿FLHQW (Cfx LVGH¿QHGDV
τs
C fx =
(ρu∞
2
/ 2)
or C fx = 0.664 Re−x 0.5
where Us is the surface shear stress on plate at location x and ufLVIUHHVWUHDPYHORFLW\ and S is the
GHQVLW\RIÀXLG
$YHUDJHIULFWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWXSWRWKHGLVWDQFHL from leading edge,
C fL = 1.328 ReL−0.5 .
If heating starts from a distance x0 from leading edge, then for constant wall temperature
−0.333
⎡ ⎛ x ⎞0.75 ⎤
Nu x = 0.332 Re Pr
0.5 0.333 ⎢1− ⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ ⎥
x ⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ ⎥ .
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
)RUOLTXLGPHWDOVDQGIRUVLOLFRQHVDWFRQVWDQWZDOOWHPSHUDWXUH
⎡ 0.3387 Rex0.5 Pr 0.333 ⎤

⎢ ⎦⎥ ; Pr < 0.05, Re Pr > 100 and Pr > 50
Nu x = ⎣ x
⎡ ⎛ 0.0468 ⎞ ⎤
0.25
0.67
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜⎝ Pr ⎟⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
)RUOLTXLGPHWDOÀRZRQSODQHVXUIDFHZLWKFRQVWDQWZDOOWHPSHUDWXUH
Nu x = 0.565[ Rex Pr ]0.5 ; Pr ≤ 0.05.
)RUÀRZSDUDOOHOWRSODQHVXUIDFHVDWFRQVWDQWKHDWÀX[
Nu x = 0.453 Rex0.5 Pr 0.333 ; 0.6 < Pr < 50
(qL / k )
and (Tw − T∞ ) =
[0.6795 ReL0.5 Pr 0.333 ]
)RUOLTXLGPHWDOVRUVLOLFRQHVÀRZLQJSDUDOOHOWRSODQHVXUIDFHVZLWKFRQVWDQWKHDWÀX[
[0.453 Rex0.5 Pr 0.333 ]

Nu x =
[1 + (0.0207 / Pr )0.67 ]0.25
for Pr > 50 and Pr ≤ 0.05 and for Rex Pr > 100.
)RUWXUEXOHQWÀRZZLWKERXQGDU\OD\HURQÀDWSODWHWKHK\GURG\QDPLFERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVV
at x,
Ehx = 0.381Re−x 0.2 when 5×105 > Rex < 107.
)RUIXOO\WXUEXOHQWÀRZIURPWKHOHDGLQJHGJHGLVSODFHPHQWWKLFNQHVVDWxLVJLYHQE\
Ehx
Ex = .
8
7KHPRPHQWXPWKLFNQHVVDWx,
⎛7⎞
Eix = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ Ehx .
⎜⎝ 72 ⎠
,I WKHUPDO ERXQGDU\ OD\HU WKLFNQHVV ET LV DSSUR[LPDWHO\ HTXDO WR WKH K\GURG\QDPLF ERXQGDU\
OD\HUWKLFNQHVVEh, then
Nu x = 0.0296 Rex0.8 Pr 0.33
5.8.3 Flow Across Cylinders (Cross Flow Over Cylinders)

7KHPRVWZLGHO\XVHGFRUUHODWLRQIRU1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
NuD = C ReDn Pr1 / 3 .
3URSHUWLHVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHGDWWKH¿OPWHPSHUDWXUHZKLFKLVJLYHQE\
T f = (T∞ + Tw ) / 2
7KHFRQVWDQWVC and nDUHIXQFWLRQVRIWKH5H\QROGVQXPEHUEDVHGRQWKHGLDPHWHUReD, and the
YDOXHVIRUWKHVHFRQVWDQWVDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH
Table 5.1 Values for constants C and n
ReD C n
0.4–4 0.99 0.33
4–40 0.91 0.39
40–4000 0.68 0.47
4000–40,000 0.19 0.62
40,000–400,000 0.027 0.81
$OVR
0.62 Re1D/ 2 Pr1 / 3 ⎛⎜ ⎛⎜ ReD ⎞⎟ ⎞⎟⎟

4/5
5/8
NuD = 0.3 + ⎜
⎜ ⎜
1 + ⎟ ⎟ for ReD Pr > 0.2
[1 + (0.4 / Pr ) 2 / 3 ]1 / 4 ⎜⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ 28200 ⎠⎟ ⎟⎟⎠
NuD = [0.35 + 0.56 ReD0.52 ] Pr 0.333 for 10−1 < ReD <105
⎡ Prf ⎤
0.25
Nu = [0.43 + 0.50 Re ]Pr 0.5 0.38 ⎢ ⎥ for 1 < Re < 103
⎢ Pr ⎥
⎣ w⎦
where Prf LV WKH 3UDQGWO QXPEHU DW WKH ¿OP WHPSHUWXUH DQG Prw is the Prandtl number at the wall
WHPSHUDWXUH
,I SURSHUWLHV YDU\ VLJQL¿FQDWO\ GXH WR WHPSHUDWXUH YDULDWLRQ WKHQ WKH UHODWLQVKLS IRU 1XVVHOW¶V
number is
⎡ Prf ⎤
0.25
Nu = 0.25 Re Pr 0.6 0.38 ⎢ ⎥ for 103 < Re < 2×105

⎢ Pr ⎥
⎣ w⎦
7KHSURSHUWLHVIRUOLTXLGVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHGDWIUHHVWUHDPWHPSHUDWXUHTfDQGIRUJDVHVDW¿OP
temperature Tf
⎡N ⎤
0.25
Nu = [0.4 Re + 0.06 Re
0.5 0.67
] Pr 0.4 ⎢ ∞⎥
D D ⎢N ⎥
⎣ w⎦
for 10 < Re < 105 , 0.67 < Pr < 300 and 0.25 < [N∞ Nw ] < 5.2 , properties to be evaluated at Tf
where NfLVWKHG\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\DWIUHHVWUHDPWHPSHUDWXUHDQGNw LVWKHG\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\DWZDOO
WHPSHUDWXUH
7KH PRVW ZLGHO\ XVHG JHQHUDOL]HG IRUP IRU WKH 1XVVHOW QXPEHU IRU DOO FDVHV EDVHG RQ WKH
FRPELQDWLRQRI5H\QROGVDQG3UDQGWOQXPEHUVLVJLYHQE\
⎡ Pr ⎤
0.25
N u = CRe Pr ⎢⎢ ∞ ⎥⎥
m n
for 0.7 < Pr < 500; 1 < Re < 106.
⎣ Prw ⎦
7KHSURSHUWLHVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHGDWTf except for Prw for which it should be evaluated at the wall
temperature
n = 0.37 for Pr < 10 and n = 0.36 for Pr > 10.
7KHYDOXHVRIC and mIRUYDULRXV5H\QROG¶VQXPEHUVIRUDOOÀXLGVH[FHSWOLTXLGPHWDODUHJLYHQ

LQ7DEOH
Table 5.2 Vales of constants
Re C m
1–40 0.75 0.4
40–1000 0.51 0.5
103–2 q 105 0.26 0.6
2 q 105–106 0.076 0.7
)RUWKHFDVHRIOLTXLGPHWDOVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSLV
−1
Nu = ⎣⎢⎡ 0.8237 − In ( Pr 0.5 )⎦⎥⎤ Pr < 0.2.
7KHSURSHUWLHVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHGDW¿OPWHPSHUDWXUHTf
5.8.4 Flow Over/Across Spheres

)RU WKH ÀXLG ÀRZLQJ RYHU WKH VSKHUHV WKH ORFDO FRQYHFWLYH KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQWV DW YDULRXV
locations with respect to the forward stagnation pointLVFDOFXODWHGIURPWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHUNuD:
⎛N ⎞
1/ 4
NuD = 2 + (0.4 Re 1/ 2
+ 0.06 Re 2/3
) Pr ⎜⎜⎜ ∞ ⎟⎟⎟
0.4

D D
⎜⎝ N ⎟⎠
a
N∞
for 0.70 < Pr < 380, 3.5 < ReD <7.6×104 ; 1.0 < < 3.2.
Nw
7KHSURSHUWLHVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHGDWTf except for Ns, for which the properties are to be evaluated
DWWKHVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUH
7KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ1XVVHOW¶VDQG5H\QROGVQXPEHUVIRUYDULRXVUDQJHVLV
Nu = 0.37 Re0.6 for 1.7 < Re < 70, 000.
7KHSURSHUWLHVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHGDW¿OPWHPSHUDWRUHTfIRUJDVHV
Nu = 2 + (0.25 + 3×10−4 Re1.6 )0.5 for 100 < Re < 3×105 Pr 0.71
Nu = 430 + 5×10−3 Re + 0.25×10−9 Re 2 − 3.1×10−17 ( Re)3
for 3×10 5 < Re < 5×106 ; Pr 0.71
Nu ( Pr )−0.3 = 0.97 + 0.68 Re0.5 for 1 < Re < 2000.
)RUVLJQL¿FDQWSURSHUW\YDULDWLRQVZLWKUHVSHFWWRWHPSHUDWXUH
⎛ Nw ⎞⎟
0.25
Nu Pr −0.3 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 1.2 + 0.53 Re0.54 for 1 < Re < 2, 00, 000.
⎜⎜⎝ N ⎟
∞⎠
7KHFRUUHODWLRQIRUIDOOLQJOLTXLGGURSVPRGHOHGDVVSKHUHVLV
Nu = 2 + 0.6 ReD0.5 Pr 0.333 [25( x / D)−0.7 ]
where x is the falling distance of the drop measured from rest and DLVWKHGLDPHWHURIGURSOHW
)RUOLTXLGPHWDOÀRZLQJDFURVVVSKHUHVWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
Nu = 2 + 0.386( Re Pr )0.5 for 3.56×104 < Re < 1.525×105
DQGWKHSURSHUWLHVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHGDWIUHHVWUHDPÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHTf
5.8.5 Fluid Flow Over/Across Banks of Tubes

)RUÀXLGVÀRZLQJSDVWEXQGOHVRIWXEHVDVVKRZQLQ)LJVDQGWKURXJKLUUHJXODUÀRZSDWK
a term equivalent diameter of a tube bundle, DeqLVXVHGWRHVWLPDWHWKH5H\QROG¶VQXPEHU
4[ S L ST − (Q D 2 / 4)]
Deq =
QD
SL Transverse row
Direction
of flow
ST
Longitudinal row
D SL = Longitudinal pitch
ST = Transverse pitch
Figure 5.11 Inline Tube Arrangements

SL
ST
S'L
Figure 5.12 Staggered Tube Arrangements
in which SLLVWKHFHQWHUWRFHQWHUGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWXEHVDORQJWKHGLUHFWLRQRIÀRZSTLVWKHFHQWHU
WRFHQWHUGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWXEHVQRUPDOWRWKHÀRZGLUHFWLRQDQGDLVWKHRXWHUGLDPHWHURIDWXEH
,IWKHQXPEHURIURZVRIWXEHVLVRUPRUHWKHQWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
Nu = C Re n
7KHPD[LPXPÀXLGYHORFLW\, VmaxLVXVHGWRFDOFXODWHWKH5H\QROG¶VQXPEHU
)RUURZVRIWXEHVOHVVWKDQWKHDERYH1XVVHOWQXPEHULVWREHPXOWLSOLHGE\DFRQVWDQWC7KH
values of constants C, n, and CFDQEHVHOHFWHGIURP7DEOHV±
)RULQOLQHDUUDQJHPHQWRIWXEHVWKHPD[LPXPYHORFLW\RIÀXLGLV
⎡ ST ⎤
Vmax = ⎢ ⎥u .
⎢ ( S − D) ⎥ ∞
⎣ T ⎦
Table 5.3 Values of cnstants for tube banks of 10 rows or more C
Arrangement ST
ST D
D
1.25 1.5 2.0 3.0
C n C n C n C n
In line 1.25 0.35 0.59 0.28 0.61 0.10 0.70 0.063 0.75
1.50 0.37 0.59 0.25 0.62 0.10 0.70 0.068 0.74
2.00 0.42 0.57 0.30 0.60 0.23 0.63 0.198 0.65
3.00 0.29 0.60 0.36 0.58 0.37 0.58 0.286 0.61
Staggered 0.6 – – – – – – 0.21 0.64
0.9 – – – – 0.45 0.57 0.40 0.58
1.0 – – 0.50 0.56 – – – –
1.125 – – – – 0.48 0.57 0.52 0.56
1.25 0.52 0.56 0.51 0.55 0.52 0.56 0.52 0.56
1.5 0.45 0.57 0.46 0.56 0.45 0.57 0.49 0.57
2.0 0.40 0.57 0.42 0.57 0.48 0.56 0.45 0.57
3.0 0.31 0.59 0.36 0.58 0.44 0.56 0.42 0.57
Note: The values of C are for air. For other fluids, multiply these values of C by 1.13 Pr0.33.
Table 5.4 Values of C1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Staggered tubes 0.68 0.75 0.83 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.0
Inline tubes 0.64 0.80 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1.0
Table 5.5 Values of constants for gas flow over non circular sections
Flow direction and profile ReD n C
D 5,000–100,000 0.59 0.22
D 2,500–15,000 0.61 0.22
D 2,500–7,500 0.62 0.26
D 5,000–100,000 0.64 0.14
D 5,000–19,500 0.64 0.14
D 5,000–100,000 0.68 0.09
D 2,500–8,000 0.70 0.16
D 4,000–15,000 0.73 0.21
19,500–100,000 0.78 0.04

D
D 3,000–15,000 0.81 0.09
)RUVWDJJHUHGDUUDQJHPHQWVRIWXEHV)LJ
⎡ ST ⎤
Vmax = ⎢ ⎥u
⎢ 2( S − D) ⎥ ∞
⎣ D ⎦
⎡ ⎛S ⎞ ⎤
0.5
2
where, S D = ⎢⎢ S L2 + ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟⎟ ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎥
⎦
in which STLVWKHSLWFKDFURVVWKHÀRZSLLVWKHSLWFKDORQJWKHÀRZN is the numbre of tubes, and uf

LVIUHHVWUHDPYHORFLW\MXVWEHIRUHHQWU\
)RUÀRZDFURVVWKHEDQNVZLWKRUPRUHWXEHVWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
⎡ Pr ⎤
0.25
Nu = C Re m Pr 0.36 ⎢⎢ ∞ ⎥⎥ for 0.7 < Pr < 500 and 1000 < Re < 2×106.
⎣ Prw ⎦
7KHSURSHUWLHVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHGDWIUHHVWUHDPWHPSHUDWXUHTfDQG5H\QROGV¶VQXPEHURe should
be calculated based on Vmax 7DEOH
Table 5.6 Constants C and m for various ranges of Re for inline and
staggered arrangements
Tube arrangement Range of Re C m
In line 103 < Re < 2 × 105 0.27 0.63
2 × 105 < Re < 2 × 105 0.02 0.84
⎛S ⎞
0.2
⎛ S ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ T ⎟ < 103 < Re < 2 × 105 0.35 ⎜⎜⎜ p ⎟⎟⎟ 0.60
⎜⎜ S ⎟⎟ ⎜⎝ S n ⎟⎠
⎝ L⎠
⎛ S ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ T ⎟ > 103 < Re < 2 × 105 0.40 0.60
⎜⎜ S ⎟⎟
⎝ L⎠
Staggered 2 × 105 > Re < 106 0.022 0.84
5.8.6 Pressure Drop

7KHSUHVVXUHGURSZKHQDÀXLGÀRZVDFURVVDEDQNRIWXEHV is
fG 2 max N ⎛⎜ μw ⎞⎟
0.14
ΔP = ⎜ ⎟⎟
2.09×108 ρ g 0 ⎜⎜⎝ μb ⎟⎠
where GLVWKHPD[LPXPPDVVYHORFLW\DWPLQLPXPÀRZDUHDLQNJPs, SLVWKHGHQVLW\LQNJP, N

is the number of transverse rows, NfLVWKHDEVROXWHYLVFRVLW\DWEXONPHDQWHPSHUDWXUHDQGNw is the
DEVROXWHYLVFRVLW\DWWKHZDOOWHPSHUDWXUHDQGfLVWKHIULFWLRQIDFWRU
7KHIULFWLRQIDFWRUµf¶IRULQOLQHLVFDOFXODWHGXVLQJ
⎛S ⎞
0.08 ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ d ⎠ −0.16
f = 0.044 + 0.43+1.13 (d/ ST )
Remax
⎛ S L − d ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠
and for staggered arrangement,
0.118 −0.16
f = 0.25 + Remax .
⎛ S L − d ⎞⎟
1.08
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠
5.9 FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE TUBES AND DUCTS
$QDO\VLV RI KHDW WUDQVIHU ZKHQ D ÀXLG ÀRZV WKURXJK WXEHV and ducts is an important engineering
UHTXLUHPHQWLQV\VWHPVVXFKDVKHDWH[FKDQJHUVUHIULJHUDWRUVDQGDLUFRQGLWLRQHUV)RUFHGFRQYHFWLYH
KHDWWUDQVIHUSURFHVVLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKLVDQDO\VLVZKHQKHDWLQJRUFRROLQJRIDÀXLGWDNHVSODFH
ZKLOHÀRZLQJ)RUFHGFRQYHFWLRQLQVLGHFORVHGFRQGXLWVLVFRQVLGHUHGIRUODPLQDUDQGWXUEXOHQWÀRZ
VHSDUDWHO\DQGWKHFULWLFDO5H\QROGVQXPEHULVDSSUR[LPDWHO\
5.9.1 Laminar Flow in Tubes With Constant Wall Temperature and Heat Fluid
7KHK\GURG\QDPLFHQWU\OHQJWK LhIRUODPLQDUÀRZLQDWXEHRIGLDPHWHUD and length L is calculated as
Lh 0.04 D ReD
DQGWKHWKHUPDOHQWU\OHQJWKIRUWKLVÀRZLV
Lt 0.04 D ReD ¸ Pr.
7R¿QGWKH5H\QROGVQXPEHUReD and Prandtl number PrWKHÀXLGSURSHUWLHVDUHWREHHYDOXDWHG

DWWKHEXONPHDQWHPSHUDWXUH,
Tai + Tao
Tb =

where Tai and TaoDUHWKHDYHUDJHWHPSHUDWXUHVDWWKHLQOHWDQGRXWOHW
7KH 1XVVHOW QXPEHU IRU ODPLQDU ÀRZ LQ WXEHV DW WKH HQWU\ UHJLRQ ZLWK D IXOO\ GHYHORSHG
K\GURG\QDPLFOD\HUDQGDWKHUPDOOD\HULQGHYHORSLQJVWDJHLV
0.0668 ( D / L) ReD Pr
Nu = 3.66 + for Pr > 0.7 and
d smooth pipe.
1 + 0.04 [( D / L) ReD Pr ]0.67
)RUWXEHVZLWKVPDOOHUOHQJWKVWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUODPLQDUÀRZLV
⎡ Re Pr ⎤
0.333
Nu = 1.67 ⎢ D ⎥ .
⎢ ( x / D) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUDIXOO\GHYHORSHGWKHUPDOOD\HULV
Nu = 3.66.
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUVLPXOWDQHRXVGHYHORSPHQWRIK\GURG\QDPLFDQGWKHUPDOOD\HUVLV
⎛ Re Pr ⋅ D ⎞⎟
0.104 ⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ x ⎠
Nu = 3.66 + for Pr > 0.6.
⎛ ReD Pr ⋅ D ⎞⎟
0.8
1 + 0.16 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝⎜ x ⎠
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUDPHGLXPOHQJWKHQWU\UHJLRQ
⎛N ⎞⎟ ⎛ x / D ⎞⎟
0.14
⎛ D ⎞⎟
0.33
Nu = 1.86( Re ⋅ Pr ) 0.33 ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ for ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟ < 0.1 and 0.5 < Pr < 16000
⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ N
w⎠
⎟ ⎜⎝ ReD Pr ⎟⎟⎠
where N LV WKH G\QDPLF YLVFRVLW\ RI ÀXLG DQG Nw LV WKH G\QDPLF YLVFRVLW\ RI ÀXLG DW ZDOO
WHPSHUDWXUH
7KH 1XVVHOW QXPEHU IRU VKRUW WXEHV ZLWK D GHYHORSLQJ WKHUPDO OD\HU DQG D IXOO\ GHYHORSHG
K\GURG\QDPLFOD\HULV
⎛ Re Pr ⎞
0.333
⎛ x / D ⎞⎟
Nu = 1.30 ⎜⎜ D ⎟⎟⎟ for ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟ < 0.01 and Pr > 0.6.
⎜⎝ x / D ⎠ ⎜⎝ ReD Pr ⎟⎟⎠
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUIXOO\GHYHORSHGFRQGLWLRQVLV
Nu = 4.36 for Pr > 0.6.
5.9.2 Turbulent Flow

7R ¿QG WKH KHDW WUDQVIHU IURP D FRQGXLW VXUIDFH WR D ÀXLG LQ D IXOO\ GHYHORSHG WXUEXOHQW ÀRZ, the
1XVVHOWQXPEHUXVHGLV
L
NuD = 0.023 ReD0.8 Pr n for ReD > 104 ; 0.7 < Pr < 100; > 60
D
where n IRUKHDWHGÀXLGDQGn IRUFRROHGÀXLG

$OVRWKH6WDQWRQQXPEHU,
L
St = 0.023 ReD−0.2 Pr −2 / 3 for ReD > 104 , 0.7 < Pr < 160; > 60
D
⎛N⎞
0.14
St = 0.023 ReD−0.2 Pr −2 / 3 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟

L
and for ReD > 104 ; 0.7 < Pr < 17000; > 60.
⎜⎝ Nw ⎟⎠ D
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUDWWKHHQWUDQFHUHJLRQ
L
NuD = 0.036 ReD0.8 Pr 0.33 ( D / L)0.055 for 10 < < 400.
D
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUVPRRWKWXEHVZLWKODUJHSURSHUW\YDULDWLRQV
⎛N ⎞⎟
0.14
⎜⎜ L
Nu = 0.027 Re 0.8
Pr 0.333
⎟⎟ for ReD ≥ 10, 000; 0.7 < Pr < 16700; ≥ 60.
D ⎜⎜⎝ N ⎟
w⎠ D
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUIXOO\GHYHORSHGWXUEXOHQWÀRZLV
⎛ N ⎞⎟
n
( f / 8) ReD Pr ⎜⎜ ⎟ forr 104 < Re < 5×106 ; 0.5 < Pr < 2000
Nu = ⎟
1.07 + 12.7( f / 8) [ Pr −1] ⎜⎜⎝ Nw ⎟⎠
0.5 0.67
The values taken by n for different cases are as follows:
n = 0.11 for heating of fluids ⎪⎫⎪
⎬ constant wall temp.
n = 0.25 for cooling of fluids ⎪⎪⎭
n = 0 for constant heat flux
and f is the friction factor.
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUWKHÀRZRIOLTXLGPHWDOVWKURXJKWXEHVZLWKFRQVWDQWZDOOWHPSHUDWXUHLV
L
Nu = 5 + 0.025 [ ReD ⋅ Pr ]0.8 for ReD ⋅ Pr > 100; > 60.
D
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUWKHÀRZRIOLTXLGPHWDOVWKURXJKWXEHZLWKFRQVWDQWKHDWÀX[ is
Nu = 4.82 + 0.0185( ReD Pr )0.827 for 1.4×103 < ReD < 9.05×105 ; 102 < ReD Pr <104
)RUVPRRWKWXEHVZLWKDIXOO\GHYHORSHGÀRZRIOLTXLGPHWDOVDWFRQVWDQWKHDWÀX[WKH1XVVHOW
number is
L
Nu = 0.625 [ ReD Pr ]0.4 for 102 < ReD Pr < 104 ; > 60.
D
)RUWKHÀRZRIOLTXLGPHWDOWKURXJKWXEHVWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHUDWWKHUPDOHQWU\UHJLRQLV
Nu = 3.0 ReD0.0833 of ReD Pr < 100.
$OO WKH FRUUHODWLRQV OLVWHG DERYH FDQ EH XVHG IRU QRQFLUFXODU VHFWLRQV also, with Dh = 4 A / P ,
where DhLVNQRZQDVWKHK\GUDXOLFGLDPHWHU, ALVWKHÀRZDUHD and PLVWKHZHWWHGSHULPHWHU
5.10 CONCLUSIONS
,IWKHÀXLGPRWLRQLVDUWL¿FLDOO\LQGXFHGXVLQJH[WHUQDOIRUFHVRYHUWKHVXUIDFHWKHQLWLVFDOOHGDV
IRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU
1HZWRQ¶VODZRIFRROLQJLVWKHEDVLFODZRIFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU,WVWDWHVWKDWFRQYHFWLRQKHDW
WUDQVIHULVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHVXUIDFHDUHDDQGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHVROLG
VXUIDFHDQGWKHÀXLGPHGLXP
,IDÀXLGÀRZVRYHUDVROLGVXUIDFHZLWKDIUHHVWUHDPYHORFLW\UWKHYHORFLW\RIWKHÀXLGLV]HUR
DWWKHVXUIDFHDQGPD[LPXPDWDGLVWDQFHVXI¿FLHQWO\IDUIURPWKHSODWH7KHORFXVRISRLQWVIURPWKH
VXUIDFHZKHUHWKHYHORFLW\RIÀXLGLVULVFDOOHGWKHYHORFLW\ERXQGDU\OD\HU and such a similar
RQHZLWKWHPSHUDWXUHLVFDOOHGWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HU,QWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUUHJLRQD[LDOYHORFLW\
RIWKHÀXLGYDULHVUDSLGO\ZLWKGLVWDQFHIURPWKHSODWH9HORFLW\JUDGLHQWVDQGWKHVKHDUVWUHVVDUH
FRQVLGHUHGODUJH7KHSRWHQWLDOÀRZUHJLRQLVQRWKLQJEXWWKHÀRZRXWVLGHWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUZKHUH
WKHYHORFLW\JUDGLHQWVDQGWKHVKHDUVWUHVVHVDUHQHJOLJLEOH
+HDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW¶VYDOXHGHSHQGVRQWKHW\SHRIÀRZODPLQDURUWXUEXOHQWWKHJHRPHWU\
RIWKHERG\DQGÀRZSDVVDJHDUHDWKHSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHVRIWKHÀXLGDQGWKHPHFKDQLVPRIKHDW
WUDQVIHU
5H\QROGV QXPEHU LV WKH UDWLR EHWZHHQ LQHUWLD IRUFH DQG WKH YLVFRXV IRUFH RI D ÀXLG LQ PRWLRQ
5H\QROGVQXPEHULVXVHGWRLGHQWLI\WKHÀXLGÀRZDVODPLQDURUWXUEXOHQWÀRZ/DPLQDUÀXLGÀRZ
RYHUWKHVXUIDFHRULQVLGHDERG\UHPDLQVRUGHUO\DQGÀXLGSDUWLFOHVPRYHDORQJVWHDPOLQHV,QWKLV
ÀRZWKH5H\QROGVQXPEHULVOHVVWKDQq5IRUH[WHUQDOVXUIDFHÀRZVDQGIRULQWHUQDOÀRZV
7XUEXOHQWÀXLGÀRZRYHUWKHVXUIDFHRULQVLGHDERG\LVQRWLQRUGHUDQGLQWKLVÀRZWKH5H\QROGV
number is greater than 5 q5IRUH[WHUQDOÀRZDQGIRULQWHUQDOÀRZ
7KHODPLQDUYHORFLW\SUR¿OHVDUHSDUDEROLFEXWWKHWXUEXOHQWSUR¿OHVKDYHDOLQHDUSRUWLRQQHDUWKH
VXUIDFHDQGDUHODWLYHO\ÀDWSRUWLRQDIWHUWKDW7KHOLQHDUSRUWLRQLVNQRZQDVODPLQDUVXEOD\HU
3UDQGWOQXPEHULVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHNLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\RIDÀXLGWRWKHWKHUPDOGLIIXVLYLW\RI
WKHÀXLG,WLVWKHIXQFWLRQRIÀXLGSURSHUWLHVRQO\3UDQGWOQXPEHUUHODWHVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQ
WRWKHYHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQRIDÀXLGÀRZ
7KHUPDO DQG YHORFLW\ ERXQGDU\ OD\HUV DUH UHODWHG XVLQJ 3UDQGWO QXPEHU Pr ,I Pr ERWK
ERXQGDU\OD\HUVDUHHTXDOWKLFNQHVV,IPr!WKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVLVJUHDWHUWKDQWKH
YHORFLW\ERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVDQGLIPrWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVVLVOHVVHUWKDQWKH
YHORFLW\ERXQGDU\OD\HUWKLFNQHVV
7KHUHJLRQRIÀRZRYHUZKLFKWKHWKHUPDOERXQGDU\OD\HUGHYHORSVDQGUHDFKHVWKHWXEHFHQWUHLV
NQRZQDVWKHWKHUPDOHQWUDQFHUHJLRQDQGWKHOHQJWKRIWKLVUHJLRQLVNQRZQDVWKHUPDOHQWU\OHQJWKLQ
SLSHÀRZ7KHHQWU\OHQJWKRIWXUEXOHQWÀRZLVVKRUWFRPSDUHGWRODPLQDUÀRZ
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFDOFXODWLRQVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHÀRZRIDÀXLGSDVWWKHH[WHULRUVXUIDFHRIDSODQH
VSKHUHRUF\OLQGHULVLPSRUWDQWWRGHVLJQKHDWH[FKDQJHUV7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUHVWLPDWLRQLVFRPSOLFDWHG
ZKHQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUVHSDUDWLRQLVDOVRFRQVLGHUHGLQWKHVHDSSOLFDWLRQV
)RUFHGFRQYHFWLRQLQVLGHFORVHGFRQGXLWVLVFRQVLGHUHGVHSDUDWHO\IRUODPLQDUDQGWXUEXOHQWÀRZ
DQGWKHFULWLFDO5H\QROGVQXPEHULVDSSUR[LPDWHO\
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RIÀXLGÀRZLQFRQGXLWV
Ɣ Convection involves the transfer of heat between a surface at a given

temperature (Ts DQGÀXLGDWDEXONWHPSHUDWXUHTb
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7
KEY
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O Ɣ )RUÀRZDGMDFHQWWRDKRWRUFROGVXUIDFHTb is the temperature of the
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P Ɣ RUÀRZLQDSLSHTb is the average temperature measured at a
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Ɣ Increasing forced convection h can also have a slight positive impact

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EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Determine the heat transfer rate per unit width of a plate needed to maintain it at a surface temperature
of 30°C (Tw ) when air at a pressure 0.06 bar (P) and a temperature of 300°C (TĮÀRZVZLWKDYHORFLW\
RIPV8RYHUDÀDWSODWHRIPOHQJWK/
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDWD¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH T f = (TB + Tw )/2 = 165D C are K :PPr
N = 24.6 ×10−6 NS/m 2 LQGHSHQGHQWRISUHVVXUH
%XWDLUGHQVLW\
P 0.06 ×105
S= = = 0.0477 kg/m3
RT 287(165 + 273)
ρUL
7KHUHIRUH5H\QROGVQXPEHU Re =
μ
0.0477 ×10 ×1
= = 19403
24.6 ×10−6
$VRe5,WKHFRUUHODWLRQIRUODPLQDUÀRZLV
Nua = 0.664 Re0.5 Pr 0.333
= 0.664(19,403)0.5 (0.687)0.333 = 81.62
7KHUHIRUHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
Nua q K
h=
L
81.62 q 0.0364
= = 2.97 W/m 2 K
1
7KHUHIRUHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHSHUXQLWZLGWK
Q = hA(Tw − TB )
= 2.97 ×1(300 − 30) = 801.9 W.
Water at temperature 40°C (TĮ) and at a velocity of 0.4 m/s (U)ÀRZVRYHUDÀDWSODWHRIOHQJWKP(L)
and width 0.5 m (W).)LQGWKHORFDOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDWDGLVWDQFHRIP(x)LIKHDWLQJVWDUWV
from 0.3 m (xo )IURPWKHOHDGLQJHGJHDQGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRISODWH(Tw ) is 20°C.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH T f = (40 + 20)/2 = 30D C are
S = 997.5 kg/m3 ; O = 0.8315 ×10−6 m 2 /s; K = 612.9 ×10−3 W/mK; Pr = 5.68
5H\QROGVQXPEHUDWDGLVWDQFHx,
Ux
Rex =
O
0.4 × 0.4
= = 1.9 ×105
0.8315 ×10−6
7KHÀRZLVODPLQDUDQGWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU
−0.333
⎡ ⎛ x ⎞0.75 ⎤
0.5
Nu x = 0.332 Re Pr 0.33 ⎢1 − ⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ ⎥
x ⎢ ⎜⎝ x ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
−0.333
⎡ ⎛ 0.3 ⎞0.75 ⎤
= 0.332 × (1.9 ×105 )0.5 × (5.68)0.33 × ⎢⎢1 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎥⎥
⎜
⎢⎣ ⎝ 0.4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
= 443.2
/RFDOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
Nua × K
hx =
x
443.2 × 612.9 ×10−3
= = 679.12 W/m 2 K.
0.4
)LQGWKHDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDQGWKHWRWDOKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPDUHFWDQJXODUSODWHRIOHQJWK
PLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIÀRZDQGZLGWKP7KHSODWHLVPDLQWDLQHGDW&ZKHQSODFHGLQQLWURJHQ
that has a velocity of 3 m/s and a temperature of 20°C.
)URP WKH WDEOHV ZH REWDLQ SURSHUWLHV RI QLWURJHQ DW (60 + 20)/2 = 40D C to be as follows:
S = 1.142 kg/m3 , c p = 1.04 kJ/kg K, O = 15.63×10−6 m 2 /s and K = 0.0262 W/mK
u∞ x
Rex = 5 ×105 =
O
3.0 × x
=
15.63×10−6
5×105 ×15.63×10−6
xc =
3.0
= 2.605 m
7KHSODWHOHQJWKLVPLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHÀRZZKHUHDVODPLQDUÀRZLVSRVVLEOHXSWRP
7KHDYHUDJH1XVVHOWQXPEHUDFFRUGLQJWR(TXDWLRQLV
Nua = 0.664 Re1/2

L Pr
1/3
u L
∞
ReL =
O
3.0 × 0.9
= = 172744.7
15.63×10−6
c 1.04 ×15.63×10−6 ×1.142
Pr = p =
K 0.0262 ×10−3
−3
= 708.53×10 = 0.708
Nua = 0.664 q (172,744.7)1/2 q (0.708)1/3 = 286.3

ha L
= Nu = 286.3
K
286.3q 0.0262
ha = = 8.334 W/m 2 K.
0.9
Heat transfer rate from the plate, Q = ha A(Tw − T∞ ) = 8.334 × 0.9 ×1.5 × (60 − 20) = 450 W.
:DWHUZLWKDYHORFLW\RIPPLQÀRZVRYHUDÀDWSODWHRIVL]HPq 2m. If the plate is maintained at

DWHPSHUDWXUHRI.DQGWKHZDWHUWHPSHUDWXUHLV.¿QGWKHOHQJWKRISODWHRYHUZKLFKWKHÀRZ
is laminar and the heat transfer from the entire plate.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW50°C are
ρ = 988.1 kg/m3 , ν = 0.556 ×10−6 m 2 /s, Pr = 3.54 and K :P.
u∞ xc
Rec = 5 ×105 =
v
500000 × 0.556 ×10−6
xc = = 0.092 m
3
7KHOHQJWKRISODWHXSWRZKLFKWKHÀRZLVODPLQDULVP
)RUODPLQDUÀRZWKHDYHUDJH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
Nua = 0.664( Rec )1/2 Pr1/3

= 0.664 q (5q105 )1/2 q (3.54)1/3 = 715
hm xc
= 715
K
715 q 0.648
ha = = 5037 W/m 2 K
0.092
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHULQWKHODPLQDUUHJLRQLVJLYHQE\
Qlaminar = ha A(Tw − T∞ )
= 5037 × 0.092 × 2 × (353 − 293)
= 55605 W
)RUWXUEXOHQWÀRZWKHDYHUDJH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
ha ( L − xc )
Nu = = 0.036( ReL0.8 − Rec0.8 ) Pr1/3
K
= 0.036 [(10.791×106 )0.8 − (5 ×105 )0.8 ]× (3.54)1/3
= 21212
ha ( L 0.139)
= 21212
0.648
ha = 7386 W/m 2 K
Heat transfer in the turbulent region,

Qturb = 7386 ×1.908 × 2 × (353 − 293) = 1649419 W
Qtotal = Qlam. + Qturb = 55605 + 1649419 = 1705024 kW.
'HWHUPLQH WKH ERXQGDU\ OD\HU WKLFNQHVV DW GLVWDQFHV RI DQG P IURP WKH OHDGLQJ HGJH RI D
PGHHSÀDWSODWHZKHQDLUDW.DQGEDUÀRZVRYHUWKHSODWHDWDYHORFLW\RIPPLQ)LQG
WKHPDVVÀRZUDWHZKLFKHQWHUVWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUEHWZHHQ[ PDQGP7KHYLVFRVLW\RIDLUDW
300 K is 1.85 q 10–5NJPV
p
S=
RT
1.01325
= = 1.177 kg/m3
0.287 q 300
1.177 × 5 × 0.3
At x = 0.3 m, Rex = = 95432
1.85 ×10−5
1.177 × 5 × 0.5
At x = 0.5 m, Rex = = 159054
1.85 ×10−5
E 4.64
=
x ( Rex )1 / 2
4.64 × 0.3
At x = 0.30 m, E = ×103 = 4.51 mm
(95432)1 / 2
4.64 × 0.5 ×103
At x = 0.50 m, E = = 5.82 mm
(159054)1 / 2
$WDQ\SRVLWLRQLQWKHÀRZGLUHFWLRQWKHPDVVÀRZUDWHRIÀXLGLQWKHERXQGDU\OD\HULVHVWLPDWHGDV
follows:
δ
m = ¨ ρu dy
0
ZKHUHWKHYHORFLW\SUR¿OHLV
3 y 1 ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟
3
u
= − ⎜ ⎟
u∞ 2 δ 2 ⎜⎝ δ ⎟⎠
δ ⎛ 3 y 1 y 3 ⎞⎟
m = ∫ ρu∞ ⎜⎜ − ⎟ dy
0 ⎜⎝ 2 δ 2 δ 3 ⎟⎟⎠
⎛ 3 δ2 1 δ4 ⎞
= ρu∞ ⎜⎜ − 3 ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2δ 2 2δ 4 ⎟⎠
5
m = ρu∞δ
8
0DVVÀRZUDWHRIÀXLGHQWHULQJWKHERXQGDU\OD\HUEHWZHHQ x = 0.3 m and x = 0.5 m is
5
m = ρu∞ (δ0.5 − δ0.3 )
8
5
= ×1.177 × 5× (5.817 − 4.506) ×10−3
8
= 4.82 ×10−3 kg/s.
,IWKHSODWHLQ3UREOHPLVKHDWHGRYHULWVHQWLUHOHQJWKWRDWHPSHUDWXUHRI.)LQGWKHKHDWWUDQV-
IHUUHGLQPOHQJWKRIWKHSODWH
7KH SURSHUWLHV RI DLU DW . K = 0.02749 W/mK , O = 17.36 ×10−6 m 2 /s, c p = 1.006 kJ/kgK and
Pr = 0.7.
$W x = 0.3 m, Rex = u∞ x/O = 5 × 0.3/17.36 ×10−6 = 86405

hx x
Nu x = = 0.332 ( Rex )0.5 ( Pr )1/3
K
= 0.332 × (86405)0.5 × (0.7)1/3 = 86.85
86.85 × 0.02749
hx = = 7.96 W/m 2 K
0.3
ha = 2hx = 2 × 7.95 = 15.92 W/m 2 K
Q = ha A(Tw − T∞ )
= 15.92 × (0.3×1) × (345 − 300) = 215 W.
)LQGWKHGUDJIRUFHRQWKHSODWHUHIHUUHGLQ3UREOHPIRUDOHQJWKRIPXVLQJWKHDQDORJ\EHWZHHQ
ÀXLGIULFWLRQDQGKHDWWUDQVIHU
h
St =
Sc pud
)RU x = 0.5 m,
Nu x = 0.332 × (144009)0.5 × (0.7)1/3 = 112.13
112.13× 0.02749
hx = = 6.16 W/m 2 K
0.5
h = 12.33 W/m 2 K
101.325
S= = 1.098 kg/m3
0.287(273 + 48.5)
12.33×10−3
St = = 56.48 ×10−3
1.098 ×1.006 × 5
&ROEXUQ¶Vj-factor Cf is calculated as follows:
Cf
= StPr 2/3
2
Cf
= 56.48 ×10−3 × (0.7)2/3
2
C f = 89.06 ×10−3
$YHUDJHVKHDUVWUHVV
ρu∞
2
τw = C f
2
1.098 × (5) 2
= 89.06 ×10−3 × = 1.22 N/m 2
2
7RWDOGUDJIRUFH F = 1.22 q 0.5 q1 = 0.611 N.
)LQGWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKHSODWHWRWKHRLOZKHQHQJLQHRLODW.ÀRZVRYHUDSODWHRIVL]H
0.4 m qPDWDYHORFLW\RIPV7KHÀRZLVSDUDOOHOWRWKHPVLGHRIWKHSODWHZKLFKLVKHDWHG
and maintained at a temperature of 325 K.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIHQJLQHRLODW.DUH
ρ = 876 kg/m3 , ν = 24 ×10−5 m 2 /s, K = 0.144 W/mK and Pr
$VWKH3UDQGWOQXPEHULVYHU\KLJKXVHIRURQHVWLPDWHRIWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU
0.3387 Re1/2
x Pr
1/3
Nu x =
⎡ ⎛ 0.0468 ⎞2/3 ⎤
1/4
⎢1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎝⎜ Pr ⎠⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
u∞ L
ReL =
O
2.0 × 0.4
= = 3333
24 ×10−5
0.3387 × (3333)1/2 × (2870)1/3 14.67 ×14.17
Nu x = =
⎡ ⎛ 0.0468 ⎞2/3 ⎤
1/4
1.0001
⎢1 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢ ⎜ 2870 ⎟⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥
⎦
277.83× 0.144
hx = = 100.02 W/m 2 K
0.4
ha = 2hx = 200.04 W/m 2 K
Q = 200.04 × 0.4 × 0.3× (325 − 305) = 480.1 W.
&DOFXODWHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHIURPDSODWHZKLFKLVPORQJDQGPDLQWDLQHGDW.ZKHQDLUDW
.DQGEDUÀRZVRYHUWKHÀDWSODWHZLWKDYHORFLW\RIPV
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDW.DUH
Pr = 0.7, K = 0.02723 W/mK , c p = 1.007 kJ/kgK and ȝ q–5NJPV
295 + 335
Tf = = 315 K
2
p 101.325
ρ= = = 1.128 kg/m3
RT 0.287 × 315
ρu L 1.128 × 30 ×1.0
ReL = ∞ = = 1.78 ×106
μ 1.906 ×10−5
7KHERXQGDU\OD\HULVWXUEXOHQWDV ReL > 5 q105
hL
Nu L = = (0.036 ReL0.8 − 871) Pr1/3
K
= [0.036 (1.78×106 )0.8 − 871] (0.7)1/3
= 2908.83× 0.89 = 3171.09
3171.09 × 0.02723
h= = 86.35 W/m 2 K
1.0
Q = hA(Tw − T∞ ) = 86.35 × (1.0 ×1)(335 − 295)
= 3454 W.
Air at 1 bar and at a temperature (TĮRI&ÀRZVDFURVVDPPGLDPHWHU'F\OLQGHUDWDYHORFLW\

of 40 m/s (U).)LQGWKHKHDWORVVSHUXQLWOHQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHUWKDWLVQHHGHGLQRUGHUWRPDLQWDLQLWDW
a temperature of 140°C (Tw ).
7KH SURSHUWLHV RI DLU DW T f = (140 + 40)/2 = 90D C are ρ = 1.0 kg/m3 ; ν = 21.09 ×10−6 m 2 /s;
Pr = 0.692; K = 30.47 ×10−3 W/mK
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
UD
ReD =
O
40 × 0.05
= = 9.48 ×104
21.09 ×10−6
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHUFRUUHODWLRQIRUÀRZDFURVVDF\OLQGHULV
Nua = CReDn Pr1/3
)URP7DEOHWKHYDOXHVRI&DQGnDUHDQG
)RU5H\QROGVQXPEHUKDYLQJWKHYDOXHJLYHQDERYH
Nua = 0.0266 q (9.48q104 )0.805 q (0.692)0.333

= 238.76
Nua × K
h=
D
238.76 × 30.43×10−3
= = 145.3 W/m 2 K
0.05
Heat transfer per unit length of the pipe,
Q = hA(Tw − Tα )
= 145.3× (π × 0.05)(140 − 40) = 2282.5 W.
Air at 1 bar and a temperature of 30°C (TĮÀRZVDFURVVDVSKHUHRIGLDPHWHUPP'DWDYHORFLW\
of 4 m/s (U). The sphere is maintained at a surface temperature of 80°C (Ts E\SODFLQJDVPDOOKHDWHU
inside it. Find the rate of heat transfer from the sphere to air.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDUHWDNHQDWDLUWHPSHUDWXUH TB , at °C are S = 1.165 kg/m3 ; ȣ q± mV
Pr = 0.701; K = 0.02675 W/mK
UD
Reynolds number, ReD =
O
4 ×15 ×10−3
= = 3750
16.0 ×10−6
1
⎛ μ α ⎞⎟4
⎜⎜ ⎟
&RUUHODWLRQIRUWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU Nu = 2 + (0.4 Re + 0.06 Re
0.5 2/3
) Pr 0.4
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ μs ⎟⎠
D D
where
μα = μ at Tα = 18.63×10−6 NS/m 2
and
Ns = N at Ts = 21.08 ×10−6 NS/m 2
7KHUHIRUH Nua = 2 + [0.4 × (3750)0.5 + 0.06 × (3750)2/3 ]× (0.701)0.4 × (18.63/21.08)0.25 = 34.83

7KHUHIRUHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
Nua × K
h=
D
34.83× 0.02675
= = 62.1 W/m 2 K
15 ×10−3
Heat transfer rate, Q = hA(Ts − Tα )

⎛ 0.015 ⎞⎟
2
= 62.1× 4π ×⎜⎜ × (80 − 30) = 2.195 W.

⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎟⎠
Atmospheric air at 20°C (TĮ)LVÀRZLQJDFURVVDEDQNRIWXEHVURZVKLJKDQGURZVGHHSDWDYHO-

ocity of 5 m/s (U). The surface of the tubes are maintained at a temperature of 60°C (Ts ). The tubes are
DUUDQJHGLQDQLQOLQHPDQQHUDQGWKHVSDFLQJERWKLQSHUSHQGLFXODU6p ) and parallel directions (Sn )
IRUWKHÀRZLVFPDQGWKHGLDPHWHU'RIWKHWXEHVLVFP'HWHUPLQHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
between the air and tubes.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDWWHPSHUDWXUH7Į &DUH
ρ = 1.205 kg/m3 ; ν = 15.06 ×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 0.703; K = 0.02593 W/mK; N = 18.14 ×10−6 NS/m 2
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
U max D
Re =
v
where for inline arrangement
UBS p
U max =
( S p − D)
5 × 4 ×10−2
=
(4 − 2.5) ×10−2
= 13.3 m/s
7KHUHIRUH
13.3× 0.025
Re = = 22078.
15.06 ×10−6
&RUUHODWLRQIRUWKHDYHUDJH1XVVHOWQXPEHULV
Nua = BRe n and that for S p /D = 4/2.5 = 1.6 and S n /D = 1.6.
7KHYDOXHVRIB and nDUHDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\

7KHUHIRUH
1X q
Nua × K
h=
D
123.3× 0.02593
= = 127.96 W/m 2 K
2.5 ×10−2
7KLVYDOXHLVIRUDGHSWKRIWHQURZVKRZHYHUWKLVFDVHLVRQO\VL[URZVGHHSWKHUHIRUHWKHFRUUHFWLRQ
factor, C
7KHDFWXDOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
h = C1 q h
= 0.94 q127.96 = 120.28 W/m 2 K.
$UHFWDQJXODUER[PZLGHPKLJKDQGPORQJLVPDLQWDLQHGZLWKDVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHRI
.$LUDW.PRYHVRYHULWDWPV,IWKHERXQGDU\OD\HULVWXUEXOHQWRYHUWKHZKROHVXUIDFH
¿QGWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUWRWKHIRXUVXUIDFHVH[FHSWIURQWDQGEDFN
S = 1.147 kg/m3 , K = 0.0271 W/K , v = 16.48×10−6 m 2 /s and c p = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
u∞ L
ReL =
v
16.67 × 7.0
= = 7.08 ×106
16.48 ×10−6
vSc p
Pr =
K
16.48 ×10−6 ×1.147 ×1.005
= = 0.7
0.0271×10−3
$VWKHERXQGDU\OD\HULVWXUEXOHQW
Nua = 0.036( ReL )0.8 Pr1/3

0.0271
ha = 0.036 × (7.08×106 )0.8 × (0.7)1/3 × = 37.4 W/m 2 K
7.0
Q = ha A(Tw − T∞ )
= 37.4 × 7.0 × 2(2.0 + 3.0) × (330 − 290) ×10−3 = 104.72 kW.
A spherical surface is maintained at a temperature of 350 K. Find the rate of heat transfer from the
VSKHUHLIDLUDW.DQGEDUÀRZVDFURVVWKHVSKHUHZKRVHGLDPHWHULVFPDWDYHORFLW\RIPV
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDW°CRU.DUH

μ∞ = 1.8462 ×10−5 kg/ms, K = 0.02624 W/mK , υ = 15.69 ×10−6 m 2 /s and Pr = 0.708.
$WTw & .DQG Nw = 2.075 ×10−5 kg/ms.
u∞ D
ReD =
v
7 × 0.020
= = 8922
15.69 ×10−6
8VLQJ(TXDWLRQ
⎛ ⎞
14
0.4 ⎜ N∞ ⎟
Nu = 2 + (0.4 Re1/2
D + 0.06 ReD ) Pr
2/3
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ Nw ⎟⎠
⎛1.8462 ⎟⎞
1/4
Nu = 2 + [0.4 × (8922)1/2 + 0.06 × (8922)2/3 ]× (0.708)0.4 ×⎜⎜

⎜⎝ 2.075 ⎟⎟⎠
= 2 + (37.78 + 25.81) × 0.87 × 0.97 = 55.6
0.02624
h = 55.67 × = 73.03 W/m 2 K
0.02
Q = hA(Tw − T∞ )
(0.02)2
= 73.03× 4 × Q × × (350 − 300) = 4.59 W.
4
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RIERWKREMHFWVDUHPDQGWKHLUVXUIDFHVDUHPDLQWDLQHGDW.¿QGWKHDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI-
¿FLHQWDQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHIURPWKHVSKHUHDQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUSHUPHWUHOHQJWKRIWKHF\OLQGHU
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDWK are,
K = 0.0262 W/mK , v = 16.84 ×10−6 m 2 /s, Pr = 0.708,
μ = 1.983×10−5 kg/ms and ρ = 1.177 kg/m3
L &\OLQGHU
⎛μ⎞
0.25
Nua = (0.4 Re0.5 + 0.06 Re 2/3 ) Pr 0.4 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟

⎜⎝ μw ⎟⎠
u∞ D
ReD =
v
25 × 0.03
= = 44536
16.84 ×10−6
Nua = [0.4 × (44536)0.5 + 0.06 × (44536)2/3 ]× (0.708)0.4 × (1)
= (84.41 + 75.38) × 0.87 = 139.19
139.19 × 0.0262
ha = = 121.56 W/m 2 K
0.03
Q = ha × (π DL) × (Tw − T∞ )
= 121.56 × (π × 0.03×1) × (350 − 250) = 1146 W/m
LL 6SKHUH
u∞ D
ReD =
v
25 × 0.03
= = 44536
16.84 ×10−6
⎛μ⎞
0.25
Nua = 2 + (0.4 Re0.5 + 0.06 Re 2/3 ) Pr 0.4 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟

⎜⎝ μw ⎟⎠
Nua = 2 + 139.19 = 141.19
141.19 × 0.0262
ha = = 123.31 W/m 2 K
0.03
Q = ha π D 2 (Tw − T∞ )
= 123.31× π × (0.03)2 × (350 − 250) = 34.86 W.
Air at 10°C (Tmi LVFDUULHGE\DUHFWDQJXODUGXFWPqPLQVL]HDQGPLQOHQJWK/. The duct

wall is maintained at 20°C (Tw ) and the velocity of the air is 10 m/s (U). Find the heat transfer rate from
the wall to air.
6LQFH WKH RXWOHW WHPSHUDWXUH LV QRW NQRZQ WKH SURSHUWLHV RI DLU DUH WDNHQ DW °C (Tmi . 7KH\ DUH
ρ = 1.247 kg/m3 , μ = 17.65×10−6 kg/ms, Pr = 0.705, C p = 1.005 kJ/kgK and K = 25.12 ×10−3 W/mK
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
ρUDh
Re =
μ
4 q Flow area
Dh =
Perimeter
4 × 0.3× 0.5
= = 4 × 0.094
(0.3 + 0.5)2
1.247 ×10 × 4 × 0.094
Therefore, Re = = 4 × 6.64 ×104
17.65 ×10−6
Since Re > 2300, WKHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQW
7KHUHIRUHWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.023Re0.8 Pr 0.4
= 0.023(6.64 q104 )0.8 (0.705)0.4 = 144.12
Nu × K
h=
Dh
144.12 × 25.12 ×10−3 38.5
= = W/m 2 K
4 × 0.094 4
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWH
⎡ ⎛ T + Tmi ⎞⎟⎤
Q = mC p (Tmo − Tmi ) = hAs ⎢Tw − ⎜⎜ mo ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
7KHPDVVÀRZUDWH
m = area of cross section of flow q velocity q density

= (0.3q 0.5) q10 q1.247 = 1.8705 kg/s
7KHVXUIDFHDUHD
As = Perimeter × length
= (0.3 + 0.5) × 2 ×10 = 16 m 2
38.5 ⎡ ⎛ T + 10) ⎞⎟⎤
1.8705 ×1.005 (Tmo −110) = ×16 ⎢ 20 − ⎜⎜ mo ⎟⎟⎥
4 ⎢ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
⎣
Tmo = 29.52D C
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWH
Q = 1.8705 ×1.005 ×[29.52 − 10]

= 36.69 kW.
:DWHUÀRZVLQDWXEHRIGLDPHWHUFP'DWDYHORFLW\RIPV8. The inlet and outlet tempera-

tures (Tmi and Tmo ) of water are 20°C and 60°C, respectively. If the tube wall is maintained at 80°C
(Tw ),FDOFXODWHWKHLKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLLWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUDQGLLLWKHOHQJWKRIWKH
tube.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW Tm = (Tmi + Tmo )/2 = (20 + 60)/2 = 40D C are S = 995 kg/m3 , K q±
:P. C p = 0.998 kJ/kgK , O = 0.657 ×10−6 m 2 /s and Pr = 4.34
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
UD
ReD =
v
10 × 0.05
= = 7.6 ×105
0.657 ×10−6
Since ReD > 2300, WKHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQW
7KHUHTXLUHGFRUUHODWLRQIRUWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHUNuLV
Nu = 0.023( ReD )0.8 ( Pr )0.4

= 0.023(7.6 q105 )0.8 (4.34)0.4 = 2095.92
Nu × K
h=
D
(2095.92)(628×10−3 )
= = 26,324.8 W/m 2 K
5 ×10−2
Q = mC p (Tmo − Tmi )
0DVVÀRZUDWH
⎛ π D 2 ⎞⎟
m = ρ AU = ρ ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
Q
U = (995) × × (5 ×10−2 ) 2 ×10 = 19.5 kg/s
4
7KHUHIRUHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWH
Q = 19.54 × 0.998 × (60 − 20)
= 780 kW
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHQ, can also be written in terms of surface parameters:
Q = hA(Tw − Tm )
780 ×103 = 26,324.8 × (Q × 0.05 × 6) × (80 − 40)
7KHUHIRUHOHQJWKRIWKHWXEH L = 4.72 m.
/LTXLGPHUFXU\HQWHUVDWXEHDWDUDWHRINJV(m) at a temperature of 10°C (Tmi ). The tube diameter is

2 cm (D) and it is maintained at a temperature of 60°C (Tw 'HWHUPLQHWKHWXEHOHQJWKUHTXLUHGWRDWWDLQ
the outlet mercury temperature of 30°C (Tmo).
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIPHUFXU\DW Tm = (Tmi + Tmo )/2 = (10 + 30)/2 = 20D C are

ρ = 13550 kg/m3 , ν = 0.114 ×10−6 m 2 /s, Pr = 0.0272, K = 7.9 W/mK C p = 0.139 kJ/kgK
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
ρUD 4m
ReD = =
μ π D ( ρv )
4× 2
= = 8.2 ×104
Q × 2 ×10−2 ×13550 × 0.114 ×10−6
$VReD!WKHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQW
1XVVHOWQXPEHUFRUUHODWLRQIRUWKLVÀRZLVJLYHQE\
Nu = 5 + 0.25 ( ReD Pr )0.8
= 5 + 0.025 (8.2 ×104 × 0.0272)0.8
= 16.93
Nu × K
h=
D
16.93× 7.9
=
2 ×10−2
= 6687.4 W/m 2 K
Heat transfer rate,
Q = mC p (Tmo − Tmi )
= 2 × 0.139 (30 − 10) = 5.56 kW
$OVR Q = h × (Q DL) × (Tw − Tm )
5.56 ×103 = 6687.4 × Q × 2 ×10−2 × L × (60 − 20)

Tubelength , L = 0.33 m.
Water at 20°C (Tmi LVÀRZLQJLQDSLSHRIGLDPHWHUFP'ZLWKDYHORFLW\RIPV8. The surface

temperature of the pipe is 40°C (Tw ).'HWHUPLQHWKHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHZDWHUIRUIROORZLQJFDVHV
DVVXPLQJWKHK\GURG\QDPLFERXQGDU\OD\HUWREHIXOO\GHYHORSHGZKHQLWKHOHQJWKRIWKHWXEHLVP
DQGLLWKHOHQJWKRIWKHWXEHLVP
$VWKHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHLVQRWNQRZQWKHSURSHUWLHVRIZDWHUWDNHQDW Tmi = 20D C are

ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , ν = 1.006 ×10−6 m 2 /s, Pr = 7.02, K = 597.8×10−3 W/mK, C p = 4.178 kJ/kgK
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
UD
ReD =
O
0.05 × 0.02
=
1.006 ×10−6
= 994
Since ReD < 2300; WKHÀRZLVODPLQDU
L )RUWKHOHQJWKRIWXEHEHLQJP
⎛ x ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0.02 ⎟⎟⎠
= = 0.0072
( ReD Pr ) (994 × 7.02)
7KHUHIRUHWKHFRUUHODWLRQIRUWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU
⎡ ( ReD Pr ) ⎤
0.333
Nu = 1.67 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ( x/D) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 1.67(138.8)0.333 = 8.63
Nu × K
h=
D
8.63× 597.8 ×10−3
=
0.02
= 257.95 W/m 2 K
Heat transfer rate,

⎡ ⎛ T + Tmo ⎞⎟⎤
Q = hAs ⎢Tw − ⎜⎜ mi ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
= mC p (Tmo − Tmi )
7KHUHIRUH
⎡ ⎛ 20 + Tmo ⎞⎟⎤ ⎛⎜ Q × 0.022 ⎞
257.95 × (Q × 0.02 ×1) ⎢ 40 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎥ = ⎜⎜ × 0.05 ×1000⎟⎟⎟ (4.178×103 )(Tmi − Tmo )
⎢⎣ ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦ ⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
D
Tmo = 27.41 C
7KHUHIRUHEXONPHDQWHPSHUDWXUH
20 + 24.41
Tm = = 22.2D C
2
7KHSURSHUWLHVFDQEHWDNHQDW°CDQGWKHFDOFXODWLRQVDUHWREHUHSHDWHGWRJHWWKHH[DFWYDOXH%XW
LQWKLVFDVHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHLVYHU\VPDOOLWQHHGQRWEHUHSHDWHG
LL 7KHOHQJWKRIWKHWXEHLVP
⎛ x ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠ (10/0.020)
= = 0.07
( ReD Pr ) (994)(7.02)
1XVVHOWQXPEHU
⎛ D⎞
0.0668⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ( ReD Pr )
⎜⎝ L ⎠
Nu = 3.66 + = 4.43
⎡⎛ D ⎞ ⎤
0.67
1 + 0.04 ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ( ReD Pr )⎥

⎢⎣⎝⎜ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
7KHUHIRUH
Nu × K
h=
D
4.43× 597.8 ×10−3
= = 132.4 W/m 2 K
0.02
Using the heat transfer equation, we can get Tmo = 35.5D C. In this case, Tm = 27.76D C; we have to
UHZRUNWKHSUREOHPE\WDNLQJWKHSURSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW 27.76D C.
ρ = 998 kg/m3 ; ν = 0.831×10−6 m 2 /s; Pr = 5.95; C p = 4178 J/kgK
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
0.05 × 0.02
ReD = = 1203.4
0.831×10−6
7KHUHIRUH
ReD Pr = 1203.4 q 5.95
= 7160.23
and
⎛ D⎞ 0.02
ReD Pr ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = 7160.23× = 14.32
⎜⎝ L ⎠ 10
D
0.0668 ( ReD Pr )
Nu = 3.66 + L
⎡⎛ D ⎞ ⎤
0.67
1 + 0.04 ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ( PrReD )⎥

⎢⎣⎜⎝ L ⎠ ⎥⎦
7KHUHIRUH
0.0668 × (14.32)
Nu = 3.66 + = 4.43
1 + 0.04 × (14.32)0.67
7KLVLVWKHVDPHDVWKHSUHYLRXVWULDOYDOXH
7KHUHIRUHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIZDWHUDWWKHRXWOHW
Tmo = 35.5D C.
&RPSDUHWKHYDOXHRIFRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVIRUDVTXDUHVHFWLRQSLSHRIVLGHDFPZLWK

an uniform wall temperature of 60°C (Tw ) with that of a circular pipe of the same area. The velocity of
air is 5 m/s (U) and the bulk mean temperature of air is 40°C (Tm ).
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDW Tm are
ρ = 1.128 kg/m3 , Pr = 0.699; ν = 16.95 ×10-6 m 2 / s, K = 27.56 ×10-3 W/mK , C p = 1.005 kJ/kgK
L $VTXDUHSLSH
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
UDh
ReD =
v
Where
4a 2
Dh = = a = 0.05 m
4a
7KHUHIRUH
5 × 0.05
ReD = = 14749
16.95 ×10−6
$V ReD > 2300, WKHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQW
1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.023Re0.8 Pr 0.4
= 0.023q (14749)0.8 q (0.699)0.4 = 43.1
7KHUHIRUH
Nu × K
h=
Dh
43.1× 27.56 ×10−3
= = 23.8 W/m 2 K
0.05
LL &LUFXODUSLSH
⎛ 4 × Area of the square section ⎞⎟
0.5
Diameter of the pipe = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟

⎜⎝ Q ⎠
⎛ 4 × 0.05 × 0.05 ⎞⎟
0.5
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0.0564 m
⎜⎝ Q ⎠
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
5 × 0.0564
ReD = = 1663.2
16.95 ×10−6
$V ReD > 2300, LWLVDWXUEXOHQWÀRZ
1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.023ReD0.8 Pr 0.4
= 0.023q (16637.2)0.8 q (0.699)0.4
= 47.47
7KHUHIRUH
47.47 × 27.56 ×10−3
h= = 23.19 W/m 2 K
0.0564
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVWKHVDPHLQERWKFDVHV
Air at a pressure of 3 bar (P) and temperature of 40°C (Tmi LVSDVVHGWKURXJKDWXEHRIFPGLDP-

eter (D) with a velocity of 6 m/s (U). The tube wall is maintained at a temperature of 100°C (Tw ).
'HWHUPLQHWKHLQFUHDVHLQWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIDLUDQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHIRUWXEHOHQJWKV/RI
1 m and 2 m.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDW Tmi are

Pr = 0.699; K = 0.02656 W/mK; N = 19.12 ×10−6 Ns/m 2 ; Cp N-NJ.
P
Density, S =
RT
3×105
= = 3.34 kg/m3
287 × (273 + 40)
⎛ ρUD ⎞⎟
Reynolds number, ReD = ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ μ ⎟⎟⎠
3.34 × 6 × 0.05
= = 52400
19.12 ×10−6
Since ReD > 2300, WKHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQW
7KHFRUUHODWLRQIRU1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.023( ReD )0.8 ( Pr )0.4

= 0.023q (52400)0.8 q (0.699)0.4 = 118.85
7KHUHIRUH
Nu q K 118.85 q 0.02656
h= = = 63.13 W/m 2 K
D 0.05
L $WXEHOHQJWKLRIP
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHU
⎡ ⎛ T + Tmo ⎞⎟⎤
Q = hA ⎢Tw − ⎜⎜ mi ⎟⎟⎥ = mC p (Tmo − Tmi )
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎠⎥⎦
⎛ T + Tmo ⎞⎟ mC p
Tw − ⎜⎜ mi ⎟⎟ = (T − Tmi )
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ hA mo
ZKHUHPDVVÀRZUDWHRIDLU
⎛ π D 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛ π × (0.05)2 ⎞
m = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟U ρ = ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ × 6 × 3.34⎟⎟⎟ = 0.0393 kgg/s
⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠ 4 ⎟⎠
7KHUHIRUH
⎛ 40 + Tmo ⎞⎟ 0.0393×1005
100 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = (T − 40)
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ 63.13(Q × 0.05×1) mo
7HPSHUDWXUHRIDLUDWWKHRXWOHW Tmo = 53.4D C
7KHUHIRUHWKHULVHLQWHPSHUDWXUHRIDLU %T = 13.4D C
Heat added to air, Q = mC p (Tmo Tmi ) = 529.25 W
LL $WXEHOHQJWKLRIP
⎛ T + Tmi ⎞⎟ mC p
Tw − ⎜⎜ mo ⎟⎟ = (T − Tmi )
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ hA mo
⎛T ⎞ 0.0393×1005
100 − ⎜⎜ mo + 20⎟⎟⎟ = (T − 40)
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠ 63.13× Q × 0.05 × 3 mo
7HPSHUDWXUHRIDLUDWRXWOHW Tmo = 87.1D C

7KHUHIRUHWKHULVHLQWHPSHUDWXUH %T = 47.1D C
Heat added to air, Q = mC p%T = 1860.3 W.
&RPSDUHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVRIZDWHUDQGOLTXLGVRGLXPZKHQWKHÀXLGVDUHKHDWHGIURP&
(Tmi ) to 150°C (Tmo ZKHQÀRZLQJDWDUDWHRINJVm) in a tube of diameter 2.5 cm (D) maintained at
a constant wall temperature.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW Tm = (Tmo + Tmi )/2 = (130 + 150)/2 = 140D C are

ν = 0.213×10−6 m 2 /s; ρ = 928 kg/m3 ; Pr = 1.241; C p = 4.283 kJ/kgK; K = 683.8 ×10−3 W/mK
m
Velocity of water , U =
ρA
2q 4
=
928 q π q (0.025)2
= 4.39 m/s
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
UD
ReD =
O
4.39 × 0.025
= = 515315
0.213×10−6
$V ReD > 2300 WKHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQW$WFRQVWDQWZDOOWHPSHUDWXUH
1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.023( ReD )0.8 ( Pr )0.4

= 0.023q (515315)0.8 q (1.241)0.4 = 930.9
7KHUHIRUH
Nu × K
h=
D
930.9 × 683.8 ×10−3
= = 25462 W/m 2 K
0.025
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIOLTXLGVRGLXPDW Tm are
ρ = 916 kg/m3 ;
ν = 0.594 ×10−6 m 2 /s;
Pr = 0.0087;
C p = 1.3565 kJ kg K;
K = 84.9 W/mK
9HORFLW\RIOLTXLGVRGLXP U = m/ρ A = 2 q 4/916 q π q (0.025)2 = 4.45 m/s

5H\QROGVQXPEHU
ReD = UD/v = 4.45 × 0.025/0.594 ×10−6 =
$V ReD > 2300 WKHÀRZLVWXUEXOHQWIRUFRQVWDQWZDOOWHPSHUDWXUH
1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 5 + 0.025( ReD Pr )0.8
= 5 + 0.025(187, 205× 0.0087)0.8 = 14.28
7KHUHIRUHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
Nu q K 14.28 q 84.9
h= = = 48485 W/m 2 K
D 0.025
Under similar conditions, h for liquid sodium > hIRUZDWHU
Water at a temperature of 20°C (TĮ)LVSDVVHGWKURXJKDWXEHEXQGOHLQDVWDJJHUHGWXEHDUUDQJHPHQW

with a velocity of 0.5 m/s (UĮ) The tubes are maintained at a uniform surface temperature of 100°C (Ts )
and the diameter of the tube is 2.5 cm (D). The transverse (Sp )DQGWKHORQJLWXGLQDO(Sn ) pitches are 5 cm
DQGFPUHVSHFWLYHO\)LQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUURZVRIWXEHV
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW TB = 20D C are
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 ;
ν = 1.006 ×10−6 m 2 /s;
Pr = 7.02;
K = 0.5978 W/mK
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
U max D
Re =
v
where
S pU B
U max =
2( S D − D)
⎡ S2 ⎤ ⎡ ⎛ 0.05 ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥
0.5 2 0.5
and S D = ⎢⎢ S n2 + p ⎥⎥ = ⎢⎢(0.0375) 2 + ⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.045 m

2 ⎥⎦ ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦
7KHUHIRUH
0.5 × 5 ×10−2
U max = = 0.625 m/s
2 × (0.045 − 0.025)
0.625 × 0.025
and Re = = 15532
1.006 ×10−6
⎛ PrB ⎞⎟
0.25
⎜ ⎟⎟
7KHFRUUHODWLRQIRUWKHDYHUDJH1XVVHOWQXPEHU Nua = CRe m PrB 0.36 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ 7KHYDOXHVRI&DQGm are
⎜⎜ Pr2
⎝ ⎠
⎛S ⎞
0.2
C = 0.35⎜⎜⎜ p ⎟⎟⎟ ; m = 0.6

⎜⎝ S ⎟⎠ n
⎛ 5 ⎞⎟
0.2
C = 0.35⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 3.75 ⎟⎟⎠
= 0.37
Prw = Pr of water at Ts = 1.74

7KHUHIRUH Nua = 0.37 q (15532)0.6 q (7.02)0.36 q (7.02/1.74)0.25 = 346
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW h = Nua q K/D = 346 q 0.5978/0.025 = 8274 W/m 2 K.
:DWHUHQWHUVDW&WKURXJKDPqFPUHFWDQJXODUWXEHDWDYHORFLW\RIPPLQ7KHWXEH
ZDOOLVPDLQWDLQHGDW&)LQGWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW 55D C are

S = 985.5 kg/m3 ;
c p = 4.18 kJ/kgK ,
v = 0.517 ×10−6 m 2 /s,
K = 0.654 W/mK and
Pr = 3.26.
7KHK\GUDXOLFHTXLYDOHQW diameter of the duct is
4A 4ab
De = =
P 2 × ( a + b)
2 × 0.02 × 0.03
= = 0.024 m
0.02 + 0.03
um De
ReD =
v
2 × 0.024
= = 92, 843
0.517 ×10−6
( ReD )0.8 = (92,843)0.8 = 9423

( Pr )0.4 = (3.26)0.4 = 1.6
8VLQJ(TXDWLRQZLWKZDWHUEHLQJKHDWHG
Nu = 0.023 ReD0.8 Pr 0.4

hDe
= 0.023× (9423)0.8 × (1.6)0.4 = 348 =
K
348× 0.654
h= = 9473 W/m 2 K
2.4 ×10−2
$LUDW.HQWHUVDWXEHRIGLDPHWHUPDQGOHQJWKPDWDPDVVÀRZUDWHRINJV)LQG
the exit temperature of air and the Nusselt number if 1 kW heat is supplied to the outer surface of the
tube.
Heat absorbed by air = Heat supplied
mC p (Te Ti ) = 1 kW
Water exit temperature, Te = 373 + 1/0.0047 ×1 = 586 K

$YHUDJHDLUWHPSHUDWXUH Ta = (Ti + Te )/2 = 373 + 586/2 = 479.5
Properties of air at this temperature are,
S = 0.75 kg/m3 , Pr = 0.68, K = 0.0397 W/mK

and v = 35.5×10−6 m 2 /s; velocity = 7 m/s
um D 7 × 0.003
ReD = = = 5915
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7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDUH Pr = 0.681, N = 2.57 ×10−5 kg/ms, K = 0.0386 W/mK and c p = 1.025 kJ/kgK.
p
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0.287 q 473
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hD
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K
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0.05
Q = h(Q D)(Tw − Tb )
= 78.33× (Q × 0.05 ×1) × 30 = 369.12 W.
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f equal to 0.0218, if its wall temperature is maintained at 365 K. Water enters the tube at 310 K and at
4 m/s and leaves at 340 K.
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ρ = 978 kg/m3 ,
μb = 5.55×10−4 kg/ms and
μw = 2.81×10−4 kg/ms.
um Dρ 4 × 0.03× 978
ReD = = = 293400
μ 4.0 ×10−4
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⎛ N ⎞⎟
n
( f / 8) ReD Pr ⎜⎜ ⎟
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1.07 + 12.7( f / 8) ( Pr − 1) ⎜⎜⎝ Nw ⎟⎠
1/2 2/3
⎛ 0.0218 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 8 ⎟⎟⎠× (293400) × (2.54) ⎛ 5.55 ⎞⎟
= ×⎜⎜ ⎟ 0.11 = 1333.6
⎛ 0.0218 ⎟⎞
1/2
⎝⎜ 2.81⎟⎠
1.07 + 12.7 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ × (2.54 − 1)
2/3
⎝ 8 ⎟⎠
1333.6 × 0.664
h= = 29517 W/m 2 K.
0.03
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ρ = 0.706 kg/m3 ,
μ = 2.67 ×10−5 Ns/m 2 ,
K = 4.04 ×10−5 kW/m 2 K and
C p = 1.03 kJ/kg K
um Dρ
ReD =
μ
1.5 × 0.01× 0.706
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0.01
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Pr = 1.64,
N = 265 ×10−5 kg/ms,
c p = 4.226 kJ/kgK ,
K = 683×10−6 kW/mK and
Nw at 170D C = 158 ×10−6 kg/ms.
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Dh =
P
4 × (0.1× 0.02)
= = 0.0333 m
2(0.1 + 0.02)
ρuD mDh 250 3.333×10−2
ReD = = = ×
μ Aμ 60 20 ×10−4 × 265 ×10−6
= 271, 240
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Nu D = 0.023( ReD )0.8 ( Pr )0.4

= 0.023× (271, 240)0.8 × (1.64)0.4
= 0.023× 2.22 ×104 ×1.219 = 622.8
622.8 × 683×10−6
h= = 12.76 kW/m 2 K.
3.333×10−2
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is maintained at 515 K.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIWKHPHWDODWWKLVWHPSHUDWXUHDUH
S = 7.7 ×103 kg/m3 ,

v = 8×10−8 m 2 /s,
c p = 130 J/kg DC,
K = 12 W/mK and
Pr = 0.011.
um D m D
ReD = =
v ρA v
⎛ 21.6 ×1000 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 3600 ⎠⎟ 0.1
= = 124016
⎛ π ⎞ × −8
⎜⎜7.7 ×103 × (0.1)2 ⎟⎟ 10 8
⎜⎝ 4 ⎟⎠
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Nu D = 0.625( ReD Pr )0.4

= 0.625(137, 796 q 0.011)0.4 = 11.22
11.22 q112
hc = = 1345 W/m 2 K.
0.1
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pressure (P). The outer wall temperature (Tw RIWKHWXEHLVPDLQWDLQHGDW&E\FRQGHQVLQJVWHDP
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Rel = = = 13642
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0.9 0.9 0.1 0.5
⎛ 1 − 0.4 ⎞ ⎛ 280 ⎞ ⎛ 0.6 ⎞
Parameter ( xtt ) = ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎟ =⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ x ⎠ ⎜⎝ μv ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ρl ⎠ ⎝ 0.4 ⎠ ⎝ 12.0 ⎠ ⎝ 958 ⎠
= (1.44) (1.37) (0.025)
= 0.049
1
∴ = 20.25
xtt
1
7KHYDOXHRIF from the graph at = 20.3 LV
xtt
⎛ 0.68 ⎞
∴ hc = 0.023 ⎜ ⎟ (13, 642) (1.8) × 20.2
0.8 0.4
⎝ 0.012 ⎠
= 67673.4 W//m 2 K
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUQXFOHDWHERLOLQJhnb
⎡ k 0.79C 0.45 ρ 0.49 ⎤

= 0.00122 ⎢ 0.5l 0.29pl 0.24l 0.24 ⎥ ΔT 0.24 ΔP 0.75 S
⎢⎣ σ μl h fg ρ r ⎥⎦
{∴ ΔP = P at T w − Pat sat }
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where SLVWKHVXSSUHVVLRQIDFWRU
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= (20.2)1.25 (13642))
= 584208
)URPWKHJUDSKDWRetp S
⎡ (0.68)0.79 (4180)0.45 (960)0.49 ⎤

∴ hnb = 0.00122 ⎢ −6 0.29 0.24 ⎥
(140 − 100)0.24 [(3.6 − 1) ×1105 ]0.75 × 0.1
⎣ (0.06) (280 × 10 ) (2258 × 10 ) (0.6) ⎦
0.5 3 0.24
= 3872.2 K
Heat transfer, Q = mxh fg = h(S DL)(ΔT )
where
h = hc + hnb = 67673.4 + 3872.3
= 71545.7 W/m 2 K
mx h fg 0.06 × 0.4 × 2258 × 103

∴L = = = 1.21 m.
h(S D)(ΔT ) 71545.7(S × 1.2 × 10−2 )(140 − 100)
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Boiling
6.1 BOILING HEAT TRANSFER

Boiling heat transfer is associated with the change in phase from liquid to vapor. When a solid
surface is exposed to a liquid and maintained above the saturation temperature of the liquid, boiling
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ÀRZERLOLQJRFFXUVLQDÀRZLQJVWUHDP7KHERLOLQJRIZDWHULQDNHWWOHRQDVWRYHDQGWKHERLOLQJ
RIZDWHULQERLOHUWXEHVXQGHUSUHVVXUL]HGFRQGLWLRQVDUHH[DPSOHVRISRROERLOLQJDQGÀRZERLOLQJ
UHVSHFWLYHO\7KH OLTXLG DQG YDSRU ÀRZ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK ÀRZ ERLOLQJ LV D FDVH RI WZRSKDVH ÀRZ
*HQHUDOO\ERLOLQJSKHQRPHQDDUHVWXGLHGZLWKUHVSHFWWRH[FHVVWHPSHUDWXUHTw – Ts), which is the
GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHVROLGVXUIDFHTw ) and the saturation temperature of the
OLTXLGTs ).
,IWKHOLTXLGWHPSHUDWXUHLVEHORZWKHVDWXUDWLRQWHPSHUDWXUHWKHERLOLQJLVNQRZQDVWKHORFDORU
subcooled boiling. In this case, the bubbles formed from the solid surface collapses before reaching
the liquid surface. If the temperature of the liquid is equal to its saturation temperature, bubbles rise
WRWKHOLTXLGVXUIDFHGXHWREXR\DQF\DQGWKHQEXUVW7KLVW\SHRIERLOLQJLVFDOOHGEXONRUVDWXUDWHG
boiling.
6.2 BOILING CURVE

7KHEHKDYLRURIERLOLQJKHDWWUDQVIHULVVWXGLHGE\LPPHUVLQJDQHOHFWULFDOO\KHDWHGZLUHLQWRZDWHU
pool and the corresponding rate of heat transfer as a function of the excess temperature is shown in
Fig. 6.1.
7KHPHFKDQLVPRIKHDWWUDQVIHUFDQEHGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHGLVWLQFW]RQHV
)UHHFRQYHFWLRQRUSRROERLOLQJ=RQH,

1XFOHDWHERLOLQJ=RQH,,
)LOPERLOLQJ=RQH,,,
6.2.1 Zone I: Free Convection

,QWKLV]RQHERLOLQJWDNHVSODFHZLWKWKHH[FHVVWHPSHUDWXUHRIDERXW&7KHÀRZSURGXFHGE\IUHH
FRQYHFWLRQLQWKHOLTXLGLVVXI¿FLHQWWRWUDQVIHUWKHKHDWIURPWKHVXUIDFH7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHLQWKLV
zone can be calculated using free convection heat transfer relationships.
Nucleate
Free convection boiling Film boiling
regime
Zone I Zone II Zone III
c
b
q/(W/m2)
Leidenfrost point
a
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 10000

(Tw–Ts)°C
Figure 6.1 Boiling Curve for Water at Atmospheric Pressure
6.2.2 Zone II: Nucleate Boiling

Due to an increase in the excess temperature, bubbles start to form at some locations on the heater
surface and formed bubbles leave the surface but collapse before reaching the liquid surface. As
WKHH[FHVVWHPSHUDWXUHLVLQFUHDVHGIXUWKHUEXEEOHJHQHUDWLRQUDWHDOVRLQFUHDVHVGXHWRQXPHURXV
QXFOHDWHORFDWLRQVIRUPHGRQWKHVROLGVXUIDFH7KHEXEEOHVLQWKLVUHJLRQGRQRWFROODSVHLQVLGHWKH
OLTXLGEXWWKH\ULVHWRWKHOLTXLGVXUIDFHDQGWKHQFROODSVH,QWKLVUHJLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHZLOOEH
YHU\KLJKZLWKWKHLQFUHDVHLQH[FHVVWHPSHUDWXUH7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHLQFUHDVHVZLWKWHPSHUDWXUH
upto a point ‘b¶DQGWKHQGURSV7KHFRQGLWLRQDWµb¶LVNQRZQDVFULWLFDOKHDWÀX[,IERLOLQJWDNHVSODFH
EH\RQGWKLVSRLQWGXHWRKLJKWHPSHUDWXUHWKHVROLGVXUIDFHPD\JHWGDPDJHGRULWPD\HYHQPHOW
6RWKLVSRLQWLVDOVRFDOOHGDVEXUQRXWSRLQW1RUPDOO\WKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHVROLGVXUIDFHPXVWEH
maintained just below this temperature.
6.2.3 Zone III: Film Boiling

,QLWLDOO\ LQFUHDVH LQ H[FHVV WHPSHUDWXUH DFFHOHUDWHV WKH EXEEOHIRUPDWLRQ DQG WKH HQWLUH VXUIDFH LV
FRYHUHGZLWKYDSRU¿OP7KLV¿OPSUHYHQWVWKHGLUHFWKHDWWUDQVIHUWRWKHIUHVKOLTXLG)LOPUHVLVWDQFH
causes a reduction in heat transfer rate with increase in excess temperature. In this temperature range,
WKH¿OPLVQRWVWDEOH7KHYDSRU¿OPLVVWDEOHDIWHUWKLVUDQJHDQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHWRWKHOLTXLG
LV IXUWKHU UHGXFHG :LWK IXUWKHU LQFUHDVH LQ VXUIDFH WHPSHUDWXUH LH Ts – Tw ! & D PDMRU
SRUWLRQRIWKHKHDWORVWE\WKHVXUIDFHLVGXHWRWKHUPDOUDGLDWLRQZKLFKLQFUHDVHVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHU
rate from the surface. Most of the practical boiling equipments are designed based on nucleate boiling
processes, which have high heat transfer rate.
6.3 EMPIRICAL CORRELATIONS FOR BOILING

In the boiling process, the basic governing equation is
Q = hA(Tw − Ts )
BOILING | 223
where Q is the rate of heat transfer, hLVWKHERLOLQJKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWTw – Ts ) is the excess
temperature, and A is the area of contact between liquid and solid surfaces.
Boiling is more complex phenomena due to latent heat effects, surface tension, surface
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGRWKHUSURSHUWLHVRIWZRSKDVHV\VWHPV+HQFHPRVWO\HPSLULFDOUHODWLRQVDUHXVHG
for boiling heat transfer calculations.
6.4 NUCLEATE POOL BOILING

7KHIROORZLQJHTXDWLRQLVXVHGIRUQXFOHDWHSRROERLOLQJKHDWÀX[
Q ⎡ g (ρl − ρu ) ⎤
1/ 2 ⎡ C pl (Tw − Ts ) ⎤
= heat flux = μl h fg ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
A ⎢⎣ σ ⎥⎦ ⎢ C h Pr n ⎥
⎢⎣ sl fg l ⎥⎦
where the explanation for the variables is given in the box.
Nl±VDWXUDWHGOLTXLGYLVFRVLW\NJPV
hfg±ODWHQWKHDWRIYDSRUL]DWLRQ-NJ
g±DFFHOHUDWLRQGXHWRJUDYLW\PV2),
Sl±GHQVLW\RIVDWXUDWHGOLTXLGNJP3),
Sv±GHQVLW\RIVDWXUDWHGYDSRUNJP3),
T±VXUIDFHWHQVLRQIRUOLTXLGYDSRULQWHUIDFH1P
Cpl±VSHFL¿FKHDWRIVDWXUDWHGOLTXLG-NJ.
Csl±FRQVWDQWEDVHGRQKHDWLQJVXUIDFHDQGOLTXLG7DEOH
Prl±3UDQGWOQXPEHURIVDWXUDWHGOLTXLGDQG
n – 1.0 for water and 1.7 for other liquids.
Table 6.1 Csl values for surface liquid combinations
1 Water–stainless steel Mechanically polished 0.013

Ground and polished 0.006
Chemically etched 0.013
2 Water–brass – 0.006
3 Water–nickel – 0.006
4 Water–copper Scored and polished 0.013
5 Water–platinum – 0.013
6 Ethyl alcohol–chromium – 0.003
7 Benzene–chromium – 0.010
7KHIROORZLQJFRUUHODWLRQVDUHXVHGIRUQXFOHDWHERLOLQJDWDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHRQÀDWDQGYHUWLFDO
plates.
Nu = 0.16(Gr ⋅ Pr )0.33 (Flat plate)
Nu = 0.61 (Gr ⋅ Pr )0.25 (Vertical plate)

6.5 CRITICAL HEAT FLUX FOR NUCLEATE POOL BOILING
7KHIROORZLQJHTXDWLRQLVXVHGIRUFULWLFDOKHDWÀX[LQSRROERLOLQJ
Qmax
= qcritical = 0.18(ρv )0.5 h fg [ g σ (ρl − ρv ) ] .
0.25

A
6.6 FILM BOILING

1RUPDOO\¿OPERLOLQJLVDYRLGHGEXWLWRFFXUVLQFU\RJHQLFOLTXLGV,QVWDEOH¿OPERLOLQJKHDWORVVLV
GXHWRFRQYHFWLRQDQGUDGLDWLRQ7KHIROORZLQJUHODWLRQLVXVHGIRUWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIURP
the outer surface of horizontal tubes,
htotal = hc + 0.75hr
ZKHUHWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLV
⎪⎧ kv3 ρv (ρl − ρv ) g[h fg + 0.8 C pv (Tw − Ts )]⎫⎪⎪

0
= 0.62 ⎪⎨ ⎬
⎪⎪ d μv (Tw − Ts ) ⎪⎪
⎩ ⎭
where dLVWKHGLDPHWHURIKRUL]RQWDOWXEHDQGWKHUDGLDWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLV
σε(Tw4 − Ts4 )
hr =
(Tw − Ts )
where T LVWKH6WHIDQ±%ROW]PDQQ¶VFRQVWDQWq 10±:P2.) and FLVWKHHPLVVLYLW\RIWKHVROLG

surface.
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIYDSRUDUHWREHFDOFXODWHGDWWKH¿OPWHPSHUDWXUHDQGWKHODWHQWKHDWRIYDSRUL]DWLRQ
LVWREHWDNHQDWWKHVDWXUDWLRQWHPSHUDWXUH
6.7 FLOW BOILING OR FORCED CONVECTION BOILING

,IERLOLQJRFFXUVZKHQDOLTXLGLVÀRZLQJLQVLGHDKHDWHGWXEHLWLVNQRZQDVÀRZERLOLQJ%RLOHUVLQ
SRZHUSODQWVXVHWKLVSULQFLSOHWRSURGXFHVWHDPIRUSRZHUJHQHUDWLRQ7KHFRUUHODWLRQWRFDOFXODWHWKH
KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLV
h = hnucleate + hconvection .
7KHIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVPRGL¿HGDV
⎛k ⎞
hconvection = 0.023⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟⎟ ( Rel )0.8 ( Prl )0.4 F
⎜⎝ d ⎠
where dLVWKHWXEHGLDPHWHUP
7KH5H\QROGVQXPEHULVJLYHQE\WKHHTXDWLRQ
BOILING | 225
4m (1− x)
Rel = .
4π d μl
7KHFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRUF depends on the variables x, where mLVWKHPDVVÀRZUDWHNJVx is the

GU\QHVVIUDFWLRQRIVWHDPDQGF is the correction factor.
1
The factor F = 1 for < 0.1
Xt
⎛1 ⎞
0.736
F = 2.35 ⎜⎜⎜ + 0.213⎟⎟⎟

1
for > 0.1
⎜⎝ X t
⎟⎠ Xt
where the parameter XtLVJLYHQE\
⎛ ρv ⎞⎟ ⎛ μl ⎞⎟
0.5 0.1
⎛1− x ⎞⎟
0.9
X t = ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ .
⎜⎝ x ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ μ ⎟⎟⎠
l v
7KHQXFOHDWHERLOLQJKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVJLYHQE\
⎡ kl0.79 C pl 0.45 Pl 0.49 ⎤

hnb = hnucleate = 0.00122 ⎢⎢ 0.5 0.29 0.24 0.24 ⎥⎥ (Tw − Ts )0.24 (ΔP)0.75 S
⎢⎣ (σ ) μl h fg ρv ⎥⎦
ZKHUH ¨P is the difference between saturation pressures of the liquid at Tw and Ts and S is the
suppression factor.
7KHIDFWRUSLVFDOFXODWHGXVLQJWKHIROORZLQJ
S = (1 + 0.12 ReT1.14 )−1 for ReT < 32.5
S = (1 + 0.42 ReT0.78 )−1 for 32.5 < ReT < 70
S = 0.1 for ReT > 70
and ReT = F 1.25 × Rel .
6.8 CONCLUSIONS
When a liquid comes in contact with a solid surface, which is higher than the saturation temperature
of the liquid at the given pressure, then the liquid undergoes phase transformation and becomes vapor
E\DEVRUELQJWKHODWHQWKHDWRIYDSRUL]DWLRQNQRZQDVERLOLQJ
,IDKHDWHGVXUIDFHLVIXOO\VXEPHUJHGXQGHUWKHVWDJQDQWOLTXLGGXULQJERLOLQJWKHQLWLVFDOOHG
DVSRROERLOLQJ,QSRROERLOLQJLIWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHKHDWLQJVXUIDFHLQFUHDVHVWRDOHYHOVOLJKWO\
PRUHWKDQWKHVDWXUDWLRQWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHOLTXLGPRUHYDSRUEXEEOHVDUHIRUPHGDQGWKH\PRYHWR
WKHIUHHVXUIDFHDEVRUELQJPRUHKHDW7KLVSURFHVVLVFDOOHGDVQXFOHDWHERLOLQJ0DWHULDOVKDSHDQG
condition of the heating surface, liquid properties, pressure, and mechanical agitation are the factors
LQÀXHQFLQJWKHQXFOHDWHERLOLQJ
&ULWLFDO KHDW ÀX[ LV WKH SRLQW RI PD[LPXP KHDW ÀX[ RQ WKH ERLOLQJ FXUYH DW ZKLFK WUDQVLWLRQ
IURPQXFOHDWHWR¿OPERLOLQJLQLWLDWHV,QWKHERLOLQJFXUYHDIWHUWKHFULWLFDOKHDWÀX[WKHKHDWÀX[
GHFUHDVHV DV WKH H[FHVV WHPSHUDWXUH FRQWLQXHV WR LQFUHDVH7KH PLQLPXP KHDW ÀX[ SRLQW LV FDOOHG
the Leidenfrost point and the corresponding temperature of the surface is called the Leidenfrost
temperature.
Ɣ Boiling is a convection heat transfer process associated with a change

LQWKHSKDVHRIWKHÀXLGIURPOLTXLGWRYDSRXU
KEY Ɣ 'XHWRÀXLGPRYHPHQWWKLVSURFHVVLVFODVVL¿HGDVDFRQYHFWLRQKHDW
C transfer process.
O
N Ɣ Larger heat transfer is possible with boiling mode with smaller tem
C perature difference.
E
P Ɣ &RPELQHGODWHQWKHDWDQGERX\DQF\LQGXFHGÀRZVPDNHWKHKHDWWUDQV
T IHUFRHI¿FLHQWODUJHU
S
Ɣ Boiling of liquid is common in power plant boilers and refrigeration
V\VWHPV
Ɣ Boiling is the process of liquid evaporation that occurs at the interface
of a solid and liquid when solid surface temperature is higher than that
of the liquid.
Ɣ Boiling process starts with formation of vapour bubbles which later get
detached after growing in size.
Ɣ 7KHJURZWKRIEXEEOHVDOVRGHSHQGRQVXUIDFHWHQVLRQ
Ɣ At pool boiling stage, free convection mechanism prevails near the
surface. Forced convection boiling can also be initiated with external
force.
Ɣ Nucleate boiling regime provides the high heat transfer rate due to the
VHSHUDWLRQRIEXEEOHVDQGEHWWHUÀXLGPL[LQJDWVXUIDFHOHYHO
Ɣ $WWUDQVLWLRQERLOLQJRUXQVWDEOH¿OPERLOLQJEXEEOHIRUPDWLRQLVYHU\
UDSLGDQGDYDSRXU¿OPRUEODQNHWIRUPVDWWKHVXUIDFHUHVXOWLQJLQ
decreased heat transfer.
Ɣ +HDWWUDQVIHUIURPVXUIDFHLVE\FRQGXFWLRQRQFHDFRPSOHWHYDSRXU
EODQNHWLVIRUPHGDQGWKLVUHJLPHLVNQRZQDV¿OPERLOLQJ
BOILING | 227
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
6.1 A specially coated stainless steel heating element with surface area 0.05 m2 (A), maintained at an uni-
form temperature of 110°C (Tw ),(Tw ) is immersed in saturated water at atmospheric pressure. Find the
rate of evaporation assuming nucleate boiling.
⎡ C (T − T ) ⎤
3
⎡ g ( ρl − ρ v ) ⎤
1/2
Q ⎢ pl w s ⎥
Heatflux = = μl h fg ⎢ ⎥
⎢ C h Pr n ⎥
A ⎢ σ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ sl fg l ⎥⎦
7KHUHTXLUHGSURSHUWLHVRIVDWXUDWHGZDWHUDQGYDSRXUDUHWDNHQDV
μl = 0.282 ×10−3 kg/m − s σ = 0.0588 N/m
h fg = 2257 ×10 J/kg3
C pl = 4200 J/(kggK )
2
g = 9.81 m/s Prl = 1.74
ρl = 960.6 kg/m 3
Assume Csl = 0.008
ρv = 0.6 kg/m3 n =1
7KHUHIRUHVXEVWLWXWLQJWKHDERYHSURSHUWLHV
⎡ 9.81× (960.6 − 0.6) ⎤

1/2
Q
= 0.282 ×10−3 × 2257 ×103 ⎢ ⎥
A ⎢⎣ 0.0588 ⎥⎦
⎡ 4200 × (110 − 100) ⎤
3
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0.008 × 2257 ×103 ×1.74 ⎥⎦
Q = 6.086 ×105 W/m 2
7KHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHU
Q = 6.086 q105 q 0.05
= 30.4 kW
Therefore, the rate of evaporation = Q/h fg
30.4
= = 0.0135 kg/s = 48.5 kg/hr.
2257
6.2. $7HÀRQFRDWHGVWDLQOHVVVWHHOVXUIDFHPDLQWDLQHGDWDQXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUHRI&7w ) is used to
ERLOZDWHUDWDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUH'HWHUPLQHWKHKHDWÀX[DQGFULWLFDOKHDWÀX[IRUQXFOHDWHERLOLQJ
$OVR¿QGWKHKHDWÀX[IRUDZDWHU±EUDVVV\VWHP
L 1XFOHDWHERLOLQJ
⎡ C (T − T ) ⎤
3
⎡ g ( ρl − ρ v ) ⎤
1/2
Q ⎢ pl w s ⎥
Theheatflux, = μl h fg ⎢ ⎥
⎢ C h Pr n ⎥
A ⎢ σ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢⎣ sl fg l ⎥⎦
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIVDWXUDWHGVWHDPDQGZDWHUDWDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHDUHWKHVDPHDVJLYHQLQ3UREOHP
Assume Csl = 0.006 IRUWKHZDWHU±7HÀRQFRDWHGVWDLQOHVVVWHHOLQWHUIDFH7KHUHIRUH
⎡ 9.81× (960.6 − 0.6) ⎤

1/2
Q
= q = 0.282 ×10−3 × 2257 ×103 ⎢ ⎥
A ⎢⎣ 0.0588 ⎥⎦
⎡ 4200 × (106 − 100) ⎤
3
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0.006 × 2257 ×103 ×1.74 ⎥⎦
= 3.45 ×105 W/m 2
&ULWLFDOKHDWÀX[
qcritical = 0.18Sv0.5 h fg [ g (Sl − Sv )]0.25
= 0.18× (0.6)0.5 (2257 ×103 )[9.81]× 0.0588(960.6 − 0.6)]0.25
= 15.265 ×105 W/m 2
+HUHWKHKHDWÀX[ Q/A, LVOHVVWKDQWKHFULWLFDOKHDWÀX[ qcritical . Hence, nucleate pool boiling exists.
LL +HDWÀX[IRUDZDWHU±EUDVVV\VWHP
7KHKHDWÀX[LVIXQFWLRQRI Csl3
7KHUHIRUH
qwater brass Csl (for water steel)
=
qwater steel Csl (for water brass)
7KHUHIRUH
⎡ 0.0058 ⎤
3
qwater −brass = 3.45 ×105 × ⎢ ⎥

⎢⎣ 0.006 ⎥⎦
= 3.12 ×105 W/m 2 .
6.3. An electrically heated horizontal brass wire of diameter 0.2 cm (d) is immersed in saturated water at
atmospheric pressure. The wire is maintained at a temperature of 750°C (Tw ). Calculate (i) the boiling
KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLLWKHUDGLDQWKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLIİ DQGLLLWKHKHDWÀX[
Since the excess temperature (Tw − Ts ) is °&WKLVLVD¿OPERLOLQJSURFHVV
L 7KHERLOLQJKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWhc)
⎡ K 3ρ (ρ − ρv ) g[h fg + 0.4C pv (Tw − Ts )] ⎤

0.25
hc = 0.62 ⎢⎢ v v l ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ d μv (Tw − Ts ) ⎥⎦
3URSHUWLHVRIWKHYDSRXUDUHWDNHQDW T f = (Tw + Ts )/2 = 425D C. 7KH\DVVXPHWKHIROORZLQJYDOXHV
C pv = 2085 J/kgK
μv = 24.26 ×10−6 kg/(m-s)
K v = 0.0505 W/mK
ρv = 0.314 kg/m3
:DWHUGHQVLW\ (Sl ) and h fg at Ts are Sl = 960.6 kg/m3 ; h fg = 2257 q103 J/kg
7KHUHIRUH
⎡ (0.0505)3 × 0.314 × (960.6 − 0.314) × 9.81×⎤
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2257 ×10−3 + 0.4 × 2085(750 − 100) ⎥
hc = 0.62 ⎢⎢ ⎥
−2 −6 ⎥
⎢ 0.2 ×10 × 24.26 ×10 × (750 − 100) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎦⎥
= 265.86 W/m 2 K.
LL 7KHUDGLDWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWhr)
BOILING | 229
σε(Tw4 Ts4 )
hr =
(Tw Ts )
Here,
σ = 5.67 ×10−8 W/m 2 K 4
Tw = 750 + 273 = 1023 K
Ts = 100 + 273 = 373 K
ε = 0.8
7KHUHIRUH
5.67 ×10−8 × 0.8 × (10234 − 3734 )
hr =
(1023 − 373)
= 75.1 W/m 2 K.
LLL 7KHKHDWÀX[
'XHWR¿OPERLOLQJDQGUDGLDWLRQWKHWRWDOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWht,LVJLYHQE\
ht = hc + 0.75 hr
= 265.86 + 0.75 × 75.1
= 322.185 W/m 2 K
7KHUHIRUHWKHKHDWÀX[
q = ht (Tw Ts )
= 322.185(750 100)
= 209.42 kW/m 2 .
6DWXUDWHGZDWHULVÀRZLQJDWDUDWHRINJVPWKURXJKDSLSHRILQQHUGLDPHWHUPPGi ) at

atmospheric pressure. The tube wall is maintained at an uniform temperature of 120°C (Tw ). Calculate
WKHWZRSKDVHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDWWKHORFDWLRQZKHUHWKHYDSRXUPDVVTXDOLW\[LV
7ZRSKDVHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW h = hc + hnb , ZLWKWKHYDULDEOHVGH¿QHGDVJLYHQEHORZ
7KHUHIRUH
hc – convection heat transfer
⎛K ⎞
hc = 0.023⎜⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟⎟ ( Rel )0.8 ( Prl )0.4 F
FRHI¿FLHQW
⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠
i
hnb±KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
for nucleate boiling
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIVDWXUDWHGZDWHUDQGVWHDPDW Ts = 100D C DUHWDNHQDV
K l = 0.675 W/mK μl = 2.82 ×10−4 kg/m-s

−4
μv = 0.1233×10 kg/m-s Prl = 1.74
C pl = 4200 J/kgK h fg = 2257 ×10+3 J/kg
ρl = 960.6 kg/m3 ρv = 0.6 kg/m3
σ = 0.06 N/m Psat (at 120D C ) = 2 bar
7RGHWHUPLQHF, we have to calculate
⎛ μ ⎞⎟
0.1
⎛ ρv ⎞⎟
0.5
⎛1 − x ⎞⎟
0.9
X t = ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ l ⎟
⎜⎝ x ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ ρl ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ μ ⎟⎟⎠
v
⎛1 − 0.25 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 0.6 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2.82 ⎞⎟

0.9 0.5 0.1
= ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 0.25 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 960.6 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0.1233 ⎟⎟⎠
= 0.092
7KHFRUUHVSRQGLQJYDOXHRIF is 10.6.
4m(1 − x)
Rel =
πd i μl
4 × 0.1× (1 − 0.25)
= = 13545
π × 25 ×10−3 × 2.82 ×10−4
7KHUHIRUH
⎛ 0.675 ⎞⎟
hc = 0.023×⎜⎜ × (13545)0.8 × (1.74)0.4 ×10.6
⎜⎝ 25 ×10−3 ⎟⎟⎠
= 16.6 kW/m 2 K
7KHQXFOHDWHERLOLQJKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWhnb is
⎡ K 0.79C 0.45ρ 0.49 ⎤
hnb = 0.00122 ⎢⎢ 0.5l 0.29pl 0.24l 0.24 ⎥⎥ (Tw − Ts )0.29 (ΔP )0.75 S .
⎢⎣ (σ ) μl h fg ρv ⎥⎦
Here,
ΔP = Sat. Pr at 120D C − Sat. Pr at 100D C
= 1.9848 − 1.0132 = 0.972 ×105 N/m 2
7RGHWHUPLQHS,ZHQHHGWRNQRZ ReT = F 1.25 Rel
7KHUHIRUH
ReT = (10.6)1.25 q13545
= 259066.5 = 0.17
7KHUHIRUH
(0.675)0.79 × (4200)0.45 × (960.6)0.49

hhb = 0.00122
(0.06) × (2.82 ×10−4 )0.29 × (2257 ×103 )0.24 × (0.6)0.24
0.5
×(120 − 100)0.29 × (0.972 ×105 )0.75 × 0.17

= 3065.75 W/m 2 K
7ZRSKDVHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
h = 16600 + 3065.75
= 19665.75 W/m 2 K.
$
WWKHUDWHRINJVPZDWHUÀRZVWKURXJKDFRSSHUWXEHZLWKFPLQQHUUDGLXV5DWEDU
pressure (P). The tube outer wall temperature (Tw ) is maintained at 140°C by condensing steam. Find
WKHWXEHOHQJWKUHTXLUHGWRPDNHGU\QHVVIUDFWLRQ[DV
BOILING | 231
Sl NJP3; Nl q 1061VP2
Prl Nl :P.
Cpl N-NJhfg N-NJ
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIVWHDPDUH
Sr NJP3; Nv = 12 q 10í16P2
4m(1 − x) 4 × 0.06(1 − 0.4)

Reynolds number, Rel = = = 13642
π Dμl π ×1.2 ×10−2 × 280 ×10−6
7KHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
⎛k ⎞
hc = 0.023⎜⎜ l ⎟⎟⎟ ( Rel )0.8 ( Prl )0.4 F
⎜⎝ D ⎠
where ‘F’ is the correction factor.
⎛ μ ⎞⎟ ⎛ ρ ⎞⎟
0.1 0.5
⎛1 − x ⎞⎟
0.9
Parameter ( xtt ) = ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ l ⎟ ⎜⎜ v ⎟
⎜⎝ x ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ μ ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎟⎠
v l
⎛1 − 0.4 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 280 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 0.6 ⎞⎟

0.9 0.1 0.5
= ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 0.4 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝12.0 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 958 ⎟⎟⎠
= (1.44) (1.37) (0.025)
= 0.049
1
∴ = 20.25
xtt
1
7KHYDOXHRIF from the graph at = 20.3 is 20.2.
xtt
⎛ 0.68 ⎞⎟
∴ hc = 0.023 ⎜⎜ (13642)0.8 (1.8)0.4 × 20.2
⎜⎝ 0.012 ⎟⎟⎠
= 67673.4 W/m 2 K
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUQXFOHDWHERLOLQJhnb)
⎡ k 0.79C 0.45ρ 0.49 ⎤
= 0.00122 ⎢⎢ 0.5l 0.29pl 0.24l 0.24 ⎥⎥ ΔT 0.24ΔP 0.75 S
⎢⎣ σ μl h fg ρr ⎥⎦
{∴ ΔP = Pat Tw − Pat sat }

T = Tw − Tsat
where S is the suppression factor.

7ZRSKDVH5H\QROGVQXPEHU
Retp = F 1.25 Rel
= (20.2)1.25 (13, 642)
= 584208
From the graph, at 5Htp S = 0.1
⎡ (0.68)0.79 (4180)0.45 (960)0.49 ⎤
∴ hnb = 0.00122 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ (0.06)0.5 (280 ×10−6 )0.29 (2258 ×103 )0.24 (0.6)0.24 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
× (140 − 100)0.24 [(3.6 − 1) ×105 ]0.75 × 0.1
= 3872.2 K
Heat transfer,
Q = mxh fg = h(Q DL)(ΔT )
where h = hc + hnb = 67673.4 + 3872.3

= 71545.7 W/m 2 K
mx h fg 0.06 × 0.4 × 2258 ×103

∴ L= = = 1.21 m.
h(Q D)(ΔT ) 71545.7(Q ×1.2 ×10−2 )(140 − 100)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
'H¿QHERLOLQJKHDWWUDQVIHU ( [SODLQ WKH FRQFHSW RI ¿OP ERLOLQJ DQG GLVFXVV
6.2 Discuss the various concepts in boiling heat the various parameters involved in convection and
transfer with the help of the boiling curve. UDGLDWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVRI¿OPERLOLQJ
6.3 State and explain the various parameters involved :KDWLVÀRZERLOLQJ"
LQWKHKHDWÀX[HTXDWLRQIRUQXFOHDWHSRROERLOLQJ 6.7 State and discuss the various parameters involved
UHFRPPHQGHGE\5RKVHQRZ LQIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWV
:KDW LV FULWLFDO KHDW ÀX[ IRU QXFOHDWH ERLOLQJ" &RPSDUHWKHERLOLQJKHDWWUDQVIHUIRUYHUWLFDODQG
+RZZLOO\RXHVWLPDWHLW" ÀDWSODWHV
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
6.1 Boiling occurs at a solid–liquid interface when EQXFOHDWHERLOLQJ
the temperature of the surface F¿OPERLOLQJ
DH[FHHGV WKH VDWXUDWLRQ WHPSHUDWXUH FRUUHV GDOORIWKHDERYH
ponding to the liquid pressure
, Q IUHH FRQYHFWLRQ ERLOLQJ WKHUH LV YDSRXU LQ
ELV ORZHU WKDQ WKH VDWXUDWLRQ WHPSHUDWXUH contact with the liquid phase to cause boiling at
corresponding to the liquid pressure the saturation temperature
FH[FHHGV WKH VDWXUDWLRQ WHPSHUDWXUH FRUUHV
DLQVXI¿FLHQWEVXI¿FLHQW
ponding to half of the liquid pressure
FPRUHWKDQVXI¿FLHQW GQR
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6.2 In pool boiling , QQXFOHDWHERLOLQJWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHU
FRHI¿FLHQWZLOOEHLQH[FHVVRI:P2 .
DWKHOLTXLGLVTXLHVFHQW
D E
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convection F G
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detachment DXQVWDEOH¿OPERLOLQJ
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BOILING | 233
7KH LQFUHDVHG VXUIDFH URXJKQHVV FDQ FDXVH D ,QIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQERLOLQJÀXLGÀRZLVGXHWR
ODUJHLQFUHDVHLQKHDWÀX[IRUWKHUHJLPH DGLUHFWHGPRWLRQ EEXR\DQF\HIIHFW
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EQXFOHDWHERLOLQJ ,QWHUQDOIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQERLOLQJLVFRPPRQO\
F¿OPERLOLQJ referred to as
GDOO DWZRSKDVHÀRZ EVLQJOHSKDVHÀRZ
7KHH[FHVVWHPSHUDWXUHRIDVXUIDFHPDLQWDLQHG FPXOWLSKDVHÀRZ GDOORIWKHDERYH
at 120°&WKDWFDXVHERLOLQJRIZDWHUDWDWPLV Answers:
D°& E°& DGGDFFE
F°& G°& EFD
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
6.1 A stainless steel plate electrical heater is GLDPHWHU PDLQWDLQHG DW . )LQG WKH UDWH RI
NHSW LQVLGH ZDWHU DW . DQG WKH ZDWHU LV DW KHDWWUDQVIHU¿OPERLOLQJWRWKHZDWHUIRUP2
saturated condition at atmospheric pressure. If surface area of the wire. What is the required
WKHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHSODWHLVP2¿QGWKHUDWH ZLUHOHQJWKIRUWKLVKHDWWUDQVIHU"Ans.N:
of evaporation, assuming nucleate pool boiling.
Ans.WRQVKU , QFDVHRIFULWLFDOKHDWÀX[IRU3UREOHPZKDWZLOO
EHWKHFULWLFDOKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWH"Ans.N:
6.2 Water at saturated condition at atmospheric
SUHVVXUHLVWREHHYDSRUDWHGDWWKHUDWHRIJV $
WXEHZLWKLQQHUUDGLXVRIFPLVPDLQWDLQHG
with the help of a stainless steel electrical heater DW.DQGLVXVHGWRFDUU\VDWXUDWHGZDWHUDW
with its surface temperature maintained at DWPRVSKHULF SUHVVXUH7KH ÀRZ UDWH RI ZDWHU LV
. :KDW VKRXOG EH WKH VXUIDFH DUHD RI WKH NJKU ,V WKH ÀRZ LV ODPLQDU RU WXUEXOHQW"
VWDLQOHVV VWHHO SODWH IRU QXFOHDWH SRRO ERLOLQJ" :KDWLVWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW"
Ans.P2) Ans.7XUEXOHQWN:P2.
6.3 Saturated water at atmospheric pressure is boiled
6.7 Find the evaporation rate of water at 1 bar from
XVLQJ D VSHFLDOO\ FRDWHG VWDLQOHVV VWHHO SODWH
DFRSSHUSDQRIPLQGLDPHWHUPDLQWDLQHG
that is ground and polished and maintained at a
DW.:KDWLVWKHERLOLQJKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWH"
WHPSHUDWXUHRI.,IWKHDUHDRIWKHVWDLQOHVV
Ans.NJKUN:
steel plate is 2 m2, what will be the rate of heat
transfer from it to the water when nucleate 6
DWXUDWHG ZDWHU DW DWPRVSKHULF SUHVVXUH LV
ERLOLQJ H[LVWV" $VVXPH WKDW WKH YDOXH RI Csl is ERLOHG XVLQJ D KRUL]RQWDOO\ NHSW SODWLQXP ZLUH
Ans.N: RI FP GLDPHWHU ,I WKH WHPSHUDWXUH
6
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KHDWHG E\ D KRUL]RQWDO EUDVV ZLUH RI PP WUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWAns.:P2.
7
Condensation
If vapor comes in contacts with a surface maintained at a temperature below the saturation temperature
of the vapor, then condensationRFFXUV7KHOLTXLGFRQGHQVDWHZLOOÀRZGRZQRQWKHVXUIDFHXQGHU
WKH LQÀXHQFH RI JUDYLW\:KHQ WKH OLTXLG ZHWV WKH VXUIDFH VSUHDGV RXW DQG IRUPV D ¿OP DQG WKLV
process is known as ¿OPZLVHcondensation,IWKHVXUIDFHLVQRWZHWWHGE\WKHOLTXLGWKHQGURSOHWV
form and run down the surface. This process is known as dropwise condensation. Heat transfer rate
in dropwise FRQGHQVDWLRQLVQHDUO\WLPHVKLJKHUWKDQLQWKH¿OPZLVHcondensation process. But
dropwise FRQGHQVDWLRQLVYHU\GLI¿FXOWWRDFKLHYHLQSUDFWLFDOFDVHV$OOSUDFWLFDOGHVLJQPHWKRGV
are based on ¿OPZLVHFRQGHQVDWLRQ7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRU¿OPZLVHFRQGHQVDWLRQRQDÀDW
SODWHDQGDFLUFXODUWXEHZHUHIRXQGE\1XVVHOWLQ
7.1 CONDENSATION ON VERTICAL SURFACES (NUSSELT THEORY)

$Q DQDO\WLFDO PRGHO IRU ¿OPZLVH FRQGHQVDWLRQ IRU YDSRU RQ D YHUWLFDO ZDOO LV VKRZQ LQ )LJ
7KH¿OPWKLFNQHVVįLVVHHQWREH]HURDWWKHWRSRIWKHZDOODQGWRLQFUHDVHZLWKGLVWDQFHLQWKHx
GLUHFWLRQ7KHIROORZLQJDVVXPSWLRQVZHUH¿UVWPDGHE\1XVVHOW
7KHYHUWLFDOZDOOLVNHSWDWDQXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUHTw ZKLFKLVORZHUWKDQWKHVDWXUDWLRQ
WHPSHUDWXUHTv RIWKHYDSRU
2. The GUDJIRUFHRIYDSRURQWKHPRWLRQRIWKHFRQGHQVDWHLVYHU\VPDOO
7KHÀRZRIFRQGHQVDWHLVXQGHUJUDYLW\IRUFH
7KHÀRZDFFHOHUDWLRQLQWKHFRQGHQVDWHOD\HULVYHU\VPDOO
)OXLGSURSHUWLHVDUHFRQVWDQWDQGKHDWWUDQVIHUDFURVVWKHOLTXLG¿OPLVE\SXUHFRQGXFWLRQ
The YHORFLW\GLVWULEXWLRQuDWDQ\ORFDWLRQxDFURVVWKHOLTXLG¿OPLVGHWHUPLQHGE\HTXDWLQJWKH
VKHDUIRUFHDFWLQJXSZDUGWRWKHQHWJUDYLW\IRUFHDFWLQJGRZQZDUG$VVXPLQJXQLWWKLFNQHVV
du
μl (dx ⋅1) = ρl [ (δ − y )dx ⋅1] g
dy
du g ρl (δ − y )
= .
dy μl
,QWHJUDWLQJWKHHTXDWLRQZHJHW
g ρl ⎡ 2⎤
u= ⎢δ y − y ⎥ + C.
μl ⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
y
x Vapour
Tv
x condensate
⎛⎜ δu ⎞
⎜⎜τ = μ1 ⎟⎟⎟⎟
⎝ δy ⎠
y
dx
ª U1 G y g d x º
¬ ¼
Tv
Tw
du ⎛⎜Tv − Tw ⎞⎟
=⎜ ⎟
dy ⎝⎜ E ⎟⎠
Velocity profile Temperature profile

Figure 7.1 Filmwise Condensation on a Vertical Surface
Nl±YLVFRVLW\RIWKHOLTXLG
E±WKLFNQHVVRIOLTXLG¿OPDWµx’
Sl – GHQVLW\RIOLTXLG
kl±WKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIOLTXLG
g±DFFHOHUDWLRQGXHWRJUDYLW\
Tv – temperature of vapor
Tw – temperature of the wall
8VLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQu DWy WKHYDOXHRICLV]HUR
g ρl ⎡ 2⎤
∴ u= ⎢δ ⋅ y − y ⎥ .
μl ⎢ 2 ⎥⎦
⎣
7KHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\DWx is
1 δ ρl g ⎛⎜ y ⎞⎟
2
1 δ ρl gδ 2
δ ∫0 δ ∫0 μl ⎜⎝
ua = u dy = ⎜δ y − ⎟ dy = .
2 ⎟⎠ 3μl
CONDENSATION | 237
The PDVVÀRZUDWHmRIWKHOLTXLGDWGLVWDQFHµx’ per unit width of the plate is written as
ρl g δ 2 ρ 2 gδ 3
m = ua (δ ×1)ρl = δ × ρl = l .
3μl 3μl
7KHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUGQRYHUWKHHOHPHQWLV
d Q = h fg ⋅ d m
where hfg is the latent heat of condensation and dm is the rate of condensation of vapor over distance
µGx’.
$VSHUWKHDVVXPSWLRQKHDWFRQGXFWLRQIURPWKHYDSRUWRZDOOLV
⎛ T − Tw ⎞⎟
dQ = kl (dx ⋅1) ⎜⎜ v ⎟.
⎜⎝ E ⎟⎠
)URP(TXDWLRQ
g ρl2 2
dm = δ dδ.
μl
)URP(TXDWLRQVDQG
⎛ T − Tw ⎞⎟ h fg g ρl2δ 2 d δ
kl (d x ⋅1) ⎜⎜ v ⎟=
⎜⎝ δ ⎟⎠ μl
μl kl (Tv Tw )dx
δ 3 dδ = .
h fg g ρl2
,QWHJUDWLQJ(TXDWLRQDQGXVLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVį DWx WKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKH

ZDWHUOD\HUEHFRPHV
⎡ 4μ k (T − T ) x ⎤
1/ 4
δ = ⎢⎢ l l 2 v w ⎥
⎥ .
⎢⎣ ρl gh fg ⎥⎦
7KHORFDOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWFDQEHREWDLQHGE\
(Tv − Tw )
hx (Tv − Tw ) (dx ⋅1) = kl (dx ⋅1)
E
⎡ h fg kl3 g ρl2 ⎤
1/ 4
∴ hx = ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥
4 μ
⎢⎣ l v (T − Tw ) x ⎥⎦
1
= C 1/ 4
x
⎡ kl3 h fg g ρl2 ⎤
1/ 4
where C = ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥ .
4 μ
⎢⎣ l v(T − T )
w ⎥⎦
7KHQDYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
1 L
L ∫0
h= hx dx
ZKHUHµL¶LVWKHOHQJWKRIWKHSODWH
1 L 1
L ∫0
= C 1 / 4 dx.
x
The value of h LVREWDLQHGE\VXEVWLWXWLQJWKHYDOXHRIµC’ as
⎡ h fg kl3 g ρl2 ⎤
1/ 4
∴ h = 0.943 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥ .
⎢⎣ μl (Tv − Tw ) L ⎥⎦
7KHSK\VLFDOSURSHUWLHVPXVWEHWDNHQDWWKH¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH. The above equation is also applicable

to vertical tubes. In the above equation, substitute g = g sin șIRULQFOLQHGVXUIDFHVZKHUHµș’ is the
DQJOHWRWKHKRUL]RQWDO
7.2 CONDENSATION ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

)RUDKRUL]RQWDOWXEHZLWKGLDPHWHUDWKH1XVVHOW¶VHTXDWLRQ is
⎡ g ρl2 h fg kl3 ⎤
1/ 4
hx = 0.725 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥ .
⎢⎣ μl D (Tv − T w ) ⎥⎦
Then the ratio of the FRQGHQVDWLRQRQDYHUWLFDOWXEHRIOHQJWKLWRWKDWRQDKRUL]RQWDOWXEHRI

diameter DLVJLYHQE\
⎛ D⎞
1/ 4
hv
= 1.3⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ .
hh ⎜⎝ L ⎠
(TXDWLRQJLYHVWZRFRQGLWLRQV
L ,IL D, then hh = hv for the same temperature difference.
LL ,IL D, then hh = 2.05 hv for the same temperature difference.

,IKRUL]RQWDOWXEHVDUHDUUDQJHGLQYHUWLFDOWLHUVWKHFRQGHQVDWHIURPRQHWXEHGUDLQVRXWWKHWXEH
MXVWEHORZ7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVJLYHQE\
CONDENSATION | 239
1/ 4
h = 0.725 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥
μ (T
⎢⎣ l v − T w ) ND ⎥⎦
where N is the number of tubes.
7.3 REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR CONDENSATE FLOW

The 5H\QROGVQXPEHUReLVGH¿QHGDV
Dh ρlU
Re =
μl
where U is WKHDYHUDJHYHORFLW\ of the FRQGHQVDWHOLTXLG¿OP, ȝl is the G\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\ of liquid,

and ȡl is the GHQVLW\RIOLTXLG.
4 A 4× cross-sectional area for condensate flow

Dh = =
P wetted perimeteer
4ρlUA 4m
Re = =
μl ρ μl ρ
where m is WKHPDVVÀRZUDWH = ȡlUA.

There is a transition from laminar to turbulent condensation when the 5H\QROGVQXPEHU exceeds

7.4 CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FROM

EXPERIMENTS
0F$GDPV IRXQG E\ H[SHULPHQWV WKDW WKH DYHUDJH KHDW WUDQVIHU IRU YHUWLFDO VXUIDFHV LV DERXW
KLJKHUWKDQWKDWIRXQGIURP1XVVHOWWKHRU\0F$GDPVUHFRPPHQGHGWKHIROORZLQJHTXDWLRQV
For a vertical surface
1/ 4
h = 1.13 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥ .
⎢⎣ μl (Tv − Tw ) L ⎥⎦
The above equation can be written in terms of 5H\QROGVQXPEHUReDV
⎡ gk 3ρ 2 ⎤
1/ 3
h = 1.76 ⎢ 2l l ⎥ .
⎢ μ Re ⎥
⎣ l ⎦
7KHRWKHUHPSLULFDOFRUUHODWLRQIRU¿OPFRQGHQVDWLRQRQDYHUWLFDOSODWHIRUWXUEXOHQFHÀRZ
Re!LV
⎡ gk 3 ρ 2 ⎤
1/ 3
h = 0.0077 Re0.4 ⎢ l 2 l ⎥ .

⎢ μ ⎥
⎣ l ⎦
7.5 DROPWISE CONDENSATION
,IWKHFRQGHQVLQJVXUIDFHLVYHU\VPRRWKDQGLIVRPHRLOVXEVWDQFHLVDSSOLHGRQLWWKHQYDSRUZLOO
FRQGHQVH DQG IRUP GURSOHWV 7KLV W\SH RI dropwise condensation JLYHV PXFK KLJKHU UDWH RI KHDW
WUDQVIHU WR WLPHV KLJKHU WKDQ ¿OPZLVH condensation 6XEVWDQFHV VXFK DV ROHLF DFLG EHQ]\O
PHUFDSWDQDQGVRPHIDWVDQGZD[HVZKHQDSSOLHGPDNHWKHVXUIDFHYHU\VPRRWKWRSURPRWHdropwise
FRQGHQVDWLRQ$FRPSDULVRQRIKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVIRU¿OPZLVHDQGdropwise condensation is
VKRZQLQ7DEOH
Table 7.1 Approximate condensation heat transfer coefficients

Temperature difference Filmwise condensation Dropwise condensation
(°C) h (W/m2K) h (W/m2K)
2 20,900 1,10,300
4 13,930 92,890
6 11,610 75,470
8 9,290 65,020
10 6,965 55,730
12 5,800 46,445
14 4,645 40,640
7.6 INFLUENCE OF NONCONDENSABLE GASES

,IWKHFRQGHQVLQJJDVKDVQRQFRQGHQVDEOHJDVHVLQLWWKHQWKHVXUIDFHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWZLOO
GHFUHDVHVLJQL¿FDQWO\7KHSUHVHQFHRIHYHQRQHSHUFHQWE\YROXPHRIQRQFRQGHQVDEOHJDVHVZLOO
UHGXFHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWE\±
7.7 CONCLUSIONS
The FRQGHQVDWLRQLVWKHSKDVHFKDQJHSURFHVVIURPYDSRUWROLTXLGZKHQWKHYDSRUFRPHVLQFRQWDFW
ZLWK D VXUIDFH ZKRVH WHPSHUDWXUH LV ORZHU WKDQ WKH VDWXUDWLRQ WHPSHUDWXUH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR WKH
YDSRUSUHVVXUH'XULQJFRQGHQVDWLRQWKHODWHQWKHDWLVOLEHUDWHGDQGÀRZRIKHDWWRWKHVXUIDFH7KH
modes of FRQGHQVDWLRQDUHL¿OPZLVHFRQGHQVDWLRQLLdropwise FRQGHQVDWLRQLLLKRPRJHQRXV
FRQGHQVDWLRQDQGLYGLUHFWFRQWDFWcondensation.
'XULQJWKHFRQGHQVDWLRQSURFHVVWKHFRQGHQVDWHWHQGVWRZHWWKHVXUIDFHDQGWKHUHE\IRUPDOLTXLG
¿OPWKHQLWLVNQRZQDV¿OPFRQGHQVDWLRQ7KHWKLQOLTXLG¿OPUHGXFHVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKH
vapor to surface.
'XULQJWKHFRQGHQVDWLRQSURFHVVWKHYDSRUFRQGHQVHVLQWRVPDOOOLTXLGGURSOHWVRIYDULRXVVL]HV
ZKLFKIDOOGRZQDORQJWKHVXUIDFHLQUDQGRPIDVKLRQ7KLVLVNQRZQDVdropwise condensation. In this,
WKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHLVWRWLPHVKLJKHUWKDQ¿OPcondensation.
7KH-DFREQXPEHULVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLREHWZHHQPD[LPXPVHQVLEOHKHDWRIOLTXLGWRlatent heat
of condensation. The rate of FRQGHQVDWLRQRYHUWKHKRUL]RQWDOWXEHLVKLJKHUWKDQWKHYHUWLFDOWXEH
7XUEXOHQWÀRZLVKDUGO\HYHUUHDFKHGRQDKRUL]RQWDOWXEHEXWLWLVHVWDEOLVKHGRYHUWKHORZHUSRUWLRQ
of the vertical surface.
7KHVXUIDFHFRDWLQJVXVHGWRVWLPXODWHdropwise FRQGHQVDWLRQDUHVLOLFRQWHÀRQZD[HVDQGIDWW\
acids. The presence of QRQFRQGHQVDEOH JDVHV UHGXFHV WKH UDWH RI KHDW WUDQVIHU E\ DGGLQJ WKHUPDO
UHVLVWDQFHDQGDOVRH[KLELWVWKHWUDQVIHUE\RIIHULQJGLIIXVLRQDOUHVLVWDQFH
CONDENSATION | 241
Ɣ Condensation is a convection heat transfer process associated with

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condensers.
Ɣ Condensation starts when the vapour temperture reaches its saturation
temperature.
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IRUPVIRJWKHSURFHVVHVLVNQRZQDVKRPRJHQHRXVcondensation.
Ɣ Direct contact condensation occurs when the vapour comes in contact
with cold liquid.
Ɣ $FOHDQDQGXQFRQWDPLQDWHGVXUIDFHZLOOSURGXFH¿OPcondensation.
Ɣ Coated surfaces can produce dropwise condensation.
Ɣ Film condensation has both laminar and WXUEXOHQWÀRZV
Ɣ %RXQGDU\OD\HUFRQGLWLRQVDUHDSSOLFDEOHLQ¿OPcondensation.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
A tube of outer diameter 3 cm (Do ) and length 4 m (L) is maintained at an uniform temperature of 35°C
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⎡ gρl2 h fg kl3 ⎤
1/4
h = 1.13 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ μl (Tv − Tw ) L ⎥⎦
The properties of the condensate at ¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH T f = (65 + 35)/2 = 50°C DUHJLYHQE\
kl = 64 ×10−3 W/mK; μl = 562 ×10−6 kg/ms

ρl = 990 kg/m3 ; h fg = 2382 ×103 J/kg and g = 9.81 m 2 /s.
⎡ 9.81× (990)2 × 2382 ×103 × (640 ×10−3 )3 ⎤
1/4
h = 1.13 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 562 ×10−6 (65 − 35) × 4.0 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
= 3471 W/m K
Condensate heat = Heat transfer at the surface of the tube
mh fg = Q Do Lh(Tv Tw )
π Do Lh(Tv − Tω )
0DVVÀRZUDWH m =
h fg
π × 3.0 ×10−2 × 4 × 3471× (65 − 35)
=
2382 ×103
−3
= 16.48 ×10 kg/s
Check for ODPLQDUÀRZ

4m 4 ×16.48 ×10−3
Re = =
μl π Do 562 ×10−6 × π × 3×10−2
= 1245 (Laminar flow))
LL +RUL]RQWDOWXEH
⎡ gρl2 h fg kl3 ⎤
1/4
h = 0.725 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ μl (Tv − Tw ) D0 ⎥⎦
⎡ 9.81× (990)2 × 2382 ×10+3 (640 ×10−3 )3 ⎤
1/4
= 0.725 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 562 ×10−6 × (65 − 35) × 0.03 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2
= 7567.4 W/m K
0DVVÀRZUDWH
Q Do Lh(Tv − Tw )
m=
h fg
Q × 0.03× 4 × 7567.4 × (65 − 35)
= = 35.9 ×10−3 kg/s
2382 ×10−3
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Saturated steam at a temperature Tv RI & FRQGHQVHV RQ WKH RXWHU VXUIDFH RI KRUL]RQWDO
WXEHV1HDFKRIRXWHUGLDPHWHUFP'o DQGDUUDQJHGLQDqDUUD\7XEHVXUIDFHVDUH
maintained at an uniform temperature (Tw RI&'HWHUPLQHWKHWRWDOFRQGHQVDWHUDWHEDVHGRQ
1XVVHOW¶VWKHRU\
⎡ ⎤
1/4
gρl2 h fg kl3
h = 0.725 ⎢⎢ ⎥
⎥ since ρv << ρl
⎢⎣ μl (Tv − Tw ) NDo ⎥⎦
The properties of condensate at T f = 85 + 75/2 = 80°C are
kl = 0.668 W/mK
μl = 355 ×10−6 kg/ms and g = 9.81 m/s 2
ρl = 974 kg/m3
h fg = 2309 kJ/kg
CONDENSATION | 243
⎡ 9.81× (974)2 × 2309 ×103 × (0.668)3 ⎤

1/4
Therefore, h = 0.725 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 355 ×10−6 × 85 − 75 ×16 ×1.3×10−2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 7977.6 W/m 2 K
+HDWÀRZUDWHLQWKHDUUD\RIWXEHVSHUPHWUHOHQJWK Q = hm( N Q Do )(Tv Tw )
Q = 7977.6 × 256 × Q × 0.03× (85 − 75) = 1924.78 kW/m
m = Q/h fg
0DVVRIFRQGHQVDWHSHUPHWUHOHQJWK 1924.78 ×103
= = 0.8 kg/sm.
2309 ×10+3
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⎡ h k 3 (ρ − ρv ) gρl2 ⎤
0.25
h = 0.943 ⎢⎢ fg l l ⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ μl (Tv − Tw ) L ⎥⎦
The properties of water at ¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH T f = (100 + 96)/2 = 98°C, DUHDVIROORZV
Sl = 960 kg/m3 kl = 0.68 W/mK

Nl = 2.82 ×10−4 kg/m s L = a = 0.4 m h fg = 2255 kJ/kg
⎡ 2255 ×103 × (0.68)3 × (968)2 × 9.81⎤

0.25
Therefore, h = 0.943 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 2.82 ×10−4 × (100 − 96) × 0.4 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 10925.3 W/m 2 K
Condensate heat = Heat transfer at the surface
mh fg = hA(Tv − Tw )
hA(Tv − Tw )
Therefore, m =
h fg
10295.3× (0.4)2 × (100 − 96)
=
2255 ×103
= 2.922 ×10−3 kg/s
= 10.52 kg/hr
Check for ODPLQDUÀRZ
4hL(Tv − Tw )
Re =
h fg Nl
4 ×10925.3× 0.4 × (100 − 96)
=
2255 ×103 × 2.82 ×10−4
= 103.62 (Laminar flow ).
REVIEW QUESTIONS
'H¿QHcondensation process. 6 NHWFK WKH condensation process in a vertical
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condensation. 'LVFXVV WKH GLIIHUHQFH LQ KHDW WUDQVIHU EHWZHHQ
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OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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temperature of the vapour FqWKHFURVVVHFWLRQDODUHDIRUFRQGHQVDWH
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saturation temperature of the vapour 0F$GDPVIRXQGE\H[SHULPHQWWKDWWKHDYHUDJH
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condensation, if F G
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7KHcondensation process is known as dropwise
condensation, if EWKH YHUWLFDO WXEH OHQJWK LV WLPHV WKH
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droplets form on the surface
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7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHLQdropwise condensation GHQVDWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRQKRUL]RQWDO
LVWKDQWKDWLQ¿OPZLVHcondensation WXEHV LV WLPHV WKDW RI WKH vertical surface
DJUHDWHU EORZHU LIWKHYHUWLFDOWXEHLVWLPHVWKHKRUL]RQWDOWXEH
FYHU\PXFKORZHU GQRQHRIWKHDERYH diameter
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condensation on a vertical surface are
F G
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and less than the saturation temperature of the /DPLQDU WR turbulent condensation takes place
vapour when 5H\QROGVQXPEHULVJUHDWHUWKDQ
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CONDENSATION | 245
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
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pressure. If the surface temperature of the plate ZLWK VDWXUDWLRQ WHPSHUDWXUH RI . DW
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8
Heat Exchangers
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8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangerLVDGHYLFHZKRVHSULPDU\SXUSRVHLVWKHWUDQVIHURIKHDWHQHUJ\EHWZHHQWZRÀXLGV
+HDWH[FKDQJHUVDUHFODVVL¿HGLQWRregenerators, open-type exchangers, and closed-type exchangers or
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FROGÀXLGVHQWHURSHQW\SHKHDWH[FKDQJHUVDQGOHDYHDVDVLQJOHVWUHDP7KHUHFXSHUDWRULVDW\SHLQ
ZKLFKWKHKRWDQGFROGÀXLGVWUHDPVGRQRWFRPHLQWRGLUHFWFRQWDFWZLWKHDFKRWKHUEXWDUHVHSDUDWHG
by a tube wallRUDVXUIDFH+HDWH[FKDQJHUVDUHDOVRFODVVL¿HGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHUHODWLYHGLUHFWLRQVRI
the two streams: SDUDOOHOÀRZLIWKHÀXLGVÀRZLQWKHVDPHGLUHFWLRQFRXQWHUÀRZLIWKHÀXLGVÀRZLQ
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RIKHDWH[FKDQJHUVDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
(a) Hot fluid (b) Hot fluid
Thi Thi
Tco Tci
Cold Cold
fluid Tco fluid
Tci
Tho
Tho
Ai
Air
(c) (d)
Thi
Hot fluid in
Water
spray system
Cold fluid out

Cold fluid out
Tci Tco
Hot fluid out Air

Tho Air
Figure 8.1 Indirect Contact Heat Exchangers and Direct Contact Heat Exchangers
8.2 OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OF HEAT EXCHANGERS

7KH FRQFHSW RI RYHUDOO KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW is mainly applied to composite V\VWHPV ,Q KHDW
H[FKDQJHUV WKH KHDW WUDQVIHU WDNHV SODFH EHWZHHQ WKH ÀXLGV WKURXJK VROLG ZDOOV ,Q WKLV SURFHVV
FRQYHFWLRQDQGFRQGXFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUVDUHWDNLQJSODFH,QRUGHUWRFRPELQHWKHVHFRQGXFWLRQDQG
FRQYHFWLRQWKHUPDOUHVLVWDQFHVLQWKHSDWKRIKHDWÀRZIURPWKHKRWWRWKHFROGÀXLGoverall heat
WUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVLQWURGXFHG
,QDKHDWH[FKDQJHUWZRÀXLGVDUHVHSDUDWHGE\DZDOODVVKRZQLQ)LJWKHWRWDOresistance (R)
is written as
k
Hot fluid
Cold fluid
(Tc) ho
(Th) hi Q
Figure 8.2 Heat Transfer Across Wall
1 L 1
Resistance, R = + +
hi A kA ho A
(Th − Tc )
But heat transfer (Q) = .
R
HEAT EXCHANGERS | 249
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P Ɣ Heat exchangers may be divided into serveral categories or
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Ɣ Single-phase heat exchangers are usually of the tube-and-shell
type; that is, the exchanger consists of a set of tubes in a container
FDOOHGDVKHOO
Ɣ $WWKHHQGVRIWKHKHDWH[FKDQJHUWKHWXEHVLGHÀXLGLVVHSDUDWHG
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RIVLQJOHSKDVHH[FKDQJHUV
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFDQEHSXWLQWHUPVRIRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWU) and overall temperature

difference as
Q = UA (Th − Tc ).
)URP(TXDWLRQVDQGZHFDQZULWH
1 1
U= = .
RA 1 L 1
+ +
hi k ho
,IWKHÀXLGVDUHVHSDUDWHGE\Dtube wall in a heat H[FKDQJHUDVVKRZQLQ)LJWKHWRWDOresistance

is given by
Ti, hi
Q Q
ho, To
To, ho
ri
ro
Figure 8.3 Tube Wall
1 ln(ro / ri ) 1
R= + + .
Ai hi 2Q kL Ao ho
Th − Tc
But Q = = U i Ai (Ti − To ) = U o Ao (Ti − To )
R
and U changes with area for the same KHDWÀRZUDWH

7KHQWKHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVEDVHGRQHLWKHUWKHLQVLGHRURXWVLGHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKH
tube are
1
Uo = (
⎛ Ao ⎞⎟ 1 Ao ln(r2 / r1 ) 1
⎜⎜ ⎟ + +
⎜⎝ Ai ⎟⎟⎠ hi 2Q kL ho
and
1
Ui = .
1 ln(r2 / r1 ) Ai 1
+ Ai +
hi 2Q kL Ao ho
,IWKHwall thickness is small and its thermal resistance is negligible, then
1
Ui = Uo = .
1 1
+
hi ho
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Table 8.1 Overall heat transfer coefficients for heat exchangers
Types of heat exchanger U (W/m2K)
Gas-to-gas 10–40
Water-to-air in finned tubes (water in tubes) 30–60
Water-to-oil 100–350
Water-to-gasoline or kerosene 300–1000
Water-to-water 850–1700
Feedwater heaters 1000–8500
Steam-to-air in finned tubes (steam in tubes) 30–300
Steam-to-light fuel oil 200–400
Steam-to-heavy fuel oil 50–200
Steam condenser 1000–6000
Freon condenser (water-cooled) 300–1000
Ammonia condenser (water-cooled) 800–1400
Alcohol condensers (water-cooled) 250–700
8.3 FOULING FACTORS

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WKHWXEHVZKLFKDIIHFWVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUDUHD7KHGHSRVLWVDUHUXVWERLOHUVFDOHVLOWFRNHHWF7KH
deposits are known as scaling and they increase the thermal UHVLVWDQFH WR KHDW ÀRZ7KH HIIHFW RI
scaling (fouling) is introduced in the design of heat exchanger by means of the fouling factor
,I WKHUH LV GHSRVLW IRUPDWLRQ RQ WKH LQVLGH DQG RXWVLGH VXUIDFHV RI WKH WXEHV WKHQ WKH thermal
resistance (R) is given as
1 F ln ra / ri Fo 1
R= + i+ + +
Ai hi Ai 2Q kL Ao Ao ho
where Fi and Fo are the IRXOLQJIDFWRUVDWWKHLQVLGHDQGRXWVLGHVXUIDFHVRIWKHWXEH7KHoverall heat

WUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVGHWHUPLQHGDVGLVFXVVHGHDUOLHUEDVHGRQLQVLGHRURXWVLGHVXUIDFHV
8.4 LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD)

7KH WHPSHUDWXUHV RI KRW DQG FROG ÀXLGV LQ D KHDW exchanger are generally not constant and vary
IURPHQWU\WRH[LWGXHWRWUDQVIHURIKHDWIURPWKHKRWWHUWRWKHFROGHUÀXLG'XHWRWKHYDULDWLRQRI
WHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHDWYDULRXVVHFWLRQVWKHUDWHRIKHDWÀRZYDULHVDORQJWKHexchanger even for a
constant thermal UHVLVWDQFH1HJOHFWLQJKHDWORVVWRWKHVXUURXQGLQJVDQGSRWHQWLDODQGNLQHWLFHQHUJ\
change, the general heat transfer equation for a heat exchanger is given as
+HDWORVWE\WKHKRWÀXLGQh) = Heat transfer rate in heat exchanger = Heat gained by the cold
ÀXLGQc)
mh C ph (Thi − Tho ) = UA LMTD = mc C pc (Tco − Tci )
ZKHUHWKHYDULDEOHVDUHGH¿QHGLQWKHER[JLYHQEHORZ
mh±PDVVÀRZUDWHRIKRWÀXLGNJV
Cph±VSHFL¿FKHDWRIKRWÀXLGN-NJ.
Thi±KRWÀXLGLQOHWWHPSHUDWXUH.
Tho±KRWÀXLGRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUH.
U – RYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWN:P.
A – heat transfer surface area of hat exchanger (m)
/07'±ORJPHDQWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHRIKRWDQGFROGÀXLGV.
mc±PDVVÀRZUDWHRIFROGÀXLGNJV
Cpc±VSHFL¿FKHDWRIFROGÀXLGN-NJ.
Tco±FROGÀXLGRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUH.
Tci±FROGÀXLGLQOHWWHPSHUDWXUH.
8.4.1 LMTD for Parallel-flow Heat Exchangers

Consider a SDUDOOHOÀRZ heat H[FKDQJHUDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHWHPSHUDWXUHSUR¿OHVDUHSORWWHG
ZLWKUHVSHFWWRWKHDUHDFRYHUHGDORQJWKHÀRZGLUHFWLRQLQWKHKHDWH[FKDQJHU
Assumptions
7KHÀRZFRQGLWLRQVDUHVWHDG\DQGQRSKDVHFKDQJHWDNHVSODFHLQWKHÀXLGV
+HDWORVVWRWKHVXUURXQGLQJVFKDQJHVLQSRWHQWLDODQGNLQHWLFHQHUJLHVDUHQHJOLJLEOH
7KHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVSHFL¿FKHDWVDQGPDVVÀRZUDWHVRIÀXLGVDUHFRQVWDQWV
Consider an elementary area dA of the heat H[FKDQJHU7KHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUGQ from the hotter
WRFROGHUÀXLGLQWKLVDUHDLVJLYHQE\
dQ = UdA (Th − Tc )

= UdA (R )
Since Th and Tc are assumed to be constant over the elementary area dA, due to transfer of heat,
WKHKRWÀXLGLVFRROHGE\GThZKHUHDVWKHFROGÀXLGLVKHDWHGXSE\GTc7KHQGQ can be written as
dQ = −mh ⋅ C ph ⋅ d Th = mc C pc dTc
dQ
i.e., dTh = −
Ch
dQ
and dTc = −
Cc
where Ch and CcDUHWKHKHDWFDSDFLW\RIKRWDQGFROGÀXLGVUHVSHFWLYHO\
i.e., Ch = mh C ph and Cc = mc C pc
(a)
Tho
mh ho
dQ
Tci
mc
Tco
mh Q hi
Thi
(b)
Thi Hot fluid
Th dTh
Tho
dQ Tco
dTc
Tc
dA
Cold fluid
Tci
Area
Figure 8.4 Temperature Profiles in Parallel-Flow Heat Exchanger
⎡1 1⎤
∴ dTh − dTc = −dQ ⎢ + ⎥
⎢C ⎥
⎣ h Cc ⎦
⎡1 1⎤
i.e., dR = −dQ ⎢ + ⎥ .
⎢C ⎥
⎣ h Cc ⎦
)URP(TXDWLRQ(TXDWLRQEHFRPHV
⎡1 1⎤
dR = −U dA (R ) ⎢ + ⎥
⎢C ⎥
⎣ h Cc ⎦
dR ⎡1 1⎤
= −U ⎢ + ⎥ dA.
R ⎢C ⎥
⎣ h Cc ⎦
,QWHJUDWLQJWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQEHWZHHQLQOHWDQGRXWOHWFRQGLWLRQVZHJHW
Ro dR ⎡1 1⎤ A
∫ = −U ⎢ + ⎥ ∫ dA
R ⎢C ⎥
⎣ h Cc ⎦
Ri 0
Ri = Thi − Tci
Ro = Tho − Tco
⎛R ⎞ ⎡1 1⎤
i.e., ln ⎜⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟⎟ = −UA ⎢ + ⎥ .
⎜⎝ Ri ⎟⎠ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Ch Cc ⎦
1RZFRQVLGHULQJWKHFKDQJHVLQLQOHWWRRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHVRIÀXLGVZHFDQZULWHDV
Q = Ch (Thi − Tho ) = Cc (Tco − Tci )
1 (T − Tho ) 1 (T − Tci )
= hi and = co
Ch Q Cc Q
Substituting the values of Ch and CcLQWR(TXDWLRQZHJHW
⎛R ⎞
ln ⎜⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟⎟ = − [(Thi − Tci ) − (Tho − Tco ) ]
UA
⎜⎝ Ri ⎟⎠ Q
UA(Ri − Ro )
∴ Q= = UA (LMTD)
ln(Ri / Ro )
Ri − Ro
where (logarithmic mean temperature difference) LMTD =
ln (Ri / Ro )
8.4.2 LMTD for Counter-flow Heat Exchangers

7KHWHPSHUDWXUHYDULDWLRQVRIKRWDQGFROGÀXLGVLQDFRXQWHUÀRZKHDWexchanger are shown in
)LJ$OZD\VWKHLQOHWFRQGLWLRQLVUHIHUUHGIURPWKHKRWÀXLGHQWU\7KHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHV
can be written as
Ri = Thi − Tco
Ro = Tho − Tci
where Ri = Ro , /07'EHFRPHVLQGHWHUPLQDWH,QVXFKDFRQGLWLRQDVSHU/¶+RVSLWDO¶VUXOH,
LMTD = Ri = Ro .
Thi
Hot fluid
Tco
Tho
Cold fluid
Tci
Area
Tho
mh ho
dQ
Tco
mc
Tci
mh Q hi
Thi
Figure 8.5 Temperature Profiles in Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger
For the same inlet and outlet temperatures, /07'IRUWKHFRXQWHUÀRZLVKLJKHUWKDQWKDWIRUWKH

SDUDOOHOÀRZ7KHUHIRUHPRUHKHDWWUDQVIHUWDNHVSODFHIRUWKHVDPHYDOXHVRIU and A
,QFRXQWHUÀRZTco can be more than Tho but not so in SDUDOOHOÀRZ7KHarithmetic and logarithmic
means are equal when Ro = Ri ,I Ro v Ri , then the /07'¶VDOZD\VOHVVWKDQWKHarithmetic mean
7KHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQIRUsingle-pass condenser and evaporatorDUHVKRZQLQ)LJ
8.4.3 LMTD for Cross-flow Heat Exchangers

7KH /07' FDOFXODWLRQ LV PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG IRU multipass and FURVVÀRZ arrangements compared
to single-SDVV SDUDOOHO DQG FRXQWHUÀRZ KHDW H[FKDQJHUV DQG LV DOVR GLI¿FXOW WR WUHDW DQDO\WLFDOO\
Correction factors are to be multiplied with the /07' FDOFXODWHG RQ WKH EDVLV RI FRXQWHU ÀRZ WR
estimate the /07'RImultipass and FURVVÀRZKHDWH[FKDQJHUVDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
For multipass and FURVVÀRZW\SHV
Q = F U A (LMTD)counter flow .
where F is the correction factor which can be taken from the chartsVKRZQLQ)LJV±
Ɣ Many applications involving convective heat transfer take place within

SLSHVWXEHVRUVRPHVLPLODUF\OLQGULFDOGHYLFH
Ɣ ,QVXFKFLUFXPVWDQFHVWKHVXUIDFHDUHDRIKHDWWUDQVIHUQRUPDOO\JLYHQLQ
KEY
WKHFRQYHFWLRQHTXDWLRQYDULHVDVKHDWSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHF\OLQGHU
C
O Ɣ ,QDGGLWLRQWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHH[LVWLQJEHWZHHQWKHLQVLGHDQG
N the outside of the pipe, as well as the temperature differences along the
C
E pipe, necessitates the use of some average temperature value in order to
P DQDO\]HWKHSUREOHP
T
S Ɣ 7KLVDYHUDJHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHLVFDOOHGWKHORJPHDQWHPSHUDWXUH
GLIIHUHQFH/07'GHVFULEHGHDULOHU
Ɣ ,WLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHDWRQHHQGRIWKHKHDWH[FKDQJHUPLQXV
the temperature difference at the other end of the heat exchanger,
divided by the natural logarithm of the ratio of these two temperature
GLIIHUHQFHV
Ɣ 7KHDERYHGH¿QLWLRQIRU/07'LQYROYHVWZRLPSRUWDQWDVVXPSWLRQV
WKHÀXLGVSHFL¿FKHDWVGRQRWYDU\VLJQL¿FDQWO\ZLWKWHPSHUDWXUH
DQGWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVDUHUHODWLYHO\FRQVWDQW
WKURXJKRXWWKHKHDWH[FKDQJHU
Thi
Hot fluid
Th Th
Hot fluid
Tco
Temperature
Tho
Cold fluid
Tc Cold fluid
Tci Tc
Condenser Area Evaporator Area
Figure 8.6 Temperature Profiles for Condenser and Evaporator
Tco
Thi
Tci
Tho
Figure 8.7 Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger

1.0
0.9
0.8
R1 =
0.1
F
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.7
0.5
0.6
0.7
2.5
15.0
0.6
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.6
1.4
1.8
4.0
6.0
2.0
3.0
8.0
10.0
20.0
R2
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Tsi
(Tsi − Tso )
R1 =
(Tto − Tti )
(T − Tti )
R2 = to
Tto (Tto − Tti )
Tti
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Tso
|
Figure 8.8 Correction Factor to the Counter-Flow LMTD for a Heat Exchanger with One Shell Pass and 2, 4, 6, or Any Multiple of 2
Tube Passes
257
1.0 258
0.
1
|
0.
2
0.9
0.
3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
15
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0.7
2.5
2.0
3.0
4.0
8.0
6.0
z = 10
R1 = 20
0.6
0.5
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
R2
TSI
mc c pc
Tto R1 =
mhc ph
(Tto − Tti )
R2 =
(Tsi − Tti )
Tti
Tso
Figure 8.9 Correction Factor to the Counter-Flow LMTD for a Heat Exchanger with Two Shell Passes and 4, 8, 12, … Tube Passes
0.1
0.9
Tsi 0.8
R 1=
F
0.2
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.5
Tti Tto
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.6
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Tso R2
mc c pc (Tto − Tti )
R1 = R2 =
mhc ph (Tsi − Tti )
Figure 8.10 Correction Factor to the Counter-Flow LMTD for a Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger with Shell Side Fluid Mixed and Tube Fluid
Unmixed, Having One Tube Pass
HEAT EXCHANGERS
|
259
260
|
1.0
R 1
Tsi
=
0.
0.9
0.
4
0.8
0.
6
Tto
0.
Tti
8
F
1.0
0.7
1.5
2.0
4.0
3.0
0.6
Tso
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
R2
Figure 8.11 Correction Factor to the Counter-Flow LMTD for a Cross-Flow Heat Exchanger with Both Fluids Unmixed and One Tube Pass
8.5 The NTU Method
7RREWDLQDQHTXDWLRQIRUWKHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUZLWKRXWLQYROYLQJDQ\RIWKHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHVRI
WKHÀXLGVKHDWexchanger effectiveness (İLVLQWURGXFHG7KHWHUPeffectiveness (İLVGH¿QHGDVWKH
ratio of the actual heat transfer in a heat H[FKDQJHUWRWKHPD[LPXPSRVVLEOHKHDWWUDQVIHU0D[LPXP
possible heat transfer would be obtained in a FRXQWHUÀRZ KHDW H[FKDQJHU RI LQ¿QLWH KHDW WUDQVIHU
DUHDZLWKRXWKHDWORVV,QJHQHUDORQHÀXLGXQGHUJRHVDJUHDWHUWRWDOWHPSHUDWXUHFKDQJHWKDQWKH
RWKHU7KHÀXLGH[SHULHQFLQJWKHODUJHUFKDQJHLQWHPSHUDWXUHLVWKHRQHKDYLQJWKHsmaller capacity
FRHI¿FLHQW, which is designated as Cmin7KHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHTco RIWKHFROGÀXLGHTXDOVWKHLQOHW
temperature (Thi RIWKHKRWÀXLGZKHQCc ChLHCc = Cmin = mcCpc,ICh Cc, then Tho = Tci
Ch (Thi − Tho ) C (T − Tci )

Effectiveness, F = = c co
Cmin (Thi − Tci ) Cmin (Thi − Tci )
where Cmin is the smaller value of mhcph and mccpc

,IWKHeffectiveness is known, the rate of heat transfer is
Q = F Cmin (Thi − Tci ).
Substituting the value of İIURP(TXDWLRQZHJHW
Q = Ch (Thi − Tho ) = Cc (Tco − Tci ).
(TXDWLRQLVPRUHVXLWDEOHIRUWKHdesign of heat exchangers than an equation using /07'
8.5.1 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness of Various Types of Heat Exchangers

8.5.1.1 Parallel-flow heat exchanger
(TXDWLRQFDQEHZULWWHQDV
⎛R ⎞ ⎡1 1⎤ ⎛ T − Tco ⎞⎟ ⎡1 1⎤
ln ⎜⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟⎟ = −UA ⎢ + ⎥ i.e., ln ⎜⎜⎜ ho ⎟⎟ = −UA ⎢ + ⎥ .
⎜⎝ Ri ⎟⎠ ⎢C ⎥ ⎜⎝ Thi − Tci ⎟⎠ ⎢C ⎥
⎣ h Cc ⎦ ⎣ h Cc ⎦
,QRUGHUWRHOLPLQDWHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHVLQWKHDERYHHTXDWLRQZHFDQZULWHIURP(TXDWLRQ
⎡ C ⎤ ⎛C ⎞
Tho = Thi − ⎢ F min (Thi − Tci )⎥ and Tco = F ⎜⎜⎜ min ⎟⎟⎟ (Thi − Tci ) + Tci .
⎢ C ⎥ ⎜⎝ Cc ⎠⎟
⎣ h ⎦
By substituting the values of Tho and TcoLQ(TXDWLRQZHJHW

⎡ ⎛C C ⎞⎤ ⎛1 1⎞
ln ⎢⎢1− F ⎜⎜⎜ min + min ⎟⎟⎟⎥⎥ = −UA ⎜⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎟
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ Ch Cc ⎟⎠⎥⎦ ⎜⎝ Ch Cc ⎟⎠
⎛ ⎞
⎛C C ⎞
1⎟
−UA⎜⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎟
1
i.e., 1− F ⎜⎜⎜ min + min ⎟⎟⎟ = e ⎝ h c ⎠

⎜C C
⎜⎝ Ch Cc ⎟⎠
⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟
−UA⎜⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ Ch Cc ⎠
1− e
∴ F= .
⎛ Cmin Cmin ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ C Cc ⎟⎠
h
,ICh is Cmin and Cc is Cmax, the effectiveness becomes

UA ⎡⎢ Cmin ⎥⎤
− 1+
C ⎢ C ⎥
1− e min ⎢⎣ max ⎥⎦
F=
⎛ Cmin ⎞⎟
⎜⎜1 + ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ C ⎟⎠ max
and if Cc is Cmin and Ch is Cmax, the effectiveness becomes
UA ⎡⎢ Cmin ⎤⎥
− 1+
Cmin ⎢⎢⎣ Cmax ⎥⎥⎦
1− e
F= .
⎛C ⎞
1 + ⎜⎜ min ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ C ⎟⎠max
(TXDWLRQVDQGDUHVDPHE\WDNLQJCmin as Ch or Cc7KHUDWLRCmin Cmax is called the

heat capacity rate (Ch ) and the ratio UACmin is called the number of heat transfer units178178
is a measure of heat H[FKDQJHUVL]H,WLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLREHWZHHQWKHKHDWFDSDFLW\RIexchanger
DQG WKH KHDW FDSDFLW\ RI ÀRZ7KH effectiveness for various heat exchangers can also be directly
obtained from the FKDUWVVKRZQLQ)LJV±
8.5.1.2 Counter-flow heat exchanger

⎡ ⎛ C ⎞⎤
1− exp ⎢⎢−NTU ⎜⎜⎜1− min ⎟⎟⎟⎥⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ Cmax ⎟⎠⎥⎦
F=
Cmin ⎡ ⎛ Cmin ⎞⎟⎤
1− ⎢ ⎜
exp ⎢−NTU ⎜⎜1− ⎟⎥
⎟
Cmax ⎢⎣ ⎝ Cmax ⎟⎠⎥⎥⎦
8.5.1.3 Cross-flow heat exchanger: both fluids unmixed

⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ exp(−NTU Cmin .n) −1⎟⎟
⎜⎜ Cmax ⎟⎟
F = 1− exp ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ Cmin ⎟
⎟⎟
⎜⎜ n ⎟⎟
⎝ Cmax ⎠
ZKHUHµn¶LVWKHQXPEHURIWXEHVSDVVHV
8.5.1.4 Cross-flow heat exchanger: both fluids mixed

−1
⎛ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ Cmin ⎟⎟
⎜⎜
⎜ 1 Cmax 1 ⎟⎟⎟
F = ⎜⎜ + − ⎟
⎜⎜1− exp(−NTU) ⎡ ⎛ Cmin ⎞⎟⎤ NTU ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎢
1− exp ⎢−NTU ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎝ Cmax ⎟⎠⎥⎥⎦ ⎟⎟⎠
Parallel flow exchanger performance
Hot fluid (mc)h = Cc
Cold fluid (mc)c = Cc
Heat transfer surface

100
Cmin/Cmax = 0
0.25
80
Effectiveness, ε(%)
0.50
60 0.75
1.00
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of transfer units, NTU = AU/Cmin
Figure 8.12 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness for Parallel Flow

Counter flow exchanger performance
Hot fluid (mc)h = Cc
Cold fluid (mc)c = Cc

Heat transfer surface
100
Cmin/Cmax = 0
0.2
5 0.50
80 0.7 5 1.00
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 8.13 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness for Counter Flow

1–2 parallel-counterflow
exchanger performance
Shell fluid (mc)s = Cs
Tube fluid (mc)t = Ct

One shell pass, 2, 4, 6, etc. tube passes
100
Cmin/Cmax = 0 0.25
80
0.50
0.75
60 1.00
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 8.14 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness for Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger with One Well-
Baffled Shell Pass and Two (or a Multiple of Two) Tube Passes
Cross-flow exchanger with fluids unmixed
(mc)c = Cold fluid
(mc)h
Hot fluid
100
Cmin/Cmax = 0
0.25
80 0.50
0.75
1.00
60
40
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 8.15 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness for Cross Flow with Both Fluid Unmixed
Cross-flow exchanger with one fluids

mixed
Mixed
fluid
Unmixed fluid
100
Cmixed
=0
Cunmixed 0.25
80 0.50
0.75
1.00
60
40 Cmixed
=1
Cunmixed
20
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 8.16 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness for Cross Flow with One Fluid Mixed and the Other
Unmixed. When Cmixed/Cunmixed > 1, NTU is Based on Cunmixed
100
0 5
= 0.2
ax 0
80 /C m
0.5
in
Cm 0.75
1.00
60
Shell fluid
40
20
Tube fluid
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Figure 8.17 Heat Exchanger Effectiveness for Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger with Two Shell
Passes and 4, 8, 12, … Tube Passes
8.5.1.5 Cross-flow type with Cmax mixed and Cmin unmixed
⎛ C ⎞⎛ ⎡ C ⎤ ⎞⎟
F = ⎜⎜⎜1 / min ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜⎜1− exp ⎢− min (1− e NTU )⎥ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ Cmax ⎟⎠⎜⎝ ⎢ C ⎥ ⎟⎠
⎣ max ⎦
8.5.1.6 Cross-flow type with Cmax unmixed and Cmin mixed
⎡ ⎛ C ⎞⎛ ⎛ C ⎞⎞⎟⎤
F =1− exp ⎢⎢−⎜⎜⎜1 / min ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜⎜1− exp ⎜⎜⎜−NTU min ⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟⎥⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ Cmax ⎟⎠⎜⎝ ⎜⎝ Cmax ⎟⎠⎟⎠⎥⎦
8.5.1.7 Shell-and-tube type: one shell pass and 2, 4, 6 … tube passes
−1
⎛ ⎡ ⎛ C 2 ⎞⎟ ⎤⎥ ⎞⎟⎟
0.5
⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎜ min ⎟
⎜⎜ 1 + exp ⎢−NTU ⎜⎜1 + ⎥⎟
⎜⎜ C ⎛ C 2 ⎞⎟
0.5
⎢ ⎜⎝ Cmax ⎟⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎟⎟⎟
F = 2 ⎜⎜1 + min + ⎜⎜⎜1 + min ⎟⎟ × ⎣ ⎦ ⎟⎟
0.5 ⎤ ⎟

⎜⎜ Cmax ⎜⎝ Cmax ⎟⎠ ⎡ ⎛ C ⎞ ⎟⎟
⎜⎜1 + min ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎟⎟⎟
2
⎜⎜ ⎢
⎜⎜ 1 − exp ⎢− NTU ⎜⎜ C ⎟⎟ ⎥ ⎟
⎢ ⎝ max ⎠ ⎥ ⎟
⎜⎝ ⎣ ⎦ ⎟⎠
Cmin
All exchangers with =0
Cmax
F = 1− e− N .
8.6 HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT

,QDKHDWexchanger, the rate of heat transfer depends on the RYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDQGKHDW
WUDQVIHUDUHD7KHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWFDQEHLQFUHDVHGHLWKHUE\LQFUHDVLQJWKHFRQYHFWLRQ
KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVQDWXUDOWRIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQRUE\LQFUHDVLQJWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUDUHDE\DGGLQJ
¿QV7KHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWYDULHVIURP:P.JDVWRJDVKHDWexchanger) to about
:P.IRUSKDVHFKDQJHKHDWH[FKDQJHV+HDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVGHSHQGRQWKHYHORFLW\
RIÀXLG,QWKHFDVHRIQDWXUDOFRQYHFWLRQWKHÀXLGYHORFLW\LVYHU\ORZDQGWKHÀRZLVODPLQDUWKH
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XVHGWRLQFUHDVHWKHDUHDDQGKHQFHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHU7KHRWKHUPHWKRGVXVHGWRLQFUHDVHWKHUDWHRI
KHDWWUDQVIHUDUHE\PDNLQJWKHVXUIDFHURXJKWZLVWLQJWKHÀXLGÀRZDQGLQWURGXFLQJDFFHSWDEOHOHYHO
RIYLEUDWLRQ,QFUHDVHLQKHDWWUDQVIHULVDOVRDFKLHYHGE\PDNLQJWKHÀRZWXUEXOHQWE\LQWURGXFLQJ
WZLVWHGWDSHVLQVLGHWKHWXEHV
,QVKHOODQGWXEHKHDWH[FKDQJHUEDIÀHVDUHFRPPRQO\XVHGLQWKHVKHOOVLGHWRLQFUHDVHWKH
ÀXLG VWD\ WLPH LQVLGH WKH KHDW H[FKDQJHU 0XOWLSDVV PHWKRGV DUH DOVR XVHG WR LQFUHDVH WKH KHDW
WUDQVIHUUDWH,QRQHVKHOOpass and two tube SDVVKHDWH[FKDQJHUVDOOWKHWXEHVPDNHRQH8WXUQ
LQVLGH WKH VKHOO 6LPLODUO\ WZRVKHOO pass and four tube SDVV KHDW H[FKDQJHUV DUH DOVR PDGH
Another type of heat exchanger that is found in many industrial applications is the plate-type heat
H[FKDQJHU ,Q WKLV FDVH WKH KRW DQG FROG ÀXLGV ÀRZ LQ DOWHUQDWH SDVVDJHV DQG WKH KHDW WUDQVIHU
FDSDFLW\LVHQKDQFHGE\WKHDGGLWLRQRIPRUHSODWHVLQVHULHV)LJXUHVKRZVWKHmultipass and
SODWHKHDWH[FKDQJHUV
Cold fluid inlet
Hot fluid inlet
Cross baffle
Tubes
Shell
Cold fluid Hot fluid
outlet outlet (a) Hot fluid
Cold
Hot fluid fluid
Cold
fluid
(b) (c)
Hot liquid out Hot liquid out
Cold liquid out
Cold liquid out
Figure 8.18 Multipass Heat Exchangers
Estimation of /07'LQPXOWLSDVVKHDWH[FKDQJHUVLVYHU\GLI¿FXOWDQGKHQFHcharts are used to

¿QG/07'UDWKHUWKDQPDWKHPDWLFDOH[SUHVVLRQV8VXDOO\LQVXFKVLWXDWLRQVWKHÀRZDUUDQJHPHQWLV
considered to be of the single-pass type and /07'LVFDOFXODWHGDQGWKHQWKLV/07'LVPXOWLSOLHG
by a correction factor obtained from the charts of BowmanDQG7XEXODU([FKDQJHU0DQXIDFWXUHUV¶
Association (7(0$
8.7 COMPACT HEAT EXCHANGERS

,QDQ\KHDWH[FKDQJHUWKHUDWLRRIWKHVXUIDFHDUHDIRUKHDWWUDQVIHUWRLWVYROXPHLVFDOOHGDUHDGHQVLW\
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exchangers are produced by using FRUUXJDWHG¿QVRUFORVHO\VSDFHGWKLQSODWHV
8.8 CONCLUSIONS
Heat H[FKDQJHULVDGHYLFHXVHGWRSURPRWHWKHWUDQVIHURIKHDWEHWZHHQWZRRUPRUHÀXLGVDWGLIIHUHQW
WHPSHUDWXUHV+RWÀXLGRIDKHDWH[FKDQJHULVWKHRQHWKDWJLYHVWKHKHDWHQHUJ\WRDQRWKHUÀXLGGXULQJ
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GHQVLW\LVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUDUHDRIDKHDWH[FKDQJHUWRLWVYROXPH$UHDGHQVLW\
IRUFDUUDGLDWRULVPPDQGIRUKXPDQOXQJLVPP
&RPSDFWKHDWH[FKDQJHUVKDYHKHDWWUDQVIHUDUHDGHQVLWLHVJUHDWHUWKDQPPand are essential
in application where the size and weight of the heat H[FKDQJHULVDQLPSRUWDQWGHVLJQFRQVWUDLQW
,Q UHFXSHUDWRUVWKHKRWDQGFROGÀXLGVDUHVHSDUDWHGE\DZDOODQGWKHKHDWLVWUDQVIHUUHGE\D
FRPELQDWLRQRIFRQYHFWLRQWRDQGIURPWKHZDOODQGFRQGXFWLRQWKURXJKZDOO ,Q regenerators, the
KRWDQGFROGÀXLGVRFFXS\DOWHUQDWLYHO\WKHVDPHVSDFHLQWKHH[FKDQJHUFRUH7KHexchanger serves
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W\SHEVKHOODQGWXEHW\SHFPXOWLSOHVKHOODQGWXEHSDVVHVW\SHDQGGFRPSDFWH[FKDQJHUV
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resistance should be taken into account in designing the heat H[FKDQJHU
/07'LQDKHDWH[FKDQJHULVWKHORJDULWKPLFDYHUDJHRIWHPSHUDWXUHVFKDQJHIURPLQOHWWRRXWOHW
,QRUGHUWRFDOFXODWHKHDWWUDQVIHUEHWZHHQWKHÀXLGVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHLVZULWWHQLQWHUPVRI
/07'7KHDULWKPHWLFPHDQWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFH$07'LVXVHGLQVWHDGRI/07'DVDQDSSUR[LPDWH
method for low-temperature differences in a heat H[FKDQJHU,WLVWKHDYHUDJHRIWHPSHUDWXUHVGLIIHUHQFH
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7KH DVVXPSWLRQV PDGH LQ WKH GHWHUPLQDWLRQ RI /07' LQ D KHDW exchanger are (a) overall heat
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in such cases, /07'LVZULWWHQDVF(/07'counter, where F is the correction faction, which depends
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RIKHDWWUDQVIHUVXUIDFHDUHD/DUJHUWKH178ODUJHUWKHVL]HRIWKHKHDWH[FKDQJHU(IIHFWLYHQHVVRI
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&DVH,
Heat lost by oil = Heat gained by the water
mhC ph (Thi Tho ) = mcC pc (Tco Tci )
0DVVÀRZUDWHRIRLO
mcC pc (Tco − Tci ) 3× 4.18 × (40 − 20)
mh = = = 3 kg/s
C ph (Thi − Tho ) 2.1× (180 − 140)
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7KHPDVVÀRZUDWHRIRLOLIZDWHUÀRZUDWHLVKDOYHGLVJLYHQE\WKHHTXDWLRQ
1.5 × 4.18 × (40 − 20)
mh = = 1.493 kg/s.
2.1× (180 − 140)
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Heat gained by water = Heat lost by air
mcC pc (Tco Tci ) = mhC ph (Thi Tho )
⎛ C ⎞⎟⎛ T − T ⎞
Therefore, mc = mh ⎜⎜⎜ ph ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜⎜ hi ho ⎟ ⎟
⎜⎝ C pc ⎟⎠⎜⎝ Tco − Tci ⎠⎟⎟
⎛ 1.0 ⎞⎛ 300 − 80 ⎞⎟
= 10 ×⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 4.2 ⎠⎜⎝ 90 − 30 ⎟⎟⎠
= 8.7 kg/s
LL 7\SHRIexchanger
Since Tco > Tho the analysis for a FRXQWHUÀRZKHDWH[FKDQJHULVDSSOLFDEOH
(iii) Heat transfer rate (Q)
Q = mhC ph (Thi − Tho ) = 10 ×1× (300 − 80) = 2100 kW

(iv) Length of exchanger (L)
Heat transfer rate,
Q = UAq LMTD = U QdLh q LMTD
Q
Therefore, L =
QdhU q LMTD
Here
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
U hi ho 200 650
= 152.9 W/m 2 K
(Thi − Tco ) − (Tho − Tci )

LMTD =
(T − Tco )
ln hi
(Tho − Tci )
(300 − 90) − (80 − 30)
= = 111.1°C
210
ln
50
2100 ×103
L= −3
Q × 40 ×10 × 400 ×152.9 ×111.1
= 2.46 m.
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The RYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW8LV:P.DQG&SRLO -NJ.
Heat transfer rate,

Steam
Q = mcC pc (Tco − Tci )
100°C
3.0
= × 2050 × (80 − 40) = 4100 W
60 80°C
Oil
Also,
Q = UAqLMTD 40°C
(T − Tci ) − (Tho − Tco )
LMTD = hi
(T − Tci )
ln hi
(Tho − Tco )
(100 − 40) − (100 − 80)
= = 36.4°C
60
ln
20
Therefore, 4100 = 21q Aq 36.4
º A = 5.36 m 2
Length of tube,
A 5.36
L= = = 68.25 m.
Qd i Qq 0.025
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Vapour
Thi
Tho
Heat of condensation = Heat gained by liquid
Cold liquid Tco
mh × h fg = mc × C pc × (Tco − Tci )
8.5 × 550 = 62 × 4.2 × (Tco − 20) Tci
7KHUHIRUH
Tco = 37.95°C
Q = mh q h fg = UAqLMTD
(Thi − Tci ) − (Tho − Tco )

LMTD =
(T − Tci )
ln hi
(Tho − Tco )
(80 − 20) − (80 − 37.95)
= = 50.56°C
60
ln
42.05
Area,
A = Qd o LN
= Q× 30 ×10−3 × 5 × N = 0.471 N
Q = 8.5 q 550 q103 = 500 q 0.471q N q 50.56
º N = 392.6 393
LL 7KHQXPEHURIWXEHSDVVHVP)
0DVVÀRZUDWHRIWKHOLTXLG
π 2
mc = d i qVc q ρ q N p
4
Here the number of tubes in each pass = N p
7KHUHIRUH
mc 62
Np = =
π 2 π
d i Vc ρ q (0.025)2 q1.8 q1000
4 4
= 70.17 70
No. of tubes ( N ) 393

Number of passes = = = 5.6, that is 6 passes.
Np 70
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Q = mhC ph (Thi − Tho )
= 0.5 × 2090 × (375 − 350) = 26125 W
+HDWJDLQHGE\FROGÀXLG
Q = mcC pc (Tco Tci ) = 26125 W
0.201× 2090 × 25
Tco = 280 + = 311.1 K
0.5 × 4177
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(Thi Tco ) (Tho Tci ) (375 311.1) (350 280)
LMTD = =
(T Tco ) 63.9
ln hi ln
(Tho Tci ) 70
= 66.9 K
Also Q = UA LMTD
Q
A=
LMTDqU
26125
A= = 1.562 m 2
250 q 66.9
Performing similar calculations for the SDUDOOHOÀRZVLWXDWLRQ

(Thi Tci ) (Tho Tco )
LMTD =
(T Tci )
ln hi
(Tho Tco )
95 38.9
LMTD = = 62.8 K
95
ln
38.9
Q
Also A =
U q LMTD
26125
A= = 1.66 m 2
250 q 62.8
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L 2YHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWU) Thi Tho

Heat gained by cooling water
Q = mcC pc (Tco − Tci ) Tco
= 1× 4.2 × (65 − 30) = 147 kW
Q = UA LMTD Tci
(T − Tci ) − (Tho − Tco )
LMTD = hi
(T − Tci )
ln hi
(Tho − Tco )
(120 − 30) − (120 − 65)
= = 71.1°C
90
ln
55
Area, A = QdLN = Qq 0.04 q10 q10 = 12.57 m 2
Q 147 q103
Therefore, U = = = 164.5 W/m 2 K
Aq LMTD 12.57 q 71.1
LL 7KHQXPEHURIWUDQVIHUXQLWV178
,QDFRQGHQVHUCminUHIHUVWRWKHFRROLQJZDWHU
Therefore, Cmin = mcC pc = 1.0 q 4.2 = 4.2 W/K
UA
NTU =
Cmin
164.5 q12.57
= = 0.492
4.2 q1000
LLL 7KHeffectiveness of the condenser, İ

F = 1 exp(NTU)
= 1 exp(0.492)
= 0.39
,WFDQDOVREHFDOFXODWHGDV
Qactual Qactual
F= =
Qmax Cmin (Thi − Tci )
147
= = 0.39
4.2 × (120 − 30)
LY 5DWHRIFRQGHQVDWLRQmh )
Heat of condensation, Q = mhhIJ
Q 147
Therefore, mh = = = 0.067 kg/s.
h fg 2200
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LVN-NJ.DQGWKHÀRZUDWHRIRLOPh LVNJV7KHÀRZUDWHRIZDWHUPc LVNJV,IWKHRYHUDOO
KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW8DQGDUHD$DUH:P.DQGPUHVSHFWLYHO\FDOFXODWHWKHRLODQG
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FKDUWV
L %\FDOFXODWLRQWKHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHRIÀXLGVTho and Tco )

&RXQWHUÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW
+HDWFDSDFLW\RIKRWÀXLG
Ch = mhC ph
= 20 q 2.5 = 50 kW/K
+HDWFDSDFLW\RIFROGÀXLG
Cc = mcC pc
= 25 q 4.2 = 105 kW/K
Here
Cc = Cmax and Ch = Cmin
Cmin 50
Therefore, R = = = 0.48
Cmax 105
Effectiveness,
1 exp[NTU (1 R )]
F=
1 R exp[NTU (1 R )]
Here
UA 1q 40
NTU = = = 0.8
Cmin 50
1 exp[0.8(1 0.48)]
F=
1 0.48 exp[0.8(1 0.48)]
0.34
= = 0.5
0.68
Also
Ch (Thi Tho ) Thi Tho
F= = {since Ch = Cmin }
Cmin (Thi Tci ) Thi Tci
500 − Tho
0.5 = ⇒ Tho = 275°C
500 − 50
Also
Cc (Tco − Tci ) ⎛⎜105 ⎞⎟ (Tco − 50)
F= =⎜ ⎟ = 0.5
Cmin (Thi − Tci ) ⎜⎝ 50 ⎟⎠ (500 − 50)
Tco = 157.1°C
3DUDOOHOÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW
Effectiveness,
1 − exp[−NTU(1 + R )]
F=
1+ R
Here R DQG178
1 − exp[−0.8(1 + 0.48)]
Therefore, F =
1 + 0.48
0.694
= = 0.47
1.48
Also
Ch (Thi Tho ) C (T Tci )
F= = c co = 0.47
Cmin (Thi Tci ) Cmin (Thi Tci )
7KHUHIRUH
Tho = 288.5D C and Tco = 150.7°C
LL 8VLQJcharts
&RXQWHUÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW
)URPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJIRU
Cmin
= 0.48, NTU = 0.8, F = 0.52
Cmax
7KHQWKHYDOXHVRITho = &DQGTco = &

3DUDOOHOÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW
Cmin
= 0.48 and NTU = 0.8
Cmax
)URPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJİ
7KHQTho = &DQGTco = &
,QDVKHOODQGWXEHKHDWH[FKDQJHUZDWHUÀRZLQJDWDUDWHRINJVPh WKURXJKGRXEOHSDVV

WXEHVKHDWVDLUWKDWÀRZVWKURXJKWKHVKHOOVLGH7KHOHQJWKRIWKHWXEHLVPDQGLWVRXWHUGLDPHWHU
LVPPGo 7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVRIWKHZDWHUKi DQGDLUKo VLGHVDUH:P.DQG
:P.UHVSHFWLYHO\$LUHQWHUVWKHVKHOODWDWHPSHUDWXUH7ci RI&DQGDÀRZUDWHRINJVPc ).
7KHLQOHWWHPSHUDWXUHRIZDWHU7hi LV&'HWHUPLQHWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKHKHDWH[FKDQJHU
(i) Effectiveness of the heat exchanger (İ)
7RXVHWKHJUDSKZHKDYHWRFDOFXODWH
Cmin UA
and NTU =
Cmax Cmin
+HDWFDSDFLW\RIKRWÀXLG
Ch = mhC ph = 10 q 4.2 = 42 kW/K

+HDWFDSDFLW\RIFROGÀXLG
Cc = mcC pc = 1.6 q1 = 1.6 kW/K
Cc = Cmin and Ch = Cmax
Cmin 1.6
Therefore, = = 0.04;
Cmax 42
UA
NTU =
Cmin
Here A = Qd o L = Qq 0.026 q 6.7 = 0.547 m 2
1
U= {Since we neglect pipe resistance}
1 1
+
hi ho
1
= = 145.15 W/m 2 K
1 1
+
470 210
7KHUHIRUH
145.15 q 0.547
NTU = = 0.049
1.6 q1000
)URPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJHIIHFWLYHQHVV
,QDVKHOODQGWXEHKHDWH[FKDQJHUVDWXUDWHGVWHDPDW°&7h LVFRQGHQVLQJRQWKHVKHOOVLGH7KH

FRROLQJZDWHUHQWHUVWKHWXEHVDW°&7ci DQGOHDYHVDW°&7co ).'HWHUPLQHWKH/07'IRUWKHIRO-
ORZLQJDUUDQJHPHQWDQGGLVFXVVLSDUDOOHOÀRZLLFRXQWHUÀRZDQGLLLFURVVÀRZDUUDQJHPHQWLI
VKHOOVLGHÀRZLVPL[HGDQGRWKHUÀXLGXQPL[HG
(i) 3DUDOOHOÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW
Hot fluid
Th (Thi − Tci ) − (Tho − Tco )
LMTD =
(T − Tci )
ln hi
(Tho − Tco )
Cold fluid Tco
(120 − 25) − (120 − 75)
=
95
ln
Tci 45
= 66.67°C
A
(ii) &RXQWHUÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW
Hold fluid
Th
LMTD =
(T − Tco )
ln hi
(Temperature)
Tco Cold fluid

(Tho − Tci )
(120 − 75) − (120 − 25)
=
45
ln
95
Tci
= 66.67°C
LLL &URVVÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW
(LMTD)cross-flow = F (LMTD)counter-flow
For ) we have to calculate R and R
(Thi Tho )
R1 = = 0;
(Tco Tci )
(Tco Tci ) 75 25
R2 = = = 0.53
(Thi Tci ) 120 25
)URPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJF
LMTDcross-flow = LMTDcross-flow
,QDFRQGHQVHUSKDVHFKDQJHWDNHVSODFHDWFRQVWDQWWHPSHUDWXUHWKHUHIRUHIRUDOODUUDQJHPHQWVWKH
/07'LVVDPHDQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHULVDOVRWKHVDPH
,QDFURVVÀRZKHDWH[FKDQJHUZDWHUDW°&7ci HQWHUVDWWKHUDWHRINJVPc WRFRRONJVRIDLU

Ph WKDWLVLQLWLDOO\DW°&7hi ). The RYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW8LV:P.DQGDUHD$LV
P'HWHUPLQHWKHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHRIDLU7ho DQGZDWHU7co $VVXPHWKDW&phIRUDLU N-
NJ.DQG&pcIRUZDWHULVN-NJ.ERWKÀXLGVXQPL[HG
,QRUGHUWRILQGWKHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHZHKDYHWRFDOFXODWHCminCmaxDQG178LQRUGHUWRUHDG
off İ
+HDWFDSDFLW\RIFROGÀXLG Cc = mcC pc
= 1.5 q 4.2 = 6.3 kW/K
+HDWFDSDFLW\RIKRWÀXLG Ch = mhC ph
= 1q1 = 1 kW/K
Here Ch = Cmin and Cc = Cmax
Cmin 1
= = 0.16
Cmax 6.3
and
UA 150 q 25
NTU = = = 3.75
Cmin 1q1000
)URPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJ F = 0.93
But the actual heat transfer, Q = FQmax = FCmin (Thi − Tci )

= 0.93×1× (40 − 5) = 32.55 kW
Also Q = Cc (Tco Tci ) = Ch (Thi Tho )
Q 32.55
Therefore, Tco = + Tci = + 5 = 10.2°C and
Cc 6.3
Q 32.45
Tho = Thi − = 40 − = 7.6°C.
Ch 1
A FURVVÀRZKHDWH[FKDQJHULVXVHGWRKHDWXQPL[HGRLOLQWKHWXEHVIURP&7ci WR&7co ).

7KH VSHFL¿F KHDW &pc RI RLO LV N-NJ. 6WHDP PL[HG HQWHUV WKH H[FKDQJHU ZLWK WHPSHUDWXUH
&7hi DQGOHDYHVDW&7ho ZLWKDPDVVÀRZUDWHRINJVPh ). The RYHUDOOKHDWWUDQV-
IHUFRHI¿FLHQW8LV:P.DQG&pIRUVWHDPLVN-NJ.&ph &DOFXODWHWKHVXUIDFHDUHDRI
WKHKHDWH[FKDQJHU$OVRGHWHUPLQHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHLIWKHÀRZUDWHRIRLOPh LVUHGXFHGWRKDOI
ZKLOHWKHVWHDPÀRZUDWHDQG8UHPDLQWKHVDPH,IWKHWXEHGLDPHWHUGLVFPDQGOHQJWKOLV
P¿QGWKHQXPEHURIWXEHVIRURLOÀRZ
(i) Heat transfer rate Q = mhC ph (Thi Tho ) = mcC pc (Tco Tci ) = UAF LMTDcounter-flow

(LMTD)counter-flow =
(T − Tco )
ln hi
(Tho − Tci )
(140 − 90) − (115 − 20)
= = 73.5°C
50
ln
95
7RGHWHUPLQHF we have to know R and R
Tco Tci (90 20)
Therefore, R2 = = = 0.58
Thi Tci (140 20)
Thi Tho (140 115)

R1 = = = 0.36
Tco Tci (90 20)
)URPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJF
Heat transfer, Q = mhC ph (Thi − Tho )

= 5 × 2.0(140 − 115) = 250 kW
Q 250 q103
Therefore area , A = =
UF LMTDcounter-flow 300 q 0.97 q 73.5
= 11.69 m 2
0DVVÀRZRIRLO
Q
mc =
C pc (Tco − Tci )
250
= = 1.79 kg/s
2 × (90 − 20)
LL ,QWKLVFDVHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHVRIRLODQGVWHDPDUHFKDQJLQJGXHWRWKHUHGXFHGÀRZRIRLO8VLQJ
the 178PHWKRGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHVDUHFDOFXODWHG
7RNQRZİ, we have to determine Cmin CmaxDQG178
7KHUHIRUHKHDWFDSDFLW\RIVWHDP
Ch = mhC ph = 5 q 2 = 10 kW/K
Heat capacity of oil, Cc = mcC pc
,QWKLVRLOÀRZmc is reduced to half

1.79
= 0.895 kg/s
2
Cc = 0.895 q 2 = 1.79 kW/K
Here Cc = Cmin and Ch = Cmax PL[HGÀXLG
Cmin 1.79
Therefore, = = 0.179
Cmax 10
and
1 C 1.79 q103
= min =
NTU UA 300 q11.69
NTU = 1.96
7KHQXVLQJWKHIRUPXODeffectiveness, İ, for Cmin (oil, unmixed) and Cmax (steam, mixed) is given by
1 ⎧
⎪ C ⎫ ⎪
F= {1 − exp[−C (1 − e− NTU )]} ⎨since C = min ⎪
⎪ ⎬
C ⎪
⎪
⎩ C ⎪
max ⎪
⎭
1
= {1 − exp[−0.179(1 − e−1.96 )]} = 0.78
0.179
İFDQDOVREHWDNHQIURPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJ
:HNQRZWKDW
Qactual
F=
Qmax
That is, Qactual = FQmax = Cc (Tco Tci ) = Ch (Thi Tho )
FQmax FC (T − Tci )
Therefore, Tco = Tci + = Tci + min hi
Cc Cc
Cc
= 20 + 0.78 × (140 − 20)
Cc
= 113.6°C
Similiarly,
FCmin
Tho = Thi − (Thi − Tci )
Ch
= 140 − 0.78 × 0.179 × (140 − 20) = 123.2°C
7KHUHIRUH
Qactual = Cc (Tco − Tci ) = 1.799 × (113.6 − 20)
= 167.5 kW
+HUHDUHGXFWLRQRILQWKHRLOÀRZUDWHUHGXFHVWKHKHDWÀRZE\
Qd
(iii) Here the surface area, A =
n
A 11.69
n= = = 29.77, that is, n = 30 tubes.
Qdl Qq 0.05 q 2.5
&DOFXODWHWKHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWV8iDQG8o RQWKHLQQHUDQGRXWHUVXUIDFHVRIDEUDVV

WXEHRILQQHUGLDPHWHUFPGi DQGRXWHUGLDPHWHUFPGo 7KHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\.RIEUDVVLV
:P.7KHLQVLGHKi DQGRXWVLGHKo KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVDUH:P.DQG:P.
UHVSHFWLYHO\7KHIRXOLQJIDFWRUVIRUWKHLQQHU)i DQGRXWHU)o VXUIDFHVDUHP&:$OVR
FDOFXODWH8iDQG8o QHJOHFWLQJWXEHUHVLVWDQFHDQGIRXOLQJUHVLVWDQFH
2YHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUWKHLQQHUVXUIDFHUi
1
=
r2
ln
⎛A ⎞ ⎛A ⎞1
+ ⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟ Fo + ⎜⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟⎟
1 r1
+ Fi + Ai
hi 2π KL ⎜⎝ Aο ⎟⎟⎠ ⎝ Aο ⎟⎠ hο
1
=
⎛ d i ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ d o ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ d i ⎞⎟ ⎛d ⎞ 1
+ Fi + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Fo + ⎜⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟⎟
1
hi ⎜⎝ 2 K ⎠ ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ d ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ d o ⎟⎠ ho
i o
1
=
1 ⎛ 0.03 ⎞⎟ 4 3 ⎛ 3⎞ 1
+ 0.00018 + ⎜⎜ ln + × 0.00018 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟×
1200 ⎜⎝ 2 ×110 ⎟⎟⎠ 3 4 ⎜⎝ 4 ⎠ 2000
1
=
8.3×10 + 0.00018 + 1.36 ×10 × 0.29 + 1.35 ×10−4 + 3.75 ×10−4
−4 −4
1
= = 724.9 W/m 2 K
13.7944 ×10−4
But Q = AU
i i LMTD = AoU o LMTD
Therefore, AU
i i = AoU o
⎛A ⎞ ⎛d ⎞ ⎛ 3⎞
U o = ⎜⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟⎟U i = ⎜⎜⎜ i ⎟⎟⎟U i = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ (724.9)
⎜⎝ Ao ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ d o ⎟⎠ ⎝⎜ 4 ⎠
= 543.7 W/m 2 K
By neglecting tube resistance and fouling resistance, U i = U o = U
1 1 1
That is, U = = =
1 1 1 1 8.3×10−4
+ +
hi hP 1200 2000
2
= 1204.8 W/m K.
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Heat transfer rate, Q = UAF LMTDcounter-flow
(Thi Tco ) (Tho Tci )

LMTDcounter flow =
(Thi Tco )
ln
(Tho Tci )
(200 90) (100 20)
= = 94.21
(200 90)
ln
(100 20)
7R¿QGWKHFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRUF, from the chart, the temperature ratios required are
(Tto Tti ) (Tho Thi ) 100 200 100

R2 = = = = = 0.56
(Tsi Tti ) (Tci Thi ) 20 200 180
(Tsi Tso ) (Tci Tco ) 20 90 70
R1 = = = = = 0.7
(Tto Tti ) (Tho Thi ) 100 200 1100
Therefore, Q = 300 q12 q 0.85 q 94.21 = 288.283 kW.
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RXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKHWXEH8o LV:P.DQGWKHVSHFL¿FKHDWRIWKHVROXWLRQLVN-NJ.&ph ).
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8VLQJWKHHQHUJ\EDODQFHHTXDWLRQ
Heat gained by water = Heat lost by solution
mc c pc (Tco Tci ) = mh c ph (Thi Tho )
⎛ m ⎞⎛ c ph ⎞⎟
Tco = Tci + ⎜⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ (Thi − Tho )
⎜⎝ mc ⎟⎠⎜⎝ c pc ⎟⎠
⎛ 7 ⎞ ⎛ 3.81 ⎞⎟
= 10 + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟×⎜⎜ × (70 − 40) = 38.57°C
⎜⎝ 6.7 ⎠ ⎜⎝ 4.18 ⎟⎟⎠
/07'IRUSDUDOOHOÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW
=
(T − Tci )
ln hi
(Tho − Tco )
(70 − 10) − (40 − 38.57)
= = 15.7°C
60
ln
1.43
5DWHRIKHDWÀRZIURPVROXWLRQWRZDWHU

= 7 × 3.81× (70 − 40) = 800.1 kW
Heat transfer area, A, required = Q/U o LMTD = 800.1q103 /600 q15.7 = 84.94 m 2
Length of the exchanger,
A 84.94
L= = = 1081.5 m
Qd o Qq 0.025
,WLVQRWSUHIHUDEOHLQSUDFWLFHWREXLOGDKHDWH[FKDQJHURIWKLVOHQJWK

LMTD =
(Thi − Tco )
ln
(Tho − Tci )
(70 − 38.57) − (40 − 10)
= = 29.48
⎛ 31.49 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 30 ⎟⎠
Heat transfer area,
Q 800.1q103
A= = = 45.23 m 2
U o LMTD 600 q 29.48
Length of the exchanger, L = 45.23/Qq 0.025 = 575.94 m

,QWKLVFDVHRIWKHOHQJWKLVUHGXFHG6WLOOLWLVGLI¿FXOWWREXLOGDKHDWH[FKDQJHURIWKLVOHQJWK
LLL 7ZRVKHOODQGWXEHSDVVHV
Heat transfer,
Q = FAU o LMTDcounter-flow
For F, we have to calculate R and R

(Tto Tti ) (Tco Tci ) (38.57 10)
R2 = = = = 0.48
(Tsi Tti ) (Thi Tci ) (70 10)
mcC pc 6.7 q 4.18
R1 = = = 1.3
mhC ph 7 q 3.18
Q
Therefore Area , A =
FU o LMTDcounter-flow
800.1
= = 43.42 m 2
0.96 q 600 q 29.48
Length of exchanger,
A
L=
nQd o
43.42
= = 5.53 m
100 q Q q 0.025
7KLVLVDUHDVRQDEOHOHQJWKIRUDKHDWH[FKDQJHU
LY &URVVÀRZexchanger
Heat transfer,
Q = FAU o LMTDcounter-flow
From the chart for the above values of R and R, FLV
800.1q103
Area , A = = 45.19 m 2
0.87 q 600 q 29.48
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(i) Air unmixed and gas mixed

Heat transferred to air,

= 10 ×1× (250 − 70) = 1800 kW
Again Q = FAU o LMTDcounter-flow

LMTDcounter-flow =
(Thi − Tco )
ln
(Tho − Tci )
(450 − 250) − (200 − 70)
= = 162.8°C
200
ln
130
7R¿QGF we have to calculate R and R
Heat lost by the exhaust gas = Heat gained by the air
mcC pc (Thi Tho )

or, R1 = =
mhC ph (Tco Tci )
(450 200) 250
= = = 1.54
(250 70) 180
(Tco Tci ) (38.57 10)
R2 = = = 0.474
(Thi Tci ) (70 10)
7KHQFIURPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJLV
Q 1800 q1000
Area , A = =
FU o LMTDcounter-flow 0.65 q150 q162.8
= 113.4 m 2
(ii) Both air and gas are unmixed

For the same values of R and RIURPWKHFKDUWLQ)LJF
Q
Then area , A =
FU o LMTDcounter-flow
1800 q103
= = 89.9 m 2 .
0.82 q150 q162.8
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⎛ m ⎞⎛ C pc ⎞⎟
Therefore, Tho = Thi − ⎜⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (T − Tci )
⎜⎝ mh ⎟⎠⎜⎝ C ph ⎟⎟⎠ co
⎛ 8 ⎞⎛ 4.2 ⎞
= 425 − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ (160 − 30) = 250.3°C
⎜⎝ 25 ⎠⎜⎝ 1.0 ⎠
Heat transfer rate, Q = UA LMTD

LMTD =
(Thi − Tco )
ln
(Tho − Tci )
(425 − 160) − (250.3 − 30)
= = 241.6°C
265
ln
220.3
Q m C (T − Tci )
Area , A = = c pc co
U LMTD U LMTD
8 × 4.2 ×103 (160 − 30)
= = 301.3 m 2
60 × 241.6
Effectiveness,
Actual heat transfer m C (T T Tci )

F= = c pc co
Maximum possible heat transfer (Cmin )(Thi Tci )
Here
Ch = mhC ph = 25 ×1 = 25 kW/ °C
Cc = mcC pc = 8 × 4.2 = 33.6 kW/ °C
⎛ 33.6 ⎞⎟ (160 − 30)

F = ⎜⎜ ×
⎜⎝ 25 ⎟⎟⎠ (425 − 30)
= 0.44.
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DGLDEDWLFFRXQWHUÀRZKHDWH[FKDQJHUXVLQJFROGDLUZKLFKHQWHUVDW°&7ci DQGÀRZVDWDUDWHRI
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WKHRULJLQDO$VVXPHWKDWWKHVSHFL¿FKHDWRIDLULVFRQVWDQW
&DVH,
Heat lost by hot air = Heat gained by cold air
⎛m ⎞
Therefore, Tco = ⎜⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟⎟ (Thi − Tho ) + Tci
⎜⎝ mc ⎟⎠
⎛1.25 ⎞⎟
= ⎜⎜ × (66 − 38) + 15.5 = 37.4D C
⎜⎝ 1.6 ⎟⎟⎠
5DWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHU
= 1.25 ×1.0(66 − 38) = 35 kW
Q = UAq LMTD = U q Qdl q LMTD
(Thi − Tco ) − (Tho′ − Tci )

LMTD =
(T − Tco )
ln hi
(Tho − Tci )
(66 − 37.4) − (38 − 15.5)
= = 254D C
28.6
ln
22.5
7KHUHIRUH
Q 35
Q = U q QdL q 254.2 L = qU q Qd =
(254.2) 254.2 qU Qd
&DVH,,
⎛m ⎞
Tco′ = ⎜⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟⎟ (Thi − Tho′ ) + Tci
⎜⎝ mc ⎟⎠
⎛1.25 ⎞⎟
= ⎜⎜ × (66 − 26.5) + 15.5 = 46.4°C
⎜⎝ 1.6 ⎟⎟⎠
Q' = mhC ph (Thi − T'ho )

= 1.25 ×1(66 − 26.5) = 49.4 kW
Also
Q' = U q QdL' q LMTD
(Thi − Tco ) − (T'ho − Tci )

Therefore, LMTD' =
(Thi − Tco )
ln
(Tho − Tci )
(66 − 46.4) − (26.5 − 15.5)
= = 14.9°C
19.6
ln
11
Q' 49.4
L' = =
U Qd LMTD 14.9(U Qd )
L′ 49.4 254.2
Therefore, = × = 24.1.
L 14.9 35
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U = 570 W / m 2C , A = 0.47 m 2 ( Exchanger 1);
U = 370 W / m 2C , A = 0.94 m 2 ( Exchanger 2).
:KLFKH[FKDQJHUVKRXOGEHVHOHFWHG"
5DWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHU

230
= × 4.18 × (93 − 35) = 15.56 kW
3600
7KHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHRIRLO
⎛ m ⎞⎛ C pc ⎞⎟
Tho = Thi − ⎜⎜⎜ c ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (T − Tci )
⎜⎝ mh ⎟⎠⎜⎝ m ph ⎟⎟⎠ co
4.2
= 175 − × (93 − 35) = 59°C
2.1
Since the outlet temperature of oil is less than the outlet temperature of water, we have to use a counter-
ÀRZDUUDQJHPHQW

Therefore, LMTD =
(Thi − Tco )
ln
(Tho − Tci )
(175 − 93) − (59 − 35)
= = 47.15°C
82
ln
24
Heat H[FKDQJHU
Q = UA LMTD
= 570 q 0.47 q 47.15 = 12.633 kW
Heat H[FKDQJHU
Q = 370 q 0.94 q 47.15 = 16.4 kW
7KHUHIRUHHeat H[FKDQJHULVWREHVHOHFWHG
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LIWKHKHDWH[FKDQJHUKDVEHHQLQVHUYLFHDORQJWLPHDQGKDVDIRXOLQJIDFWRURIP.:5I).
Heat transfer rate,
= 2.5 × 4.2 × (100 − 30) = 735 kW

Therefore, LMTD =
(Thi − Tci )
ln
(Tho − Tco )
(120 − 30) − (120 − 100)
= = 46.5°C
90
ln
20
Area required,
Q 735 q103
A= = = 7.9 m 2
U LMTD 2000(46.5)
:HNQRZWKDW
1 1
Rf =
U scale U clean
1 1
Therefore, = Rf +
U scale U clean
1
= 0.0002 + = 0.007 m 2 K/W
2000
U scale = 1428.6 W/m 2 K
Q = U scale A LMTD
Q 735 ×103
Therefore, LMTD = = = 65.1°C
U scale × A 1428.6 × 7.9
2QWULDODQGHUURU
Tco = 74.5°C.
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Coil = (mc p )oil = (0.5 kg/s) q (2090 J/kgK ) = 1045 J/sK

and
Cwater = (mc p ) w = (0.201 kg/s) q (4177 J/kgK ) = 841.2 J/sK
WKXVZDWHULVWKHPLQLPXPÀXLG)URPWKHHTXDWLRQWKHeffectiveness is evaluated as
26125 W
F= = 0.327
(841.2 J/sK ) q (95 K )
Cmin 841.2
= = 0.805
Cmax 1045
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NTU = 0.47
(0.47)(841.2)
A= = 1.581 m 2
250
(ii) 3DUDOOHOÀRZFKDUWLQ)LJ

NTU = 0.50
0.50 q 841.2
A= = 1.682 m 2
250
LLL &URVVÀRZZDWHUPL[HGFKDUWLQ)LJ
NTU = 0.48
0.48 q 841.2
A= = 1.615 m 2
250
(iv) Shell-and-tube, four tube-side passes
NTU = 0.49
0.49 q 841.2
A= = 1.649 m 2
250
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the RYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDQGKHDWJDLQWRWKHURRP,IWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHIRDPOD\HULVGRX-
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1
U=
1 Lw Lf L 1
+ + + b +
hi K w K f K b ho
1
=
1 0.015 0.008 0.225 1
+ + + +
30 0.2 0.02 1 15
= 1.25 W/m 2 K
Heat gain, Q = UA(To − Ti )

= 1.25 ×100 × (300 − 270) = 3750 W
L ,IWKHIRDPWKLFNQHVVLVGRXEOHG
1
U=
1 0.015 0.016 0.225 1
+ + + +
30 0.2 0.02 1 15
= 0.833 W/m 2 K
Q = 0.833×100 × (300 − 270) = 2499 W
LL ,IWKHZRRGWKLFNQHVVLVGRXEOHG
1
U= = 1.143 W/m 2 K
1 0.03 0.008 0.225 1
+ + + +
30 0.2 0.02 1 15
Heat gain = Q = 1.143×100 × (300 − 270) = 3429 W.
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RINJKUPRZ:DWHULVWREHXVHGDVFRROLQJPHGLXPDWWKHVDPHPDVVÀRZUDWHPZ = mo DQGLWV
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Heat lost by oil = Heat gained by water
moC po (Toi Too ) = mwC pw (Two Twi )
980 980
× 2 × (90 − 60) = × 4.2 × (Two − 30)
3600 3600
2 × (90 − 60)
Therefore, Two = + 30 = 44.3°C
4.2
(Toi − Twi ) − (Too − Two )

LMTD =
(Toi − Twi )
ln
(Too − Two )
(90 − 30) − (60 − 44.3)
= = 33°C
(90 − 30)
ln
(60 − 44.3)
Q = moC po (Toi − Too ) = UA LMTD

= 30 × A× 33
980
× 2 × (90 − 60) = 30 × A× 33
3600
º A = 0.0165 m 2
(Toi − Two ) − (Too − Twi )

LMTD =
(Toi − Two )
ln
(Too − Twi )
(90 − 44.3) − (60 − 30)
= = 37.3°C
(90 − 44.3)
ln
(60 − 30)
980 1 1
A= × 2 × (90 − 60) × × = 0.0146 m 2 .
3600 30 37.3
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Heat supplied by air = Heat transfer rate in heat H[FKDQJHU 5DWHRIHYDSRUDWLRQ
maC pa (Tai − Tao ) = UA LMTD = mw × LH
(Tai − Tw ) − (Tao − Tw )
LMTD =
(T − Tw )
ln ai
(Tao − Tw )
(200 − 100) − (125 − 100)
= = 541°C
(200 − 100)
ln
(125 − 100)
Surface area,
maC pa (Tai − Tao )

A=
U × LMTD
⎛ 600 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ 3600 ⎟⎟⎠×1× (200 − 125)
= = 4.62 ×10−3 m 2
50 × 54.1
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⎛ 600 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ×1× (200 − 125)
maC pa (Tai − Tao ) ⎜⎝ 3600 ⎟⎟⎠
mw = =
LH 2255
= 5.54 ×10−3 kg/s.
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WXEHVSHUSDVVWRWUDQVIHUWKHKHDWUDWHRI4q:7KHWXEHGLDPHWHU'LVPPDQGVWHDP
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Cpc N-NJm q±16P; N :P.Pr
Cooling water outlet temperature,
Q 3×109
Tco = Tci + = 30 + = 47.9°C
mcC pc 4 ×104 × 4.2 ×103
5DWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUQ = UAF (/07'

where A = N q / q S'and U =
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
⎜⎜⎝ h h ⎟⎟⎠
i o
)RUZDWHUÀRZLQJLQVLGHWKHWXEH
4m 4 × 4 ×104
Reynolds number, Re = = = 99278
N π Dμ 20, 000 × π × 0.03× 855 ×10−6
)ORZLQVLGHWKHWXEHLVWXUEXOHQW7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRUUHODWLRQLV
hi D
= 0.023 ( Re)0.8 Pr 0.4 = 0.023 (99278)0.8 (5.83)0.4 = 462.9
k
462.9 × 0.613
hi = = 9458.4 W/m 2 K
0.03
2YHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
1
U= = 5800.7 W/m 2 K
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ + ⎜
⎜⎝ 9458.4 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝15000 ⎟⎟⎠

LMTD =
⎡ (T − T ) ⎤
ln ⎢ hi co ⎥
⎢ (T − T ) ⎥
⎣ ho ci ⎦
(60 − 477.9) − (60 − 30)

=
⎛12.1⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 30 ⎟⎟⎠
= 19.71°C
7KHFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRUF) from the shell and tube exchanger chart for P and R
Tco − Tci (47.9 − 30)

P= = = 0.6;
Thi − Tci (60 − 30)
Thi − Tho (60 − 60)
R= = = 0;
Tco − Tci (47.9 − 30)
and R 7KHQFLV
Q 3×109
∴ L= =
U (2Q DN )LMTD (5800.7)(2Q × 0.03)(20000) ×19.71
= 6.96 m.
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IHUFRHI¿FLHQWVEHWZHHQEHGWRVXUIDFHKEDQGWXEHVXUIDFHWROLTXLGKt DUH:P.DQG:
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−
⎡⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎤
U = ⎢⎢⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟⎥⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ ht ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ hb ⎟⎠⎥⎦
−1
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
U = ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎟⎥
⎢⎣⎜⎝ 6500 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ 360 ⎟⎠⎥⎦
:P.
Log mean temperatute difference
(880 − 40) − (880 − 90)
= = 814.3°C
⎡ (880 − 40) ⎤
ln ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ (880 − 90) ⎥⎦
Q = UA (LMTD) = 341.1× A× 814.3 = 45000 W

45000
∴ A= = 0.162 m 2
341.1× 814.3
A 0.162
Tube length = = = 1.72 m.
Q D Q × 30 ×10−3
/
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Tgi − T ⎡ ⎛1 − k ⎞⎛ m × m × C ⎞⎟ ⎤
= exp ⎢⎢−⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ g pg ⎟⎟t ⎥
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎥
Tgi − Ti ⎢⎣ ⎝ W ⎠⎜⎝ mC pl − K (mg )C pg ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦
where the mass of benzene in the tank,
: = volume × density
= 35 × 890 = 31150 kg/m3
⎧⎪ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟⎟⎫⎪⎪
⎪
and the factor K = exp ⎨−UAF ⎜⎜⎜ − ⎟⎬
⎪⎪ ⎜⎝ mg C pg mC pl ⎟⎟⎠⎪⎪
⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
where FLVWKHFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRU
UA 250 × 50
NTU = = = 1.25
Cmin 5 × 2000
mC pl 5 ×2000
R= = = 1.67
mg C pg 2.5 × 2400
7KHIDFWRUFLVIURPWKHFKDUW
⎧⎪ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎟⎫⎪⎪
∴ . = exp ⎪⎨−250 × 50 × 0.68⎜⎜ − = 0.567
⎪⎪⎩ ⎜⎝ 2.5 × 2400 5 × 2000 ⎟⎟⎠⎬⎪
⎭⎪
⎛ 210 − 160 ⎞⎟ ⎡ ⎛1 − 0.568 ⎞⎧⎪ 2.5 × 5 × 2400 ⎫⎪ ⎤

∴ ⎜⎜ = exp ⎢−⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ t⎥
⎜⎝ 210 − 0 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎢ ⎜⎝ 31,150 ⎟⎟⎠⎨⎪⎪⎩ 5 × 2000 − 0.567 × 2.5 × 2400 ⎬⎪⎪⎭ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
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REVIEW QUESTIONS
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EXERCISE PROBLEMS
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9
Radiation Heat Transfer
The transfer of heat energy by radiation based on electromagnetic waves has several unique
characteristics. A medium is not required for radiant heat transfer. The amount of radiation and the
quality of the radiation depend on temperature. It is propagated at the speed of light (3 q 108 m/s) in
vacuum. The wavelength range of thermal radiation is 0.1–100 Nm. The Sun emits radiation in wave
lengths between 0.1 Nm and 3 Nm. This portion of the spectrum is known as solar radiation.
Let Qr, Qa, and Qt are the fractions of incident radiation energy QiRQDVXUIDFHZKLFKDUHUHÀHFWHG
absorbed, and transmitted, respectively, as shown in Fig. 9.1.
Qi = Qr + Qa + Qt
Qr Qa Qt
1= + +
Qi Qi Qi
1= ρ +α +τ (9.1)
where S, B, and UDUHUHÀHFWLYLW\, absorptivity, and transmissivity of the surface, respectively.

For most solids, U = 0 and S + B = 1 (opaque body). If absorptivity of body is 1, then it is known
as black body$ ERG\ WKDW UHÀHFWV DOO WKH LQFLGHQW UDGLDWLRQ LV FDOOHG ZKLWH ERG\ (S = 1). When
a body allows all the incident radiation to pass through it, then it is known as a transparent body
(U = 1). Gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and air have transmissivity of 1. Two types of
UHÀHFWLRQVDUHREVHUYHGZKHQUDGLDWLRQVWULNHVDVXUIDFH,IWKHDQJOHRIUHÀHFWLRQ is equal to the angle
of incidenceWKHQWKHUHÀHFWLRQLVNQRZQDVVSHFXODUUHÀHFWLRQ,IWKHLQFLGHQWUDGLDWLRQLVUHÀHFWHGLQ
DOOGLUHFWLRQVWKHQLWLVFDOOHGGLIIXVHGUHÀHFWLRQ.
Qi
Qr
Qa
Qt
Figure 9.1 Incident Radiation

Ɣ Using a toaster and grilling food are good examples of using radiation
to transfer heat.
Ɣ When heat is radiated, it travels in straight lines and any object in its
KEY
path becomes heated.
C
O Ɣ 7KHUPDOUDGLDWLRQGRHVQRWQHHGDQ\PDWHULDOVROLGRUÀXLGWRH[LVW
N Ɣ Even in vacuum, heat can be exchanged by radiation.
C
E
P
T
S
9.1 EMISSIVE POWER

The emissive powerRIDERG\LVGH¿QHGDVWKHWRWDODPRXQWRIWKHUPDOHQHUJ\HPLWWHGE\UDGLDWLRQ
from a surface in all directions and at all wavelengths per unit surface area. The amount of radiation
emitted per unit wavelength is called monochromatic emission power. The important properties that
control the radiation heat transfer are the emissivity and absorptivity. The emissivity (F) of a surface
LVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHWRWDOHPLVVLYHSRZHURIWKHVXUIDFHWRWKHWRWDOHPLVVLYHSRZHU of a black
body at the same temperature. The emissivity of a black body is 1, i.e.,
Emissive power ( E ) of a body at temperature T

Emissivity (F) = .
Emissive power ( Eb ) of a black body at temperature T
Then monochromatic emissivity,
Emissive power ( Eλ ) of a body at temperature T & at wavelength λ

ελ =
Emissive power ( Eb ) of a black body at temperature T and wavelength λ
If the monochromatic emissive power of a body is independent of its wavelength, then it is called
a gray body.
The emissivity of a surface in the normal direction remains fairly constant. It increases initially
with increase in emission angle and then decreases when the angle of emission reaches 90°. For many
bright metallic surfaces such as nickel, iron, chromium, and aluminium, the total emissivity is around
1.1–1.25 of normal emissivity.
The absorptivity of a surface depends on the incident radiation DQG IDFWRUV WKDW LQÀXHQFH WKH
emissivity. For most of the materials, it can be assumed that both emissivity and absorptivity are
equal. Values of emissivity for various surfaces are given in Tables 9.1 and 9.2.
9.2 PLANCK'S LAW

0D[3ODQFNGH¿QHGWKHPRQRFKURPDWLFHPLVVLYHSRZHU of a black body at a given temperature as
C1
( Eb )M = (9.2)
M [exp (C2 / M ⋅ T ) −1]
5
RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER | 299
Table 9.1 The normal total emissivity of various metal surfaces
Surfaces Temperature (K) Emissivity (İ)
Highly polished aluminum 500–850 0.04–0.06

Highly polished brass 1160–1525 0.027–0.031
Polished copper 350 0.02
Steel (highly polished) 450–500 0.05–0.075
Cast iron (polished) 475 0.20
Polished steel casting 1040–1310 0.50–0.56
Cast iron (finish) 1150–1260 0.60–0.70
Iron plate (rusted red) 295 0.61
Molten cast iron 1575–1675 0.29
Molten mild steel 1875–2075 0.28
Lead 400–500 0.056–0.075
Nickel (polished) 295 0.045
Nickel alloys 325–1310 0.65–0.75
Platinum (polished) 500–900 0.055–0.105
Silver (polished) 500–900 0.02–0.032
Tin (bright) 300 0.040–0.065
Tungsten 300–3590 0.030–0.35
Filament 3590 0.395
Zinc 500–600 0.045–0.055
Table 9.2 Normal total emissivity of some nonmetal surfaces

Surfaces Temperature (K) Emissivity (İ)
Asbestos 300 0.965

Brick 295 0.935
Enamel (white) 290 0.895
Oil layers on polished nickel 295 0.045
Oil layers on aluminum foil 375 0.085
White enamel varnish on rough iron plate 295 0.91
Black sprayed on iron 300 0.875
Oil paints 375 0.92–0.96
Paper 290 0.92
Porcelain 295 0.92
Refractory materials 875–1275 0.65–0.75
Rubber 295 0.94
Water 275–375 0.95–0.96
where (Eb)M = monochromatic emissive power (W/m2 Nm)

C1 = constant = 3.7415 q 108 (W-Nm4/m2)
C2 = 1.4388 q 104 (Nm-K)
T = absolute temperature (K)
M = wavelength (Nm).
The monochromatic emissive powers of a black body at various temperatures have the following
characteristics:
1. The emissive power increases with increasing temperature at all wavelengths.
2. The emissive power is maximum at a particular wavelength for given temperature.
3. The peak of the emissive power shifts toward the smaller wavelength at higher temperatures.
4. The area under the curve at a temperature gives the emissive power for the given range of
wavelengths.
Ɣ Real objects do not radiate as much heat as a perfect black body.

Ɣ They radiate less heat than a black body and are called grey bodies.
KEY Ɣ Emissivity is simply a factor by which we multiply the black body heat
transfer to take into account that the black body is the ideal case.
C
O Ɣ Emissivity is a dimensionless number and has a miximum value of 1.0.
N
C
E
P
T
S
9.3 WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW

Wien developed a relationship between the wavelength at which emissive power is maximum and
the absolute temperature. The relationship is derived from Planck’s law of radiation for maximum
emissive power.
⎧ ⎪⎫⎪
d ( Eb )M d ⎪⎪⎪ C1 ⎪⎬
= ⎨ 5 (C2 / MT ) = 0. (9.3)
dM dM ⎪⎪M ⎡⎢ e − 1⎤ ⎪⎪
⎥
⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎭T =C
Solving the equation
MmT = 2897.6 μm K
where
Mm = Mmax = 2.898×10−3 mK. (9.4)
For the value of M = Mm , the maximum monochromatic emissive power at constant temperature
( Eb ) max = 12.87 ×10−6 T 5 W/m 2 -m. (9.5)

9.4 STEFAN–BOLTZMAN LAW

The emissive power of a black body in the wavelength interval ‘dM’ is equal to (EbM)dM. The total
emissive power of the body for the wavelength 0 to Į is
α
Eb = ∫ ( Ebλ ) dλ. (9.6)
0
This integration can be performed and the result is

Eb = TT 4 (Stefan–Boltzman law) (9.7)
Here, Eb is called the black body emissive power, T is the absolute temperature, and T is a constant
known as Stefan–Boltzman constant. The value of this constant is 5.67 q 10–8 W/m2K4.
9.5 KIRCHHOFF'S LAW

It states that the ratio between total emissive power (E) and the total absorptivity (B) is constant for
all bodies that are in thermal equilibrium with surroundings.
Let E1, E2, E3, … and B1, B2, B3, … are emissive power and emissivities of bodies 1, 2, 3 ….
Then as per the law,
E1 E2 E
= = 3 = ! = constant.
B1 B2 B2
Let the third body be a black body, then
E1 E2 E
= = b = Eb .
B1 B2 Bb
E1 E1
But = Eb , = α1 = ε1 .
α1 Eb
Similarly,
E2
= α2 = ε2 . (9.8)
Eb
Thus Kirchhoff’s law also gives that the emissivity of a body is equal to its absorptivity when the
body remains in thermal equilibrium with surroundings.
9.6 BLACK BODY RADIATION FUNCTION

The emission by a black body per unit area, over a wavelength range from 0 to M, can be written as
M
Eb , 0−M = ∫ EbM dM.
0
Dividing this by the total emission over a wavelength range from 0 to B, it becomes
λ λ
Eb , 0−λ
=
∫ 0
Ebλ dλ
=
∫ 0
Ebλ dλ
= f 0−λ (9.9)
α
Eb , 0−α σT 4
∫
0
Ebλ dλ
The ratio f0–M is known as a black body radiation function. Table 9.3 shows the values of f0–M as a
function of M. Using this, the emissive power of a black body from M1 to M2 can be determined at a
given temperature.
Table 9.3 Black body radiation function
MT (mK q 103) f0–M
1.0 0.321 q 10–3
2.0 0.667 q 10–1

3.0 0.273
4.0 0.480
5.0 0.634
6.0 0.738
7.0 0.808
8.0 0.856
9.0 0.890
10.0 0.914
15.0 0.969
20.0 0.986
40.0 0.998
50.0 0.999
100.0 1.000
9.7 INTENSITY OF RADIATION (I)

,WLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWHRIHQHUJ\ leaving a surface in a given direction per unit solid angle per unit
surface area normal to that direction. The unit of I is W/m2 Nm-Sr. For any surface, the emissive power
is Q times the intensity.
A solid angleLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHHOHPHQWRIDUHDGAn on a sphere to the square of the
radius of the sphere as shown in Fig. 9.2, and the unit for solid angle is steradian (Sr). The solid angle
subtended by complete hemisphere is
2Q r 2
= 2Q.
r2
Ɣ A body that emits the maximum amount of heat for its absolute tem-
perature is called a black body.
Ɣ ZREODFNERGLHVWKDWUDGLDWHWRZDUGVHDFKRWKHUKDYHDQHWKHDWÀX[
7
KEY
between them.
C
O Ɣ All bodies above absolute zero temperature radiate some heat.
N Ɣ The Sun and Earth both radiate heat toward each other.
C
E Ɣ This seems to violate the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which
P
T VWDWHVWKDWKHDWFDQQRWÀRZIURPDFROGERG\WRDKRWERG\
S Ɣ The paradox is resolved by the fact that each body must be in direct
line of sight of the other to receive radiation from it.
Ɣ Therefore, whenever the cool body is radiating heat to the hot body, the
hot body must also be radiating heat to the cool body.
Ɣ Since the hot body radiates more heat (due to its higher temperature)
WKDQWKHFROGERG\WKHQHWÀRZRIKHDWLVIURPWKHKRWERG\WRWKHFROG
RQHDQGWKHVHFRQGODZLVVWLOOVDWLV¿HG
dA
N
dA
dw
dw r2
Figure 9.2 Differential Solid Angle (dw)
9.8 LAMBERT'S COSINE LAW

It states that the total emissive power (ER) from a radiating surface in any direction (R) is directly
proportional to the cosine of the angle of emission:
ER = En cos R (9.10)
where En is the total emissive power of the surface in the normal direction and R is the angle between
the normal to the radiating surface and the direction of emission.
9.9 RADIATION SHAPE FACTOR (F)

A major problem in calculating radiation heat transfer between surfaces is to determine the fraction
of the total radiation leaving one surface, which is intercepted by another surface and vice versa.
The fraction of radiation energy leaving a surface (A1) that reaches another surface (A2) is called the
radiation shape factor (F12) or vice versa (F21). If the entire radiation energy leaving the surface 1
reaches another body 2, then the shape factor F12 is 1.
Consider two black surfaces A1 and A2 as shown in Fig. 9.3.
Normal
dA2
Normal
θ2 A2
θ1
A1
dA1
Figure 9.3 Radiation Shape Factor
The radiation leaving surface A1 and reaching surface A2 is
Q12 =A1 F12 Eb1 .
The same way for surface A2 to A1 is
Q21 =A2 F21 Eb 2 .
But Q12 = Q21

∴ A1 F1−2 Eb1 =A2 F2−1 Eb 2 .
If both black surfaces are at the same temperature, then Eb1 = Eb2.
∴ A1 F1−2 =A2 F2−1 . (9.11)
This equation is called as reciprocity theorem and is a function of the temperature of bodies. For
differential surfaces dA1 and dA2, the shape factor is given by
cos θ1 cos θ2 dA2
dFdA1 −dA2 = (9.12)
πr 2
cos θ1 cos θ2 dA1
and dFdA1 −dA2 = . (9.13)
πr 2
Equations (9.12) and (9.13) are equal if these are multiplied by dA1 and dA2 on both sides,
respectively. We get
A1dFdA1 dA2 =A2 dFdA2 dA1 . (9.14)

By integrating the elemental view factors dFdA1 dA2 and dFdA2 dA1 , we get Equation (9.11).
9.10 PROPERTIES OF SHAPE FACTOR
(i) It is function of geometrical parameters.

(ii) If radiation takes place between two surfaces, then A1 F12 =A2 F21 .
(iii) If a surface radiates energy, it falls on ‘n’ surfaces then,
Fi1 +Fi2 +Fi3 + " +Fi N =1
N
i.e., ∑F
j =1
i− j =1
(iv) The shape factor for convex and plane surfaces is equal to zero. (No radiation energy is falling
on the body.)
(v) For concave surfaces, the shape factor is not equal.
9.11 SHAPE FACTOR ALGEBRA

7KHVWDQGDUGVKDSHIDFWRUVDUHDYDLODEOHLQFKDUWVIRUDOLPLWHGQXPEHURIVLPSOHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQV)RUD
FRPSOLFDWHGV\VWHPLWPD\EHVSOLWLQWRDQXPEHURIVLPSOHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQVIRUZKLFKVKDSHIDFWRUVFDQ
be determined from the available charts. Then the shape factor of the original system is determined
E\WKHDOJHEULFVXPRIWKHVLPSOHGLYLGDEOHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQVKDSHIDFWRUV6XFKDQDSSURDFKLVNQRZQ
as shape factor algebra. The shape factor algebra is based on the principle of conservation of energy.
&RQVLGHUDFRQ¿JXUDWLRQDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
The area A2 is divided into two areas A3 and A4. The shape factor from Area 1 to Area 2 can be written as
F12 =F13 +F14 .
Multiplying Equation (9.15) by A1 on both sides,
A1 F1−2 =A1 F1−3 + A1 F1−4 . (9.15)
A1
A3
A4
A2 = A3 + A4
Figure 9.4 Configuration for Shape Factor Algebra

The reciprocity theorem gives
A1 F12 =A2 F21
A1 F13 =A3 F31
A1 F14 =A4 F41 .
Equation (9.15) then becomes
A2 F2−1 =A3 F3−1 + A4 F4−1
A3 F3−1 + A4 F4−1
∴ F2−1 = .
A3 + A4
If the area ‘A2’ is divided into more parts, then

A3 A3−1 + A4 F4−1 + " + AN FN −1
F2−1 = . (9.16)
A3 + A4 + " + AN
6KDSHIDFWRUVIRUYDULRXVFRQ¿JXUDWLRQVDUHVKRZQLQ)LJV±
x1
1
x1 x
X1 = , X2 = 2
l l
⎡( X + X )2 + 4⎤ − ⎡( X − X )2 + 4⎤
1/ 2 1/ 2
l ⎢ 1 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
=⎣
2 1
F1−2
2 X1
2
x2
Figure 9.5 Two Parallel Plates with Midlines Joined by a Perpendicular
2
x
⎛B ⎞
F1−2 = 1− sin ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
Į
1
Figure 9.6 Two Inclined Parallel Plates of Equal Width with a Common Side
2
1 + ( x1 / x2 ) − ⎡⎢1 + ( x1 / x2 ) ⎤⎥
2 1/ 2
F1−2 = ⎣ ⎦
2
x2
x1
Figure 9.7 Two Perpendicular Plates with a Common Side
2
x
2
3
x3
X1 + X 2 − X 3
F1−2 =
2 X1
1
x1
Figure 9.8 Three Planes of an Enclosure
2
1
R2
R1
R2 x
R= , X=
R1 R1
C = 1+ R + X
1 ⎧⎪⎪ ⎡ 2 2 ⎤1 / 2 ⎡ 2 2 ⎤1 / 2 ⎡
−1 ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤ ⎡
−1 ⎛ R ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤⎪⎫
F1−2 = ⎨Q + ⎢C − (R + 1) ⎥ − ⎢C − (R − 1) ⎥ + (R − 1) cos ⎢⎢⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟⎥⎥ − (R + 1) cos ⎢⎢⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟⎥⎥⎪⎬
2Q ⎪⎪⎩ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ C ⎠ ⎝ C ⎠ ⎦ ⎣ ⎝ C ⎠ ⎝C ⎠⎦⎪⎪⎭
Figure 9.9 Two Parallel Cylinders with Different Radii

R ⎡ −1 x1 x ⎤
F1−2 = ⎢ tan − tan−1 2 ⎥
x1 − x2 ⎢⎣ l l ⎥⎦
1
x2
x1
Figure 9.10 A Cylinder and a Parallel Plate Kept at Rectangle Position
2 x
D
+ + + + + +
⎡ ⎛D ⎞ ⎤
2 1/ 2
⎛⎜ D ⎞⎟ −1 ⎛⎜ x 2 − D 2 ⎟⎞
1/ 2
F1−2 = 1− ⎢⎢1− ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎥

⎥ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ tan ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎟⎠
⎢⎣ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝x⎠ ⎝ D
2
⎥⎦
Figure 9.11 An Infinite Plane with a Row of Cylinders
2
l
y 1
x
X Y
X= ; Y=
l l
⎪⎧⎪ ⎡
(2
2 ⎪⎪ ⎢⎢ 1 + X 1 + Y
2
)( )⎤⎥⎥ + X 1+ Y
( )
1/ 2
2 X
F1−2 = ⎨ln ⎥ tan−1
Q XY ⎪⎪ ⎢⎢ 1 + X + Y
(1+ Y )
2 2 1/ 2
⎪⎪ ⎢⎣ ⎥ 2
⎪⎩ ⎥⎦
⎪⎫⎪
⎪⎪
( )
1/ 2
2 Y
+Y 1 + X tan−1 + X tan−1 X − Y tan−1 Y ⎬
(1+ X ) ⎪⎪
1/ 2
2
⎪⎪
⎪⎭
Figure 9.12 Rectangle Plates Aligned Parallel

R2
2 R1 R
R1 = , R2 = 2
l l
2
1+ R 2
l S = 1+
R1 2
R
1
⎧⎪ 2 1/ 2 ⎫
1⎪
⎡ ⎛ R ⎞ ⎤ ⎪⎪
F1−2 = ⎪⎨S − ⎢⎢S 2 − 4 ⎜⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎟ ⎥⎥ ⎪⎬
2 ⎪⎪ ⎜⎝ R2 ⎟⎠ ⎥ ⎪⎪
1 ⎪⎪⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎦ ⎪⎪⎭
Figure 9.13 Two Parallel Disks Kept Coaxial
H = Z / X, W = Y / K
1 ⎛⎜ −1 1 1
F1−2 = ⎜W tan + H tan−1
Qw ⎜⎝ w H
1
− (H 2 + W 2 )1 / 2 tan−1
(H 2 + W 2 )
1/ 2
2
Z W2
1 ⎪⎪(1 + W )(1 + H ) ⎢ W (1 + W + H ) ⎥
⎧ 2 2 ⎡ 2 2 2 ⎤
+ In ⎪⎨ ⎢ 2 ⎥
4 ⎪⎪ 1 + W + H ⎢⎣ (1 + W )(W + H ) ⎥⎦
2 2 2 2
⎪⎩
1
⎡ H 2 (1 + H 2 + W 2 ) ⎤ ⎫⎪⎪⎞⎟⎟
X H2
Y × ⎢⎢ ⎥ ⎪⎪⎟⎟
2 ⎥ ⎬⎟
⎢⎣ (1 + H )(H + W ) ⎥⎦ ⎪⎪⎟⎟⎟⎟
2 2
⎪⎪⎭⎠
Figure 9.14 Two Perpendicular Rectangle Plates with a Common Edge
9.12 ELECTRICAL ANALOGY FOR THERMAL RADIATION
An electrical analogy method is also used to determine the radiation heat exchange between the
surfaces. Two terms, radiocity and irradiation, are very important in this analysis.
Radiocity (J): It is the total energy leaving a surface per unit area per unit time.
Irradiation (a): It is the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit area per unit time.
Let us consider a gray surface as shown in Fig. 9.15(a) having a total emissive power E, transmissivity
(U), and absorbicity (B). These are constant over the entire surface. Total incident radiation over the
surface is G (in W/m2). Radiocity is the sum of energy emitted and the energy transmitted
J = E + τ G = ε Eb + (1− α ) G {' τ + α = 1}
= ε Eb + (1− ε) G {' α = ε}
(a) (b)
J G Rs
Eb J
Figure 9.15 (a) Gray Thermal Surface; (b) Electrical Analogy

J − F Eb
∴ G=
1− F
then net radiation energy leaving the surface is written as

Q ⎛ J − F Eb ⎞⎟
= J − G = J − ⎜⎜ ⎟
A ⎜⎝ 1− F ⎟⎠
( E − J )F ( Eb − J )
= b =
1− F 1− F
F
Eb − J E −J
∴ Q= = b
1− F Rs (9.17)
AF
1− F
where Rs = .
AF
1− F
The equation is in the form of an electrical network shown in Fig. 9.15(b). The term Rs = is
called the surface resistance. If the surface is black (F = 1), then Rs = 0; AF
J = Eb = TT 4 . (9.18)
If a surface is perfectly insulated, it re-radiates all the incident energy and is known as re-
radiating surface. Such surfaces increase the heat transfer between surfaces enclosed by them.
5DGLDWLQJVXUIDFHVSURYLGHDQDGGLWLRQDOSDUDOOHOSDWKIRUUDGLDWLRQKHDWÀRZDVVKRZQLQ)LJ
for black surfaces.
(a) (b) 1/A1F1–2

A1
Eb1 Eb2
Insulated
surface 1/A2F2–3
1/A1F1–3
Eb1 Eb2
1/A1F1–2
A2 Eb = J3
Figure 9.16 Radiating Surfaces
Let us consider the exchange of radiation energy between two surfaces A1 and A2 having
radiocities J1 and J2. The amount of energy reaches A2 from A1 is J1A1F12 and the amount of energy
reaches A1 from A2 is J2 A2 F21.
The net interchange energy,
Q1−2 = J1 A1 F1−2 − J 2 A2 F2−1
= ( J1 − J 2 ) A1 F1−2 = ( J1 − J 2 ) A2 F2 -1 {' A1 F1−2 = A2 F2−1}
J1 − J 2 J − J2
Q1−2 = = 1 (9.19)
1 Rsp
A1 F1−2
1
where Rsp = .
A1 F12
The term Rsp is known as space resistance between the bodies. It is purely based on the location and
geometry of the surfaces. It can be presented in electrical analogy as shown in Fig. 9.17.
Then net heat exchange between the two gray surfaces is represented in Fig. 9.18.
Eb1 − Eb 2
∴ (Qnet )1−2 = .
1− F1 1 1− F2 (9.20)
+ +
A1F1 A1 F1−2 A2 F2
The equation can be applied to parallel systems.
Q12
J1 J2
(1/A1F1–2)
Figure 9.17 Electrical Analogy

Qnet
J2 J1
Eb1 Eb2
(1–ε1/A1ε1) (1/A1F1–2) (1–ε2/A2ε2)
Figure 9.18 Net Heat Exchange
9.12.1 Two Infinite Parallel Plates

In this case (Fig. 9.19), radiation loss from the sides of the plates is negligible. The radiation energy
leaves the surface 1 and reaches plate 2 and vice versa. This gives the shape factor as unity.
F1–2 = F2–1 = 1
T1 E1
T2 E2
Figure 9.19 Infinite Parallel Plates

Then, Equation (9.20) is reduced to
Q12 σ (T14 − T24 )

= . (9.21)
A 1 1
+ −1
ε1 ε2
9.12.2 Concentric Cylinders or Spheres

Similar to parallel plates for concentric cylinders or spheres as shown in Fig. 9.20, we have
T1
ε1
T2, ε2
Figure 9.20 Concentric Cylinder
A1 r
F1−2 = 1 and = 1 for cylinders
A2 r2
r12
= for spheres.
r22
Then Equation (9.20) becomes
Q1−2 σ (T14 − T24 )

= . (9.22)
A1 1 ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟⎛⎜ A1 ⎞⎟
+⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
ε1 ⎜⎝ ε2 −1⎟⎟⎠⎜⎝ A2 ⎟⎟⎠
9.12.3 Small Body Lies Inside a Large Enclosure

A1
Here F1–2 = 1; A1 is very small compare to A2; therefore, l 0 . Then Equation (9.20) becomes
A2
Q12
= σε1 (T14 − T24 ). (9.23)
A1
6KDSHIDFWRUVIRUYDULRXVFRQ¿JXUDWLRQVRIGLIIHUHQWVKDSHVFDQDOVREHIRXQGIURPFKDUWVVKRZQ
in Figs. 9.21–9.27.
3.5
F
x1 1–2 –A
3.0 =0
.02
x2
2.5 l
dA
0.
04
2.0
(l / x2)
0.
06
1.5
0.
08
0.
1.0 10
0.
16
0.2
0
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6
(l / x1)
Figure 9.21 Shape Factor for Plates Held Parallel
1.0
x2 α
10
5
x1
1 2
(X1/l)
0.5
l
2 1
0.5
F1–2
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.16
0.12
0.05 0.1
0.01
0.1 0.5 1.0 5 10 15
(X2/l)
Figure 9.22 Shape Factor for Plates Placed Opposite in Rectangles

x1
2 x2
1 0.1
l
0.2
0.4 (x1/l)
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.3 0.7
0.9
F1–2
1.2
0.2 1.6
2
3
0.1 4
6
10
20
0.1 0.5 1 (x2/l) 5 10 15
Figure 9.23 Shape Factor for Perpendicular Rectangle Adjacent Plates with a Common Edge
1.0 (Parallel plates connected by

nonconducting radiating walls)
Long & narrow rectangles
Rectangle
0.8 (2:1 ratio)
Square
Disc
0.6
0.4 Disc
(Parallel plates
without contact) Square
0.2 Rectangel (2:1 side ratio)
Long & narrow rectangles

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
⎡ smaller side diameter ⎤

⎢ distance between planes ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Figure 9.24 Shape Factors for Parallel Square, Rectangle, and Disk-Type Plates
0.1 R2
(R2/l) = 8 2
5
0.8 3
R1
2 1
5
1.
0.6
F1–2 0
1.
0.4
0.8
0.2 0.5
0.3
0
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 2 4 6 10
Figure 9.25 Shape Factor for Coaxial Circular Parallel Plates
1.0
0.8
0.6
(l
/R
)2 =
F2–2
∞
4
0.4
0.2
0.25
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(R1 / R2)
Figure 9.26 Shape Factor for Cylinders of Finite Length (Outer Cylinder to Itself)
1.0
l 2
0.8
R1 R2
0.6
(l/R2) = ∞
F1–2
2
0.4 5
0.
1
0.
0.2
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(R1/R2)
Figure 9.27 Shape Factor for Cylinders of Finite Length (Outer Cylinder to Inner Cylinder)
9.13 RADIATION SHIELDS

If a low-emissivity material (radiation shield) is placed between the two surfaces, the radiation heat
transfer can be considerably reduced. The shield increases the thermal resistance to radiation heat
ÀRZ1RUPDOO\WKLQVKHHWVRIDOXPLQXPFRSSHUHWFDUHXVHGDVVKLHOGV
Consider two large radiating parallel surfaces as shown in Fig. 9.28(a). Let T1 and T2 be the
temperatures and F1 and F2 be the emissivities of the surfaces. The net heat transfer between the plates,
we know that
Q1−2 σ (T14 − T24 )

= . (9.24)
A1 1 1
+ −1
ε1 ε2
Let a radiation shield having emissivity of Fs be placed between the plates as shown in
Fig. 9.28(b).
The shield radiates the heat on both sides to plates 1 and 2. The shape factor F1s and Fs2 are
equal to 1. The net heat transfer between the plates at steady-state condition can be written as
Q1−2 σ (T14 − T24 )

=
A ⎛1 ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ + 1 −1⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ 1 + 1 −1⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ε ε ⎟⎟ ⎜ ε ⎟⎟
1 s ⎠ ⎝ s ε2 ⎠
T1 E1 Ts Es T2 E2
T1 > T2
T1 T2 1–Es/Es
E1 E2
Eb1 Eb2 Eb1 Ebs Eb2
1 F1 1 1 F2 1 F1 1 1 Fs 1 Fs 1 1 F2
Eb 2
F1 F12 F2 F1 F1s Fs Fs Fs 2 F2
(a) (b)
Figure 9.28 Plates with Shield Assembly and Networks
σ (T14 − T24 )
= . (9.25)
1 2 1
+ + −2
ε1 εs ε2
If the emissivities of the surfaces are equal to F, then Equations (9.24) and (9.25) reduce to
Q1−2 σ (T14 − T24 )

= (without shield) (9.26)
A ⎛ 2 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ −1⎟
⎜⎝ ε ⎟⎠
and
Q1−2 σ (T14 − T24 )
= (with shield). (9.27)
A ⎛1 ⎞
2 ⎜⎜ −1⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ε ⎠
This shows that the shield reduces the heat transfer between the plates by 50%.
If N shields are used between two surfaces with the emissivities of all surfaces equal, the heat
transfer is
Q1−2 σ (T14 − T24 )
= . (9.28)
A ⎛2 ⎞
( N + 1) ⎜⎜ −1⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ε ⎠
The ratios of heat transfer rates for parallel plate systems with N shields and without shields can
be written as
Qwith shield 1
= . (9.29)
Qwithout shield N +1
9.14 GAS RADIATION
In combustion furnaces, radiation exchange takes place between gases and the surrounding surfaces.
The gases such as O2, N2, H2, and dry air neither emit nor absorb radiation at low temperatures. These
gases are transparent to incident thermal radiation. The gases H2O, CO2, CO, SO2, NH3, and the
K\GURFDUERQVDEVRUEWKHLQFLGHQWUDGLDWLRQDQGDOVRHPLWUDGLDWLRQDWVSHFL¿FZDYHOHQJWKLQWHUYDOV
called bands.
In solids, the emission and absorption of radiation are surface phenomena whereas for a gas
layer, the properties are based on thickness, pressure, and surface area. Beer’s law gives the
relation between the intensity of radiation entering the gas and intensity of radiation leaving the
gas medium as
IM L = IMo exp (−KM L) (9.30)
where IML – intensity of radiation at ‘L’

IMo – intensity of incident radiation
L – thickness of gas medium
KM±PRQRFKURPDWLFDEVRUSWLRQFRHI¿FLHQW
Then the transmissivity of the gas is
Iλ L
τλ = = exp(−Kλ L).
I λo
For gases,
τλ + αλ = 1; τλ = (1− αλ )
(9.31)
αλ = 1− exp (−Kλ L) = ελ (∴ As per Kirchoff's law ).
The total absorptivity or emissivity is obtained by summing up the narrow wavelength bands.
In most of the engineering problems, radiation heat transfer takes place from combustion products
to adjoining surfaces. The emission from a mixture per unit area of the surface is written as
Eg = εg σTg4 (9.32)
where Fg is the emissivity of the gas. It is determined from the charts by knowing the temperature
(Ta) of the gas, total pressure (P), the partial pressure (Pg ) of the radiating species, and characteristic
length (L) of the geometry. The characteristic lengths for different geometries are available as shown
in Table 9.4 and the approximate value for all shapes is written as
⎛ Volume ⎞⎟
L = 3.6 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟. (9.33)
⎝ Surface area ⎟⎠
The emissivity of a gas in a mixture is obtained by
Fg = Fg′ ⋅ Cg (9.34)
where Fg – emissivity of a gas at given condition

F'g – emissivity of the gas at total mixture pressure of 1 atm
Cs – correction factor if the total pressure is other than 1 atm
For mixtures of two gases in a volume, the emissivity of the mixture may be calculated by adding
the emissivities of the gases determined separately and subtracting a factor %F, which accounts for
emission in common wavelength bands as
Fg1 + Fg 2 −ΔF
(9.35)
The radiation between a black enclosure and the gas is given by
Q
= σ (εg Tg 4 − αg Ts 4 ) (9.36)
As
where As is the surface area, Tg and Ts are gas and surfaces temperatures, Fg is the emissivity of the gas
at temperature Tg, and Bg is the absorptivity of the gas. The value is calculated as
Bg = B1 + B2 − ΔB (9.37)
Table 9.4 Approximate values of mean beam length for various gas volumes
No. Gas volume shape Characteristic Mean beam
dimension length (L)
1 Space between infinite parallel planes Distance between 1.75 D
planes
2 Cube Side 0.7 D
3 Infinite cylinder radiating to walls Diameter 1D
4 Infinite cylinder radiating to elemental surface Diameter 1D
5 Cylinder of height equal to diameter radiating to whole Diameter 0.7 D
surface
6 Cylinder of height equal to diameter radiating to Diameter 0.75 D
elemental surface at centre of base
7 Sphere Diameter 0.7 D
8 Space outside infinite bank of tubes with centres on Clearance 3.5 D
equilateral triangles tube, diameter being equal to
clearance
9 Space outside infinite bank of tubes with centres Clearance 4.5 D
on equilateral triangles tube, diameter equals 1/2
clearance
10 Space outside infinite bank of tubes with centres on Clearance 4D
equilateral triangles tube, centres are on squares
11 1 q 2 q 6 rectangular parallelepiped radiating to Shortest edge
2 q 6 face 1.2 D
1 q 6 face 1.25 D
1 q 2 face 1.2 D
all face 1D
12 Any other shape Hydraulic mean 4D

radius
⎛ Tg ⎞
n
and α1 = C1ε1 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ {n = 0.45 for H 2 O} (9.38)

⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠
s
⎛ Tg ⎞
m
α2 = C2 ε2 ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ {m = 0.65 for CO 2 }. (9.39)

⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠
s
Here F1 and F2 are determined at surface temperature Ts for the valve of PL given by PL (Ts / Tg ) .
The products of combustion are mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide. The emissivities of H2O and
CO2 estimated from charts are shown in Figs. 9.29–9.33.
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.0
91
P 0.0
CO
0.04 2 L= 46
1.0
03
0a
tm
m
0.0
18
Emissivity, ε
0.02
0.0
09
1
0.0
04
6
0.0
0.01 02
4
0.0
01
5
0.0
00
91
0.005 F
CO
2 L= 0.0
1.0 00
00 61
3a
tm
m
0.003
250 1000 1500 2000 2500
Temperature (K)
Figure 9.29 Emissivity of CO2 (Total Pressure = 1 atm)

2.0
0.03
5
0.01
0.076
0.152 0.31
2
Correction factor, CCO
1.0 0.76
atm m
P CO 2 L = 0.76
0.6 0.31 0.015 0.076

0.037 0.152 1
.006
0–0
0.3
0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 5.0
PT(atm)
Figure 9.30 Correction Factor for the Emissivity of Carbon Dioxide at Pressures Other Than
1 atm
0.6
P
H O
2 L= 6
.10
0.4 atm
m
3.05
0.2 1.52
0.91
0.61
0.46
0.01
0.37
0.08 0.30
0.24
Emissivity, ε
0.06
0.15
0.12
0.04 0.0
91
0.0
61
0.02 0.0
46
0.0
21 0
.03
0. 0
01
0. 5
0.01 0. 0. 0. 01
0. 00 0.00 00 00 1
00 30 46 61 76
21
0.007
250 1000 1500 2000 2500
Temperature (K)
Figure 9.31 Emissivity of H2O Vapor (Total Pressure = 1 atm)
1.6 m
tm
15 a 0.076 0.152
0.0
L= 0.35 0.76
Correction factor, CH2O

P H2O 1.52
1.2 m
3.05 atm
0.8
0.4
0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
⎡ PH O + PT ⎤
⎢ 2 ⎥ atm
⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Figure 9.32 Correction Factor for the Emissivity of Water Vapor (Pressures Other Than 1 atm)
T = 127°C T = 538°C T = 927°C

0.06
PcL + PwL = 1.52 atm m
&RUUHFWLRQIDFWRU¨İ
0.61
0.04 0.31
0.23
0.91 0.61
0.02 0.15
0.31
0.46
0.23 0.23
0.091
0 0.091 0.091
0 0.4 0.8 1.0 0 0.4 0.8 1.0 0 0.4 0.8 1.0
PH2O PH2O PH2O
PCO2 PH2O PCO2 PH2O PCO2 PH2O
Figure 9.33 Factor %F for Emissivity Correction of a Mixture of Water Vapor and CO2
9.15 CONCLUSIONS
Energy emitted by the bodies, due to their temperature, in the form of electromagnetic waves is known as
WKHUPDOUDGLDWLRQ7KHUPDOUDGLDWLRQLVHPLWWHGLQZDYHOHQJWKVRI±ȝP7KHUDGLDWLRQHPLWWHGE\WKH
6XQDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRIDERXW.DQGZDYHOHQJWKVEHWZHHQDQGȝPLVNQRZQDVVRODUUDGLDWLRQ.
A body that absorbs all the incident radiations from all directions at all wavelengths without
UHÀHFWLQJWUDQVPLWWLQJLVFRQVLGHUHGDVDEODFNERG\
Total emissive power LVGH¿QHGDVWKHWRWDODPRXQWRIUDGLDWLRQHPLWWHGE\DERG\SHUXQLWDUHD
DQG WLPH$EVRUSWLYLW\ LV WKH IUDFWLRQ RI LQFLGHQW UDGLDWLRQ DEVRUEHG E\ D ERG\ 5HÀHFWLYLW\ LV WKH
IUDFWLRQRILQFLGHQWUDGLDWLRQUHÀHFWHGE\DERG\7UDQVPLWLYLW\LVWKH fraction of incident radiation
transmitted through body. Opaque body has zero transmitivity. White body has zero transmitivity
DQGDEVRUSWLYLW\DQGLWVUHÀHFWLYLW\LV*UD\ERG\ absorptivity does not vary with temperature and
wavelengths of incident radiation. Colored body absorptivity varies with wavelengths and radiation.
The emissitivity of a surface is equal to its absorptivity. (PLVVLWLYLW\RIDVXUIDFHLVGH¿QHGDVWKH
ratio between emissive power of a surface at a particular temperature to the emissive power of a black
surface at the same temperature.
Irradiation is the total radiation incident upon a surface per unit time per unit area. Radiosity is the
total radiation leaving a surface per unit time per unit area.
7KH DQJOH EHWZHHQ WKH UHÀHFWHG EHDP DQG QRUPDO WR WKH VXUIDFH HTXDOV WKH DQJOH PDGH E\ WKH
LQFLGHQWUDGLDWLRQZLWKWKHVDPHQRUPDODQGLVNQRZQDVUHJXODUUHÀHFWLRQ,QGLIIXVHUHÀHFWLRQ, the
LQFLGHQWEHDPLVUHÀHFWHGLQDOOWKHGLUHFWLRQVIURPDVXUIDFH
Stefan–Boltzman law states that the emissive power of a black body is directly proportional to the
fourth power of the absolute temperature.
Kirchoff’s law of radiation states that at any temperature, the ratio of total emissive power to the
total absorpticity is constant for all substances.
Wien’s displacement law relates the temperature of a black body and the wavelength at which
maximum value of monochromatic emissive power occurs. Planks law and Wien’s displacement law
DUHXVHGWR¿QGWKHPD[LPXPPRQRFKURPDWLFHPLVVLYHSRZHU/DPEHUW¶VFRVLQHODZVWDWHVWKDWWKH
total emissive power from a radiating plane surface in any direction is directly proportional to the
cosine of the angle of emission.
Intensity of radiation LVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWHRIHQHUJ\OHDYLQJWKHHPLWWLQJVXUIDFHLQDJLYHQGLUHFWLRQ
per unit solid angle per unit area of the surface and normal to the mean direction in space.
Plane angle is the ratio of an element of arc length on a circle to the radius of their circle. Solid
angle is the ratio of an element of an area on a sphere to the square of the radius of sphere.
9LHZIDFWRULQUDGLDWLRQLVGH¿QHGDVWKHIUDFWLRQRIUDGLRDFWLYHHQHUJ\WKDWLVGLIIXVHGIURPRQH
VXUIDFHHOHPHQWDQGVWULNHVWKHRWKHUVXUIDFHGLUHFWO\ZLWKQRLQWHUYHQLQJUHÀHFWLRQV
The shape factor for certain geometric arrangements for which the equations are not available can be
derived in terms of known shape factors of other geometries. The inter relation between various factors is
called shape factor algebra. The radiant energy coming out from one part of concave surface is intercepted
by another part of the same surfaces. Therefore, shape factor with respect to itself of a concave surface is
QRW]HUR:KHUHDVWKHVKDSHIDFWRUZLWKUHVSHFWWRLWVHOIRIDFRQYH[RUÀDWVXUIDFHLV]HUR
The radiation shield reduces the radiation heat transfer by effectively increasing the surface resistance
without removing any heat from the system. In solids, absorption of radiation takes place within a small
distance from the surface. Surface radiates all wavelengths over the entire spectra. Gases emit radiation
only between narrow ranges of wavelengths. Intensity of radiation through the gaseous medium decreases
with the length of passage. H2O, CO2, SO2, NH3, CO, and hydro carbons are radiating gases.
Ɣ Thermal radiation is closely associated to elecromagnetic radiation,

which can be described as material heat converted into light energy and
KEY conversely.
C Ɣ Light here does not mean necessary visible—thermal radiation also
O occurs in the infra-red spectrum.
N
C Ɣ This type of heat transfer will depend on the temperature and type of
E materials of the various elements considered.
P
T
S
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
9.1. A black body emits radiation of maximum intensity at a wavelength Ȝmax )RIȝP&DOFXODWHWKHVXU-
IDFHWHPSHUDWXUHDQGKHDWÀX[DWWKHVXUIDFHRIWKHERG\
As per Wien’s displacement law
OmT = 2.989 × 10−3 mK
Surface temperature of the body,

2.898 × 10−3
T=
Omax
2.898 × 10−3
= = 5796 K
0.5 × 10−6
+HDWÀX[DWWKHVXUIDFH
Eb = TT 4
= 5.67 ×10−8 × (5796)4
Eb = 6.399 q107 W/m 2 .
9.2. Calculate the monochromatic emissive power of a black body emitting radiation at a temperature of
2500 K (T) and wavelength of 1.4 ȝPȜ Also determine the total emissive power of the body.
As per Planck’s law

C1O −5
EbO =
⎛ C2 ⎞
exp ⎜ ⎟ −1
⎜ OT ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Here
C1 = 3.7415 ×10−16 W-m 2
C2 = 1.4388 ×10−2 mK
Monochromatic emissive power,
3.7415 ×10−16 × (1.4 ×10−6 )−5

EbM =
⎛ 1.4388 ×10−2 ⎞⎟
exp ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝⎜1.4 ×10 × 2500 ⎟⎠
−6
0.6957 ×1014 0.6957 ×1014

= = = 1×1014 W/m 2 .
exp(4.1) − 1 59.34
Total emissive power,
Eb = TT 4
= 5.67 ×10−8 × (2500)4 = 2.215×106 W/m 2 .
9.3. What is the temperature at which a black body will have an emissive power (EEȜ) equal to 2 q 10 3 W/m 2
at a wavelength of PPȜ
As per Planck’s law
C1O 5
EbO =
[exp(C2 /OT ) 1]
Here
C1 = 3.7415 ×10−16 Wm 2
C2 = 1.4388 ×10−2 m K
Therefore,
3.7415 ×10−16 × (4.4 ×10−6 )−5
2 ×103 =
⎡ ⎛ −2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢exp ⎜⎜1.4388 ×10 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥
⎢ ⎜⎜ 4.4 ×10−6 T ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
Therefore,
⎡ ⎛ −3 ⎞ ⎤
⎢exp ⎜⎜ 3.27 ×10 ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ = 2.2687 ×10
11
⎢ ⎜⎝ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ T ⎠ ⎥⎦ 2 ×10 3
Therefore, temperature of the black body, T = 176.3 K.
9.4. A large spherical furnace inside surface temperature is 1000 K (T). If there is a hole of diameter 0.5 cm
(d), determine the rate of emission of radiation through the opening.
As per the Stefan-Boltzmann law
Eb = ATT 4
T = 5.67 ×10−8 W/m 2 K 4
Qd 2 Q
A= = × (0.005)2 = 1.963×10−5 m 2
4 4
Therefore, rate of emission of radiation,
Eb = 1.963×10−5 × 5.67 ×10−8 × (1000)4
= 1.113 W.
9.5. $¿ODPHQWLQDEXOELVKHDWHGWR.(T). Find the radiation energy that falls in the visible range.
Visible range of wavelength is from M1 = 0.4 Nm to O2 = 0.7 Nm

Here
O1T = 0.4 × 10−6 × 3000 = 1200 × 10−6 mK
O2T = 0.7 × 10−6 × 3000 = 2100 × 10−6 mK
From Table 9.3, the radiation functions for O1T and O2T are f o− O1 = 0.002 and f o O2 = 0.085 .
Then f o O2 f o O1 = 0.083. That is, 8.3% of the energy is in the visible range.
Therefore, radiation energy

E( λ σ = T 4 ( fo −λ − fo −λ )
1 − λ2 ) 2 1
−8
= 5.67 × 10 × (3000)4 × 0.083
= 3.786 × 105 W/m 2 .
9.6. :KDWLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIDEODFNERG\VXFKWKDWRIWKHHQHUJ\HPLWWHGVKRXOGOLHLQWKHZDYH-
length spectrum λ = 0 10 μ m?
At O1 = 0, Eb O1 = 0.
Radiation function f 0 − O = 0.634.

2
From Table 9.3, the corresponding value of
O2T = 5 × 10−3 mK
Therefore, temperature of the black body,
5 ×10−3 ×106
T= = 500 K.
10
9.7. *ODVVWUDQVPLWVRIWKHLQFLGHQWUDGLDWLRQLQWKHZDYHOHQJWKUDQJHEHWZHHQȜ1 DQGȝm (Ȝ2 )

and is opaque at longer and shorter wavelengths. Calculate the percentage of solar radiation which the
glass will transmit. The Sun’s temperature is 5800 K (T). (Assume the Sun to be a black body.)
Here
O1T = 0.35 × 5800 = 2030 × 10−6 mK
O2T = 3.0 × 5800 = 17400 × 10−6 mK

From Table 9.3, the values of f 0 O = 0.067 and f 0 O = 0.9764.
1 2
The fraction of the total radiant energy incident upon the glass is 0.9094.
Percentage of solar energy transmitted = 0.9094 q transmissivity
= 0.9094 q 0.93 = 0.846 = 84.6%.
9.8. 7XQJVWHQ¿ODPHQWLVXVHGLQD:DWW(E)OLJKWEXOE7KH¿ODPHQWWHPSHUDWXUH7LV.DQGHPLV-

VLYLW\İLV&DOFXODWHWKHPLQLPXPVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKHWXQJVWHQ¿ODPHQWLIWKHEXOELVFRPSOHWHO\
evacuated and is at a steady-state condition.
Energy radiated = Power of the bulb
E = εσ AT 4
100 = 0.3(5.67 ×10−8 ) × A× (3000)
Therefore, 100 = 0.3× 5.67 ×10−8 × A× 8.1×1013
A = 7.26 ×10−5 m 2 .
9.9. Find the shape factor F12 RIWKHIROORZLQJKROORZFRQ¿JXUDWLRQG FPDQGGHSWK/LVPDVVKRZQ
LQ¿JXUHVD±F
(a) (b) (c)
1
0.5 d 1.2 d 2
3 2d d 1 r
2
1
1d 2
2d
d
(i) Case (a)
F1−1 + F1−2 + F13 = 1 (S1)

Also
F2−2 + F2−1 + F2−3 = 1 (S2)

And
F3−3 + F3−1 + F3−2 = 1 (S3)

Here F11 , F22 and F33 are zeros because the surfaces are plane surfaces.
⎛A ⎞ ⎪⎫
F2−1 = ⎜⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎟ F1−2 ⎪⎪⎪
⎜⎝ A2 ⎟⎠ ⎪⎪
⎪⎪
⎛ A ⎞⎟ ⎪
F31 = ⎜⎜ ⎟ F1−3 ⎪⎬
⎜ 1⎟
(S4)
⎜⎝ A3 ⎠⎟ ⎪⎪
⎪⎪
⎛ A ⎞⎟ ⎪⎪
F32 = ⎜⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ F2−3 ⎪⎪
⎜⎝ A3 ⎟⎠ ⎪⎪
⎭
From (S2), we get
1 = F2−1 + F2−3
A1 A
1= F1−2 + 3 F3−2
A2 A2
A1 A
= F1−2 + 3 (1 − F3−1 )
A2 A2
A ⎛ ⎞
F1−2 + 3 ⎜⎜⎜1 − 1 F1−3 ⎟⎟⎟
A1 A
=
A2 A2 ⎜⎝ A3 ⎟⎠
A1 A A A
= F1−2 + 3 − 3 × 1 × F1−3
A2 A2 A2 A3
A1 A A
= F1−2 + 3 − 1 (1 − F1−2 )
A2 A2 A2
A1 A A A
= F1−2 + 3 − 1 + 1 F1−2
A2 A2 A2 A2
A1 A A
1= 2 F1−2 + 3 − 1
A2 A2 A2
Therefore
A2 = 2 A1F1−2 + A3 − A1
A1 + A2 − A3 d + 1.2d − 0.5d
F1−2 = =
2 A1 2d
1 + 1.2 − 0.5 1.7
= = = 0.85
2 2
(ii) Case (b)
Also F2−2 + F2−1 = 1
F21 = 1{since F22 = 0}
According to the reciprocity theorem,
A1F12 = A2 F21
Therefore,
A2 A
F12 = F21 = 2 {since F21 = L}
A1 A1
Qd q L Q
= = = 0.393
8d q L 8
(iii) Case (c)
Here also
A2 d ×L 2
F1−2 = = = = 0.64.
A1 Q d × L Q
2
9.10. Find the shape factor F12 IRUWKHFRQ¿JXUDWLRQVJLYHQLQ¿JXUHDDQGE
(a) (b) 3m
3m 6m
3m 4m
A2 A2
3m 4m3m
3m
A3
A6 A4
A1 3m A1
A5
This is also a case of non-intersecting perpendicular rectangles. We cannot directly use the tables. In
such a case, the factor F12 is calculated by introducing hypothetical areas A3 and A4 .
In this, A5 = A4 + A1 and A6 = A2 + A3
Then
A5 F5−6 = A1F1−6 + A4 F4−6

= ( A1F1−3 + A1F1−2 ) + A4 F4−6
= ( A5 F5−3 − A4 F4−3 ) + A1F1−2 + A4 F4−6
A1F1−2 = ( A5 F5−6 + A4 F4−3 ) − ( A5 F5−3 + A4 F4−6 )
For F56 , F43 , F53 and F46 , values are available in the charts (perpendicular rectangles).
For F56 , we have to calculate the parameters.
Here x2 /l = 7/6 = 1.17; x1/l = 7/6 = 1.17
F56 = 0.19
Similarly, we can use the charts and

F43 = 0.27; F53 = 0.15; F46 = 0.26
A1F1−2 = [(7 × 6) × 0.19 + (4 × 6) × 0.27] − [(7 × 6)0.15 + (6 × 4) × 0.26]

1.92
F12 = = 0.107.
18
9.11. Two small surfaces having areas 4 cm2 (dA1 ) and 8 cm2 (dA2 ) are separated by a distance of 100 cm (r).
7KHRULHQWDWLRQVRIWKHVXUIDFHVDUHJLYHQLQWKH¿JXUH)LQGWKHYLHZIDFWRUEHWZHHQWKHVXUIDFHV
dA1 n1 dA2
Here = 4 ×10−4 n2
r2 30°
dA2 θ1 = 60°
and = 8 ×10−4 60° r
θ1 = 30°
r2
dA1 dA
and 22 1 dA1
r2 r
Both surfaces can be taken as differential surfaces.
The view factor
cos θ1 cos θ2 dA2
dFdA −dA =
1 2 πr 2
cos 60 cos 30 × 8 ×10−4
= = 1.1×10−4
π × (100) 2 ×10−4
Then
⎛ dA ⎞
dFdA = ⎜⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎟ dFdA −dA
2 − dA1 ⎜⎝ dA2 ⎟⎠ 1 2
⎛ 4⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟1.1×10−4 = 5.5 ×10−5.
⎜⎝ 8 ⎠
9.12. A room 2 m in length (l),PLQZLGWKEDQGPLQKHLJKWKLVKHDWHGIURPWKHFHLOLQJE\PDLQWDLQ-

ing it at a temperature 500 K (T1 ).,IWKHVLGHZDOOVDQGÀRRUDUHPDLQWDLQHGDW.72 ), calculate the
UDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKHFHLOLQJWRÀRRUDQGVLGHZDOOVZKHQWKHHPLVVLYLW\RIDOOVXUIDFHVLVİ
This problem is equivalent to that of radiation between two planes with low emissivity material in be-
WZHHQWKHPJDVUDGLDWLRQ6HHWKH¿JXUHEHORZIRUUHIHUHQFH
Q1 Q2
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
R1 R1–2 R2
Eb = TT14 = (5.67 ×10−8 ) × (500) 4 = 3.544 kW/m 2

1
and
Eb = TT24 = (5.67 ×10−8 ) × (300) 4 = 4.459 kW/m 2
2
1 − F1 1 − 0.6
R1 = = = 0.22
A1F1 (2 ×1.5) × 0.6
1 1
R1−2 = = = 0.33
A1F1−2 (2 ×1.5) ×1
{since F1−1 + F1−2 = 1. Therefore, F1−2 = 1}
1 − F2 1 − 0.6
R2 = = = 0.028
A2F2 [(2 × 3× 2) + (1.5 × 3× 2) + 2 ×1.5]× 0.6
Total resistance,
R = R1 + R1−2 + R2
= 0.22 + 0.33 + 0.028 = 0.578 / m 2 .
Heat transfer,
Eb1 Eb 2
Q12 =
R
(3.544 0.459)
=
0.578
= 5.337 kW.
9.13. &DOFXODWHWKHQHWKHDWÀX[EHWZHHQWZRSDUDOOHORSDTXHODUJHSODWHVWKDWDUHNHSWDW.71 ) and

.(T2 ),UHVSHFWLYHO\7KHHPLVVLYLWLHVRIERWKWKHSODWHVDUHWKHVDPHWKDWLVİ
)RULQ¿QLWHSDUDOOHOSODWHVSUREOHP
Q12 σ (T14 − T24 ) σ (T14 − T24 )

Net heat flux, = =
A 1 1 ⎛ 2 ⎟⎞
+ −1 ⎜⎜ − 1⎟
ε1 ε2 ⎜⎝ ε ⎟⎠
5.67 ×10−8 [(600)4 − (300)4 ]
= = 4592.7 W/m 2 .
2
−1
0.8
9.14. A steam pipe of outer diameter (do ) and length 60 cm (l) whose surface is at 200°C (Tp ) passes through
a room with a wall at 10°C (Tw ).$VVXPLQJWKDWWKHHPLVVLYLW\İRIWKHSLSHLVGHWHUPLQHWKHUDWHRI
the heat loss from the pipe by r adiation.
In this case, the entire surface area of the pipe is enclosed in a room. Therefore, the shape factor of pipe
to room is one.
Heat loss from the pipe,
Q = Aεσ (Tp4 Tw4 )
Where
A = Qdl
= Qq 0.2 q 0.6 = 0.377 m 2
Therefore
Q = 0.377 × 0.8 × 5.67 ×10−8 ×[(473) 4 − (283) 4 ]
= 746.3 W.
9.15. $FXELFDOURRPRIVLGHP$LVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHDQGLWLVKHDWHGIURPWKHÀRRUE\PDLQWDLQLQJLWDW
DQXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUHRIí&(T1 ),ZKLOHWKHZDOOVDQGWKHFHLOLQJDUHDWí&(T2 ). Assume that
WKHÀRRUKDVDQHPLVVLYLW\İ1 ) and the walls and the ceiling have emissivity 0.6 İ2 ). Calculate, the
UDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHUIURPWKHÀRRU
/HWXVFDOOWKHÀRRUVXUIDFHDQGWKHZDOOVDQGFHLOLQJVXUIDFH7KHHTXLYDOHQWHOHFWULFFLUFXLWLV
2
Eb1 J1 J2 Eb2
Q2
Q1 R1 R1–2 Q1–2 R2
Floor 1
1 − F1 1 − 0.9
R1 = = = 0.028
A1F1 4 × 0.9
1 − F2 1 − 0.8
R2 = = = 0.063
A2F2 4 × 0.8
1 1
R1−2 = = = 0.25 {F1−1 + F1−2 = 1, therefore F1−2 = 1}
A1F1 − 2 4 ×1
5DWHRIKHDWORVVIURPWKHÀRRU
Eb1 − Eb 2 (T14 − T24 )
Q1−2 = =
Rtotal Rtotal
5.67 ×10−8 ×[(250)4 − (200)4 ]
= = 383.5 W.
0.028 + 0.063 + 0.25
9.16. $FXELFDOURRPRIVLGHP(A1 ),DVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHEHORZLVKHDWHGIURPWKHÀRRUE\PDLQWDLQLQJLW
DWDQXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUHRI.(T1 ). Heat transfer takes place to the ceiling and side walls, which
DUHPDLQWDLQHGDW.7KHÀRRUKDVDQHPLVVLYLW\İ1 ) of 0.9 and the ceiling has an emissivity İ2 ) of
0.6. Determine the heat transfer (i) to the side walls having emissivity İ) of 0.5 (ii) to the side walls if
WKH\DUHZHOOLQVXODWHGDQGLLL¿QGWKHUDGLRFLWLHVZKHQZDOOVDUHLQVXODWHG
(i) Side walls are not insulated
,QWKLVFDVHOHWXVFDOOWKHÀRRUVXUIDFHWKHFHLOLQJVXUIDFHDQGWKHVLGHZDOOVVXUIDFH7KHGHWDLOV
DUHVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHZLWKWKHHOHFWULFDOQHWZRUN
Eb3
(a) Q3
(b)
R3
R1–3 R2–3
2
Eb1 Eb2
3
3 Q1 R1 J1 R1–2 J2 R2 Q2
1
Eb1 = TT14 = 5.67 ×10−8 × (300)4 = 459.3 W/m 2

Eb 2 = TT24 = 5.67 ×10−8 × (200)4 = 90.72 W/m 2 = Eb 3

1 − F1 1 − 0.9
R1 = = = 0.01235
A1F1 9 × 0.9
1 − F2 1 − 0.6
R2 = = = 0.0741
A2F2 9 × 0.6
1 − F3 1 − 0.5
R3 = = = 0.111
A3F3 9 × 0.5
R12 = 1/A1F12 , where F12 LV IURP WKH JUDSKV IRU SDUDOOHO UHFWDQJXODU FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ LQ RSSRVLWH
locations)
1
R1−2 = = 0.556
9 × 0.2
1
R13 = R23 = , where F13 = 0.8
A1F13
F1−1 + F1−2 + F1−3 = 1, therefore F13 = 1 0.2 = 0.8
1
R1−3 = = 0.139
9 × 0.8
Heat transfer to ceiling,
Eb1 − Eb 2
Q1−2 =
R1 + R1−2 + R2
459.3 − 90.72
= = 563.58 W
0.01235 + 0.0741 + 0.556
Heat transfer to side walls,

⎡ Eb1 − Eb 3 ⎤
Q1−3 = ⎢ ⎥ = 368.32 W
⎢⎣ 0.01235 + 0.139 + 0.11⎥⎦
(ii) The side walls are insulated

Insulated walls imply that the surfaces are re-radiating surfaces, Eb3 = J 3 , R3 = 0. The net electrical
ZRUNLVJLYHQLQWKH¿JXUH
Eb3 = J3
R1–3 R2–3
Eb1 Eb2
R1 J1 R1–2 J2 R2
7KHHTXLYDOHQWFLUFXLWIRUWKHRQHJLYHQDERYHLVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHEHORZ
R1–3 R2–3
J3
Eb1 Eb2
R1 J1 R1–2 J2 R2
Equivalent resistance,
1
R = R1 + + R2
1 1
+
R1−2 R1−3 + R2−3
1
= 0.01235 + + 0.0741 = 0.272
1 1
+
0.556 (0.139 + 0.139)
Heat transfer to the ceiling,
Eb1 Eb 2
Q12 =
R
(459.3 90.73)
= = 1355.04 W
0.272
(iii) Applying Kirchoff’s law to nodes J1 and J 2

⎛ E − J1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ J 2 − J1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ Eb 3 − J1 ⎞⎟
For node J1 ,⎜⎜⎜ b1 ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟= 0
⎜⎝ R1 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ R1−2 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ R1−3 ⎟⎟⎠
Eb1 E J J J J
+ b3 − 1 − 1 − 1 + 2 = 0
R1 R1−3 R1 R1−2 R1−3 R1−2
⎡1 1 ⎤⎥ ⎛⎜ Eb1 E ⎞
+ b 3 ⎟⎟⎟
J2 1
= J1 ⎢ + + − ⎜⎜
⎢ ⎥ ⎜ R1−3 ⎟⎠
R1−2 ⎣ R1 R1−2 R1−3 ⎦ ⎝ R1
= J1[89.96] − 37842.94
Therefore, J 2 = 50.02 J1 21040.7 (S5)

For node J 2 ,
Eb 2 − J 2 Eb 3 − J 2 J1 − J 2
+ + =0
R2 R2−3 R1−2
Eb 2 E ⎡1 1 1 ⎤⎥ J
+ b3 − J 2 ⎢ + + + 1 =0
R2 R2−3 ⎢ R R R ⎥ R
⎣ 2 2 − 3 1− 2 ⎦ 1− 2
1876.95 − J 2 × (22.49) + 1.8 J1 = 0 (S6)

Solving (S5) and (S6)
1876.95 − (22.49) × (50.02 J1 − 21040.7) + 1.8 J1 = 0
1876.95 − 1124.95 J1 + 473205.34 + 1.8 J1 = 0
J1 = 423 W/m 2
J 2 = 117.31 W/m 2
Checking for energy balance,
Eb1 − J1 ⎛⎜ J1 − J 2 ⎞⎟ ⎛⎜ J1 − Eb 3 ⎞⎟
= ⎜⎜ ⎟+⎜ ⎟
R1 ⎜⎝ R1−2 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ R1−3 ⎟⎟⎠
Eb1 J1 459.3 423
= = 2939.3
R1 0.01235
J1 − J 2 423 − 117.31 ⎪⎫
= = 549.82⎪⎪
R1−2 0.556 ⎪⎪ 2940.32
⎬
J1 − Eb 3 423 − 90.72 ⎪ Hence verified
= = 2390.5 ⎪⎪⎪
R1−3 0.139 ⎪⎪⎭
9.17. Find the reduction in radiation heat transfer between two parallel plates when three and two shields are
placed between them, with all emissivities assumed to be equal.
For N shields between plates having same emissivities,
Aσ (T14 − T24 )
QN =
⎛2 ⎞
( N + 1) ⎜⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟⎟
⎝ε ⎠⎟
When N = 0
Aσ (T14 T24 )
Qo =
2
1
ε
When N = 3
Aσ (T14 − T24 )
Q3 =
⎛ 2 ⎟⎞
⎜⎜ − 1⎟ 4
⎜⎝ ε ⎟⎠
When N = 2
Aσ (T14 − T24 )
Q2 =
⎛2 ⎞
3⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ε ⎠
Percentage reduction in heat transfer rate when N = 3 is

Qo Q3 Q
= 1 3
Qo Qo
1
= 1 = 75%
4
Percentage reduction in heat transfer rate when N = 2 is

Q2 1
1 = 1 = 66.7%.
Qo 3
9.18. 7ZRODUJHSDUDOOHOSODWHVDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHEHORZZLWKHPLVVLYLWLHVİ1 DQGİ2 ) exchange

heat by radiation. If a polished aluminium radiation shield ( F3 = 0.05) is placed between them, calcu-
late the percentage reduction in heat transfer.
T1 T2
(i) Without shield
Aσ (T14 − T2 4 )
Heat transfer, Q =
1 1
+ −1 ε1 ε2
ε1 ε2
Q 6 × n (T1 − T2 )
4 4
=
A 1 1
+ −1
0.4 0.8
= 0.364T (T14 − T2 4 )
(ii) With shield ε1 ε3 ε2

Q1 σ (T14 − T2 4 )
=
A 1 − ε1 + 1 + 1 − ε3 + 1 − ε3 + 1 + 1 − ε2
ε1 F1−3 ε3 ε3 F3−2 ε2
T1 T3 T2
σ (T14 − T2 4 )
= {Since F13 = F3–2}
1 − ε1 ⎛⎜1 − ε3 ⎞⎟ 2 1 − ε2
+⎜ ⎟
⎟+ +
ε1 + 2 ⎜⎜⎝ ε3 ⎟⎠ F1−3 ε2
Here
1 − F1 1 − 0.4
= = 1.5
F1 0.4
1 − F3 1 − 0.05
= = 19.0
F3 0.05
1 − F2 1 − 0.8
= = 0.25
F2 0.8
1
=1
F1−3
Q1 T (T14 − T2 4 )
= = 0.024 T (T14 − T2 4 )
A 1.5 + 2 ×19 + 2 + 0.25
1
Q Q′
−
Q′
Percentage reduction in heat transfer = A A = 1 −
Q A Q
0.024
= 1− = 0.934 = 93.4%.
0.3364
9.19. Two large parallel planes at temperatures 1000 K (T1 ) and 800 K (T2 KDYHHPLVVLYLWLHVİ1 DQG
İ2 UHVSHFWLYHO\$UDGLDWLRQVKLHOGKDYLQJDQHPLVVLYLW\İs1 ) on one side (facing hot plate) and
DQHPLVVLYLW\İs2 ) on the other is placed between the planes. Determine the heat transfer rate by
radiation with and without the radiation shield.
(i) Without shield
Heat transfer rate
⎛ Q ⎞⎟ σ (T14 − T24 )
⎜⎜ ⎟ =
⎜⎝ A ⎟⎠ 1 1
+ −1
ε1 ε2
5.67 ×10−8 [(1000)4 − (800)4 ]

=
1 1
+ −1
0.5 0.8
= 13390.3 W/m 2
(ii) With shield
Q σ (T14 − T24 )
=
A 1 − ε1 + 1 + 1 − εs1 + 1 − εs 2 + 1 + 1 − ε2
ε1 F1s εs1 εs 2 Fs 2 ε2
5.67 ×10−8 [(1000)4 − (800)4 ]
=
1 − 0.5 1 1 − 0.5 1 − 0.04 1 1 − 0.8
+ + + + +
0.5 1 0.5 0.04 1 0.8
33475.68
=
28.25
= 1185 W/m 2 .
9.20. $VSKHULFDOWDQNZLWKUDGLXVFP51 ¿OOHGZLWKDÀXLGDWWHPSHUDWXUHRI.71 ) is placed inside

a spherical container of radius 50 cm (R2 DQGLVPDLQWDLQHGDWWHPSHUDWXUH.72 ) The emissivities
RIWKHLQQHUDQGRXWHUWDQNVDUHİ1 DQGİ2 ), respectively. A spherical shield of radius 40 cm
(Rs DQGKDYLQJDQHPLVVLYLW\İs ) on both sides is placed between the spheres. Determine the rate
of heat loss without and with shield.
(i) Without shield
Heat loss
σ (T14 − T24 )
Q1−2 =
1 − ε1 1 1 − ε2
+ +
A1ε1 A1F1−2 A2 ε2
A1 (T14 − T24 )
=
A ⎛1 ⎞
+ 1 ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟⎟
1
ε1 A ⎜⎝ ε
2 2
⎟⎠
4π × (0.3) 2 × 5.67 ×10−8 ×[(100)4 − (300)4 ]
=
⎛ 0.3 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
− 1⎟⎟⎟
1
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎜⎜
⎜
0.15 ⎝ 0.5 ⎠ ⎝ 0.25 ⎟⎠
= −66.2 W (Heat is tran
nsferred from the outer to inner surface.)
(ii) With shield
σ (T14 − T24 )
Q1−2 =
1 − ε1 1 1 − εs 1 − εs 1 1 − ε2
+ + + + +
A1ε1 A1F1−s A2εs As εs As Fs−2 A2ε2
A1σ (T14 − T24 ) 4π (0.3) 2 × 5.87 ×10−8 ×[(100) 4 − (300)4 ]
=
1 ⎛⎜ A1 ⎞⎟⎛⎜ 1 ⎞ ⎛ A ⎞⎛ 2 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 0.3 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1
2
⎞⎟ ⎛ 0.3 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2
2
⎞⎟
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜ − 1⎟⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎜⎜ ⎜
ε1 ⎝ A2 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ ε2 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ As ⎟⎠⎜⎝ εs + − 1 ⎟ + ⎟
⎟⎠ 0.15 ⎜⎝ 0.5 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0.25 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0.4 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎜⎝ 0.04 − 1⎟⎟⎟⎠
−5.311×102
=
35.31
= −0.43 W (Heat flows in the opposite direction.)
9.21. Determine the emissivity of CO 2 in a gas body of spherical shape of diameter 1.5 m (d ) at a tempera-
ture of 1500 K (Tg ) LQWKHIROORZLQJSUHVVXUHV7KHJDVFRQVLVWVRI&22 and the rest are non-radi-
ating gases. The total pressure ( P ) of the gas is (i) 1 atm, (ii) 4 atm and (iii) 0.4 atm.
(i) Total pressure P is 1 atm
The characteristic length of a sphere,
L = 0.7 D (from Table 9.4)
L = 0.7 q1.5 = 1.05 m
PCO L = 0.2 q1.05 = 0.21 atm m

2
From the chart, at T = 1500 K and PCO L = 0.21,

2
FCO = 0.12 {Therefore, CCO = 1}

2 2
= F'CO
2
(ii) Total pressure, PT , is 4 atm

PCO = 0.2 q total pressure = 0.2 q 4 = 0.8 atm
2
PCO L = 0.8 q1.05 = 0.84 atm m

2
From the chart, FCO = 0.27.

2
Then correction factor CCO2 at being Pg = 4 atm and PCO = 0.84 atm m is given by
2
CCO = 1.2
2
Therefore, FCO = F'CO q CCO = 0.27 q1.2 = 0.324

2 2 2
(iii) The total pressure, Pg , is 0.4 atm
Here PCO = 0.2 q Pg = 0.2 q 0.4 = 0.08 atm

2
PCO L = 0.08 q1.05 = 0.084 atm m

2
From the chart, F'CO = 0.08.

2
Then, correction factor CCO2 at PT = 0.4 atm and PCO L = 0.084 atm m is CCO2 = 0.8.
2
Therefore,
FCO = F'CO q CCO = 0.08 q 0.8 = 0.064.
2 2 2
9.22. $FXELFDOIXUQDFHPRQDVLGH$KDVJDVDWWHPSHUDWXUH.77KHJDVFRQWDLQV+22
vapour by volume at a total pressure of 0.8 atm (Pg ). Find the emissive power of the gas.
Here, characteristic length,
L = 0.7 A
= 0.7 q 0.6 = 0.42 m
Partial pressure of H 2O = 0.2 q 0.8
PH = 0.16 atm
2O
PH O L = 0.16 q 0.42 = 0.0672 atm m

2
From the chart , at T = 1000 K and PH O L = 0.0672 atm m,

2
F'H 2O = 0.09
7R¿QGWKHFRUUHFWLRQIDFWRU
PH + Pg 0.16 + 0.8
2O
= = 0.48 atm
2 2
From the chart, the correction factor CH = 1.

2O
Therefore, Fg = F'H OCH = 0.09 q1 = 0.09

2 2O
The emissive power of the gas

Q
= FgT 4 = 5.67 ×10−8 × (1000)4 × 0.09
A
= 5.103 kW/m 2 .
9.23. $IXUQDFHLQWKHIRUPRIDFXEHRIVLGHP(A) has gas at temperature 1250 K (Tg). The partial pressure
of CO2 (PCO ) is 0.2 atm and partial pressure ( PH O ) of H22LVDWP7KHWRWDOSUHVVXUH3JRIWKH
2 2
gas 2 atm. Determine the emissivity of the gas.
L = 0.7 A
0.7 q 3 = 2.1 m
PCO L = 0.2 q 2.1 = 0.42 atm m

2
PH O L = 0.15 q 2.1 = 0.315 atm m

2
The emissivities of CO 2 and H 2 O at 1250 K and for the above PL values (from the chart)
F'CO = 0.18; F'H = 0.19

2 2O
The correction factor CCO at PT and PCO L is CCO = 1.1 .

2 2 2
From the chart, CH = 1.42 .
2O
Common correction factor %E, the following parameters are calculated:
PCO L + PH O L = 0.735 atm m

2 2
PH 0.15 0.15
2O
= = = 0.43
PH + PCO 0.15 + 0.2 0.35
2O 2
% = 0.048 for the above values, at Tg .
Then the emissivity of the gas,

Fg = F'CO CCO + F'H OCH − ΔF
2 2 2 2O
= 0.18 ×1.1 + 0.19 ×1.42 − 0.048 = 0.42.
9.24. A furnace of total surface area 25 m2 (A) and volume 10 m (v) is kept at a constant temperature 500 K
(Tw ).7KHIXUQDFHFRQWDLQVRI CO2 (PCO ) DQGRIZDWHUYDSRXU ( PH O ) by volume. The gas
2 2
temperature (Tg ) is 1250 K and total pressure (P)g is 2 atm, determine the heat exchange from the gases
WRWKHIXUQDFHZDOODQGUDGLDWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
The characteristic length
⎛ Volume ⎞⎟
( L) = 3.6⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ Surface area ⎟⎠
⎛ 10 ⎞
= 3.6⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = 1.44 m
⎜⎝ 25 ⎠
Then
PCO = 0.2 q Pg = 0.2 q 2 = 0.4 atm
2
PH = 0.1q Pg = 0.1q 2 = 0.2 atm

2O
therefore, PCO L = 0.4 q1.44 = 0.576 atm m

2
and PH O L = 0.2 q1.44 = 0.288 atm m

2
The emissivities, from the chart, are F'CO = 0.18 and F'H = 0.19.
2 2O
The corrections factors from the charts, are CCO = 1.1 and CH = 1.45.
2 2O
The common correction factor, %F, at PCO L + PH O L = 0.6 atm m and ( PH O /PH O + PCO ) = 0.2/0.2
2 2 2 2 2
+ 0.4 = 0.33 is %F = 0.045.
Therefore, at Tg the emissivity of the gas,
Fg = F'CO CCO + F'H OCH − ΔF
2 2 2 2O
= 0.18 ×1.1 + 0.19 ×1.45 − 0.045 = 0.43
7R¿QGWKHDEVRUSWLYLW\ B g , of the gas at wall temperature, Tw , we have to calculate PL or wall tem-

peratures for CO 2 and H 2 O
⎛ T ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ w ⎟
( PCO L)Tw = ( PCO L)Tg ⎟
2 2 ⎜⎜⎝ Tg ⎟⎠⎟
⎛ 500 ⎞⎟
= 0.576⎜⎜
⎜⎝1250 ⎟⎟⎠
= 0.23 atm m
and
⎛ T ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ w ⎟
( PH O L)T = ( PH O L)T ⎜⎜ T ⎟⎟⎟
2 w 2 g
⎝ g⎠
⎛ 500 ⎞⎟
= 0.288⎜⎜
⎜⎝1250 ⎟⎟⎠
= 0.115 atm m
From the chart, the values at Tw and ( PL)T are

w
F'CO 2 = 0.14 and F' H 2O = 0.2' .

Then the correction factors at 2 atm pressure, the ( PL)T values are
w
CCO = 1.1 and CH = 1.46

2 2O
The common correction factor %F, from the chart,
%F = 0.01
⎛T ⎞ ⎛ Tg ⎞
0.65 0.45
∞ g = FCO ⎜⎜⎜ g ⎟⎟⎟ + FH O ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ − ΔF

2 ⎜T ⎟ 2 ⎜T ⎟
⎝ w⎠ ⎝ w⎠
⎛1250 ⎞⎟ ⎛1250 ⎞⎟
0.65 0.45
= 0.14 ×1.1⎜⎜ + 0.2 ×1.46⎜⎜ − 0.01

⎜⎝ 500 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 500 ⎟⎟⎠
= 0.279 + 0.441 − 0.01 = 0.71
Q = As σ (εgTg4 − αgTw4 )
= 25 × 5.67 ×10−8 [0.43× (1250)4 − 0.71× (500)4 ] = 1425.2 kW
7KHUDGLDWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW hr , can be calculated from the following equation:

Q = As hr (Tg Tw )
Q
hr = (Tg − Tw )
As
1425.2 ×1000
= = 76.0 W/m 2DC.
25 × (1250 − 500)
9.25. , QDVHPLFLUFXODUWXEHDLUÀRZVDWWKHUDWHRIPNJKDQGLWVWHPSHUDWXUH7a ) is 500 K at atmo-

spheric pressure. The plane surface is maintained (T1 ) at 1200 K and other surface is insulated and both
surfaces have an emissivity (F) of 0.85 and the tube radius (R) is 25 mm. Find the heat transfer rate per
unit length that must be supplied to maintain the plane surface at the same temperature as the tempera-
ture of the insulated surface.
Radiation heat transfer,
σ (T14 − T24 ) A1σ (T14 − T24 )

Qr = =
1 − ε1 1 1 − ε2 1 − ε1 1 ⎛1 − ε2 ⎞⎟ A1
+ + + + ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟
ε1 A1 A1F12 ε2 A2 ε1 F1−2 ⎝ ε2 ⎟⎟⎠ A2
Here, F12 (shape factor) = 1 and {A1 = D; A2 = QD/2} for unit length of tube
5.67 ×10−8 [(1200) 4 − (T2 ) 4 ] A1
∴ Qr =
1 − 0.85 ⎛1 − 0.85 ⎞⎟ 2
+ 1 + ⎜⎜
0.85 ⎜⎝ 0.85 ⎟⎟⎠ Q
= 4.4 ×10−8 × A1[(1200) 4 − (T2 ) 4 ]
Convection heat transfer,

Qc = hA2 (T2 − Ta )
Air properties at (500 K) are k = 41 q 10–3 W/mK, N = 26.7 q 10–6 N-s/m2; Pr = 0.68
Reynolds number,
ρUDh
Re =
μ
⎛ m ⎞⎛ D ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟⎜⎜⎜ h ⎟⎟⎟ =
mDh
⎜⎝ A ⎠⎝ μ ⎟⎠ ⎛ π R 2 ⎞
⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ μ
⎟
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
4 Ac 4 × Cross sectional area

where Dh = =
P Perimeter
2Q R 2Q × 0.025
Dh = = = 0.031 m
Q+2 Q+2
⎛ 36 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜
⎜⎝ 3600 ⎟⎟⎠
(0.031)
∴ Re = = 11828
⎛ Q × (0.025) 2 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ (26.7 ×10−6 )
⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠
Nu = 0.023( ReB )0.8 Pr 0.4 = 0.023(11, 828)0.8 (0.68)0.4 = 35.73
Nu × k 35.73× 41×10−3
∴ h= = = 47.26 W/m 2C
Dh 0.031
∴ Qc = 47.26 × A2 (T2 − 500)
For energy balance, Qr = Qc

4.4 ×10−8 × A1[(12004 − T24 )] = A2 (T2 − 500)47.26
4.4 ×10−8 T24 + 74.2 T2 − 54120.4 = 0
By trial and error, T2 = 634 K

Total heat transfer per unit length from plane surface = Qc + convection heat transfer from plane
surface (Q'c )
= h (Q R )(T2 − Ta ) + h(2 R )(T1 − Ta )
= hR [Q(T2 − Ta ) + 2(T1 − Ta )]
= 47.26 × 0.025[Q (634 − 500) + 2(1200 − 500)]

= 2151.5 W/m
9.26. 5
HIULJHUDQWOLTXLGÀRZVWKURXJKDWXEHRIFPGLDPHWHU'1 ), which is having outer surface emissivity
(F1 DQGWHPSHUDWXUH71 ) 80 K. The tube is concentric with a larger tube of 6 cm diameter (D2 )
and inner surface is having emissivity (F2 ) of 0.06 and temperature of (T2 .)LQGWKHUHGXFWLRQLQ
radiation heat transfer if a thin radiation shield of 45 mm diameter (D) and emissivity (F) of 0.012 on
both sides is inserted between the tubes. Assume the space between the surface as vacuum.
Radiation heat transfer per unit length without shield
σ (π D1 )(T14 − T24 )
Q=
1 1 − ε2 ⎛⎜ D1 ⎞⎟
+ ⎜ ⎟
ε1 ε2 ⎜⎝ D2 ⎟⎠⎟
5.67 ×10−8 (Q × 0.03)[(80) 4 − (350) 4 ]

= = −1.95 W/m
1 1 − 0.06 ⎛⎜ 0.03 ⎞⎟
+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
0.03 0.06 ⎝ 0.06 ⎠
Radiation heat transfer per unit length with shield,
T(T14 − T24 )
Q=
Rtotal
and Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
1 − ε1 1 − 0.03
R1 = = = 343.1 m−1
ε1 (π D1 ) (0.03× π × 0.03)
1 1
R2 = = = 10.61 m−1
Q D1F1−3 Q × 0.03×1
2(1 − ε3 ) 2(1 − 0.012)

R3 = = = 1164.8 m−1
ε3 (π D3 ) 0.012 × π × 0.045
1 1
R4 = = = 7.07 m−1
Q D3 ( F3−2 ) Q × 0.045 ×1
1 − ε2 1 − 0.06
R5 = = = 83.1 m−1
ε2 (π D2 ) 0.06 × π × 0.06
Rtotal = 1608.7 m−1
Heat transfer,
5.67 ×10−8 [(80) 4 − (350) 4 ]
Q= = −0.528 W/m
1608.7
Reduction in heat transfer from outer cylinder to inside cylinder is (1.95 – 0.528) = 1.42 W/m.
9.27. $
VRODUÀDWSODWHFROOHFWRULQFOLQHGDWRWRWKHKRUL]RQWDODQGIDFLQJVRXWK7KHDLUWHPSHUDWXUH
(Ta ) is 295 K and the glass and absorber plate temperatures are (Tg .DQG7p .UHVSHFWLYHO\
$FPWKLFNLQVXODWLRQFRYHULVSURYLGHGDWWKHERWWRPRIWKHV\VWHP7KHZLQGYHORFLW\YLVPVDQG
air space between the plate and glass cover is (L) 8 cm. The glass and absorber plate emissivities are
(Fg ) 0.88 and (Fp UHVSHFWLYHO\)LQGWKHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQWKHÀDWSODWHDQG
ambient air.
Grashof number,
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
(9.81) ⎜⎜ (345 − 325)(0.08)3
g β (Tp − Tg ) L3 ⎜⎝ 335 ⎟⎟⎠
Gr = = = 838280
γ2 (18.977 ×10−6 ) 2
Rayleigh number,
Ra = Gr ⋅ Pr = 838280 × 0.695 = 5.8 ×105
Nusselt number,
⎡ 1708 ⎤⎥ ⎢⎡ sin(1.8R )1.61708 ⎤⎥ ⎡⎢⎧⎪ Ra cos R ⎫⎪ ⎤
1/ 3
Nu = 1 + 1.44 ⎢1 − 1− + ⎢⎨ ⎬ − 1⎥⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢
( Ra )cos R ⎦ ⎣ ⎥ ⎪
( Ra )cos R ⎦ ⎢⎣⎪⎩ 5830 ⎪⎭ ⎪
⎣ ⎥⎦
⎤ ⎡ sin(1.8 × 45)1.41708 ⎤ ⎡⎢⎪⎧⎪ 5.8 ×105 cos 45 ⎪⎫⎪ ⎤

1/ 3
⎡ 1708 ⎥
= 1 + 1.44 ⎢1 − ⎥ ⎢1 − ⎥ + ⎢⎨ ⎬ − 1⎥
⎢⎣ 5.8×105 × cos 45 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 5.8 ×105 × cos 45 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎪⎪⎩ 5830 ⎪⎪⎭ ⎥⎦
⎣
= 5.5
7KHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQSODWHDQGFRYHU
⎛ Nu × ka ⎞⎟ 5.5 × 0.02896
hpc = ⎜⎜ = = 2 W/m 2 K
⎜⎝ L ⎟⎟⎠ 0.08
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQFRYHUDQGDWPRVSKHULFDLU
hca = 2.8 + 3.0(V )

= 2.8 + 3.0 × 5 = 17.8 W/m 2 K
The effective emissivity between plate and glass,
−1
⎛1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞
−1
Fe = ⎜⎜⎜ + − 1⎟⎟⎟ = ⎜⎜
1 1
+ − 1⎟⎟⎟ = 0.8841
⎜⎝ Fg F p ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0.88 0.95 ⎠
7KHUDGLDWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQSODWHDQGFRYHU
[(Tp ) 4 − (Tg ) 4 ]
hrpc = (εe ) σ
(Tp − Tg )
⎡ (345) 4 − (325) 4 ⎤
= 0.841× 5.67 ×10−8 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ (345 − 325) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 7 W/m 2 K
7KHUDGLDWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQJODVVFRYHUDQGVN\
εg σ[(Tg ) 4 − (Ts ) 4 ]
hrgs =
Tg − Ta
where Ts is the sky temperature = Ta – 6 = 295 – 6 = 289 K.

⎡ (325) 4 − (289) 4 ⎤
hrgs = 0.8 × 5.67 ×10−8 ⎢ ⎥ = 6.82 W/m 2 K
⎢ (325 − 295) ⎥
⎣ ⎦
= 6.2 W/m 2 K
7KHWRWDOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQSODWHDQGFRYHU
h1 = hpc + hrpc = 2 + 7
= 9 W/m 2 K
7KHWRWDOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQFRYHUDQGDPELHQWDLU
h2 = hca + hrgs
= 17.8 + 6.82
= 24.62 W/(m 2 k )
7KHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWEHWZHHQSODWHDQGDLU
−1
⎡1 1⎤
Ut = ⎢ + ⎥
⎢h ⎥
⎣ 1 h2 ⎦
−1
⎡⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
= ⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ + ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟⎥ = 6.6 W/m 2 K.
⎢⎣⎝⎜ 9 ⎠ ⎝⎜ 24 ⎠⎥⎦
9.28. Molten metal droplets are ejected in air to cool down during arc welding of metal. Droplet of 2 mm
diameter (D), initial temperature (Tw RI&DQGDQLQLWLDOYHORFLW\8RIFPVLVFRROHGLQDLU
DW&7B). Find its initial rate of cooling in air, assuming Smetal NJP and Cp N-NJ.
F DQGN :P.
Air properties at 30°C are:

k = 26.75 q 10–3 W/mK; H = 16.0 q 10–6 m2/s; Pr = 0.70; NB = 18.6 q 10–6 NS/m2; Nm = 53.45 q 10–6 NS/
m2 at temperature 1100°C
Reynolds number,
UD
ReD =
H
0.5 × 2 ×10−3
= = 62.5
16.0 ×10−6
Nusselt number,
⎛μ ⎞
0.25
Nul = 2 + ⎡⎣⎢0.4( ReD )0.5 + 0.06( ReD ) 2 / 3 ⎤⎦⎥ Pr 0.4 ⎜⎜⎜ α ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ μw ⎟⎠
⎛ 18.6 ⎞⎟
0.25
= 2 + ⎡⎣⎢0.4(62.5)0.5 + 0.06(62.5) 2 / 3 ⎤⎦⎥ (0.7)0.4 ⎜⎜

⎜⎝ 53.45 ⎟⎟⎠
= 14.74
Nu D × k
∴ h=
D
14.74 × 26.75 ×103
=
2 ×10−3
= 197.13 W/m 2 K
Heat transfer by convection,
qc = h(Tw − TB ) = 197.13(1100 − 30) = 210937 W/m 2

Heat transfer by radiation,
qr = σε(Ts4 − T14 ) = 5.67 ×10−8 × 0.4[(1373) 4 − (303) 4 ]

= 80.4 kW/m 2
Biot number,
hD
Bi =
k
197.13× 2 ×10−3
=
200
= 1.97 ×10−3
Using lumped thermal capacity mode (as Bi < 0.1),
dT
∴ SCV = −(qc + qr ) A
dt
dT −6 ⎧⎪ A 6 ⎫⎪
SC = (qc + qr ) ⎨∴ = ⎬
dt D ⎪⎪⎩ V D ⎪⎪⎭
dT ⎛⎜ −6 ⎞⎟⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟
∴ =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ (210937 + 80400)
dt ⎝⎜ 2 ×10−3 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 2700 ×1.1×103 ⎟⎠
= −294°C/s.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
9.1 Distinguish thermal radiation from other types of 9.7 What is radiation shape factor?
radiation. 9.8 Discuss the radiation heat transfer between non-
9.2 Explain the physical mechanism of radiation heat black bodies.
transfer. 9.9 Derive the expression for radiation heat transfer
9.3 Explain the radiation properties. IRULQ¿QLWHSDUDOOHOVXUIDFHV
'H¿QH6WHIDQ±%ROW]PDQQODZ 9.10 What is a radiation shield?
'H¿QHUDGLDWLRQLQWHQVLW\ 9.11 Discuss gas radiation.
9.6 What is the difference between a black body and 9.12 Explain the radiation exchange with transmit-
a grey body? WLQJUHÀHFWLQJDQGDEVRUELQJPHGLD
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
9.1. Radiation heat transfer takes place 9.7 In radiation exchange between a gas and a sur-
(a) through electromagnetic waves face
(b) in vacuum (a) mostly gases are transparent to radiation
(c) when there is a temperature difference (b) gases absorb and emit radiation in narrow
(d) all of the above wavelength bands
9.2 The speed of electromagnetic waves is the (c) a more complex heat transfer situation is
product of their wavelength and seen
(a) frequency (b) emissivity (d) all of the above
(c) distance (d) intensity 9.8 The total emissive power (kW/m2) of a black
body at 100 K is
9.3 The value of the Stefan–Boltzmann’s constant
is q 10í (a) 5669 (b) 56.99
(a) 6.599 (b) 5.669 (c) 569.9 (d) 5.699
(c) 5.996 (d) 5.966 9.9 The intensity of solar radiation is strongly
dependent on
9.4 The ratio of the emissive power of a body to
the emissive power of a black body at the same (a) the atmospheric condition
temperature is to the absorptivity of the body (b) the time of the year
(a) not related (b) not proportional (c) the angle of incidence
(c) equal (d) lower (d) all of the above
9.5 Two parallel black plates of size 5 m q 1 m are 9.10 According to Wien’s displacement law, the
maintained at 1000°C and 500°C with a shape equivalent black body temperature for solar
factor of 0.285. The net heat exchange between radiation at a wavelength of 0.5 μm is
them is (a) 5795 K (b) 5975 K
(a) 13.83 (b) 18.88 (c) 5579 K (d) 5579 K
(c) 18.18 (d) 18.33
9.6 Radiation shields are used to
(a) reduce radiation heat transfer between two
surfaces
(b) increase heat transfer Answers:
(c) maintain the same heat transfer 9.1 (d), 9.2 (a), 9.3 (b), 9.4 (c), 9.5 (d), 9.6 (a), 9.7 (d),
(d) all of the above 9.8 (d), 9.9 (d), 9.10 (a).
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
9.1 Temperature of a surface is maintained at 7
ZRSDUDOOHOLQ¿QLWHEODFNSODWHVDUHPDLQWDLQHG
632.5°C. What is the wavelength at which the at 200°C and 300°C, what will be the net heat
maximum radiation will be emitted from the transfer rate between the plates per unit area.
surface? (Ans. 3.19 m) (Ans. 3.29 kW)
9.2 A body receives total incident radiation of 9.6 If two parallel plates having equal emissivity
5 kW/m2. If the body absorbs 3 kW/m2DQGUHÀHFWV of 0.295 are separated by insulation material
1kW/m2¿QGWKHWUDQVPLVVLYLW\Ans. 0.2) WKDW LV WUDQVSDUHQW WR UDGLDWLRQ ¿QG WKH KHDW
9.3 If a black body is maintained at 1000°C, what is transfer between them for unit area. They are
its total emissive power? (Ans. 148.5 kW/m2) maintained at 230°C and 28°C. (Ans. 560 kW)
9.4 What is the maximum monochromatic emissive 9.7 A circular plate of diameter 2.98 m is exposed
power and the wavelength at which it occurs for to radiation escaping from a furnace through an
a black body maintained at 110 K. (Ans. 112.5 opening of area 0.099 m2. The plate is kept par-
W/m2, 7.49 m) allel and coaxial with the opening and is placed
4.99 m away from it and the opening radiates emissivity of walls and ceiling are 0.819 and
as a black body at 1815 K. Find the rate of WKDWRIWKHÀRRULV)LQGWKHQHWUDGLDWLRQ
energy transfer from the opening to the plate. WRWKHÀRRUAns. 4.9 kW)
(Ans. 5 kW) 9.14 Two parallel planes of very large size with
9.8 A heater of overall dimensions 1.95 m q 1 m emissivities 0.295 and 0.795 exchange heat.
q 0.198 m is used to heat the air in a room Find the percentage reduction in heat transfer
maintained at 290 K. The surface temperature if a shield with emissivity 0.0395 is placed be-
of the heater is at 335 K and its surface is can be tween them. (Ans. 94%)
assumed to be black. The actual surface area of 9.15 If the temperature on the inner surface of a
the radiator is 2.5 times the area of its envelope hemispherical cavity of diameter 49.5 cm is
DQG WKH FRQYHFWLRQ KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW LV .ZKLFKKDVDQHPLVVLYLW\RI¿QGWKH
h = 0.00130(ș/[K])1/3kW/m2K. Find the rate of rate of heat loss from the cavity. (Ans. 1.4 kW)
heat transfer from the radiator to the room air. 9.16 The diameter of a combustion chamber is
(Ans. 3.99 kW) 34.95 cm and its inner wall temperature is main-
$:HOHFWULFEXOE¶V¿ODPHQWLVDVVXPHGWR tained at 775 K. The gas inside is at 1275 K at a
be a black body which is maintained at 3275 K. pressure of 1 atm and contains 11.95% CO2 and
7KH OHQJWK RI WKH ¿ODPHQW LV PP )LQG 9.95% H2O by volume. Find the net heat trans-
WKH HI¿FLHQF\ RI WKH EXOE LI YLVLEOH UDGLDWLRQ fer per unit surface area. (Ans. 15 kW)
lies in the range of wavelengths from 0.5 μ to $IXUQDFHÀDPHLVDVVXPHGWREHDSODQHUHFW-
0.8 μ. (Ans. 16%) angular black surface, 2.99 m by 1.99 m, and is
9.10 If the Sun is assumed to be a black body with kept at 1775 K, is exposed to an opaque bank of
a surface temperature of 5525°C, calculate the black tubes of the same projected area. These
amount of radiant energy emitted by it per unit are at a surface temperature of 575 K and the
time if its diameter can be assumed to be 1.4 q shape factor between them is 0.495. Find the net
109m. (Ans. 4.4 q 1026 W) KHDWÀRZWRWKHWXEHEDQNAns. 1660 kW)
9.11 The diameter and length of a hot water tank are 9.18 Estimate the shape factor of a cylindrical cavity
49.5 cm and 99.5 cm, respectively. It is exposed of diameter 19.95 cm and depth 49.5 cm with
to ambient air at 298 K. If the emissivity of the respect to itself. If its temperature is 325°C and
VXUIDFHLV¿QGWKHKHDWORVVIURPWKHWDQN HPLVVLYLW\LV¿QGWKHUDWHDWZKLFKKHDW
E\ UDGLDWLRQ $OVR ¿QG WKH UHGXFWLRQ LQ KHDW comes out from the cavity. (Ans. 0.9, 18 W)
loss if a coating of aluminium paint having 9.19. Find the net rate of heat exchange from at
an emissivity of 0.295 is given to the tank. 9.99-cm diameter disc at 799 K, having an
(Ans. 690 W, 430 W) emissivity of 0.8, placed at a distance of 1.99
9.12 A cylindrical furnace with inner diameter m from a disc with emissivity 0.695 and 1.99
15.95 cm and length 1 m is used to heat a steel m diameter maintained at 299 K. (Ans. 34 W)
rod of length 1 m and diameter 19.5 mm from 9.20 A cylindrical rod (İ = 0.7) of 50 mm diam-
700 K to 810 K. The inner surface of the fur- eter is maintained at 1000°C by electrical re-
nace is at a temperature of 1365 K and has an sistance heating and kept in a room, the walls
emissivity of 0.849. If the surface of the rod has (İ = 0.6) of which are at 15°C. Determine
DQ HPLVVLYLW\ RI ¿QG WKH WLPH UHTXLUHG the energy which must be supplied per metre
for the heating operation. (Ans. 4 s) length of the rod. If an insulated half-circular
9.13 The size of room is 1.495 m q 1.695 m q UHÀHFWRURIPLVSODFHGDURXQGWKHURGHV-
1.995 m and the walls and ceiling are main- timate the energy supplied to the rod per metre
WDLQHG DW . DQG WKH ÀRRU DW . 7KH length. (Ans. 15 kW)
10
Modeling and Analysis
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Modeling and analysis are used to optimize the design of a thermal system. The processes that
are carried out in a system can be represented in terms of mathematical equations for the analysis.
Modeling a physical system and analyzing the results of the processes with suitable correlations is
known as simulation and it is equivalent to actual experiments on the system. Simulation of any
physical process can provide relevant inputs for the design and optimization of a process or system.
Once a model of a system is created, it can be subjected to a large number of operating conditions and
the outputs will characterize the behavior of the system. An optimum design condition can be derived
from these outputs. It is also important to understand the different types of models, procedures to
develop them, governing equations, material properties, variables, and validation of results.
10.2 BASICS OF MODELING

A model can be either descriptive or predictive and can be used to describe and explain different
physical concepts. Models can be physically made to show the internal assembly of components and
also to explain the working principles of systems such as heat engines, pumps, and other machine
tools. These models are known as descriptive types. The performance of the systems mentioned above
can be predicted using predictive models. Using the governing equations that represent the processes
in a predictive model, the variation of parameters such as temperature, pressure, and velocity with
respect to time can be obtained. Processes in thermal systems are usually described by partial
differential equations, which are time-dependent and multidimensional. In modeling and analysis,
it is necessary to neglect unimportant factors and also to combine different variables to simplify the
analysis. Understanding the physical concept is important to create a satisfactory model. Various
techniques such as dimensional analysis are also being used to create models. In some systems, when
LWLVGLI¿FXOWWRVLPXODWHWKHSURFHVVHVIRUPRGHOLQJDQGDQDO\VLVH[SHULPHQWDOGDWDDUHXVHGWREXLOW
the model and analyzed using dimensional analysis. Experimental data are also used for the validation
of the results obtained using model analysis.
10.3 PREDICTIVE MODELS

There are four predictive models that are in use for the optimum design of a thermal system. They are:
(i) physical models, (ii) analog models, (iii) mathematical models, and (iv) numerical models. These
PRGHOVKDYHWKHLURZQFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGDSSOLFDEOHIRUVSHFL¿FV\VWHPVDQGDSSOLFDWLRQV0RGHOV
DUHDOVRFODVVL¿HGDVVWHDG\VWDWHRUG\QDPLF, probabilistic or deterministic, distributed or lumped,
and discrete or continuous.
In steady-state model, operating variables and properties do not change with time and in the
case of dynamic models time-dependent variables are included. In some cases, both dynamic (in
LQLWLDO VWDJH DQG VWHDG\VWDWH PRGHOV ¿QDO VWDJH DUH XVHG WR REWDLQ WKH UHTXLUHG UHVXOWV ,Q WKH
case of probabilistic model, uncertainties in the system are represented by probability distributions.
Deterministic model predicts the system behavior with good degree of acceptance. Distributed models
JLYHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHYDULDWLRQRISDUDPHWHUVDWDQ\VSHFL¿HGORFDWLRQDQGWKHOXPSHGPRGHOV
provide average values of the parameters of the considered volume. If individual data of parameters
DUHFRQVLGHUHGWKHQDGLVFUHWHPRGHOLVXVHGDQGIRUV\VWHPVZLWKÀRZRIÀXLGVFRQWLQXRXVPRGHOV
are used.
10.3.1 Physical Models

To obtain the required experimental results and to study the behavior of a system, a physical model
is made similar to the actual system with reduced dimensions as scaled-down models. To study the
drag force on a car using wind tunnel and forces acting on ships and submarines using water channels,
physical models are used.
10.3.2 Analog Models

Analog models use the solution and results of a well-known problem to get the results of another
VLPLODUSUREOHP7KHVHDUHXVHGLQWKH¿HOGVVXFKDVÀXLGPHFKDQLFVDQGKHDWWUDQVIHU7KHDQDORJ\
of conduction heat transfer to electrical circuit is an example of an analog model. The analog model
and the actual system are not similar in physical appearance but obey the same physical principles.
Analog models are used only to understand the physical phenomena and have limited use in design.
10.3.3 Mathematical Models

Mathematical models represent the behavior and performance of a system by means of mathematical
equations. Thermal systems can be designed with the help of the results of the mathematical models
without actually fabricating a prototype.
Governing equations provide the basis for the procedure of design and optimization of a system.
A mathematical model of a heat exchanger is described by a few correlations, which will show
WKH GHSHQGHQFH RI WKH KHDW WUDQVIHU UDWH RQ WKH WHPSHUDWXUHV RI WKH ÀXLGV DQG GLPHQVLRQV RI WKH
heat exchanger, forming the basis for optimum design. The correlations are either arrived based on
SK\VLFDOSULQFLSOHVLQWKHFDVHRIWKHRUHWLFDOPRGHOVRUE\FXUYH¿WWLQJRIH[SHULPHQWDOGDWDLQWKH
case of empirical models.
Mathematical models for design and optimization of a thermal system are usually developed with
the following assumptions:
1. Modelling of the system is done assuming that the system works in steady-state or transient
condition. The two important characteristics for this assumption are the response time (tR) of
the system and variation time (tv) of the ambient or operating conditions. A system may be
treated as being in a steady-state if the response time (tR l B) is very large or for conditions
with tR tv and tv tR. In some thermal systems, the process or parameters vary periodically
with time and may also be analyzed using steady-state models. All other systems are treated as
transient models.
2. The systems may be modeled as one-, two-, or three-dimensional based on the required accur-
acy of prediction.
3. A lumped mass approximation is assumed for a model if the temperature, species concentra-
tion, or other variables are uniform within the system.
MODELING AND ANALYSIS | 351
)RUVLPSOL¿FDWLRQRIWKHDQDO\VLVERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVIRUWKHPRGHOPD\EHDSSUR[LPDWHGDV
VLPSOHVPRRWKDQGXQLIRUPÀDWF\OLQGHUVSKHUHHWF
0DWKHPDWLFDOPRGHOVDUHVLPSOL¿HGE\QHJOHFWLQJWKHHIIHFWVWKDWDUHUHODWLYHO\VPDOO
6. Ideal conditions are also assumed sometimes in mathematical modeling.
7. Material property data are to be used accurately in mathematical models.
8. The law of conservation of mass, momentum, and energy provide the basis for the governing
equations of a model.
10.4 GOVERNING EQUATIONS

+HDWWUDQVIHUDQGÀXLGÀRZSURFHVVHVDUHJRYHUQHGE\WKHODZVRIFRQVHUYDWLRQRIPDVVPRPHQWXP
and energy with differential and integral equations. Analytical or numerical solutions are possible for
the governing equations. Though used widely, numerical solution frequently introduces questions of
DFFXUDF\DQGVWDELOLW\,QVRPHVSHFL¿FFDVHVWKHJRYHUQLQJGLIIHUHQWLDOHTXDWLRQVRIKHDWWUDQVIHUDQG
ÀXLGÀRZSUREOHPVLQYROYHRQO\RQHLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOH6RPHWLPHVWZRLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV
can be expressed in terms of a single variable that is termed as similarity variable, which considerably
VLPSOL¿HVDSUREOHP
Partial differential equations are encountered very frequently in many problems for which numerical
WHFKQLTXHVDUHDYDLODEOH7KHWUDQVLHQWKHDWDQGÀXLGÀRZSUREOHPVLQYROYHWLPHDVDQLQGHSHQGHQW
variable. Based on the geometry considered, one-, two-, or three-dimensional solutions are used to
H[SUHVVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQSUHVVXUHDQGYHORFLW\LQÀRZ¿HOGVDQGHQHUJ\WUDQVIHUUDWHV
7KHIRUPRIWKHDQDO\WLFDORUQXPHULFDOVROXWLRQREWDLQHGPD\EHFODVVL¿HGEDVHGRQRIWKHKLJKHVW
derivatives that appear in each variable.
A two-dimensional second-order governing equation is more preferred for the heat transfer
problems and is represented in a general form as
∂ 2G ∂ 2G ∂ 2G ∂G ∂G
A +B +C 2 + D +E + FG + G = 0 (10.1)
∂x 2
∂x∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
ZKHUHWKHFRHI¿FLHQWVA, B, C, D, E, F, and G may be functions of the two independent variables x

and y and the dependent variable G, where G is used to denote a generalized dependent variable; when
WKHUPDODSSOLFDWLRQVDUHFRQVLGHUHGWKHJHQHUDOL]HGYDULDEOHZLOOEHUHSODFHGE\VSHFL¿FYDULDEOHV
VXFK DV WHPSHUDWXUH GHQVLW\ YHORFLW\ RU SUHVVXUH 7KH JRYHUQLQJ HTXDWLRQ LV FODVVL¿HG DV
elliptic when B2–4AC < 0, parabolic when B2–4AC = 0, and hyperbolic when B2–4AC > 0. The solution
SURFHGXUHGHSHQGVRQWKHVHPDWKHPDWLFDOFODVVL¿FDWLRQVDQGDOVRRQERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV
10.4.1 Elliptic Governing Equation for Steady-state Conduction Heat Transfer

Problems
The conduction heat transfer problem with steady-state two-dimensional case is governed by the
Laplace or PoissonHTXDWLRQVZKLFKDUHHOOLSWLFDQGQHHGVVSHFL¿FDWLRQRIERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDW
all the boundaries. Iterative and direct methods are available for solving the algebraic equations that
are generated from the numerical solutions. The Laplace and the Poisson equations, which generally
represent the steady-state problems, are written, respectively, as
∂ 2G ∂ 2G
+ =0 (10.2)
∂x 2 ∂ y 2
∂ 2G ∂ 2G
+ + G = 0. (10.3)
∂x 2 ∂ y 2
The steady-state, constant-property, two-dimensional conduction temperature distribution without

LQWHUQDOKHDWJHQHUDWLRQVDWLV¿HVWKH/DSODFHHTXDWLRQ7KH3RLVVRQHTXDWLRQLVXVHGLIDQLQWHUQDOKHDW
source is present
10.4.2 Parabolic Governing Equations for Transient Conduction Heat

Transfer Problems
The transient one-dimensional heat transfer problem is governed by a parabolic equation that is solved
numerically by marching in time, starting with an initial condition. The governing equation of a transient
two-dimensional conduction problem is parabolic in nature with respect to its time dependence and
the elliptic behavior with respect to the spatial coordinates. The temperature distribution is obtained
at each time interval in terms of the distribution at the preceding interval by marching in time. The
simplest parabolic equation for one-dimensional transient heat conduction is of the form
∂T ∂ 2T
= A 2 =0 (10.4)
∂t ∂x
where t and x are the time and space coordinates, respectively, and A is the thermal diffusivity. The
boundary conditions at the two ends of a plate at any instant and an initial condition for temperature
are required to solve this equation. Transient two-dimensional conduction is governed by an equation
of the form
∂T ⎛ ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎞
= A⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟⎟ + G (10.5)
∂t ⎜⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠
where t denotes the time variable and the internal heat source term G is also included. By comparing
the highest derivatives in any two of the independent variables, and with the help of Equation (10.1),
LWLVUHDGLO\YHUL¿HGWKDW(TXDWLRQLVSDUDEROLFLQWLPHDQGHOOLSWLFLQVSDFH$QLQLWLDOFRQGLWLRQ
and two boundary conditions in each spatial coordinate are required to solve this equation.
10.4.3 Hyperbolic Governing Equations for Convection Heat Transfer Problems

Hyperbolic equationsDUHWKHJRYHUQLQJHTXDWLRQVIRUFRQYHFWLRQGRPLQDWHGÀRZVDQGWKH\PD\EH
solved by marching in time or along certain characteristic directions. If more than two independent
variables are to be considered, the governing equations retain the characteristics of the three types
of equations mentioned above, as determined by the highest derivatives in each of the independent
variables.
)OXLGÀRZSUREOHPVXVXDOO\KDYHDQRQOLQHDU term due to the inertia or acceleration component
in the momentum equation. In addition, the energy equation has a corresponding term called the
FRQYHFWLRQWHUPZKLFKLQYROYHVWKHÀRZ¿HOG)RUWUDQVLHQWWZRGLPHQVLRQDOÀXLGÀRZFRQYHFWLRQ
heat transfer problems, the governing equations are of the form
∂G ∂G ∂G ⎛ ∂ 2G ∂ 2G ⎞
+ +v = A ⎜⎜⎜ 2 + 2 ⎟⎟⎟ + G (10.6)
∂t ∂x ∂y ⎝ ∂x ∂y ⎟⎠
where G denotes momentum or temperature, u and v are the velocity components, and A is the
diffusivity for momentum or heat, and G is the pressure gradients in the momentum equation or
to volumetric heating in the energy equation. Equation (10.6) is parabolic in time and elliptic in
VSDFH+RZHYHUIRUKLJKVSHHGÀRZVWKHWHUPVRQWKHOHIWVLGHGRPLQDWHDQGWKHHTXDWLRQEHFRPHV
hyperbolic in time and space.
The term G in Equation (10.6) will introduce an integral for solid angles of radiation heat transfer
problems. An integral differential equation will result due to this term. Integral equations are also
used in radiation heat transfer problems with emitting and absorbing surfaces. The integral equations
may be converted numerically to algebraic equations. The integral equations are many times replaced
by average values of algebraic equations for the radiation heat transfer between surfaces. Radiation
problems are nonlinear when coupled with convection or conduction processes.
10.4.4 Integral Forms

The differential equations either apply locally or at every point of an appropriate time–space
continuum. Many times global forms of the equations are required and they may be obtained by
integrating the differential equations over a suitable region of time and space. The resulting integral
equations may differ in appearance from the generalized partial differential equation but the solutions
retain the characteristic nature of the governing partial differential equation. For the momentum and
energy equations, the differential and integral forms represent local and global balances of momentum
and heat, respectively, and provide alternative starting points for a numerical solution.
7KHLQWHJUDOIRUPVUHTXLUHVSHFL¿FDWLRQRIDUHJLRQRILQWHJUDWLRQDQGDWZRGLPHQVLRQDOUHJLRQLV
shown in Fig. 10.1. The two-dimensional Poisson equation (10.3) can be integrated over this region as
Region S
Bounding curve C
Figure10.1 A Planar Region, S, with a Boundary Curve C
⎛ ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎞⎟
∫ ⎜⎜⎜⎝ ∂x
S 2
+ ⎟ d S +G d S = 0
∂y 2 ⎟⎟⎠
(10.7)
where dS = dxdy. This equation shows that the integral of the Poisson equation is zero. Various
moments of the Poisson equation are also zero and may be formed by adding appropriate weighting
functionsLQVLGHWKHLQWHJUDODQGXVHGWRFUHDWH¿QLWHHOHPHQWPHWKRGV
10.5 NUMERICAL METHODS

Numerical models are based on mathematical solutions that need computer to obtain the behavior
of a system for various operating conditions and design parameters. Both analytical and numerical
techniques are used for simple and complicated models, respectively. Numerical techniques are used
for restructuring and discretization of governing algebraic equations, ordinary or partial differential
equations, integral equations or a combination of these equations suitable to the process, or system
under consideration.
6ROXWLRQWRWKHQXPHULFDOPRGHOVLQYROYHVHOHFWLRQRID¿QLWHHOHPHQWRU¿QLWHGLIIHUHQFHPHWKRG,
discretizing mathematical equations suitable for computation, choosing factors such as grid size and
time step and developing a code to obtain the results. Numerical models also need material properties
DQGKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVWRREWDLQWKHVROXWLRQ
For a thermal system, mathematical modeling is most preferred with analytical solution for best
DFFXUDF\DQGLILWLVGLI¿FXOWWRJHWWKHQDQXPHULFDOVROXWLRQLVXVHG,IQXPHULFDOVROXWLRQLVDOVRQRW
SRVVLEOHWKHQDSK\VLFDOPRGHOFDQEHXVHGZLWKFRUUHODWLRQVGHULYHGIURPFXUYH¿WWLQJWKHGDWD
10.5.1 Numerical Solutions – Finite Difference Methods

7KH FRQFHSWV RI ¿QLWH GLIIHUHQFH PHWKRGV DQG FRQVWUXFWLQJ WKH ¿QLWH GLIIHUHQFH DSSUR[LPDWLRQV
QDPHO\ GLUHFW DSSUR[LPDWLRQ 7D\ORU VHULHV and control volume approaches, are discussed in this
section. Several numerical concepts that are directly relevant to a numerical solution such as the
truncation, discretization, and round-off errors in a solution, consistency, convergence, and stability
properties of a solution method are also discussed.
10.5.1.1 Direct approximation method

,QWKLVPHWKRGSDUWLDOGHULYDWLYHVDUHGLUHFWO\UHSODFHGE\UDWLRVRIGLVFUHWHGLIIHUHQFHV7KHPHWKRG
LVEDVHGRQFDOFXODWLRQRI¿QLWHGLVFUHWHGLIIHUHQFHVLQVWHDGRILQ¿QLWHVLPDOGLIIHUHQFHV&RQVLGHUWKH
two-dimensional region sketched in Fig. 10.2.
The region is covered by grid lines with at uniform intervals %x and %y DQG LQGH[HG LQ WZR
dimensions by integers i and j7KHLQWHUDFWLRQVRIWKHJULGOLQHVGH¿QHDVHWRIQRGHSRLQWVDWZKLFK
the dependent variable G(x, yLVGH¿QHG/HWGi,j = G(xi, yj), where xi and yj indicate the (x, y) values at
node point (i, j,QWKHFDVHRIWKUHHGLPHQVLRQDOWLPHGHSHQGHQWSUREOHPV, the dependent variable
G(x, y, z, t) is denoted by Gi(,tj),k = G(xi, yi, zk, tl). The indices i, j, k denote the spatial locations x, y, and z
DQGWKHLQGH[lGHQRWHVWKHWLPHOHYHO7KHWLPHIDFWRULVLQGH[HGVRWKDWtl + 1 = tl + %t, where %t is the
time step.
,WLVSRVVLEOHWRDSSUR[LPDWHGHULYDWLYHVRIG with respect to x in terms of discrete differences
and sG/sx at (i, jFDQEHDSSUR[LPDWHGE\%G/%x, where %’s denote discrete differences. Three
Figure 10.2 Two-Dimensional Region

approximations for (sG/sx)i, j can be written in terms of differences of values at nodes i–l, i, and
i + l:
⎛ ∂G ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ = Gi +1 − Gi (10.8)
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ Δx
i, j
⎛ ∂G ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ = Gi − Gi−1 (10.9)
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ Δx
i, j
⎛ ∂G ⎞⎟ Gi +1 − Gi−1
⎜⎜ ⎟ = . (10.10)
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ 2Δx
Equations (10.8)–(10.10) are the two-point forward, two-point backward, and three-point central
difference approximations, respectively.
The second derivative s2G/sx2 at (i, j) can be approximated by
⎛ ∂ 2G ⎞⎟ ∂ ⎛ ∂G ⎞ Δ ⎛ ΔG ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ⎟⎟⎠ ∂x ⎜⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ Δx ⎜⎜⎝ Δx ⎟⎠
(10.11)
Gi +1 − 2Gi + Gi−1
=
(Δx)
2
which is the three-point, central, second difference approximation. The direct approximation
approach is to substitute approximations of the forms of Equations (10.8)–(10.11) into the appropriate
governing partial differential equations. The substitutions, however, introduce approximate equality
signs in the resulting difference equations and it is necessary to use a Taylor series approach to remove
the approximation.
10.5.1.2 Taylor series approach

The Taylor series expansion is used when the function to be expanded is reasonably smooth. The G
values at (i + 1, j) and (i–1, j) may be expressed in terms of Taylor series expansions about (i, j) in
Fig. 10.3 as
⎛ ∂φ ⎞ (Δx) 2 ⎛⎜ ∂ 2φ ⎞⎟ (Δx)3 ⎛⎜ ∂ 3φ ⎞⎟
φi ±1, j = φi , j ± Δx ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ + ⎜ ⎟⎟ ± ⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎠i , j 2 ! ⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠i , j
2
2 ! ⎜⎝ ∂x 3 ⎟⎟⎠i , j
(10.12)
(Δx) 4 ⎛⎜ ∂ 4φ ⎞⎟ m ⎛ m ⎞
m (Δx ) ⎜ ∂ φ ⎟
+ ⎜⎜ 4 ⎟⎟ ± " + (−1) ⎜ ⎟ .
3! ⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠i , j m ! ⎜⎝ ∂x m ⎟⎟⎠i +ς , j
7KHODVWWHUPLVWKHUHPDLQGHUWKDWJLYHVWKHHUURULQWURGXFHGE\WUXQFDWLQJWKHVHULHVDIWHUD¿QLWH
number of terms and the derivative of the remainder is evaluated at some point in the interval between
i and i + 1, or i and i±,Q¿QLWHGLIIHUHQFHDSSOLFDWLRQVLWLVJHQHUDOO\XVHIXOWRUHWDLQWKHUHPDLQGHU
LQIXOOGHULYDWLYHIRUP7KHDSSUR[LPDWLRQVIRUWKH¿UVWDQGVHFRQGGHULYDWLYHVDWi, j) are
⎛ ∂φ ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟ = φi +1 − φi − Δx ⎜⎜ ∂ φ ⎟⎟ (10.13)
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠
i, j Δx 2 ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ⎟⎟⎠i +ξ
⎛ ∂φ ⎞⎟ ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟ = φi − φi −1 − Δx ⎜⎜ ∂ φ ⎟⎟ (10.14)
⎟
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎠
i, j Δx 2 ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ⎟⎟⎠i +ξ
2 ⎛ 3 ⎞
⎛ ∂φ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ = φi +1 − φi−1 − (Δx) ⎜⎜ ∂ φ ⎟⎟ (10.15)
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠
i, j 2Δx 6 ⎜⎝ ∂x 3 ⎟⎟⎠i +ξ
⎛ ∂ 2φ ⎞⎟ φi +1 − 2φi − φi−1 (Δx) 2 ⎛⎜ ∂ 4φ ⎞⎟

⎜⎜ ⎟ = − ⎜ ⎟ . (10.16)
⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ⎟⎟⎠ ( Δx)
2
12 ⎝⎜ ∂x 4 ⎟⎟⎠
i, j i +ξ
7KH VHFRQG WHUP LQ (TXDWLRQV ± KDV D ¿QLWH GLIIHUHQFH approximation for the
derivative including the plus a truncation error.
In Equations (10.13)–(10.16), the truncation errors approach zero because either the mesh is
UH¿QHG%x lRUWKHFRHI¿FLHQWGHULYDWLYHVYDQLVKDQGWKHFRHI¿FLHQWGHULYDWLYHVLQWKHHUURU
terms are also of higher order than the exponents of %x. Equations (10.13)–(10.16) provide four
SRVVLEOHDSSUR[LPDWLRQVIRUWKH¿UVWDQGVHFRQGGHULYDWLYHVDWWKHJULGSRLQWi, j). If three grid points
are in a row, then they represent all the derivative approximations that are possible at the center
point. Higher-order approximations require additional grid points and for (sG/sx)i,j they may be
written as
⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1 (−2φi−1 − 3φi + 6φi +1 − φi + 2 ) + ( )

⎛ ∂φ ⎞⎟ Δx
3
⎛ ∂ 2φ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ (10.17)
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ 6Δx 12 ⎜⎝ ∂x 2 ⎟⎟⎠
i, j i +ξ
⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1 (φi−2 − 6φi−1 + 3φi − 2φi +1 ) + ( )

⎛ ∂φ ⎞⎟ Δx
3
⎛ ∂ 4φ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ (10.18)
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ 6Δx 12 ⎜⎝ ∂x 4 ⎟⎟⎠
i, j i +ξ
⎜⎜ ⎟ = 1 (φi−2 − 8φi−1 + 8φi +1 − φi + 2 ) + ( )

⎛ ∂φ ⎞⎟ Δx
4
⎛ ∂ 5φ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ (10.19)
⎜⎝ ∂x ⎟⎠ 12Δx 30 ⎜⎝ ∂x 5 ⎟⎟⎠
i, j i +ξ
where the subscript jLVVXSSUHVVHG7KH¿UVWWZRHTXDWLRQVDUHFRUUHFWWRWKLUGRUGHUIRUZDUGDQG

backward, four-point differences, and these equations become fourth-order correct if used to evaluate
sG/sx at i + (1/2) or i±(TXDWLRQLVFRUUHFWWRIRXUWKRUGHUDQGLVD¿YHSRLQWFHQWUDO
difference approximation for (sG/sx)i,j.
10.5.1.3 Control volume approach and conservation

7KHFRQWUROYROXPHRU¿QLWHYROXPH approach is based on the conservation of mass, momentum, or
thermal energy. This approach use numerical balances of a conserved variable over small control
volumes and always starts from an integral conservation statement, which applies locally and
globally. It will also satisfy the governing differential equation in an average sense over the control
volume and if properly formulated, the numerical solution will also satisfy the conservation principle
globally.
7KH¿UVWVWHSLQWKHFRQWUROYROXPHDSSURDFKLVWRVWDWHWKHJRYHUQLQJFRQVHUYDWLRQSULQFLSOHLQ
integral form and to specify the region of application. Then divide the physical region as shown in
Fig. 10.3 into a set of nonoverlapping control volumes of size %x by %y.
For the control volumes, the integral conservation statement gives the following equations:
y
ij +1
i –1j ij i +1j
ij –1
x
Figure 10.3 The Control Volume Approach
1 ∂ ∂φ ∂φ
α ∂τ ∫ΔxΔy
φ dxdy = −∫ dy − ∫ dx
i −(1 / 2 ) ∂x j −(1 / 2 ) ∂y
(10.20)
∂φ ∂φ Q
+∫ dy + ∫ dx + ∫ dx dy.
i + (1 / 2 ) ∂x j + (1 / 2 ) ∂y ΔxΔy K
If the depth in the z direction is assumed as unity, then the integrals are evaluated over the
volume %x %y(1). The factors i ± (1/2) and j ± (1/2) in Equation (10.20) indicate the locations of
the faces.
10.6 MONTE CARLO METHOD

7KH0RQWH&DUORPHWKRG is a statistical numerical technique that provide a systematic approach to
complex thermal radiation problem, involving directional and spectral surface property variations.
Radiant energy is assumed to be carried as discrete energy packets and the probability technique
LV DSSOLHG WR WKHVH SDFNHWV WR ¿QG WKHLU ZDYHOHQJWK GLUHFWLRQ DQG WKHLU DEVRUSWLRQ UHÀHFWLRQ DQG
scattering magnitudes.
&RQVLGHUDQHQFORVXUHZLWKDQRQSDUWLFLSDWLQJPHGLXPLQVLGHDQGZKRVHHPLVVLYLW\DEVRUSWLYLW\
DQGUHÀHFWLYLW\DUHIXQFWLRQVRIZDYHOHQJWKDQGGLUHFWLRQ7KHUDGLDWLYHÀX[ emitted by a surface i in
the enclosure is
Ai Qi = εi (σTi 4 Ai ) (10.21)
where Fi is the total emissivity, Ti is the temperature, and Ai is the area of the surface. So the radiative
ÀX[HPLWWHGE\DOOWKHVXUIDFHVLVTi Qi Ai with the total number of energy packets at M. The energy
associated with each packet is
e=
∑ i
Ai Qi
=
∑ TM TT
i i i
4
Ai
. (10.22)
M M
Table 10.1 Boundary treatment and the corresponding equations
1. Isothermal
2 hl
surface l/2 T1 − T0 + (TB − T0 ) = 0
l 0
k
0
1
4 l
lsothermal
surface
2. Insulated
2 1
surface l/2 (T2 − T4 ) + (T1 − 2T0 ) = 0
l 0
2
0
1
4
Insulated
surface
3. Surface with
2 1 hl
convection l/2 (T2 + T4 ) + (T1 − 2T0 ) + (TB − T0 ) = 0
l 0
2 k
0
1
4
Surface contact with
fluid at temperature Tα
4. Corner node 0 Fluid contact at 1 hl

in contact temperature Tα (T1 + T4 ) − T0 + (TB − T0 ) = 0
with fluid 2 k
0
l/2 0
l
l/2
5. Interior node l
1 hl
in contact T1 + T2 − (T3 + T4 ) − 3T0 + (TB + T0 ) = 0
with fluid 2 2 k
3
l
1 Q
Fluid contact at
4 temperature Tα
Each packet has the same energy content and number of packets for a surface depends on its
temperature, area, and Fi. It is required to determine the probability of the energy particle being
HPLWWHGLQDVSHFL¿FGLUHFWLRQDQGDWDZDYHOHQJWKM. The direction of emission is characterized by the
cone angle R and the polar angle G for a spherical coordinate system with the center as the location of
emission. The probability function is then to be determined and normalized. For a diffusely emitting
surface, the probability that the particle leaves within an angle dG is dG/2Q. Hence, the cumulative
probability that it leaves within the angle G is G/2Q. Similarly, the cumulative probability functions
for R and M are to be determined. The probability distribution for R is sin2R. The direction (R, G) of
the emitted particle is determined by taking a pair of random numbers from a uniformly distributed
set that subdivides the range from zero to unity. Different methods to get these random numbers are
available on computers. These numbers used to assign the probability for the direction of emission.
The values of R and G are determined from the probability distributions. Similarly, a third random
number determines the wavelength M from the corresponding probability distribution. From the
geometry of the enclosure, the point where the particle strikes after emission is determined.
7R NQRZ ZKHWKHU WKH SDUWLFOH LV DEVRUEHG RU UHÀHFWHG E\ WKH VXUIDFH RQ ZKLFK LW LPSLQJHV
probability method is again used. A random number R is assigned in the range zero to unity. If R
is smaller than the absorptivity BM, then the particle is assumed to be absorbed. Otherwise, it is
FRQVLGHUHGWREHUHÀHFWHG7KHDEVRUSWLYLW\GHSHQGVRQWKHDQJOHRILPSLQJHPHQW and the wavelength.
If the particle is absorbed, then the energy transferred to the surface is found and the next energy
packet at the emitting surface i is considered. If R is greater than BMWKHSDFNHWLVUHÀHFWHGDQGRQFH
DJDLQWKHSUREDELOLW\IXQFWLRQVIRUWKHELGLUHFWLRQDOUHÀHFWLYLW\DUHLQYROYHGLQWKHGHWHUPLQDWLRQRI
the direction. The path of each energy packet is followed until absorption occurs. A large number (Mi)
of packets satisfactorily represent the radiation emitted at the surface i. The procedure is repeated to
other surfaces of the enclosure. Then the number of packets (M') absorbed by a surface is obtained.
The net heat lost by the surface i is
Ei = qi Ai = Qi Ai − M ′ = e( M i − M ′). (10.23)
7KH0RQWH&DUORPHWKRGLVVXLWHGIRUYHU\FRPSOH[DQGVSHFLDOL]HGSUREOHPVDQGYDULRXVVSHFLDO
surfaces and participating media can be treated by it. It can also be used to conduction and convection
heat transfer problems. Digital computer with a high-computational speed and a large storage capacity
is needed to use this method.
10.6.1 Numerical Solution Concepts

The methodology should have certain properties. In most applications, it is not possible to analyze
the complete solution method. Instead a component of method is analyzed and it should have certain
properties.
10.6.1.1 Consistency
The discretization error depends on the grid spacing. The discretization should become exact if the
grid spacing tends to zero. The difference between the discretized equation and the exact one is called
the truncation error. For the method to be consistent, the truncation error must become zero.
Some dicretization methods lead to truncation errors, which are functions of the mesh spacing. In
VXFKFDVHVWKHFRQVLVWHQF\UHTXLUHPHQWLVRQO\FRQGLWLRQDOO\IXO¿OOHG(YHQLIWKHDSSUR[LPDWLRQV
are consistent, it does not necessarily mean that the solution of the discretized equation system will
become the exact solution of the differential equation in the limit of small step size. To satisfy this
condition, the solution method has to be stable.
10.6.1.2 Stability
The stable solution should not magnify the error that appears in the course of numerical solution
SURFHVV,WLVGLI¿FXOWWRHVWLPDWHWKHVWDELOLW\FRQGLWLRQVSHFL¿FDOO\ZKHQERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDQG
nonlinearities are present. Due to this reason, the investigation of stability is done for linear problems
ZLWKFRQVWDQWFRHI¿FLHQWVZLWKRXWERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV7KHFRPPRQO\XVHGDSSURDFKIRUVWXG\LQJ
the stability is the Von-Neumann’s method. Many solution schemes require that the time step be
smaller than a certain limit or that under relaxation be used.
10.6.1.3 Convergence
The convergence RI WKH QXPHULFDO VROXWLRQ LV GH¿QHG DV WKH VROXWLRQ RI WKH GLVFUHWL]HG HTXDWLRQV
that tends to the exact solution of the differential equation as the grid spacing tends to zero. A
FRQVLVWHQWVFKHPHLVXVHOHVVXQOHVVWKHVROXWLRQPHWKRGFRQYHUJHV&RQYHUJHQFHLVXVXDOO\FKHFNHG
XVLQJQXPHULFDOH[SHULPHQWE\UHSHDWLQJWKHFDOFXODWLRQRQDVHULHVRIVXFFHVVLYHO\UH¿QHGJULGV.
7KHVROXWLRQLVVDLGWREHJULGLQGHSHQGHQWZKHQWKHUH¿QHPHQWLQWKHJULGVL]HGRHVQRWDIIHFWWKH
solution.
10.7 CONCLUSIONS
Modeling a physical system and analyzing the results of the processes with suitable correlations are
known as simulation and it is equivalent to actual experiments on the system. Simulation of any
physical process can provide relevant inputs for the design and optimization of a process or system.
Once a model of a system is created, it can be subjected to a large number of operating conditions and
the outputs will characterize the behavior of the system.
Models can be physically made to show the internal assembly of components and also to explain
the working principles of systems such as heat engines, pumps, and other machine tools. Using the
governing equations, which represent the processes in a predictive model, the variation of parameters
such as temperature, pressure, and velocity with respect to time can be obtained.
Mathematical models represent the behavior and performance of a system with mathematical
equations. Thermal systems can be designed with the help of the results of the mathematical models
ZLWKRXWDFWXDOO\IDEULFDWLQJDSURWRW\SH+HDWWUDQVIHUDQGÀXLGÀRZSURFHVVHVDUHJRYHUQHGE\WKH
laws of conservation of mass, momentum, and energy with differential and integral equations.
A two-dimensional second-order governing equation is more preferred for the heat transfer
problems. The conduction heat transfer problem with steady-state two-dimensional case is governed
E\WKH/DSODFHRU3RLVVRQHTXDWLRQVZKLFKDUHHOOLSWLFDQGQHHGVVSHFL¿FDWLRQRIERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV
at all the boundaries. The transient one-dimensional heat transfer problem is governed by a parabolic
equation and that is solved numerically by marching in time, starting with an initial condition.
+\SHUEROLFHTXDWLRQVDUHWKHJRYHUQLQJHTXDWLRQVIRUFRQYHFWLRQGRPLQDWHGÀRZVDQGWKH\PD\EH
solved by marching in time or along certain characteristic directions.
Numerical techniques are used for restructuring and descretization of governing algebraic
equations, ordinary or partial differential equations, integral equations, or a combination of these
equations suitable to the process or system under consideration.
7KH0RQWH&DUORPHWKRGLVDVWDWLVWLFDOQXPHULFDOWHFKQLTXHWKDWSURYLGHDV\VWHPDWLFDSSURDFK
to complex thermal radiation problem, involving directional and spectral surface property variations.
7KHFRQYHUJHQFHRIWKHQXPHULFDOVROXWLRQLVGH¿QHGDVWKHVROXWLRQRIWKHGLVFUHWL]HGHTXDWLRQV
that tends to the exact solution of the differential equation as the grid spacing tends to zero.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
10.1. A long bar of square cross-section at 50°C is exposed to air at 25°C or water, at a different tempera-
WXUH7R¿QGWKHWLPHGHSHQGHQWWHPSHUDWXUHVDWYDULRXVSRLQWVLQWKHLQWHULRUFRQGXFWLRQUHJLRQRIWKH
EDU DQDO\WLFDOO\ VWDWH WKH WZRGLPHQVLRQDO JRYHUQLQJ HTXDWLRQ DQG ERXQGDU\ FRQGLWLRQV DVVXPLQJ
material properties to be constant.
The governing equation is
∂ 2T ∂ 2T 1 ∂T
+ =
∂x 2 ∂y 2 B ∂t
where T is the temperature at any point in the material, Į is the thermal diffusivity and t is the time.
,IFRQYHFWLYHKHDWWUDQVIHUZLWKDXQLIRUPKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWK is assumed at the surfaces, the

initial and boundary conditions for this equation are:
At t = 0 : T = T f
∂T
At t > 0 : −K = h(T − T f ) at the surfaces
∂n
where K is the thermal conductivity of the material, n is the normal at the surface taken to be positive
outward, TfLVWKHÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHDQGTt is the uniform initial temperature in the body.
10.2. 'LVFXVVWKHJHQHUDOQXPHULFDODSSURDFKHVWRVROYHWKHJRYHUQLQJHTXDWLRQRI3UREOHP
(i) Finite difference method
7KHJRYHUQLQJHTXDWLRQZLOOJLYHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHVDWD¿QLWHQXPEHURISRLQWVLQWKHFRQGXFWLRQUHJLRQ
of the square rod. The spatial derivatives at a point are replaced by expressions written in terms of the
temperatures at the neighbouring locations and the distances between them. This way, algebraic equa-
tions are obtained for each location. These simultaneous equations are solved to get the temperatures at
GLIIHUHQWSRLQWV(YHU\JULGSRLQWUHSUHVHQWD¿QLWHUHJLRQLQLWVQHLJKERXUKRRG3RLQWVRQWKHVXUIDFHV
are considered with the boundary conditions and special equations are obtained and solved numeri-
cally to obtain the time-dependent temperature distribution, starting with the given initial temperature
distribution.
(ii) Finite element method

,QWKH¿QLWHHOHPHQWPHWKRGWKHFRQGXFWLRQUHJLRQRIWKHURGLVGLYLGHGLQWRDQXPEHURI¿QLWHHOHP-
ents of different shapes. The triangular building blocks for two-dimensional problems and the tetra-
hedral blocks for three-dimensional ones can be used and for these elements, the variation within the
elements is considered linear. Integral equations are obtained for each element and minimization of the
integrals is to be carried out to satisfy the conservation principles for obtaining the distribution of the
variables in the region.
10.3. 'LVFXVVWKHPHWKRGRI¿QGLQJWKHERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQLQWHUPVRIKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIURPEDVLF
concepts.
7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWK is obtained from the available correlations from a solution of the coupled
ÀXLGÀRZSUREOHPZKLFKLVJRYHUQHGE\WKHEDVLFSULQFLSOHVRIFRQVHUYDWLRQRIPDVVPRPHQWXPDQG
HQHUJ\7KHVROXWLRQRIWKHHQHUJ\HTXDWLRQOLQNHGZLWKWKHÀRZ¿HOG\LHOGVWKHWHPSHUDWXUH¿HOGLQWKH
ÀXLG7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUDWWKHVXUIDFHVLVJLYHQE\
⎛ ∂T ⎞
q = −K ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ ∂n ⎠
0
where q is the heat lost by the material at the surface, (∂t/∂n)0 LVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQWLQWKHÀXLG
HYDOXDWHGDWWKHVXUIDFHDQG.LVWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIWKHÀXLG7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWK is
evaluated from
q = h(Ts T f )
where TsLVWKHVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUH+HDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVDIXQFWLRQRIWHPSHUDWXUHDQGORFDWLRQ
RQWKHVXUIDFH7KHFRQYHFWLRQSUREOHPLVWREHVROYHG¿UVWWRGHWHUPLQHK, which is then used as a
boundary condition for the conduction problem. Numerical methods are generally used to obtain the
solution for the convection problem.
In addition to the conduction and convection heat transfer processes, actual problems involve radi-
ation heat transfer also. If radiation is included in the heat transfer process, the boundary condition is
written as
∂T
−K = h(Ts − T f ) + εσ (TS4 − T f4 )
∂n
where İis the surface emissivity of the body, İ is the Stefan–Boltzman constant, Ts is the surface tem-
perature and TfLVWKHÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUH1XPHULFDOPHWKRGVDUHQHHGHGWRVROYHQRQOLQHDUSUREOHPV
such as that given above.
10.4. &RQVLGHUWKHWZRGLPHQVLRQDOVWHDG\KHDWÀRZSUREOHPRIDUHFWDQJXODUVKHHWSHUIHFWO\LQVXODWHGRQ
ERWKLWVVXUIDFHVZLWKVL]HPqPDQG'LULFKOHWERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQV&&&DQG&RQ
LWVIRXUHGJHV7KHVKHHWLVGLVFUHWL]HGE\WKHVL]H[ \ P)LQGWKHVWHDG\VWDWHWHPSHUDWXUHVDW
WKHWKUHHLQWHULRUJULGSRLQWVDQGDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHEHORZ
The governing equation for problem is 100°C
j=4
∂T ∂T
2 2 j=3
(2,3)
+ =0 (1,3)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 0°C j = 2
(1,2) (2,2) 0°C
j=1 (2,1)
The governing equation is discretized as j=0 (1,1)
i=0 i=1 i=2
(Ti +1, j − 2Tij + Ti−1, j ) (Ti , j +1 − 2Tij + Ti , j−1 ) 0°C
+ =0
2Δx 2Δy
Ti +1, j + Ti −1, j + Ti , j +1 + Ti , j −1 − 4Tij = 0
Applying the equation to the unknown points,
For P11 : 0 + 0 + 0 + T12 − 4T11 = 0

For P12 : T13 + 0 + T11 + 0 − 4T12 = 0
For P13 : 100 + 0 + T12 + 0 − 4T13 = 0
−4 1 0 ⎪⎧⎪T11 ⎪⎫⎪ ⎪⎧⎪ 0 ⎪⎫⎪

⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪ ⎪
1 −4 1 ⎨T12 ⎬ = ⎪⎨ 0 ⎪⎬
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪
Solving the matrix, 0 1 −4 ⎪⎩⎪T13 ⎪⎭⎪ ⎪⎪⎩−100⎪⎪⎪⎭
1
R 2 → R 2 + R1
4
4
R3 → R 3 + R 2
15
−4 1 0 0
15
0 − 1 0
4
56
0 0 − −100
15
By back-substitution,
−56
T13 = −100 : T13 = 26.78°C
15
−15
T12 + T13 = 0 : T12 = 7.14°C
4
−4 T11 + T12 = 0 : T11 = 1.78°C
Therefore, T11 = 1.78°C, T12 = 7.14°C, T13 = 26.78°C
10.5. &RQVLGHUDVODERIWKLFNQHVVPZLWKDWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\ K = 30 W/mK LQZKLFKHQHUJ\LV

generated at a constant rate of 106 W/m3 . 7KHERXQGDU\VXUIDFHDWx LVLQVXODWHGDQGWKHRQHDW
[ PLVH[SRVHGWRWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRI&DVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHJLYHQEHORZ)LQGWKHWHP-
SHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQLQVLGHWKHVODEDVVXPLQJRQHGLPHQVLRQDOKHDWYDULDWLRQZLWKHTXDOVSDFLQJ
L 0.12 q = 106 W/m3
%x = = = 0.030 m
n 4
Insulated T = 150°C
For the internal nodes, T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
K ∂ 2T
+q = 0 x=0 x = 0.12 m
∂x 2
2 6
[(0.030) *10 ]
Ti +1 − 2Ti + Ti −1 + =0
30
Ti +1 − 2Ti + Ti −1 + 300 = 0
For Node 2 : T3 − 2T2 + T1 + 30 = 0
For Node 3 : T4 − 2T3 + T2 + 30 = 0
For Node 4 : T5 − 2T4 + T3 + 30 = 0
For Node 5 : T5 = 150
For the insulated boundary,
For Node 1: 2T2 − 2T1 + 30 = 0
−2 2 0 0 ⎪⎧⎪T1 ⎪⎫⎪ −30

⎪ ⎪
1 −2 1 0 ⎪⎪T2 ⎪⎪ −30
⎨ ⎬=
0 1 −2 1 ⎪⎪T3 ⎪⎪ −30
⎪ ⎪
0 0 1 −2 ⎪⎪⎩⎪T4 ⎪⎪⎪⎭ −180
Solving the matrix,
1
R 2 → R 2 + R1
2
R3 → R3 + R 2
R 4 → R 4 + R3
−2 2 0 0 −30
0 −1 1 0 −45
0 0 −1 1 75
0 0 0 −1 −255
: T4 = 255°C
− T3 + T4 = −75 : T3 = 330
− T2 + T3 = −45 : T2 = 375
−2T1 + 2T2 = −30 : T1 = 390
Therefore, T1 = 390°C, T2 = 375°C, T3 = 330°C, T4 = 255°C .
10.6. &RQVLGHUDVTXDUHSODWHDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHJLYHQEHORZ:LWKWKHOHIWDQGULJKWIDFHVPDLQWDLQHGDW
&DQGWRSDQGERWWRPIDFHVPDLQWDLQHGDW&7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIWKHSODWHLV 10 W/m K.
)LQGWKHVWHDG\VWDWHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQDWWKHLQWHULRUQRGHV
⎢ ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎥
K⎢ 2 + 2⎥=0
⎢ ∂x ∂y ⎥⎦
⎣
The discretized equation is
(Ti +1, j − 2Tij + Ti−1, j ) (Ti , j +1 − 2Tij + Ti , j−1 )

+ =0
(Δx) 2 (Δy ) 2
%x = %y = Constant = 0.5
Ti +1, j + Ti −1, j + Ti , j +1 + Ti , j −1 − 4Tij =0
For Node 1:100 + T2 + T3 − 4T1 + 500 = 0

T2 + T3 − 4T1 = −600 500°C
For Node 2 :100 − 4T2 + T4 + T1 + 500 = 0

− 4T2 + T4 + T1 = −600 1 2
100°C 100°C 1.5m
For Node 3 :100 − 4T3 + T4 + T1 + 500 = 0

− 4T3 + T4 + T1 = −600 3 4
For Node 4 :100 + T2 + T3 − 4T4 + 500 = 0 500°C
1.5m
T2 + T3 − 4T4 = −600
−4 1 1 0 ⎪⎧⎪T1 ⎪⎫⎪ ⎪⎧⎪−600⎪⎫⎪

⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪
1 −4 0 1 ⎪T2 ⎪ ⎪−600⎪⎪
⎨ ⎬ ⎨ = ⎬
1 0 −4 1 ⎪⎪T3 ⎪⎪ ⎪⎪−600⎪⎪
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪⎪ ⎪
0 1 1 −4 ⎪⎪⎩T4 ⎪⎪⎭ ⎪⎩⎪−600⎪⎪⎭⎪
By solving the matrix
T1 = 301.67°C
T2 = 300.83°C
T3 = 305.85°C
T4 = 301.67°C
10.7. A block made up of cast iron (100 cm× 5 cm× 2 cm) DVVKRZQLQ¿JXUHLVWDNHQRXWIURPWKHPRXOGDQG
FRROHGLQDLU7KHFDVWLQJWDNHQRXWLVLQLWLDOO\DW&)LQGRXWWKHWLPHUHTXLUHGWREULQJWKHFDVWLQJ
to room temperature.
The properties of cast iron are
ρ = 7272 kg/m3 100 c m

50 c m 2 cm
K = 52 W/mK
C p = 420 kJ/kgK 1 2 3 4 5 6
α = 1.702 ×10−5
We can make the following assumptions to solve this problem:
Ɣ The system is not in a steady-state.

Ɣ 7KHKHDWÀRZLVRQHGLPHQVLRQDO6LQFHWKHRWKHUGLPHQVLRQVDUHVPDOOFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHOHQJWK
Ɣ The material properties remain constant.
Ɣ &RQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHULVRQO\DWWKHHGJHQRGHV
The governing equation for conduction is
∂T ⎛⎜ K ⎞⎟⎟ ∂ 2T
=⎜ ⎟
∂t ⎜⎜⎝ Sc ⎟⎠ ∂x 2
The discretized equation is
(Ti n +1 − Ti n ) ⎛⎜ K ⎞⎟⎟ ⎡⎢ Ti +n 1 − 2Ti n + Ti−n 1 ⎤⎥

= ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥
Δt ⎜⎝ Sc ⎟⎠ ⎣ (Δx) 2 ⎦
⎡ Kt ⎤ n
Ti n +1 = ⎢⎢ ⎥ [T − 2T n + T n ] + T n
2 ⎥ i +1 i −1
⎢⎣ Sc(Δx) ⎥⎦
i i
⎡ K Δt ⎤ n ⎧⎪ ⎫⎪
=⎢ ⎥ ⎡T + Ti−n 1 ⎤⎥ + ⎪⎨1 − (2k Δ2t ) ⎪⎬Ti n
⎢ S c( x) 2 ⎥ ⎣⎢ i +1 ⎦ ⎪ (S c(Δ) ) ⎪
⎣ ⎦ ⎪⎩ ⎪⎭
The governing equation for convection is
BΔt ⎡⎢⎛⎜ 2hΔx ⎞⎟ ⎪⎧ (Δx) 2 2hΔx ⎪⎫⎪ n

Ti n +1 = 2 ⎢⎜
⎟
⎟Ta + Ti −n 1 + ⎨⎪ − ⎬Ti
(Δx) ⎢⎣⎜⎝ K ⎠ ⎪⎪⎩ BΔt K − 2 ⎪⎪⎭
1 ⎡⎛⎜ hΔx ⎞⎟ ⎤ ⎡⎢ 2hΔx ⎤⎥
Ti n +1 = ⎢⎜ ⎟ + 1⎥
2 ⎢⎣⎜⎝ K ⎟⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ Ta + 2Ti−n 1 ⎥⎦
1 ⎡⎢⎛⎜ 80 × 20 ×10−3 ⎞⎟ ⎥⎤
Ti n +1 = ⎜ ⎟⎟ + 1
2 ⎢⎢⎣⎜⎝ 52 ⎟⎠ ⎥⎥
⎦
⎡⎛ 2 × 80 × 20 ×10−3 ⎞ ⎤
× ⎢⎢⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟× 301 + 2T n ⎥
⎟⎟ i −1 ⎥
⎢⎣⎝ 52 ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
Ti n +1 = ⎜⎜ ⎡185.23 + Ti−n 1 ⎤
⎜⎝ 2.615 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎣⎢ ⎦⎥
$FFRUGLQJWR&RXUHQW¶VFULWHULD
K Δt 1
assume = ⇒ Δt = 47 s
Sc(Δx) 2 2
Solving equations
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
T1n +1 = ⎜⎜ [185.23 + T0n ] = ⎜⎜ [185.23 + 200]
⎜⎝ 2.615 ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 2.615 ⎟⎟⎠
T1n +1 = 147.315 K
⎛1⎞
T2n +1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟[T3n + T1n ] = 200 K
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛1⎞
T3n +1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟[T4n + T2n ] = 200 K
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛1⎞
T4n +1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟[T5n + T3n ] = 200 K
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛1⎞
T5n +1 = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟[T6n + T4n ] = 200 K
⎜⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞⎟
T6n +1 = ⎜⎜ [185.23 + T5n ] = 147.3 K.
⎜⎝ 2.615 ⎟⎟⎠
10.8. $ODUJHLQGXVWULDOIXUQDFHDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHLVVXSSRUWHGRQDORQJFROXPQRI¿UHFOD\EULFNZKLFK
is 1 m× 1 m RQDVLGH'XULQJVWHDG\VWDWHRSHUDWLRQWKUHHVXUIDFHVRIWKHFROXPQDUHPDLQWDLQHGDW
.ZKLOHWKHERWWRPVXUIDFHLVLQVXODWHG8VLQJWKHJULGVL]H %x = %y = 0.25 m, GHWHUPLQHWKH
WZRGLPHQVLRQDOWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQLQWKHFROXPQ
∆x = 0.25
We make the following assumptions: 500 K
Ɣ It is a two-dimensional, steady-state problem. ∆y = 0.25 1 2 1
Ɣ The properties remain constant. 3 4 3

500 K 500 K
Ɣ There is no heat generation. 5 6 5
7 8 7
Ɣ The geometry and boundary equations are symmetric.
Insulated
∂ 2T ∂ 2T
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
(Ti +1, j − 2Tij + Ti−1, j ) (Ti , j +1 − 2Tij + Ti , j −1 )
+ =0
2Δx 2Δy
Ti +1, j + Ti −1, j + Ti , j +1 + Ti , j −1 − 4Tij = 0
For Node 1: T2 + 500 + T3 − 4T1 + 500 = 0

T2 + T3 − 4T1 + 1000 = 0
For Node 2 : T1 + T4 + T1 + 500 − 4T2 = 0
− 4T2 + T4 + 2T1 + 500 = 0
For Node 3 : T5 − 4T3 + T4 + T1 + 500 = 0
T1 − 4T3 + T4 + T5 + 500 = 0
For Node 4 : T3 + T6 + T2 + T3 − 4T4 = 0
T2 + 2T3 − 4T4 + T6 = 0
For Node 5 : T7 + 500 + T6 + T3 − 4T5 = 0
T3 − 4T5 + T6 + T7 + 500 = 0
For Noode 6 : T5 + T8 + T5 + T4 − 4T6 = 0
T4 + 2T5 − 4T6 + T8 = 0
For Node 7 : 2T5 − 4T7 + T8 + 500 = 0
− 4T7 + T8 + 2T5 + 500 = 0
For Node 8 : 2T6 + 2T7 − 4T8 = 0

T2 + T3 − 4T1 = −1000
T4 + 2T1 − 4T2 = −500
T1 + T5 − 4T3 + T4 = −500
T2 + 2T3 − 4T4 + T6 = 0
T3 + T6 − 4T5 + T7 = −500
T4 + 2T5 − 4T6 + T8 =0
2T5 − 4T7 + T8 =0
2T7 + 2T6 − 4T8 =0
−4 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎧⎪⎪T1 ⎫⎪⎪ −1000
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
−2 −4 0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎪T2 ⎪ −500
⎪ ⎪
1 0 −4 1 1 0 0 0 ⎪⎪⎪T3 ⎪⎪⎪ −500
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
0 1 2 −4 0 1 0 0 ⎪⎪T4 ⎪⎪ 0
⎨ ⎬ =
0 0 1 0 −4 1 1 0 ⎪⎪T5 ⎪⎪ −500
⎪ ⎪
0 0 0 1 2 −4 0 1 ⎪⎪⎪T6 ⎪⎪⎪ 0
⎪⎪ ⎪⎪
0 0 0 0 2 0 −4 1 ⎪T7 ⎪ −500
⎪ ⎪
0 0 0 0 0 2 2 −4 ⎪⎪⎩⎪T8 ⎪⎪⎪⎭ 0
By solving the matrix,
T1 = 355.99 K T5 = 438.44 K
T2 = 23.68 K T6 = 402.58 K
T3 = 400.28 K T7 = 450.91 K
T4 = 306.71 K T8 = 426.74 K
10.9. 8VLQJ$Q6<6SORWWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQLQWKHPDWHULDOSDFNHGLQEHWZHHQDWDFURVVVHFWLRQRI
DFRPSRVLWHF\OLQGULFDODUUDQJHPHQWDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUH7ZRVWDLQOHVVVWHHOF\OLQGHUVRIGLDPHWHUV
DQGPDUHSODFHGFRD[LDOO\ZLWKDVEHVWRVEHWZHHQWKHP7KHLQQHUVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHRI
WKHLQQHUF\OLQGHULV&DQGWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHRXWHUF\OLQGHULV&7KHUPDO
FRQGXFWLYLW\RIVWDLQOHVVVWHHODQGDVEHVWRVDUHDQG 0.02 W/m K, respectively.
Problem definition Temp -? - Asbestos (K= 0.02 W/mK)
Temp 100°C
at all points Temp 600°C at all points
stainless steel stainless steel (K = 0.19 W/mK)
Preprocessing: Define the problem:
The Element type is Plane 55, four noded quadrilateral, two-dimensional thermal element Preprocessor-
--Element type---Add/Edit/Delete---Add/Thermal mass/Solid Quad 4 node 55
Material is specified and thermal conductivity values also specified
Create 2D concentric circular area
For the accuracy of results, select size control in meshing, mesh tool option also select the Mapped 3
or 4-sided mesh density controls
Preprocessor---Meshing---Mesh tool
Solution Phase: Assign loads and solve:
Apply the boundary conditions
p Temperature 600°C is maintained at all points and material is considered as a Stainless Steel
(Inner surface).
p Temperature 100°C is maintained at all points and material is considered as a Stainless Steel
(Outer Surface).
p Solve the problem Solve---Current LS
Post Processor
p Plot the temperature distribution Solution---General
p post processor---Read Results---First set
p Plot Results---Contour plot---Nodal Solution
p List the temperatures at each of these nodes. Temperature distribution is shown in the figure given
below.
10.10. 'HWHUPLQHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLVWULEXWLRQRIDUHFWDQJXODUDOXPLQLXPURGRIPPOHQJWKDQGPP
ZLGWK7KHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLRQRIWKHPDWHULDOLV:P.DQGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHDWRQHVPDOOHUVLGH
LVC DQGWKHUHPDLQLQJWKUHHVLGHVDUHDW&)LQGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHLQWKHPLGSODQHRIWKHURG
6RIWZDUHXVHG$Q6<6
7KHSK\VLFDOPRGHODQGERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDUHVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHEHORZ
50°C
50°C 3 mm
100°C
50°C
75 mm
Preprocessing: Define the problem

p The Element type is Plane 55, four noded quadrilateral, 2-D thermal element Preprocessor---Ele-
ment type---Add/Edit/Delete---Add/Thermal mass/Solid/Quad 4 node 55
p Material is specified as a Aluminium with thermal conductivity of 200 W/mK
p Create 2D rectangular area
p For the accuracy of results select size control in meshing, mesh tool option also select the Mapped
3- or 4-sided mesh density controls Preprocessor---Meshing---Mesh tool Solution Phase:Assign
loads and solve
Solution Phase: Assign loads and solve:
p Apply the boundary conditions
p One end is fixed and temperature value is specified as 100°C Remaining 3 ends the heat flux
value is specified as 50°C
p Solve the problem Solve---Current LS
Post Processor
p Plot the temperature distribution. Solution---General post processor---Read Results---First set Plot
Results---Contour plot---Nodal Solution
p List the temperatures at each of these nodes. Temperature distribution is shown in the figure below.
10.11.:DWHUÀRZVWKURXJKDSLSHRIGLDPHWHUFPDQGOHQJWKP7KHHQWU\WHPSHUDWXUHDQGYHORFLW\RI
ZDWHUDUH&DQGFPVUHVSHFWLYHO\,IWKHLQQHUZDOOVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHLVPDLQWDLQHGDW&
¿QGWKHRXWOHWWHPSHUDWXUHRIZDWHU8VHDQ\&)'VRIWZDUH
7KHSK\VLFDOPRGHODQGERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDUHVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHJLYHQEHORZ
80°C
2 cm/s
T = ? 2.54 cm
60°C
3m
Methodology
Ɣ Using the coordinate point, 2D model is created in Gambit

Ɣ The Quad/Map mesh is created with the spacing of 0.025 Mesh—Face—Quad/Map—Select
spacing—Apply
Ɣ Total no of Nodes are 4207 and Elements are 7202
Ɣ 7KH,QOHWDQG2XWOHWERXQGDU\FRQGLWLRQVDUHGH¿QHG
Select—solver—Fluent 5/6
Zones—boundary type—Inlet/Outlet
Ɣ :DWHULVGH¿QHGDVÀXLGGRPDLQ
Ɣ The conditions are applied in Fluent solver
Ɣ 7KHUHVXOWVDUHYLVXDOL]HGXVLQJSRVWSURFHVVRUDVVKRZQLQWKH¿JXUHVEHORZ*ULG²'LVSOD\²
&RQWRXU
Result: Outlet temperature is 347 K
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
'HULYH DQ H[SUHVVLRQ LQ ¿QLWHGLIIHUHQFH IRUP 10.6 A metal slab with temperature Ti is suddenly
WR¿QGWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHFRUQHUJULGSRLQW immersed in a bath of coolant maintained at
of a two-dimensional solid under unsteady-state temperature Tf . The convective heat transfer
conditions. FRHI¿FLHQWLVK W/m2K. Formulate the boundary
&RQVLGHU WKH RQHGLPHQVLRQDO ¿Q ZLWK D EDVH conditions mathematically. (Ans. Initial
temperature TbVXUURXQGHGE\DÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUH conditions: 7 7i at t = 0 Boundary condition:
of TZLWKDKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWK. Divide dt
x = ± L, h(T − T f ) = −K )
WKH ¿Q LQWR IRXU VHJPHQWV DQG IRUPXODWH WKH dx
SUREOHPLQWHUPVRI¿QLWHGLIIHUHQFHVWRFDOFXODWH 10.7 Heat is generated within a hollow sphere. The
the temperatures at the four points under steady- inner surface is insulated and outer surface is
state conditions. H[SRVHGWRFRQYHFWLRQWRDÀXLGDWWHPSHUDWXUH
10.3 If the temperature distribution, in a cube as Tf 7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWµK’. Formulate
T = axyz + bx2 + cz and Kx = Ky = K, Kz = 2k the problem mathematically.
DVVXPLQJ QR KHDW LV JHQHUDWHG ¿QG 7W ⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ Ans. r = ro , K dT = h(T f − T )⎟⎟
⎛ ∂T K ⎛ ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ∂ 2T ⎞ K ⎞ ⎜⎝ dr ⎟⎠
⎜ Ans.
⎜
= ⎜ 2 + 2 + 2 ⎟= 2b ⎟
⎝ ∂t C p ⎝ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎠ C p ⎟⎠ 10.8 In steady-state one-dimensional heat conduction
through a medium, what are the two cases under
10.4 The internal heat generation within a plain slab is which the temperature distribution will not be
given by q = ceax where c and a are constants. linear?
The left side of the slab is exposed to convection (i) q ′′′ ≠ 0
ZLWKDÀXLGRIWHPSHUDWXUHT and heat transfer
(ii) When q aaa = 0 , but K is a function of x, T
FRHI¿FLHQWLVK. If the other side is insulated, how
(non-uniform thermal conductivity).
will you formulate the problem mathematically?
⎛ ⎞ 10.9 A metallic plate, 29.9 mm thick is maintained
⎜⎜ Ans. K = dT = h(T − T1 )⎟⎟
⎜⎝ dx ⎟⎠ at 670 K on one side and 370 K on the other.
Find the heat transfer through the plate? Assume
10.5 For steady-state heat conduction through a thermal conductivity K = 369.9 W/mK. Find
very long steel tube, formulate the boundary the temperature distribution in the plate by
conditions mathematically. (Ans. The boundary numerical and analytical methods and compare.
conditions are U Ui, 7 7i and U Uo7 7o) (Ans. 3.7 MW/m2)
10.10 A hot plate of length 0.749 m, width 0.499 m Hint: Fluid Grashof number with
and thickness 1.99 cm is placed in air stream at L =1m
292 K. A total of 300 W is lost from the plate hL
surface by radiation. Taking the convective Nu =
K
KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDV:P2K and ther-
PDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ DV :P. &DOFXODWH WKH Qconv = hAT
inside temperature of the plate. Qrad = AT 4 .
10.11 The thickness of a wall is 0.59 m and it is ini-
(Ans. 380°&
tially at an uniform temperature of 310 K. Its
10.15 A heat transfer analysis for temperature dis-
surface temperatures are suddenly raised to
tribution in a plane wall provides temperature
420 K and 620 K and kept constant at these
at several points at a particular time as given
values for 14 hr 50 min. Estimate the tempera-
below:
ture at a depth of 0.149 m from the surface
maintained at 420 K. The thermal diffusivity X (m): 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
of the material of the wall can be assumed to be T (°& 80 69 62 55 48 42 35 30 24
0.519 q10–6 m2/s (Ans. 400 K)
$ ¿Q LV PDGH RI EUDVV K = 110 W/m2K) of 8VHDVWDWLVWLFDOPHWKRGDQG¿WDVWUDLJKWOLQH
length 2 cm with a 0.15 cm q 35 cm cross- for this data.
VHFWLRQ 7KH EDVH WHPSHUDWXUH RI WKH ¿Q LV 10.16 A rectangular metal plate of length 90 cm
1008°& 7KH VXUURXQGLQJ ÀXLG WHPSHUDWXUH and height 10 cm is maintained under steady-
is 308°& DQG WKH KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW LV VWDWH FRQGLWLRQV ZLWK KHDW ÀRZLQJ IURP RQH
14 W/m2K. Find the temperature distribution end at 800°&WRWKHRWKHUHQGDW°&)LQG
DORQJ WKH ¿Q DQG WKH UDWH RI KHDW WUDQVIHU WR the temperature of the plate at 1/3 and 2/3
WKH VXUURXQGLQJ ÀXLG XVLQJ D ¿QLWH GLIIHUHQFH of its length using one-dimensional analysis.
method and prove the same with the conven- (Ans. 600°&°&
tional method. 10.17 A square plate of size 30 q 30 cm is divided
10.13 A wooden plate is initially at 308°&,WLVVXG- into nine equal segments. The left and top
denly exposed to air at 08°&7KHSODWHLVFP VLGHVRIWKHSODWHDUHPDLQWDLQHGDW&DQG
in thickness and the other dimensions are very the bottom and right sides are maintained at
ODUJH 7KH KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW RQ ERWK 100°& 8VLQJ WZRGLPHQVLRQDO VWHDG\VWDWH
sides of the plate are 15 W/m2K and the prop- DQDO\VLV ¿QG WKH WHPSHUDWXUHV DW WKH QRGDO
erties of the plate material are K = 0.11 W/mK, points.
ȡ = 418 kg/m3 and c = 2725 J/kgK. After two
500ºC
KRXUV RI KHDWLQJ ¿QG WKH WHPSHUDWXUHV RI WKH
surfaces and the midplane of the plate
(i) by dividing the thickness of the plate 500ºC 100ºC
LQWRWKUHH GLYLVLRQV DQGDSSO\LQJD¿QLWH Ans. 400ºC 300ºC
difference method, and
(ii) prove the result by the conventional ana-
lytical heat transfer method.
100ºC
10.14 A hot metal plate is used to heat air inside a
room. The room air temperature is at 26°&7KH 0RGHODFRPSRVLWHZDOORIDKRXVHDQG¿QGRXW
temperature of the metal plate is maintained the insulation thickness required to reduce the
at various temperatures between 80°& DQG heat loss by about three-fourth of that without
800°&(PLVVLYLW\RIWKHPHWDOVXUIDFHLV insulation. Assume the following factors to
and the plate does not receive heat from any solve the problem.
other source. Write a computer program and Wall thickness: the brick layer is 100 mm thick
plot the heat supplied by the plate to room air and the cement layer is 40 mm thick. Thermal
per square metre of area by convection and ra- conductivities of brick and cement layers are
diation heat transfer modes. At what tempera- 0.7 and 0.5 W/m°&UHVSHFWLYHO\DQGWKDWRIWKH
ture they are equal in magnitude. insulation material is 0.07 W/m°&
+LQW8VHDQ\VRIWZDUH$Q6<6&);&)' Heat transfer analysis is to be carried out using
)/8(17 &UHDWH D VTXDUH UHFWDQJOH PRGHO the software as a two-dimensional steady-
ZLWK ZDOO WKLFNQHVV DV VSHFL¿HG DQG ZLWK DQ state model once with material property K =
assumed height (as minimum as possible to 17 W/mK for steel and again with K = 385 W/
reduce the area of analysis). Specify the prop- mK for copper with all other conditions re-
erties of the materials (thermal conductivity) maining same. Get the temperature distribu-
and boundary conditions. As the temperatures tion and read the values of the temperatures at
DUHQRWVSHFL¿HGZHFDQDVVXPHVXLWDEO\(J WKHVSHFL¿HGORFDWLRQV
45°& DQG °& DV WKH RXWHU DQG LQQHU WHP- 10.20 A metal rod of length 99 mm and diameter
peratures). Heat transfer analysis is to be car- 49 mm is initially at a temperature of 475 K.
ried out using 1D steady-state conduction heat The thermal conductivity of the rod may be
transfer method.) (Ans. 60 mm) assumed to be 215 W/mK. The rod is suddenly
0RGHO WKH FDVH RI D F\OLQGULFDO ¿Q H[WHQGHG subjected to an environment of 345 K with a
from a base with a temperature of 600 K. The FRQYHFWLRQ KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW RI
OHQJWKDQGGLDPHWHURIWKH¿QDUHPPDQG W/m2K. Find the temperature of the rod at
PPUHVSHFWLYHO\7KH¿QLVH[SRVHGWRDQ 6mm from one end and at half the radius from
HQYLURQPHQW ZLWK D FRQYHFWLRQ FRHI¿FLHQW RI the edge after 60 s.
30 W/m2K. Find the temperatures at the axis (Hint: create a two-dimensional model as a
RIWKH¿QDWFPDQGFPIRUVWDLQOHVVVWHHO rectangle with length 99 mm and side 49 mm.
(K = 17 W/mK) and copper K = 385 W/mK). Specify the boundary conditions with convec-
Show that at both locations the temperature of WLRQ KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQW RI :/m2K
FRSSHU ¿Q LV KLJKHU WKDQ WKDW RI WKH VWDLQOHVV all around the boundary. Specify the initial
VWHHO+LQW8VHDQ\VRIWZDUH$Q6<6&); temperature of the rod as 475 K uniformly
&)')/8(17 throughout the material. Also specify the ther-
&UHDWHWKHPRGHORIWKH¿QDVUHFWDQJXODU' mal conductivity of the material as 215 W/mK.
with length 200 mm and height 20 mm. Heat transfer analysis is to be carried out as
Specify the boundary conditions as follows: two-dimensional transient heat transfer model.
temperature at one 20 mm side is 600 K. The Run the analysis for 60 s and obtain the tem-
other three sides are to be provided with the con- perature distribution. Find the temperature at
YHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRI:P2°& the required location.)
11
Experimental Heat Transfer
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Experiments in heat transfer are used for the validation of equipment and process design. Estimation
RI KHDW WUDQVIHU UDWH KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQWV DQG WKHUPDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI PDWHULDOV DUH WKH PDLQ
REMHFWLYHVRIODERUDWRU\H[SHULPHQWV0DQ\WLPHVVPDOOHUPRGHOVRIWKHDFWXDOHTXLSPHQWVDUHEXLOW
DQGVWXGLHGLQWKHODERUDWRU\IRUWKHLUKHDWWUDQVIHUSHUIRUPDQFH7KHYDULDEOHVWRVWXG\DKHDWWUDQVIHU
process are measured using suitable instrumentation and compared with the desired set values. If there
LVDGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHPWKHQLWPD\EHFRUUHFWHGHLWKHUPDQXDOO\RUZLWKWKHKHOSRIDQDXWRPDWLF
controller as shown in Fig. 11.1
For accurate maintenance of the set values of variablesDXWRPDWLFFRQWUROV\VWHPV are preferred
LQ ODERUDWRU\ H[SHULPHQWV 7R PHDVXUH WHPSHUDWXUH SUHVVXUH ÀRZ FRQGXFWLYLW\ DQG HPLVVLYLW\
PHDVXULQJLQVWUXPHQWVZLWKEHVWOHYHORIDFFXUDF\DUHUHTXLUHG7KRXJKPHFKDQLFDODQGSQHXPDWLF
instruments DUH VLPSOH WR PDLQWDLQ KLJKO\ UHOLDEOH DQG LQGHSHQGHQW RI H[WHUQDO SRZHU HOHFWULFDO
DQGHOHFWURQLFGHYLFHVSURYLGHKLJKHUDFFXUDF\DQGVHQVLWLYLW\. All instruments have to be calibrated
before using them for measurements to estimate the error involved in the measured data. Digital
Control system
Figure 11.1 Control System

A
Q
∆x
T1 T2
Figure 11.2 Thermal Conductivity Measurement
devicesDUHXVHGIRUGDWDPHDVXUHPHQWDQGVWRUDJH6RIWZDUHVDUHDYDLODEOHIRUGDWDDQDO\VLV with the

help of computers.
11.2 HEAT TRANSFER EXPERIMENTS

([SHULPHQWDOPHWKRGVXVHGIRUPHDVXUHPHQWRIWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKHDW
ÀX[DQGHPLVVLYLW\DUHGLVFXVVHGLQWKLVVHFWLRQ
11.2.1 Thermal Conductivity Measurement of Solids

0HDVXUHPHQWRIWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIVROLGVDQGÀXLGVXVLQJGLIIHUHQWPHWKRGVLVGLVFXVVHGLQWKLV
section.
11.2.1.1 Thermal conductivity measurement in a plate

0HDVXUHPHQWRIWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\LVEDVHGRQ)RXULHU¶VODZRIKHDWFRQGXFWLRQ,ILQDWKLQSODWH
of material as shown in Fig. 11.2 heat transfer rate (Q), material thickness (%x), and difference in
temperature (T1T2FDQEHPHDVXUHGWKHQWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\k of the plate is
QΔx
k= (11.1)
A(T1 − T2 )
+HDW PD\ EH VXSSOLHG IURP RQH VLGH RI WKH SODWH XVLQJ DQ HOHFWULF KHDWHU DQG PD\ EH UHPRYHG
IURPWKHRWKHUVLGHE\DFRROHGSODWH7HPSHUDWXUHRIWKHSODWHRQHDFKVLGHFDQEHPHDVXUHGXVLQJ
thermocouples or thermistors.
7KH OLPLWDWLRQ RI WKLV PHWKRG LQ GHWHUPLQLQJ WKH WKHUPDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI D SODWH LV WKDW KHDW
escapes from the edges of the plate. If the edges are covered with insulation, then the two-
GLPHQVLRQDO WHPSHUDWXUH SUR¿OH WKDW UHVXOWV FDQ FDXVH DQ HUURU7KLV SUREOHP FDQ EH DYRLGHG E\
using side heaters.
11.2.1.2 Insulated apparatus for thermal conductivity measurement
$QRWKHU PHWKRG IRU WKH PHDVXUHPHQW RI WKHUPDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI PHWDOV LV VKRZQ LQ )LJ
$ PHWDO URG RI NQRZQ WKHUPDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ LV LQ FRQWDFW ZLWK DQRWKHU PHWDO ZKRVH WKHUPDO
EXPERIMENTAL HEAT TRANSFER | 375
Metal with known thermal

conductivity
Thermocouples Insulation material
Metal whose thermal conductivity is

to be measured
Heat sink
Figure 11.3 Thermal Conductivity Measurement of Metals
FRQGXFWLYLW\LVWREHPHDVXUHG+HDWVRXUFHDQGVLQNDUHSODFHGWRWKHHQGVRIWKHFRPSRVLWHPHWDOV
Both the metal plates are covered with an insulating material to minimize heat loss and to ensure
RQHGLPHQVLRQDOKHDWÀRZWKURXJKWKHPHWDOV7KHUPRFRXSOHV are used to measure temperatures at
YDULRXVORFDWLRQV7KHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHNQRZQPHWDOLVPHDVXUHGDQGWKHKHDWÀRZLVGHWHUPLQHG
7KLV KHDW ÀRZ LV WKHQ XVHG WR FDOFXODWH WKH WKHUPDO FRQGXFWLYLW\ RI WKH XQNQRZQ PHWDO XVLQJ
Equation (11.1).
11.2.2 Thermal Conductivity Measurement of Liquids and Gases
11.2.2.1 Thermal conductivity measurement of liquids – hot-plate method

7KHKRWSODWHPHWKRGLVXVHGIRUGHWHUPLQLQJWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIOLTXLGVDVVKRZQLQ)LJ$Q
annular arrangement is used for the determination of liquid thermal conductivities and the thickness of
WKHOLTXLGOD\HUPXVWEHWKLQHQRXJKWRPLQLPL]HWKHUPDOFRQYHFWLRQFXUUHQWV7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\
RIWKHOLTXLGLVGHWHUPLQHGXVLQJ(TXDWLRQE\PHDVXULQJKHDWÀRZWHPSHUDWXUHVWKLFNQHVVDQG
area of cross-section.
11.2.2.2 Thermal conductivity measurement of gases

$FRQFHQWULFF\OLQGHUDUUDQJHPHQWDVVKRZQLQ)LJLVXVHGIRUWKHPHDVXUHPHQWRIWKHWKHUPDO
FRQGXFWLYLW\RIJDVHVVXFKDVR[\JHQQLWURJHQDQGRWKHUJDVHV7KHLQQHUDQGRXWHUF\OLQGHUVDUH
ERWKFRQVWUXFWHGRIVLOYHUDQGWKHJDSLVXVHGIRU¿OOLQJWKHJDV7KHHOHFWULFDOKHDWHUVHUYHVDVWKHKHDW
VRXUFH$WHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHRI±O°&LVPDLQWDLQHGEHWZHHQWKHKHDWVLQNDQGWKHVRXUFH7KH
KHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHLVPHDVXUHGE\GHWHUPLQLQJWKHHOHFWULFSRZHULQSXWZKLOHWKHUPRFRXSOHVLQVWDOOHG
Heater
Thermocouples
Heat absorber
Test liquid layer
Figure 11.4 Guarded Hot Plate for Measurement of Thermal Conductivity of Liquids
Heat source
Thermocouples
Heat sink
Gas
Electrical heater
Figure 11.5 Thermal Conductivity Measuring System for Gases at High Temperatures
on the surface of the heater and receiver measures the temperature difference. Equation (11.1) is used
WR¿QGRXWWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIWKHJDV
11.2.3 Convection Heat Transfer Measurement

Free and forced convection heat transfer experiments are discussed in this section.
11.2.3.1 Free convection heat transfer

)UHHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRQDKRUL]RQWDOURGLVPHDVXUHGXVLQJWKHH[SHULPHQWDOVHW
XSDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHKRUL]RQWDOURGKDVWKUHHVHFWLRQVWKHFHQWHUVHFWLRQLVWKHWHVWHOHPHQW
with its surface chrome or nickel plated and the two end sections are guard heaters to prevent end
ORVVHVIURPWKHFHQWHUVHFWLRQ7KHURGLVHOHFWULFDOO\KHDWHGDQGWKHUPRFRXSOHVDUHXVHGWRPHDVXUH
WKH VXUIDFH WHPSHUDWXUHV 7KH FXUUHQW WR WKH JXDUG KHDWHUV LV PDLQWDLQHG LQ VXFK D ZD\ WKDW WKHLU
temperature is equal to the temperature of the center section.
7KHKHDWVXSSOLHGWRWKHFHQWHUVHFWLRQLVGLVVLSDWHGWRWKHVXUURXQGLQJDLUDQGWKHKHDWORVVLV
Q = hA(Ts − Ta ) + σε A (Ts4 − Ta4 )
where hLVWKHIUHHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWTs is the test section surface temperature, F is

WKHVXUIDFHHPLVVLYLW\TLVWKH6WHIDQ±%ROW]PDQ¶VFRQVWDQW, Ta is the surrounding air temperature, A
is the surface area of the test section, and QLVWKHHOHFWULFSRZHULQSXWWRWKHWHVWVHFWLRQ7R¿QGWKH
value of h, other factors should be measured.
A =
dl
Test
section
Guard
section
Heater and thermocouples
Figure 11.6 Free-Convection Heat-Transfer Coefficient Measurement Setup
11.2.3.2 Forced convection heat transfer

)LJXUHVKRZWKHH[SHULPHQWDOVHWXSXVHGWR¿QGWKHIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
$QHOHFWULFKHDWHULVXVHGRQWKHWXEHZKLFKLVPDGHXSRIVWDLQOHVVVWHHO7KHUPRFRXSOHVDUHZHOGHG
on the surface of the tube to measure the temperatures. Water temperature at inlet and outlet of the
Thermocouples
TS
T wi TWO
Flowmeter
Water
Insulation
Twi + Two
Tf =
2
Transformer
Line voltage
Figure 11.7 Forced Convection Heat Transfer Coefficients Measurement
heated section are measured using thermometers. Electric power supplied to the tube can be measured
using a wattmeter,ZKLFKLVFRQVLGHUHGDVWKHKHDWLQSXW$YHQWXULRURUL¿FHPHWHUFDQEHXVHGWR
PHDVXUHWKHZDWHUÀRZUDWH7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVFDOFXODWHGXVLQJ
Q = hA(Ts − T f )
where A is the inner surface area of the tube, Ts and TfDUHWKHZDOOVXUIDFHDQGEXONÀXLGWHPSHUDWXUHV

and QLVWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWH7KHRXWHUVXUIDFHRIWKHWXEHLVLQVXODWHGWRHQVXUHWKDWDOOWKHHOHFWULF
HQHUJ\ is dissipated in to the water as heat.
11.2.4 Heat Flux Measurement

+HDWÀX[PHDVXUHPHQWVXVLQJGLIIHUHQWKHDWÀX[PHWHUVDUHGLVFXVVHGLQWKLVVHFWLRQ
11.2.4.1 Slug-type heat flux meter

'LUHFWPHDVXUHPHQWRIKHDWÀX[FDQEHFDUULHGRXWXVLQJDVOXJVHQVRU as shown in Fig.11.8 with a
VOXJRIKLJKWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\LQVWDOOHGRQWKHZDOOZLWKDOD\HURILQVXODWLRQ7KHVOXJ is exposed
WRKHDWÀX[DWWKHVXUIDFHDQGLWVWHPSHUDWXUHZLOOULVHDQGPHDVXULQJLWZLOOJLYHWKHPDJQLWXGHRIWKH
KHDWÀX[7HPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQW%T, of the slug is maintained uniform with respect to time ‘t¶DQGWKH
HQHUJ\EDODQFHJLYHV
Q mc ΔTs
q= = −U (Ts − Tw )
A A 't '
where qLVWKHKHDWÀX[m is the mass of the slug, cLVWKHVSHFL¿FKHDWRIWKHVOXJULVWKHFRHI¿FLHQWIRU
the conduction loss to the surrounding wall, Ts is the temperature of the slug, and Tw is the surrounding
wall temperature.
7KHVOXJWHPSHUDWXUHJUDGLHQW%TLVDIXQFWLRQRIWKHKHDWÀX[DQGWKHSURSHUWLHVRIWKHVOXJDQG
hence the measurement of TsLVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIWKHKHDWÀX[.
11.2.4.2 Foil-type heat flux meter

$IRLOW\SHKHDWÀX[PHWHULVVKRZQLQ)LJ$WKLQFRQVWDQWDQGLVFLVPRXQWHGRQDKHDWVLQN
which is installed in the wall material. A copper wire is attached to the center of the disc and it is
Insulation
q A Thermocouple
Slug
Figure 11.8 Slug-Type Heat-Flux Meter
Heat flux
Constantan disk
Copper wires
Heat sink
Figure 11.9 Foil-Type Heat-Flux Meter

FRQQHFWHGWRWKHFRSSHUVLQN7KHUPRFRXSOHVDUHXVHGWRPHDVXUHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQ
WKHFHQWHURIWKHGLVFDQGWKHVLGHV+HDWÀX[DEVRUEHGE\WKHGLVFLVFRQGXFWHGUDGLDOO\RXWZDUGDQG
that creates a temperature difference. Radiation loss takes place from the back side of the disc to the
copper heat sink and through proper calibration this can be accounted for. A copper disc along with a
SRVLWLYHO\GRSHGELVPXWK±WHOOXULGHFHQWHUFRQQHFWLRQLQFUHDVHVVHQVLWLYLW\
11.2.5 Measurement of Emissivity

11.2.5.1 Thermopile radiometer
0HDVXUHPHQWRIWRWDOQRUPDOHPLVVLYLW\LVFDUULHGRXWXVLQJDWKHUPRSLOHUDGLRPHWHUDVVKRZQLQ
)LJ $Q HOHFWULF KHDWHU PDLQWDLQV WKH WHPSHUDWXUH RI WKH VDPSOH DQG WKH WHPSHUDWXUHV DUH
PHDVXUHG XVLQJ WKHUPRFRXSOHV -XQFWLRQV DUH PDGH XS RI VLOYHU FRQVWDQWDQ 7ZR EODFNHQHG
aluminum-foil strips are attached to the junctions. A slot in rear shield exposes the hot-junction strip
WRWKHUDGLDQWÀX[IURPWKHVDPSOHDQGWKHFROGMXQFWLRQVWULSLVH[SRVHGWRWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKH
WKHUPRSLOHHQFORVXUH7KHWHPSHUDWXUHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHKRWDQGFROGMXQFWLRQVUHSUHVHQWVWKH
HPLVVLYLW\RIWKHVDPSOH$FRQLFDOVKLHOGRQWKHIURQWRIWKHGHYLFHFRQFHQWUDWHVWKHHQHUJ\IURP
WKHVDPSOH7KHWHPSHUDWXUHVRIWKHKRWDQGFROGMXQFWLRQVDUHDVVXPHGWREHVDPHDQGHTXDOWRWKH
LQVLGHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHUDGLRPHWHU,IWKHVDPSOHLVDVVXPHGJUD\WKHQWKHWRWDOQRUPDOHPLVVLYLW\
of the sample is
7.84 E
εs =
Fts σ (Ts4 − TR4 )
where E is the voltage output of the thermopile in mV (millivolt) and TR and Ts are radiometer and
VDPSOHVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHV7KHVKDSHIDFWRULV F = R 2 ( R 2 + L2 ) , where R is the radius and L is
the length.
Heater
Rear Copper
shield plate
Heater
coil
Junction
Radiometer Sample
surface
Shield
Thermocouple Power
leads leads
Figure 11.10 Thermopile Radiometer

Specimen
Detector
location
e beam
Referenc
m
b ea
en
im
ec
Sp
Transmission
n specimen holder
ad iatio
nt r Pivoted mirror
ide
Inc
Figure 11.11 Integrating-Sphere Reflectometer

11.2.5.2 Radiation pyrometer
7KHUDGLDWLRQS\URPHWHU is used to measure surface emissivities. A heat source is used on the surface
DQGVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHLVPHDVXUHGXVLQJDWKHUPRFRXSOH7KHDSSDUHQWWHPSHUDWXUHLVPHDVXUHG
ZLWKWKHUDGLRPHWHUE\DVVXPLQJXQLWHPLVVLYLW\DQGWKHDSSDUHQWHPLVVLYLW\LVJLYHQE\
⎛T ⎞
4
Fa = ⎜⎜⎜ a ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ T ⎟⎠
s
where Ta and TsDUHWKHDSSDUHQWDQGVXUIDFHWHPSHUDWXUHV7KHUDGLRPHWHU is to be set for the apparent

HPLVVLYLW\YDOXHDQGWKHUDGLDWLRQPHDVXUHPHQWRIWHPSHUDWXUHLVUHSHDWHGWLOOWKHWKHUPRFRXSOHDQG
UDGLDWLRQPHDVXUHPHQWVDUHHTXDO7KHVHWYDOXHRIFaLVDFFHSWDEOH,IWKH\GRQRWFRQYHUJHWKHQLW
PD\EHGXHWRWKHUHÀHFWHGUDGLDWLRQIURPVXUURXQGLQJVXUIDFHV
11.2.6 Reflectivity and Transmissivity Measurements

7KHSURSHUWLHVRIWKHUPDOUDGLDWLRQVXFKDVHPLVVLYLW\UHÀHFWLYLW\DQGWUDQVPLVVLYLW\DUHPHDVXUHG
XVLQJ DQ LQWHJUDWLQJ VSKHUH UHÀHFWRPHWHU. A monochromator produces monochromatic radiation
XVLQJ QDUURZEDQG RSWLFDO ¿OWHUV 7KH IUDFWLRQ RI LQFLGHQW UDGLDWLRQ WKDW LV UHÀHFWHG RU WUDQVPLWWHG
E\WKHVXUIDFHLVGHWHUPLQHGXVLQJWKHLQWHJUDWLQJVSKHUHUHÀHFWRPHWHUDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KH
PRQRFKURPDWLFUDGLDWLRQLVFKRSSHGWRSURGXFHDQ$&VRXUFHDQGDGHWHFWRUDPSOL¿HVLW7KHSLYRWHG
PLUURU DOORZV GLYHUJHQFH RI WKH PRQRFKURPDWLF EHDP GLUHFWO\ WR WKH VSHFLPHQ SODFHG LQVLGH WKH
VSKHUH7KHLQQHUVXUIDFHRIWKHVSKHUHLVFRDWHGZLWKPDJQHVLXPR[LGHDQGSURGXFHVDYHU\KLJK
DQGGLIIXVHUHÀHFWDQFH7KHUDGLDWLRQIDOOLQJRQWKHVXUIDFHZLOOEHGLIIXVHO\UHÀHFWHGWKURXJKRXWWKH
sphere and uniform irradiation is produced from the inner surface. Detectors are used to sense the
UHÀHFWHGUDGLDWLRQDQGWKHVLJQDOIRUGLUHFWLPSLQJHPHQWRIWKHUHIHUHQFHEHDPLVFRPSDUHGZLWKWKDW
ZKLFKUHVXOWVIURPUHÀHFWHGUDGLDWLRQIURPWKHVDPSOH7KHUDWLRRIWKHVHWZRVLJQDOVLVWKHUHÀHFWLYLW\
RIWKHVDPSOH7KHPHDVXUHPHQWRIWUDQVPLVVLYLW\LVPDGHE\NHHSLQJDVDPSOHRYHUWKHLQSXWSRUW
RIWKHVSKHUH7KHVLJQDOLVFRPSDUHGDIWHUWUDQVPLVVLRQWKURXJKWKHVSHFLPHQWRWKDWREWDLQHGIURP
direct impingement on the inner surface of the sphere.
Glass tube
Bulb with liquid
Figure 11.12 Glass Thermometer
11.3 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

7HPSHUDWXUHYDULDWLRQLVUHODWHGWRFKDQJHVLQSUHVVXUHYROXPHHOHFWULFDOUHVLVWDQFHDQGH[SDQVLRQ
FRHI¿FLHQWVRIÀXLGVDQGPHWDOV7KHVHFKDQJHVDUHXVHGWRPHDVXUHWHPSHUDWXUH
11.3.1 Thermometers
A thermometer,VKRZQLQ)LJLVWKHPRVWFRPPRQO\XVHGLQVWUXPHQWIRUWHPSHUDWXUHPHDVXUH-
PHQW7KHOLTXLGLQWKHEXOERIWKHWKHUPRPHWHUH[SDQGVZLWKKHDWDQGULVHVLQWKHFDOLEUDWHGJODVVWXEH
$EXOELVDOVRSODFHGDWWKHWRSRIWXEHIRUVDIHW\LIWKHOLTXLGH[SDQVLRQH[FHHGVWKHUPRPHWHUOLPLW$O-
FRKROLVWKHFRPPRQO\XVHGWKHUPRPHWHUOLTXLGDQGKDVKLJKHUFRHI¿FLHQWRIH[SDQVLRQWKDQWKHRWKHU
ZLGHO\XVHGPHGLXPPHUFXU\,WVXVHLVOLPLWHGWRORZWHPSHUDWXUHPHDVXUHPHQWVEHORZLWVERLOLQJ
WHPSHUDWXUH7KHWHPSHUDWXUHPHDVXUHPHQWUDQJHGHFLGHVWKHVL]HRIWKHJODVVWXEHEXOEDQGOLTXLG
7KH WKHUPRPHWHU LV WR EH FDOLEUDWHG IRU D FHUWDLQ VSHFL¿HG GHSWK RI LPPHUVLRQ WR DFFRXQW IRU
the heat transfer to the bulb from the environment and heat conducted into the bulb from the stem.
7KHUPRPHWHUVKDYHDFFXUDFLHVRI±&DQGPHUFXU\WKHUPRPHWHUVDUHXVHGXSWR&E\¿OOLQJ
WKHVSDFHDERYHWKHPHUFXU\ZLWKJDVHVVXFKDVQLWURJHQWRLQFUHDVHWKHSUHVVXUHRQWKHPHUFXU\E\
raising its boiling point.
11.3.2 Fluid Expansion Thermometer

)OXLGH[SDQVLRQWKHUPRPHWHUKDVDEXOEZLWKDOLTXLGJDVRUYDSRUFRQQHFWHGWKURXJKDFDSLOODU\
WXEHWRDSUHVVXUHPHDVXULQJGHYLFHVXFKDVDERXUGRQJDJHDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHEXOEZLOOEH
VXEPHUJHGLQWKHHQYLURQPHQWZKRVHWHPSHUDWXUHLVWREHPHDVXUHG7HPSHUDWXUHH[SDQGVWKHÀXLG
LQVLGHWKHEXOEDQGSUHVVXUHLQFUHDVHVDQGLWLVPHDVXUHGDVDQLQGLFDWLRQRIWKHWHPSHUDWXUH7RDYRLG
WKHLQÀXHQFHRIWHPSHUDWXUHRQFDSLOODU\WXEHDQGDPL[WXUHRIOLTXLGDQGYDSRULVXVHGLQWKHEXOE
$VPDOOEXOEFRQQHFWHGWRDQHOHFWULFSUHVVXUHWUDQVGXFHUWKURXJKDVKRUWFDSLOODU\JLYHVWKHKLJKHVW
UHVSRQVH,WLVOHVVFRVWO\VWDEOHLQRSHUDWLRQDQGDFFXUDWHZLWKLQ&
Pressure
gauge
Vapor
Liquid
Figure 11.13 Fluid-Expansion Thermometer
11.3.3 Temperature Measurement Using Electrical Methods

7HPSHUDWXUHPHDVXUHPHQWE\HOHFWULFDOPHWKRGVLVFRQYHQLHQWDVWKH\SURYLGHVLJQDOVWKDWDUHHDVLO\
GHWHFWHGDPSOL¿HGDQGXVHGIRUFRQWUROSXUSRVH$OVRWKH\DUHDFFXUDWHZKHQSURSHUO\FDOLEUDWHG
and compensated.
11.3.3.1 Electrical-resistance thermometer

Electrical-resistance thermometer has a resistive element that is exposed to the medium whose
WHPSHUDWXUH WR EH PHDVXUHG DV VKRZQ LQ )LJ 7KH FKDQJH LQ UHVLVWDQFH RI WKDW HOHPHQW LV
WDNHQDVWKHPHDVXUHRIWHPSHUDWXUH7KHWHPSHUDWXUHFRHI¿FLHQWRIUHVLVWDQFHB of the element is
linear (B = R2 − R1 ( R1 (T2 − T1 )) , where R1 and R2 are the resistances of the element at temperatures
T1 and T27KLVUHODWLRQVKLSFDQEHXVHGIRUDQDUURZWHPSHUDWXUHUDQJHDQGIRUZLGHUWHPSHUDWXUH
ranges; the resistance of the material can be expressed as R = RR (1 + aT + bT2) where R is the
A G B
Protective cover
Resistance element
Figure 11.14 Electrical-Resistance Thermometer

resistance at temperature T and RR is the resistance at reference temperature TR7KHUHVLVWDQFHRI
the element should be free of mechanical stresses and should not be exposed to moisture. Hence,
WKHSODWLQXPHOHPHQWLVFRYHUHGE\JODVVRUFHUDPLFDQGVHDOHGZLWKPROWHQJODVV7KHDFFXUDF\RI
thermometer is within ±°C.
11.3.3.2 Thermistor
7KHUPLVWRU is a sensitive semiconductorGHYLFHZLWKQHJDWLYHWHPSHUDWXUHFRHI¿FLHQWRIUHVLVWDQFH
WKDWYDULHVH[SRQHQWLDOO\ZLWKWHPSHUDWXUHDV
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎤
R = RR exp ⎢⎢ C ⎜⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟⎟⎥⎥
⎢⎣ ⎜⎝ T To ⎟⎠⎥⎦
where the value of resistance RR is with reference to temperature TR and C LV DQ H[SHULPHQWDOO\
GHWHUPLQHG FRQVWDQW ZKLFK GHSHQGV RQ WKH WKHUPLVWRU PDWHULDO DQG WHPSHUDWXUH 7KH DFFXUDF\ RI
WKHWKHUPLVWRULVZLWKLQ°&7KHUHVLVWDQFHRIWKHWKHUPLVWRUFKDQJHVUDSLGO\ZLWKWHPSHUDWXUHLQ
DQRQOLQHDUZD\DQGKHQFHDGDWDDFTXLVLWLRQV\VWHPFDQJLYHDGLUHFWWHPSHUDWXUHUHDGRXWIURPWKH
resistance measurement.
7KHWKHUPLVWRUXVXDOO\GHWHULRUDWHVDWKLJKWHPSHUDWXUHVDQGFDQEHJHQHUDOO\XVHGIRUWHPSHUDWXUH
PHDVXUHPHQWVEHORZ°&RQO\7KHDPSOL¿HUFLUFXLWXVHGZLWKDWKHUPLVWRULVVKRZQLQ)LJ
Resistance is expressed as RT and, for linear operation, RT Rl and RBLVDSSUR[LPDWHO\R17KH
output voltage of the circuit is
AVB BΔT
V0 =
4
where B LV WKH WHPSHUDWXUH FRHI¿FLHQW RI UHVLVWDQFH and %T is the temperature difference from
balanced conditions.
V R
B 2
VA A=1+
R
R 1
A R R
A 1
R +
B Vo
–
R
R R 2
T 1
Figure 11.15 Amplifier Circuit
11.3.3.3 Thermocouple
7HPSHUDWXUH PHDVXUHPHQW XVLQJ D WKHUPRFRXSOH LV DQRWKHU HOHFWULFDO PHWKRG LQ SUDFWLFH 7ZR
GLVVLPLODUPHWDOVDUHMRLQHGWRJHWKHUDVWKHUPRFRXSOHDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHHPIJHQHUDWHGLQ
the thermocouple depends on the junction temperatures and this phenomenon is known as Seebeck
effect7KH6HHEHFNHPILVLPSRUWDQWDVLWGHSHQGVRQWKHMXQFWLRQWHPSHUDWXUHDQGWKHHPISURGXFHG
DWWKHMXQFWLRQLVPHDVXUHGDVDIXQFWLRQRIWHPSHUDWXUH$Q\WKHUPRFRXSOHFLUFXLWVKRXOGKDYHDWOHDVW
Constantan
T
Iron
Voltmeter
Reference point
Ice-water mixture (or) Atmosphere
Figure 11.16 Iron-Constantan Thermocouple
two junctions. If the temperature of one junction is known, then the temperature of the other junction
can be calculated. A known temperature such as the ice or atmospheric temperature is used as the
reference temperature at one junction.
7KHRXWSXWYROWDJHUHODWLRQVKLSRIDWKHUPRFRXSOHLV
1 1
E = AT + BT 2 + CT 3
2 3
where T is the temperature in celsius and E LV EDVHG RQ WKH UHIHUHQFH MXQFWLRQ WHPSHUDWXUH 7KH
constants A, B, and C depend on the thermocouple material.
7KHUPRFRXSOHVZLWKSUHFLVLRQJUDGHZLUHZLOOKDYHDQDFFXUDF\RI±°C and a “commercial”
grade will have ±2°& 7KH RXWSXW RI WKHUPRFRXSOHV ZLOO EH LQ PLOOLYROW UDQJH 7KH FRPSOHWH VHW
of thermocouple wires and millivoltmeter VKRXOG EH FDOLEUDWHG GLUHFWO\ IRU DFFXUDWH WHPSHUDWXUH
PHDVXUHPHQW7KHWKHUPRFRXSOHRXWSXWFDQDOVREHPHDVXUHGXVLQJDSRWHQWLRPHWHUFLUFXLWRUE\D
microvolt potentiometer within 1 N97KHUHVLVWDQFHRIWKHZLUHVKDVQRLQÀXHQFHRQDFFXUDF\ZKHQ
DSRWHQWLRPHWHULVXVHGDVWKHFXUUHQWÀRZLV]HURLQWKHWKHUPRFRXSOHFLUFXLW
11.3.4 Temperature Measurement Using Thermal Radiation

7HPSHUDWXUHRIDQ\PHGLXPFDQEHPHDVXUHGE\PHDVXULQJLWVWKHUPDOUDGLDWLRQDQGWKHFRPPRQO\
XVHGPHWKRGVDUHRSWLFDOS\URPHWU\DQGHPLWWDQFHGHWHUPLQDWLRQ7KHUPDOUDGLDWLRQHPLWWHGE\DERG\
LVGLVWLQJXLVKHGIURPUDGLRZDYHVDQG;UD\VDQGLVLQWKHZDYHOHQJWKUHJLRQRIDERXW±Nm.
7KHWRWDOWKHUPDOUDGLDWLRQHPLWWHGE\DEODFNERG\LV
Eb = TT
where TWKHLV6WHIDQ±%ROW]PDQQFRQVWDQWq8 W /m2.K), Eb is the emissive power, and T

is the absolute temperature.
7KHPHDVXUHPHQWRIWHPSHUDWXUHWKURXJKWKHXVHRIRSWLFDOS\URPHWU\LVE\LGHQWL¿FDWLRQRIWKH
temperature of a surface with the color of the radiation emitted. When a surface is heated, it becomes
UHGRUDQJHDQG¿QDOO\ZKLWH:LHQ¶VODZ gives the wavelength Mmax as
Filter
Red
Lens filter
in eye
piece
Lamp
Ammeter
Figure 11.17 Optical Pyrometer
MmaxT = 2897.6 μm K
where TLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUH5DGLDWLRQIURPWKHVRXUFHLVYLHZHGWKURXJKWKHOHQVDQG¿OWHUDVVKRZQ
LQ)LJ$QDEVRUSWLRQ¿OWHULVXVHGWRUHGXFHWKHLQWHQVLW\RIWKHLQFRPLQJUDGLDWLRQ7KHODPS
SODFHGLQWKHRSWLFDOSDWKLVDGMXVWHGVRWKDWWKHFRORURIWKH¿ODPHQW matches with the color of the
LQFRPLQJ UDGLDWLRQ7KH UHG ¿OWHU LQVWDOOHG LQ WKH H\HSLHFH HQVXUHV WKDW FRPSDULVRQV DUH PDGH IRU
monochromatic radiation.
,QWKHEDODQFHFRQGLWLRQVWKH¿ODPHQWZLOOVHHPWRGLVDSSHDULQWKHWRWDOLQFRPLQJUDGLDWLRQ¿HOG
7HPSHUDWXUHLVPHDVXUHGLQWHUPVRIWKHODPSKHDWLQJFXUUHQW
11.3.5 High-speed Gas Flow Temperature Measurement

$VWDWLRQDU\SUREHLQWKHKLJKVSHHGJDVÀRZ temperature measuring device as shown in Fig. 11.18,
PHDVXUHVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKHJDVWKDWLVEURXJKWWRUHVWDWLWVVXUIDFH7KHVWDJQDWLRQWHPSHUDWXUH,
ZKHQWKHJDVYHORFLW\LVUHGXFHGWR]HURLV
U ∞2
To = T: +
2c p g
where T: is the free-stream temperature and ULVWKHÀRZYHORFLW\7KHVWDJQDWLRQWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKH

gas is also expressed in terms of the Mach number as
To H −1 2
= 1+ M
T∞ 2
7KHVWDJQDWLRQWHPSHUDWXUHLVVDPHDVWKHVWDWLFWHPSHUDWXUHIRUORZVSHHGÀRZ,QDKLJKVSHHG
ÀRZWKHWHPSHUDWXUHPHDVXUHGE\WKHSUREHLVQRWH[DFWO\HTXDOWRWKHVWDJQDWLRQWHPSHUDWXUHDQG
LV NQRZQ DV WKH UHFRYHU\ WHPSHUDWXUH Tr ZKLFK GHSHQGV RQ WKH SUREH FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ 7KH DFWXDO
stagnation temperature T can be which estimated from
Shield
Seal
Gas
Vent hole Temperature probe
Figure 11.18 High-Speed Gas Flow Temperature Measuring Device
Tr − T∞
R=
T − T∞
:KHUHWKHUHFRYHU\IDFWRUR can be determined from the calibration of the probeDWGLIIHUHQWÀRZ

FRQGLWLRQVDQGLVLQWKHUDQJHRIWR
11.3.6 Solar Radiation

7KHWHPSHUDWXUHRIWKH6XQLVJHQHUDOO\LQELOOLRQVRI.HOYLQVDQGLWVUDGLDWLRQVSHFWUXPKDVDVKDSH
VLPLODUWRWKDWRIDEODFNERG\ZLWKDUDQJHRIDQGNPJHQHUDOO\7KHSHDNYDOXHPD\UHDFK
DERXWNP$VSHU:LHQ¶VODZWKHEODFNERG\ temperature is
5215.6
T= = 10, 431°R = 5795 K.
0.5
6RODU UDGLDWLRQ LV PHDVXUHG XVLQJ D S\UKHOLRPHWHU ,W FROOLPDWHV WKH UDGLDWLRQ WR ¿QG WKH EHDP
LQWHQVLW\DVDIXQFWLRQRILQFLGHQFHDQJOH,WKDVWZRFRQFHQWULFULQJVVHUYLQJDVKRWDQGFROGMXQFWLRQV
and these rings are coated black and white to produce a temperature difference when exposed to solar
UDGLDWLRQ%DULXPVXOIDWHLVWKHZKLWHQLQJDJHQWDQGWKHZKROHDVVHPEO\LVFRYHUHGZLWKDJODVVFRYHU
of hemispherical shape to transmit radiation.
3\UDQRPHWHU that measures the total hemispheric solar irradiation uses the principle of differential
expansion of bimetallic strips when exposed to solar radiation. A simple mechanical linkage is used to
measure radiation and electric-power is not required. Photovoltaic cells can also be used for solar radiation
PHDVXUHPHQWV&DGPLXPVXO¿GHVLOLFRQDQGVHOHQLXPFHOOVPD\DOVREHXVHGIRUPDQ\DSSOLFDWLRQV
11.4 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

'LPHQVLRQDO DQDO\VLV is a method to combine several variables into dimensionless groups, which
facilitate the interpretation of experimental data and extend the range of application. Heat transfer
FRHI¿FLHQWVDUHXVXDOO\FDOFXODWHGIURPWKHHPSLULFDOHTXDWLRQVGHYHORSHGE\FRUUHODWLQJH[SHULPHQWDO
GDWD XVLQJ GLPHQVLRQDO DQDO\VLV 7KH OLPLWDWLRQ RI GLPHQVLRQDO DQDO\VLV LV WKDW LW GRHV QRW JLYH
LQIRUPDWLRQRQWKHQDWXUHRIDSKHQRPHQRQDQGLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRNQRZLQDGYDQFHDERXWWKHYDULDEOHV
WKDW LQÀXHQFH WKH SKHQRPHQRQ DQG WKH VXFFHVV RU IDLOXUH RI GLPHQVLRQDO DQDO\VLV GHSHQGV RQ WKH
SURSHUVHOHFWLRQRIWKHVHYDULDEOHV$SUHOLPLQDU\WKHRU\RUDWKRURXJKSK\VLFDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJRID
SKHQRPHQRQLVQHHGHGEHIRUHGLPHQVLRQDODQDO\VLVFDQEHSHUIRUPHG
11.4.1 Primary Dimensions

6HOHFWLRQ RI SULPDU\ GLPHQVLRQV LV DUELWUDU\ DQG WKH GLPHQVLRQDO IRUPXOD RI DOO YDULDEOHV FDQ EH
H[SUHVVHGLQWHUPVRIWKHP7KHGLPHQVLRQDOIRUPXODRIDQ\SK\VLFDOTXDQWLW\LVGHULYHGIURPWKH
GH¿QLWLRQRUSK\VLFDOODZ7KHSULPDU\GLPHQVLRQVRIVRPHSK\VLFDOTXDQWLWLHVXVHGLQKHDWWUDQVIHU
SUREOHPVDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH
11.4.2 Forces
7KHIRUFHVFRQVLGHUHGIRUWKHG\QDPLFVLPLODULW\LQÀXLGÀRZDQGKHDWWUDQVIHUSUREOHPVDUH
)RUFHE\3UHVVXUH = Pressure q Area = P. L2
Table 11.1 Primary dimensions

Physical quantities Symbols Dimensions
Length L L
Density S M/L3
Mass M M
Time t T
Force F ML/t2
Velocity u, u, U∞ L/t
Acceleration a, g L/t2
Work W ML2/t2
Pressure p M/t2L
Temperature T T
Heat Q ML2/t2
Internal energy e L2/t2
Enthalpy i L2/t2
Specific heat c L2/t2T
Thermal conductivity k ML/t3T
Thermal diffusivity B L2/t
Thermal resistance R Tt3/ML2
Coefficient of expansion C 1/T
Absolute viscosity N M/Lt
Kinematic viscosity v (= N/S) L2/t
Surface tension T M/t2
Heat transfer coefficient h M/t3T
Mass flow rate m M/t
Shear stress U M/Lt2
dυ ρ L3 υ
)RUFHE\,QHUWLD = Mass q Acceleration = ρ L3 = = ρ L2 υ 2
dt ( L / υ)
)RUFHE\*UDYLW\ = Mass q Fravitational acceleration = SLg
∂υ 2
Viscous force = Shear stress q Area = τ .L2 = μ .L = μυ L
∂y
Surface tension = TL, where TLVWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIVXUIDFHWHQVLRQDQGKDVWKHGLPHQVLRQRIIRUFH
per unit length.
(ODVWLFLW\IRUFH = EV.L2, where EVLVWKHEXONPRGXOXVRIHODVWLFLW\RIWKHÀXLG
11.4.3 Significance of Non-dimensional Numbers

11.4.3.1 Reynolds number
5H\QROGVQXPEHU is a measure of the relative magnitude of the inertia force to the viscous force in a
ÀXLGÀRZ+LJKHUWKH5H\QROGVQXPEHUJUHDWHUZLOOEHWKHUHODWLYHFRQWULEXWLRQRILQHUWLDHIIHFWDQG
smaller its value greater will be the relative magnitude of the viscous stresses.
ρV 2 ρVL
Re = =
μV μ
L
11.4.3.2 Prandtl number

Prandtl numberLVWKHUDWLRRINLQHPDWLFYLVFRVLW\WRWKHUPDOGLIIXVLYLW\
⎛ μC p v⎞
Pr = ⎜⎜⎜ = ⎟⎟⎟
⎜⎝ K α ⎟⎠
where O indicates the impulse transport through molecular friction and BLQGLFDWHVWKHKHDWHQHUJ\
transport through conduction.
11.4.3.3 Nusselt number

Nusselt numberUHSUHVHQWVWKHGLPHQVLRQOHVVKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDQGLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRI
WKHKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHWRWKHKHDWFRQGXFWHGZLWKLQWKHÀXLG7KHUDWLRRIFKDUDFWHULVWLFOHQJWKL to the
thickness %xRIDVWDWLRQDU\ÀXLGOD\HUFRQGXFWLQJWKHKHDWDWWKHVDPHUDWHDQGVDPHWHPSHUDWXUH
GLIIHUHQFHDVLQWKHFDVHRIFRQYHFWLRQSURFHVVFDQDOVREHGH¿QHGDVWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHU
When conduction heat transfer rate is equal to convection heat transfer rate
ΔT
∴ Q = KA = hAΔT
Δx
K
∴ Δx =
h
7KH1XVVHOWQXPEHULVH[SUHVVHGDV
L hL
Nu = = .
Δx K
11.4.3.4 Stanton number
6WDQWRQQXPEHULVWKHUDWLRRIWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWhWRWKHKHDWFDSDFLW\RIWKHÀXLG
Nu hL μ K h
Stanton number, S n = = . . =
RePr K ρ Lυ μC p ρυC p
11.4.3.5 Peclet number

3HFOHW QXPEHU LV WKH UDWLR RI KHDW FDSDFLW\ RI WKH ÀXLG SDVVLQJ WKURXJK XQLW FURVVVHFWLRQDO DUHD
SHU XQLW WLPH WR WKH KHDW ÀRZ UDWH E\ FRQGXFWLRQ XQGHU D XQLW WHPSHUDWXUH JUDGLHQW DQG WKURXJK D
thickness L.
ρυC p ρC p Lυ Lυ
Peclet number, Pcn = = = = RePr.
K K 1 α
L
11.4.3.6 Graetz number

,WLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIKHDWFDSDFLW\SHUXQLWOHQJWKRIWKHÀXLGÀRZLQJWKURXJKWKHSLSHWRWKH
FRQGXFWLYLW\RIWKHSLSH
π 2
mC p Cp
D × ρu
Gm = L = 4 L = π ρuD μC p D
K K 4 μ K L
π D
= RePr
4 L
where D is the diameter of the pipe and L is the length of the pipe.
11.4.3.7 Grashof number

,WLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRISURGXFWRILQHUWLDIRUFHDQGEXR\DQF\IRUFHWRWKHVTXDUHRIYLVFRXVIRUFH
in natural convection heat transfer problems.
Inertia force × Buoyancy force

∴ Gn =
(Viscous force) 2
ρυ 2 × (ρβ g .Δθ.L3 ) ρβ g Δθ.L3
= =
(μυ ) 2 μ2
where VLVWKHYHORFLW\RIÀXLGFDXVHGGXHWREXR\DQF\IRUFHDQGSCg %R.LLVWKHEXR\DQF\IRUFH

for the total volume.
11.4.4 Model Experiments and Criteria for Similitude

7KHFRPSOH[LW\RIWKHEDVLFODZVPDNHVLWLPSRVVLEOHWRVROYHDQDO\WLFDOO\DOOSUDFWLFDOSUREOHPV
RIKHDWWUDQVIHU,WEHFRPHVQHFHVVDU\LQPDQ\FDVHVWRGRH[SHULPHQWDWLRQRQSK\VLFDOPRGHOVIRU
SUHGLFWLQJWKHEHKDYLRURIWKHDFWXDOV\VWHP,QIRUPDWLRQRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDQGSUHVVXUH
GURSLVUHTXLUHGIRUWKHGHVLJQRIKHDWWUDQVIHUH[SHULPHQWVDQGHTXLSPHQWV7KHGHVLJQLVPDGH
using empirical relationships developed from experimental results. Such empirical estimations
RIWHQOHDGVWRGLVFUHSDQFLHVZLWKWKHDFWXDOV7KHUHDVRQIRUVXFKGHYLDWLRQLVGXHWRWKHGLIIHUHQFH
EHWZHHQWKHFRQGLWLRQVRIÀXLGÀRZDQGKHDWWUDQVIHULQDFWXDOKHDWWUDQVIHUHTXLSPHQWVDQGLQWKH
experiments.
7KHVLPLODULWLHVUHTXLUHGIRUWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUPRGHOVDQGWKHLUWHVWLQJDUH
*HRPHWULFVLPLODULW\
.LQHPDWLFVLPLODULW\
'\QDPLFVLPLODULW\
6LPLODULW\WRÀXLGHQWU\FRQGLWLRQVDQG
6LPLODULW\RIERXQGDU\WHPSHUDWXUH¿HOG
.QRZOHGJHRIWKHVHODZVRIVLPLOLWXGHLVHVVHQWLDOIRUSODQQLQJDQGDQDO\VLVRIPRGHOH[SHULPHQWV
11.4.4.1 Geometrical similarity

7ZRPRGHOVDUHJHRPHWULFDOO\VLPLODULIWKHUDWLRVRIDOOKRPRORJRXVGLPHQVLRQVDUHHTXDODQGWKLV
VLPLODULW\LQYROYHVRQO\VLPLODULW\LQIRUP
11.4.4.2 Kinematic similarity

7ZRPRGHOVDUHNLQHPDWLFDOO\VLPLODULIWKHSDWWHUQRUSDWKVRIPRWLRQDUHVLPLODUDQGLIWKHUDWLRVRI
the velocities of the various homogenous particles involved in the motion are equal.
11.4.4.3 Dynamic similarity

7ZR PRGHOV DUH G\QDPDWLFDOO\ VLPLODU LI WKH\ DUH NLQHPDWLFDOO\ VLPLODU DQG LI WKH UDWLRV RI WKH
UHVSHFWLYHIRUFHVLQWKHV\VWHPDUHVDPH
$VIRUFHLVSURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHPDVVDQGDFFHOHUDWLRQLQV\VWHPVKDYLQJJHRPHWULFDQGG\QDPLF
VLPLODULW\NLQHPDWLFVLPLODULW\ZLOOEHDFKLHYHGLIWKHUDWLRRIPDVVHVDWSRLQWVLQWKHWZRV\VWHPVLV
VDPH+HQFHJHRPHWULFDQGG\QDPLFVLPLODULWLHVDUHHVVHQWLDOIRUFRPSOHWHVLPLODULW\
$VSHU1HZWRQ¶VVHFRQGODZRIPRWLRQIRUFRPSOHWHG\QDPLFVLPLODULW\WKHYHFWRUVXPRIDOO
DFWLYHIRUFHVLQWKHV\VWHPPXVWEHHTXDOWRWKHLQHUWLDIRUFH7ZRV\VWHPVDUHVDLGWREHFRPSOHWHO\
VLPLODULIWKHUHLVJHRPHWULFVLPLODULW\DQGUDWLRVRIWKHIRUFHVIRUWKHPRGHODQGWKHSURWRW\SHDUH
VDPHLH5H\QROGV)URXGH, Weber, and Mach numberDUHVDPHIRUERWKV\VWHPV,WLVLPSRVVLEOHWR
JHWSHUIHFWVLPLODULW\E\VDWLVI\LQJDOOWKHVHFRQGLWLRQV,ILPSRUWDQWUDWLRVDUHVDWLV¿HGWKHQVXLWDEOH
FRUUHFWLRQVFDQEHPDGHWRVDWLVI\RWKHUFRQGLWLRQV7KHJUDYLW\IRUFHVXUIDFHWHQVLRQIRUFHDQGWKH
HODVWLFIRUFHVFDQEHQHJOHFWHGLIWKH\DUHEDODQFHGRULQVLJQL¿FDQW
7KHIXO¿OOPHQWRIDOOWKHVHFRQGLWLRQVLVYHU\GLI¿FXOWDQGPD\EHSRVVLEOHXQGHUVRPHFRQGLWLRQV
RIVWDELOLW\DQGDXWRPRGHOOLW\6WDELOLW\LVGH¿QHGDVWKHFDSDFLW\RIDÀRZLQJYLVFRXVÀXLGIRUGH¿QLWH
GLVWULEXWLRQRIYHORFLW\7KLVGLVWULEXWLRQGHSHQGVRQWKH5H\QROGVQXPEHUVKDSHRIWKHFKDQQHODQG
UHODWLYHOHQJWKRIWKHFXUYHGSDWK7KHSUR¿OHVRIYHORFLWLHVZLOOEHVLPLODULIWKHVHIDFWRUVDUHLGHQWLFDO
7KH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI YHORFLW\ IRU WKH JLYHQ FKDQQHOV YDULHV ZLWK 5H\QROGV QXPEHUV$XWRPRGHOOLW\
LV GH¿QHG DV WKH LQGHSHQGHQFH RI WKH QDWXUH RI ÀRZ IURP WKH 5H\QROG QXPEHU7KH FRQGLWLRQ IRU
DXWRPRGHOOLW\ is that, the friction factor should be constant.
7KHJHRPHWULFFRQGLWLRQLVIXO¿OOHGE\FRQVWUXFWLQJDQH[DFWVFDOHPRGHORIWKHDFWXDOHTXLSPHQW
7KHVLPLODULW\RIHQWU\FRQGLWLRQLVHQVXUHGE\PDNLQJWKHLQOHWVHFWLRQRIWKHPRGHOJHRPHWULFDOO\
VLPLODUWRWKDWRIWKHDFWXDOHTXLSPHQW$VLWLVQRWSRVVLEOHWRPDLQWDLQWKHVLPLODULW\RIDOOSK\VLFDO
parameters in the scale modelFRPELQDWLRQRISDUDPHWHUVDUHPDLQWDLQHGFRQVWDQW,WLVDOVRQHFHVVDU\
WKDWWKHSK\VLFDOSDUDPHWHUVLQWKHPRGHODQGDFWXDOHTXLSPHQWPXVWFKDQJHLQVLPLODUZD\WRVDWLVI\
WKHFRQGLWLRQRIVLPLODULW\
,Q WKH FDVH RI IRUFHG FRQYHFWLRQ WKH VLPLODULW\ FRQGLWLRQ RI PRGHO DQG DFWXDO HTXLSPHQW DUH
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DXWRPRGHOOLW\VHWVLQWKHFRQGLWLRQVRIPRGHOWHVWLQJ
,QWKHFDVHRIIUHHFRQYHFWLRQWKHVLPLODULW\FRQGLWLRQRIPRGHODQGDFWXDOHTXLSPHQWDUHHQVXUHG
LIWKHSURGXFWRI*UDVKRIDQG3UDQGWOQXPEHUVLQERWKFDVHVLVPDLQWDLQHGVDPH$PRGHOPXVWEHXVHG
IRUVWXG\LQJWKHIUHHFRQYHFWLRQSKHQRPHQRQRQO\LIGn Pn > 2 q7 and for cases in which Gn Pp <
2 q7, model testing is not useful.
,WLVH[SHQVLYHWRPDNHIXOOVL]HSURWRW\SHHTXLSPHQWVIRUGHVLJQYHUL¿FDWLRQDQGWHVWLQJ+HQFH
VPDOOVFDOHPRGHOVDUHXVHGWRVWXG\ÀRZDQGKHDWWUDQVIHUSKHQRPHQDZKLFKFRXOGQRWEHHDVLO\
VROYHGXVLQJPDWKHPDWLFV7HVWPRGHOVDUHXVHGWRVWXG\WKHSHUIRUPDQFHRIK\GUDXOLFPDFKLQHVDQG
VWUXFWXUHVWKHUPDOV\VWHPVDQGDOVRXVHGWRYHULI\WKHGHVLJQRIV\VWHPVVXFKDVDLUFUDIWVURFNHWV
and missiles using wind tunnels. Data on drag forces and wake patterns can be generated for the
GHVLJQRIDXWRPRELOHVDQGVKLSVE\FRQGXFWLQJWKHH[SHULPHQWVRQVPDOOPRGHOV7KRXJKWKHPRGHO
studies do not provide solutions to all questions, the results will help the engineers to understand and
GHVLJQSURWRW\SHV.QRZOHGJHRISULQFLSOHVRIPRGHOVLPLOLWXGHLVHVVHQWLDOIRUGHVLJQFRQVWUXFWLRQ
DQGRSHUDWLRQRIWKHPRGHO,QWKHFDVHRIPRGHOVXVHGIRUWHVWLQJJHRPHWULFVLPLODULW\NLQHPDWLF
VLPLODULW\DQGG\QDPLFVLPLODULW\EHWZHHQWKHPRGHODQGSURWRW\SH are essential.
11.4.4.4 Correlation of experimental data
,IH[SHULPHQWVZHUHFRQGXFWHGZLWKDLUÀRZLQJRYHUDSLSHDWGLIIHUHQWYHORFLWLHVDQGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHU
FRHI¿FLHQWLVPHDVXUHGH[SHULPHQWDOO\WKHQWKHGDWDPD\EHFRUUHODWHGDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KLV
FXUYHFDQEHXVHGIRUGHWHUPLQDWLRQRIKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDWDQ\YHORFLW\IRUWKHSLSHXVHGLQ
WKHWHVWV+RZHYHULWFDQQRWEHXVHGWR¿QGWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVIRUSLSHVWKDWDUHGLIIHUHQW
LQGLDPHWHUWKDQWKHRQHXVHGLQWKHWHVWV$OVRLWFDQQRWEHXVHGLIWKHDLUSUHVVXUHDQGGHQVLW\DUH
GLIIHUHQWIURPWKDWXVHGLQWKHWHVWV,WLVQHFHVVDU\WKHQWRFRQGXFWVHSDUDWHH[SHULPHQWVIRUHYHU\
SLSHGLDPHWHUDQGGHQVLW\
'LPHQVLRQDODQDO\VLVKRZHYHUKHOSVWRDSSO\WKHUHVXOWVRIRQHVHULHVRIWHVWVWRRWKHUSUREOHPV
E\UHSORWWLQJLQWKHGDWDLQWHUPVRIGLPHQVLRQOHVVQXPEHUVVXFKDV5H\QROGVQXPEHUYHORFLW\DQG
1XVVHOWQXPEHUKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWDVVKRZQLQ)LJ7KHFRUUHODWLRQRIWKHVHQXPEHUV
LVXVHGIRUWKHHYDOXDWLRQRIWKHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUDLUÀRZLQJRYHUDQ\VL]HRI
SLSHLIWKH5H\QROGVQXPEHURIWKHV\VWHPLVZLWKLQWKHUDQJHRIWKHH[SHULPHQWDQGWKHV\VWHPVDUH
JHRPHWULFDOO\VLPLODU
Heat transfer coefficient
Velocity (m/s)
Figure 11.19 Variation of Heat Transfer Coefficient with Velocity

Nusselt number
Reynolds number
Figure 11.20 Variation of Dimensionless Numbers for Flow of Air Over a Pipe
11.4.5 Buckingham Q Theorem

Buckingham Q WKHRUHP LV XVHG WR ¿QG WKH QXPEHU LQGHSHQGHQW GLPHQVLRQOHVV JURXSV QHHGHG WR
REWDLQDUHODWLRQIRUGHVFULELQJDSK\VLFDOSKHQRPHQRQ7KHQXPEHURILQGHSHQGHQWGLPHQVLRQOHVV
groups WKDW FDQ EH IRUPHG E\ FRPELQLQJ WKH SK\VLFDO YDULDEOHV LV HTXDO WR WKH WRWDO QXPEHU RI
WKHVHSK\VLFDOTXDQWLWLHV³n´PLQXVWKHQXPEHURISULPDU\GLPHQVLRQV³m” required to express the
dimensional formulas of the “n´SK\VLFDOTXDQWLWLHV,IWKHVHJURXSVDUHUHIHUUHGDVQ1, Q2, …, etc, the
relationship is
f (Q1 , Q2 , Q3 , !) = 0 .
,I WKHUH DUH ¿YH SK\VLFDO TXDQWLWLHV LQ D SUREOHP ZLWK WKUHH SULPDU\ GLPHQVLRQV WKHQ WZR
GLPHQVLRQOHVVJURXSVFDQEHIRUPHG
f (Q1 , Q2 ) = 0 .
([SHULPHQWDOGDWDIRUVXFKDSUREOHPFDQEHDQDO\VHGE\SORWWLQJQ1 against Q2 and the curve will

show the functional relationship between Q1 and Q2.
For problems with three dimensionless groups
f (Q1 , Q2 , Q3 ) = 0
DQGLWPD\DOVREHZULWWHQDV
Q1 = f (Q1 , Q3 ) .
)RUVXFKSUREOHPWKHH[SHULPHQWDOGDWDPD\EHDQDO\]HGE\SORWWLQJQ1 against Q2 for various

values of QRUZLWKRWKHUFRPELQDWLRQV,WLVDOVRSRVVLEOHWRFRPELQHDQ\WZRRIWKHQJURXSVE\
addition, subtraction, multiplication, or division and to plot this value against the remaining Q as a
single curve.
11.5 CONCLUSIONS
(VWLPDWLRQRIKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVDQGWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIPDWHULDOV
DUH WKH PDLQ REMHFWLYHV RI ODERUDWRU\ H[SHULPHQWV 7R PHDVXUH WHPSHUDWXUH SUHVVXUH ÀRZ
FRQGXFWLYLW\ DQG HPLVVLYLW\ PHDVXULQJ LQVWUXPHQWV ZLWK EHVW OHYHO RI DFFXUDF\ DUH UHTXLUHG
7KRXJK PHFKDQLFDO DQG SQHXPDWLF LQVWUXPHQWV DUH VLPSOH WR PDLQWDLQ KLJKO\ UHOLDEOH DQG
LQGHSHQGHQWIURPH[WHUQDOSRZHUHOHFWULFDODQGHOHFWURQLFGHYLFHVSURYLGHKLJKHUDFFXUDF\DQG
VHQVLWLYLW\
0HDVXUHPHQWRIWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\LVEDVHGRQ)RXULHU¶VODZRIKHDWFRQGXFWLRQ
'LUHFW PHDVXUHPHQW RI KHDW ÀX[ FDQ EH FDUULHG RXW XVLQJ D VOXJ VHQVRU 0HDVXUHPHQW RI WRWDO
QRUPDOHPLVVLYLW\LVFDUULHGRXWXVLQJDWKHUPRSLOHUDGLRPHWHU7KHUDGLDWLRQS\URPHWHULVXVHGWR
PHDVXUHVXUIDFHHPLVVLYLWLHV7KHSURSHUWLHVRIWKHUPDOUDGLDWLRQVXFKDVHPLVVLYLW\UHÀHFWLYLW\DQG
WUDQVPLVVLYLW\DUHPHDVXUHGXVLQJDQLQWHJUDWLQJVSKHUHUHÀHFWRPHWHU7HPSHUDWXUHYDULDWLRQLVUHODWHG
WRFKDQJHVLQSUHVVXUHYROXPHHOHFWULFDOUHVLVWDQFHDQGH[SDQVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWVRIÀXLGVDQGPHWDOV
DQGWKHVHFKDQJHVDUHXVHGWRPHDVXUHWHPSHUDWXUH7HPSHUDWXUHPHDVXUHPHQWE\HOHFWULFDOPHWKRGV
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facilitate the interpretation of experimental data and extend the range of application.
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of the velocities of the various homogenous particles involved in the motion are equal.
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Ɣ Words like hot and cold are subjective (relative to one another).
KEY
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EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
11.1. )LQGWKHSRVVLEOHGLPHQVLRQOHVVJURXSVIURPWKHH[SHULPHQWDOFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUGDWDIRUDÀXLG
ÀRZLQJDFURVVDKHDWHGWXEH7KHKHDWWUDQVIHUGHSHQGVRQWKHGLDPHWHURIWKHWXEH'ÀXLGYHORFLW\
XGHQVLW\ȡG\QDPLFYLFRVLW\ȝVSHFL¿FKHDWFp DQGKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWK
2XWRIVHYHQSK\VLFDOTXDQWLWLHVIRXUKDYHDOOSULPDU\GLPHQVLRQVDPRQJWKHP7KUHHGLPHQVLRQOHVV
groups will be required to correlate the data.
)RXUSK\VLFDOYDULDEOHVD, K, ȡ and ȝDUHVHOHFWHGDVUHSHDWHGYDULDEOHVDQGDPRQJWKHPWKH\KDYH
DOOWKHIRXUSULPDU\GLPHQVLRQV7KH\FDQEHJURXSHGZLWKHDFKRQHRIWKHUHPDLQLQJYDULDEOHVWRIRUP
three ʌ groups.
ʌ1 = DakbȡcȝdU ʌ2 = DakbȡcȝdCp ʌ = Dakbȡcȝdh
⎛ ML ⎞ ⎛ ML ⎞ ⎛ ML ⎞
b b b
M 0 L0T 0t 0 = ( L) a ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟⎟ M 0 L0T 0t 0 = ( L) a ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟⎟ M 0 L0T 0t 0 = ( L) a ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟⎟

⎜⎝ t T ⎠ ⎜⎝ t T ⎠ ⎜⎝ t T ⎠
⎛ M ⎞⎟
c
⎛ M ⎞⎟
d
⎛ L ⎞⎟ ⎛ M ⎞⎟
c
⎛ M ⎞⎟
d
⎛ L2 ⎞⎟ ⎛ M ⎞⎟
c
⎛ M ⎞⎟
d
⎛ M ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Lt ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ t ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ L3 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Lf ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ E 2t ⎟⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ L ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ Lt ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ t T ⎟⎠
Equating powers of L, M, t and T on Equating powers of L, M, t and T Equating powers of L, M, t and T

both sides on both sides on both sides
a + b±c±d a + b±c±d a + b±c±d
b + c +d b + c + d b + c + d
±b±d± ±b±d± ±b±d±
±b ±b± ±b±
d ± b ± b ±
c=1 d=1 d
a=1 c c
a a =1
DρU μCP hD
π1 = 5H\QROGVQXPEHURe π2 = = Prandtl number, Pr Q3 = = Nusselt number, Nu
μ K K
Forced convection heat transfer is a function of seven variables and with the help of dimensional
DQDO\VLVWKHVHVHYHQYDULDEOHVDUHFRPELQHGLQWRWKUHHGLPHQVLRQOHVVJURXSV7KHIXQFWLRQDOUHODWLRQ-
VKLSEHWZHHQWKHPPD\EHZULWWHQDV
ʌ = f(ʌ1, ʌ2)
Nu = f(5H3U)
7KHH[SHULPHQWDOGDWDFDQEHFRUUHODWHGLQWHUPVRIWKHVHWKUHHGLPHQVLRQOHVVQXPEHUVLQVWHDGRIWKH
C C
seven variables and the relationship will be Nu = C1 q Re 2 q Pr 3 where C1, C2 and C are constants.
11.2. $ÀXLGZKLFKLVKHDWHGE\DKRWYHUWLFDOSODWHDQGIRUFHGXSGXHWREXR\DQF\KDVVHYHQYDULDEOHVWKDW
LQÀXHQFHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHU7KH\DUHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWKÀXLGGHQVLW\ȡSODWHOHQJWK/ÀXLG
G\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\ȝWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\.VSHFL¿FKHDWFpDQGEXR\DQF\IRUFHȕJǻ7)LQGWKH
SRVVLEOHGLPHQVLRQOHVVJURXSVIURPWKHVHYDULDEOHVWRHVWLPDWHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
/HWWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVDIXQFWLRQRIWKHSK\VLFDOIDFWRUVDV
h = f (ȡ, L, ȝ, cp, K, ȕJǻT)
7KHEXR\DQF\IRUFHȕJǻTZLOOEHFRQVLGHUHGDVRQHSK\VLFDOIDFWRUZKLFKLVFDXVLQJWKHÀRZ
f [ȡ, L, ȝ, K,KFp, (ȕJǻT@
7KLVSUREOHPLVFRQWUROOHGE\VHYHQSK\VLFDOTXDQWLWLHVFRQWDLQLQJIRXUIXQGDPHQWDOGLPHQVLRQV
and using the Buckingham theorem, three dimensionless groups can be formed.
According to the Buckingham theorem, four variables ȡ, L, ȝ and K which contain all four funda-
PHQWDOGLPHQVLRQVPD\EHVHOHFWHGDVWKHUHSHDWLQJYDULDEOHVDQGWKH\IRUPWKUHHQRQGLPHQVLRQDO
groups with each of the remaining variable.
7KHUHIRUH
ʌ1 = h (ȡ)a (L)b (ȝ)c (k)d = MLtT
(MT± T±) (ML±)a(L)b (ML± T±)c (MLT± T±)d = MLtT
Equating the powers of M, L, t and T on both sides,
a + c + d
±a + b±c + d
±c±d±
±d±
a = b = 1, c = G ±
hL
Q1 = = the Nusselt number, Nu
K
6LPLODUO\
ʌ2 = (ȡ)a1 (L)b1 (ȝ)c1 (k)d1 Cp = MLtT
7KHUHIRUH
(ML±)a1 (L)b1 (ML±t±)c1 (MLT± T±)d1 (L2t±T±)= MLtT
Equating the powers of M, L, t and T on both sides,
a1 + c1 + d1
±a1 + b1±c1 + d1
±c1±d1±
±d1±
a1 = b1 = c1 = 1G1 = ±
7KHUHIRUH
μc p
π2 = = Prandtl number, Pr
K
6LPLODUO\
ʌ = (ȡ)a2 (L)b2 (ȝ)c2 (k)d2 (ȕJǻT) = MLtT
7KDWLV
(ML±)a2 (L)b2 (ML±t±)c2 (MLT± T±)d2 (LT±)= MLtT
Equating powers of M, L, t and T on both sides,
a2 + c2 + d2
±a2 + b2±c2 + d2
±c2±d2±
±d2
a2 =2, b2 c2 ±DQGd2
(β g%T ) 2 ρ 2 L3 (β g%T ) L3
7KHUHIRUH π3 = = WKH*UDVKRIQXPEHUGr
μ2 v2
'LPHQVLRQOHVVJURXSVPD\EHUHODWHGDVʌ1 = f(ʌ2. ʌ).

7KHUHIRUH
⎛ μc ⎞ ⎛ β g .ΔT .L3 ⎞⎟
n m
= C ⎜⎜⎜ p ⎟⎟⎟
hL
.⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
K ⎝ K ⎟⎠ ⎝ v2 ⎟⎠
Nu = C ( Pr ) n (Gr ) m
where C, n and m are the constants.
R EVI EW QU ESTI O NS
:KDW LV WKH UROH RI WKH FRQWURO V\VWHP LQ KHDW +RZZLOO\RXGHWHUPLQHWKHVXUIDFHHPLVVLYLW\
transfer experiments? RIDPDWHULDOXVLQJDUDGLDWLRQS\URPHWHU"
+RZZLOO\RXPHDVXUHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RI 11.7. What are the limitations in using a thermometer
a plate? WRPHDVXUHYHU\KLJKWHPSHUDWXUHV"
([SODLQ D PHWKRG IRU WKH PHDVXUHPHQW RI 11.8. Explain the procedure to measure temperature
WKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RILDOLTXLGDQGLLDJDV XVLQJHOHFWULFDO±UHVLVWDQFHWKHUPRPHWHU
'LVFXVVWKHH[SHULPHQWDOSURFHGXUHWRGHWHUPLQH ,QZKDWZD\LVDWKHUPLVWRUGLIIHUIURPRWKHU
WKHIUHHFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW temperature measuring instruments?
([SODLQ WKH H[SHULPHQWDO SURFHGXUH WR /LVW WKH GLIIHUHQW FRPELQDWLRQV RI WKHUPR
determine the forced convection heat transfer FRXSOHVDQGFRPSDUHWKHLUFDSDFLW\WRPHDVXUH
FRHI¿FLHQWRIDÀXLG temperature.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
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ODERUDWRU\H[SHULPHQWVIRU EJDVÀRZPHWHU
(a) accurate maintenance of the set values of FRSWLFDOS\URPHWHU
variables
(d) all of the above
EEHWWHU DFFXUDF\ RI WKH VHW YDOXHV RI
7KHSULPDU\GLPHQVLRQVRISUHVVXUHDUHJLYHQ
variables
E\WKHH[SUHVVLRQ
FEHWWHU HUURU DQDO\VLV RI WKH VHW YDOXHV RI
variables (a) M/t2L2 (b) M/tL2
(d) all of the above (c) M/t2L (d) M2/tL
0HDVXUHPHQWRIWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\LVEDVHG )RUFHE\LQHUWLDLVDSURGXFWRIPDVVDQG
on (a) shear stress (b) area
D1HZWRQ¶VODZ (c) acceleration (d) pressure
E)RXULHU¶VODZ 3UDQGWO QXPEHU LV WKH UDWLR RI NLQHPDWLF
F6WHIDQ±%ROW]PDQ¶VODZ YLVFRVLW\WR
(d) all of the above DWKHUPDOGLIIXVLYLW\ EIULFWLRQ
:DWHUÀRZUDWHFDQEHPHDVXUHGXVLQJD (c) force (d) pressure
(a) thermometer (b) thermocouple )RU FRPSOHWH VLPLODULW\ EHWZHHQ PRGHO DQG
(c) venturimeter (d) all of the above SURWRW\SHLWLVHVVHQWLDOWRKDYH
DJHRPHWULFVLPLODULW\
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EG\QDPLFVLPLODULW\
DWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\ EKHDWÀX[
(c) both a and b
FÀRZ GHPLVVLYLW\
GNLQHPDWLFVLPLODULW\
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DUHÀHFWLYLW\ EWUDQVPLVVLYLW\ Answers:
FHPLVVLYLW\ GFRQGXFWLYLW\ DEFEFD
11.6. Solar radiation is measured using FFDF
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
)LQGWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHTXDQWLWLHVJLYHQEHORZ where HLVWKHKHDGFDXVLQJWKHÀRZD is the
(i) angular acceleration, (ii) discharge, (iii) force, GLDPHWHURIWKHRUL¿FHȝLVWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIYLV-
LY VSHFL¿F ZHLJKW DQG Y G\QDPLF YLVFRVLW\ FRVLW\ȡLVWKHPDVVGHQVLW\DQGg is the accel-
(Ans. Tí, LTí, MLTí, MLíT2, MLíTí) HUDWLRQGXHWRJUDYLW\
7KHSHQGXOXPWLPHSHULRGt) depends upon the 'HULYH DQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU WKH SUHVVXUH GLIIHU-
length of the pendulum (L) and acceleration due HQFH¨PIRUDWXUEXOHQWÀRZLQDSLSHRIGLDP-
WR JUDYLW\ g 8VLQJ 5D\OHLJK¶V PHWKRG VKRZ eter D, length LYHORFLW\VYLVFRVLW\ȝGHQVLW\
L ȡ and roughness k.
that the expression for the time period is C .
⎛ ⎞
g ⎜⎜ Ans. ΔP = ρV 2 f ⎡⎢ L , k , μ ⎤⎥ ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟⎟
7KHGUDJIRUFHRIDVPRRWKVSKHUHGHSHQGVRQLWV ⎝ ⎣ D D DV ρ ⎦ ⎠
diameter, DPRYLQJYHORFLW\VÀXLGGHQVLW\ȡ,
DQGG\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\ȝ. Derive the expression 11.11 Derive an expression for the pressure differ-
for drag force F as &ȡ'2V2 = f(ȝ/ȡ9'). HQFH¨PIRUDYLVFRXVÀRZLQDSLSHRIGLDP-
'HULYH DQ H[SUHVVLRQ IRU WKH SRZHU P, of a eter D, length L YHORFLW\ V YLVFRVLW\ ȝ and
pump which depends upon the head, H, the GHQVLW\ȡ.
⎛ ⎡ DV ρ ⎤ ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ Ans. ΔP = ⎛⎜ μV ⎞⎟⎟⎛⎜ L ⎞⎟⎟ f
discharge, QDQGVSHFL¿FZHLJKWwRIWKHÀXLG
⎜⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ⎥⎟
(Ans. P = CQH) ⎜⎜⎝ ⎝ D ⎠⎝ D ⎠ ⎢ μ ⎥ ⎟⎟⎠
⎣ ⎦
)LQG WKH HI¿FLHQF\ RI D IDQ Ș, which depends
RQWKHGHQVLW\ȡWKHG\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\ȝ of the 11.12. Derive an expression for the thrust P developed
ÀXLGWKHDQJXODUYHORFLW\Ȧ, diameter, D, of the E\ D SURSHOOHU ZKLFK GHSHQGV RQ WKH DQJXODU
rotor and the discharge, Q. YHORFLW\ Ȧ, speed of advance V, diameter D,
⎛ ⎞ G\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\ȝPDVVGHQVLW\ȡ, and elas-
⎜⎜ Ans. η = C ⎡⎢⎛⎜ μ ⎟⎞⎟⎛⎜ Q ⎞⎟⎤⎥ ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎢⎜⎜⎝ ρWD 2 ⎟⎟⎠⎜⎜⎝WD 3 ⎟⎟⎠⎥ ⎟⎟⎟ WLFLW\RIWKHÀXLGPHGLXPGHQRWHGE\WKHVSHHG
⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎠ of sound in the medium C.
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ Ans. P = D 2V 2ρ f ⎡⎢⎛⎜ C ⎞⎟, ⎛⎜ DW ⎞⎟, ⎛⎜ μ ⎞⎟⎟⎤⎥ ⎟⎟
11.6 Derive an expression for the resisting force, F,
of an aircraft which depends on its length, L, ⎜⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎢⎜⎝V ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ V ⎠⎟ ⎜⎝ DV ρ ⎟⎠⎥ ⎟⎟⎟
⎟
YHORFLW\VDLUGHQVLW\ȡ, and bulk modulus of ⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎠
⎛ ⎡⎛ μ ⎞⎛ K ⎞⎤ ⎞⎟
air, K. ⎜⎜⎜ Ans. F = Cρ L2V 2 f ⎢⎢⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜
⎟
⎟⎟⎥ ⎟
2 ⎟⎥ ⎟ ⎟
8VLQJ %XFNLQJKDP¶V WKHRUHP VKRZ WKDW WKH
⎜⎝ ⎢⎣⎜⎝ ρVL ⎟⎠⎜⎝ ρV ⎟⎠⎥⎦ ⎟⎠ frictional torque, T, of a disc of diameter D
7KHUHVLVWDQFHIRUFHF, to the motion of a par- rotating at a speed N LQ D ÀXLG RI YLVFRVLW\ ȝ
WLDOO\VXEPHUJHGERG\WRZHGLQZDWHUGHSHQGV DQG GHQVLW\ ȡ LQ D WXUEXOHQW ÀRZ LV
RQWKHGHQVLW\ȡZDWHUYLVFRVLW\μ, length, L, of ⎡ μ ⎤
T = D 5 N 2ρφ ⎢ 2 ⎥ .
WKHERG\YHORFLW\vRIWKHERG\DQGWKHDFFHO- ⎢ D Nρ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
HUDWLRQ GXH WR JUDYLW\ g. Express the relation-
ship between these variables. 6KRZWKDWWKHGLVFKDUJHQFRQVXPHGE\DQRLO
⎛ ⎞
⎜⎜ Ans. F = C ρ L2V 2 f ⎡⎢⎛⎜ μ ⎞⎟⎟⎛⎜ Lg ⎞⎟⎤⎥ ⎟⎟
ULQJLVJLYHQE\
⎜⎜ ⎢⎜⎜⎝ ρVI ⎟⎟⎠⎜⎜⎝ V 2 ⎟⎟⎠⎥ ⎟⎟⎟ ⎡ μ ρ ω ⎤⎥
⎝ ⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ ⎠ Q = Nd 3φ ⎢ , ,
⎢ ρ ND 2 ρ N 2 D 3 ρ N 2 D ⎥
'HULYHDQH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHHI¿FLHQF\Ș, of a ⎣ ⎦
IDQZKLFKGHSHQGVRQGHQVLW\ȡÀXLGG\QDPLF where D is the internal diameter of the ring, N
YLVFRVLW\ȝDQJXODUYHORFLW\Ȧ, diameter, D, of is its rotational speed, ȡLVWKHGHQVLW\ȝ is the
the rotor and the discharge, Q. YLVFRVLW\ȡ is the surface tension and Ȧ is the
⎛ ⎞ VSHFL¿FZHLJKWRIRLO
⎜⎜ Ans. η = f ⎡⎢ μ , Q ⎤⎥ ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎢ ⎥ ⎟⎟ 2LO RI VSHFL¿F JUDYLW\ DQG YLVFRVLW\
⎣ D W ρ D W ⎦⎠
2 2
⎝
qíSRLVHLVPRYHGDWWKHUDWHRI/V
'HULYHDQH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHYHORFLW\WKURXJKD
WKURXJKDSLSHRIGLDPHWHUP0RGHOWHVWV
⎡ μ Q ⎤⎥ ZHUHFRQGXFWHGRQDSLSHRIGLDPHWHUFP
FLUFXODU RUL¿FH DV V = 2 gH φ ⎢ 2 ,
⎢ D W ρ D 2W ⎥ XVLQJZDWHUDW&LQWKHODERUDWRU\WRVLPXODWH
⎣ ⎦
WKHÀRZ)LQGWKHYHORFLW\DQGUDWHRIÀRZLQ 1P2. What will be the corresponding
WKH PRGHO 9LVFRVLW\ RI ZDWHU DW °& pressure drop in the actual aircraft? Assume the
poise. (Ans. PV/V GHQVLW\RIDLUWREHNJPWKHYLVFRVLW\RI
,QDKHDWH[FKDQJHUZDWHUÀRZVWKURXJKDSLSH ZDWHUWREHSRLVHDQGWKHYLVFRVLW\RIDLUWR
RIGLDPHWHUPDWDYHORFLW\RIPPLQ EHSRLVHAns. 1P2)
(VWLPDWHWKHYHORFLW\RIRLOÀRZLQJLQDQRWKHU $ PRGHO RI D À\LQJ ERDW LV WRZHG
SLSHRIGLDPHWHUPLIWKHUHLVG\QDPLFVLP- through water. A boat that moves in sea-
LODULW\EHWZHHQWKHWZRSLSHV$VVXPHWKDWWKH ZDWHURIGHQVLW\NJP DWDYHORFLW\RI
YLVFRVLWLHVRIZDWHUDQGRLODUHSRLVHDQG NPKLVWREHWHVWHGLQWKHODERUDWRU\ZLWK
SRLVH7KHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\RIRLO ZDWHU KDYLQJ GHQVLW\ RI NJP. Find
(Ans. PV the corresponding speed of the model. (Ans.
11.17 If the ratio of lengths of a submarine and its 18.6 km/hr)
PRGHOLVDQGWKHVSHHGRIWKHVXEPDULQH $ YHVVHO PRGHO LV SXOOHG WKURXJK IUHVK ZDWHU
SURWRW\SHLVPPLQ¿QGWKHVSHHGRIDLU in lab condition at 7.2 km/hr with a total mea-
in wind tunnel. Assume kinematic viscosities VXUHGGUDJRI17KHGUDJFRHI¿FLHQWf, for
RI VHD ZDWHU DQG DLU WR EH VWRNHV DQG WKHPRGHODQGSURWRW\SHDUHDQGUH-
VWRNHVUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHGHQVLW\RIVHD VSHFWLYHO\LQWKHHTXDWLRQRf = fAV27KHZHW-
ZDWHU DQG DLU DUH NJP DQG NJP, WHG VXUIDFH DUHD RI WKH PRGHO LV P2. Find
UHVSHFWLYHO\Ans. NPPLQ WKHWRWDOGUDJRQWKHSURWRW\SH$VVXPHWKDWWKH
$Q DLUFUDIW PRGHO LV WHVWHG LQ ZDWHU 7KH DF- GHQVLW\RIVHDZDWHULVNJPand that the
WXDODLUFUDIWLVWLPHVELJJHUWKDQWKHPRGHO SURWRW\SH LV WLPHV ELJJHU WKDQ WKH PRGHO
7KH SUHVVXUH GURS LQ DQ DLUFUDIW PRGHO LV (Ans. N1
12
Mass Transfer
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The transfer of mass from a higher concentration region to a lower concentration region in a mixture
is known as mass transfer. The mass transfer is similar to heat transfer in many aspects. In heat
transfer, heat is transferred toward the lower temperature decreasing the temperature of the source
and, in mass transfer, the mass is transferred toward the lower concentration matter decreasing
the concentration of the source. Both depend on the driving potential and the resistance that exist
between the two sources. Mass transfer takes place from liquid to gas and solid, from solid to gas,
and also from gas to gas. It depends on the molecular spacing of the receiving mass and larger
spacing gives a higher diffusion rate. The mass transfer rate of gases is usually higher than that of
liquids and solids.
12.2 MODES OF MASS TRANSFER

Mass transfer occurs by convection or diffusion. Mass transfer by convection is the transfer of mass
EHWZHHQDPRYLQJÀXLGDQGDVXUIDFH,WGHSHQGVRQWKHSURSHUWLHVDQGFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRIWKHÀXLG
If the mass transfer by diffusion (microscopic level) takes place due to temperature gradient in a
system, then it is called as thermal diffusion. Mass diffusion can also occur due to temperature
gradient within a system and that is known as thermal diffusion.
12.3 FICK’S LAWS OF DIFFUSION

)LFN¶VODZRIGLIIXVLRQGHVFULEHVGLIIXVLRQDQGDUHXVHGWRVROYHIRUWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIGLIIXVLRQ7KH
amount of species per unit volume is known as concentration gradient of that species. It states that the
ÀRZUDWHRIWKHVSHFLHVLVSURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQJUDGLHQWDQGWKHDUHDQRUPDOWRWKHÀRZ
direction.
Mass transfer by diffusion,
∂Cb
mb = −DA (12.1)
∂x
where mbLVWKHPDVVÀX[RIVSHFLHVµb’ per unit time in kg/s, D is the proportionality constant or

GLIIXVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWLQP2/s, ALVWKHDUHDWKURXJKZKLFKWKHPDVVLVÀRZLQJLQP2, and Cb is the mass
FRQFHQWUDWLRQRIDFRPSRQHQWµb’ per unit volume in kg/m3. The negative sign implies concentration
RIWKHPDVVGHFUHDVHVLQWKHÀRZGLUHFWLRQ
Fourier law of heat conduction and Newton’s law of viscosity are also in the form of Equation
(12.2). Fourier equation for conduction is
∂T
Q = −kA (Transfer of energy). (12.2)
∂x
Newton’s equation for shear is
∂u
Shear stress = NA (Transfer of momentum). (12.3)
∂y
The perfect gas equation for partial pressure is given as,
P = S RT
where R = Ru / M in which Ru is the universal gas constant (8314 J/kg mol.K) and M is the molecular
weight of any gas
Pb M b
Sb = Cb = . (12.4)
Ru T
0DVVÀX[LVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWHRIPDVVÀRZDFURVVDXQLWDUHD,WFDQDOVREHVWDWHGDVWKHPDVV
ÀX[DFURVVDVXUIDFHA is the total mass of particles which move across A per unit time:
mb M d Pb
Mass flux, N b = = −Dbc b . (12.5)
A Ru T d x
mc M d Pc
)RUVSHFLHVµc’, N c = = −Dcb c (12.6)
A Ru T d x
:HFDQDOVRGHULYHWKHIROORZLQJH[SUHVVLRQIRUWKHPDVVÀX[E\LQWHJUDWLQJ(TXDWLRQ
mb C − Cb 2 D (C − Cb 2 )
= Dbc b1 = bc b1 . (12.7)
A x2 − x1 Δx
12.4 EQUIMOLAR DIFFUSION

When a mole of one species is replaced by another mole of another species and vice versa, it is
known as equimolar diffusion. Let B and CDUHWZRVSHFLHVWKHQWKHPROHGLIIXVLRQUDWHVRIµB’ and
µC’ are
mb A d Pb
Nb = = −Dbc (12.8)
Mb Ru T d x
mc A d Pc
Nc = = −Dcb . (12.9)
MC Ru T d x
MASS TRANSFER | 403
Under steady-state condition, the total pressure is
P = Pc + Pb
d P d Pc d Pb
∴ = + =0
dx dx dx
d Pb dP
=− c . (12.10)
dx dx
In case of equimolar steady-state diffusion,
−N b = N c
íYHVLJQVKRZVWKHÀRZRIVSHFLHVLQWKHRSSRVLWHGLUHFWLRQ
A d Pb A d Pc A d Pb
−Dbc = Dcb = −Dcb . (12.11)
Ru T d x Ru T d x Ru T d x
∴ Dbc = Dcb = D.
The GLIIXVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWFDQEHGHWHUPLQHGXVLQJWKHVHPLHPSLULFDOHTXDWLRQ
T 3/ 2 1 1
D = 435.7 + (12.12)
P (V
b
1/ 3
+V c )
1/ 3 2 Mb Mc
where D is in cm2/s, T is the absolute temperature in K, P is the total pressure in Pascal, Vc and Vb are
the molecular volume species C and B calculated from the atomic volumes, and Mc and Mb are the
molecular weights of C and B.
12.5 ISOTHERMAL EVAPORATION

Consider the evaporation of water from a source maintained at a constant temperature and its diffusion
through the stagnant air layer over it when the free surface of the water source is exposed to air. The
assumptions made are the following: (1) the water source temperature and the total pressure remain
constant; (2) the system is at steady-state; (3) there is a continuous movement of air over the surface of
water source to remove the diffused water vapor; (4) air movement does not affect the concentration
SUR¿OHRIDLUDLUDQGZDWHUYDSRUEHKDYHDVLGHDOJDV
The water evaporates diffuse upward from the surface and this upward water vapor will be
EDODQFHGE\WKHGRZQZDUGGLIIXVLRQRIDLU6RWKDWFRQFHQWUDWLRQDWDQ\µx’ will remain the same. At
the surface of water, there is no mass movement of air downward. Therefore, there must be a bulk
mass movement upward with a velocity just enough to balance the diffusion of air downward.
Diffusion of air downward is
AM a d Pa
ma = −D (12.13)
Ru T d x
ZKHUHµA’ is the cross-sectional area of the tank.
This is balanced by the bulk mass transfer of air upward:
Pa M a
∴ − Sa AV = − AV (12.14)
Ru T
ZKHUHµV’ is the upward bulk mass velocity.

Using the above equations,
D ⎛⎜ d Pa ⎞⎟
V= ⎜ ⎟ (12.15)
Pa ⎜⎝ d x ⎟⎠
The upward mass diffusion of water vapor is
M W d Pw
mw = −DA . (12.16)
Ru T d x
Bulk water vapor transport is given by
Pw
Sw AV = M w AV . (12.17)
Ru T
The total transport of the mass of water vapor is
M w d Pw Pw M w
mw(total) = −DA + VA. (12.18)
Ru T d x Ru T
6XEVWLWXWLQJWKHYDOXHRIµV’ in Equation (12.18), we get
M w d Pw Pw M w D d Pa
mw(total) = −DA + A . (12.19)
Ru T d x RuT Pa d x
Using the Dalton’s law of partial pressure,
Pt = Pa + Pv
d Pa dP
∴ =− w
dx dx
M w d Pw Pw M w D d Pw
mw(total) = −DA − A (12.20)
Ru T d x Ru T Pa d x
DA dP ⎡ P ⎤
=− M w w ⎢1 + w ⎥
Ru T ⎢
dx ⎣ Pa ⎥⎦
MASS TRANSFER | 405
DA dP ⎡ Pt ⎤
=− Mw w ⎢ ⎥. (12.21)
Ru T dx ⎢P −P ⎥
⎣ t w⎦
This relation is known as Stefan’s law.

Integrating Equation (12.21), we get
pw2
x2 DA d Pw
mw ∫ dx =− M w pt ∫
x1 Ru T p
pt − pw
w1
pw2
DA d Pw
mu ( x2 − x1 ) = − M w pt ∫
Ru T p
pw − pt
w1
⎛ pw − pt ⎞⎟
M w Pt ln ⎜⎜⎜ 2
DA ⎟⎟
=
Ru T ⎜⎝ pw1 − pt ⎟⎟⎠
⎛ pt − pw ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜⎜
DA M w pt 2 ⎟
mw = ⎟ (12.22)
Ru T ( x2 − x1 ) ⎜⎝ pt − pw1 ⎟⎟⎠
⎛ pa ⎞⎟
DA M w pt ⎜
= ln ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟⎟. (12.23)
Ru T ( x2 − x1 ) ⎜⎝ pa1 ⎟⎠
12.6 MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT IN CONVECTION

&RQYHFWLYHPDVVWUDQVIHULVWKHWUDQVIHURIPDVVEHWZHHQDVXUIDFHDQGDPRYLQJÀXLG,WLQYROYHVERWK
PDVVGLIIXVLRQDQGEXONÀXLGPRWLRQ
The rate of mass transfer by convection is
ma = = Da A (Ca1 − Ca2 ) (12.24)
where maLVWKHGLIIXVLYHPDVVÀX[RIVSHFLHVµA’, = Da LVWKHPDVVWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRIµA’, and

(Ca1 and Ca2 ) are the concentration through which diffusion occurs.
If a VWHDG\VWDWHGLIIXVLRQDFURVVDOD\HURIWKLFNQHVVµ¨x’ is considered, then
DA(Ca2 − Ca1 )
ma = − (12.25)
Δx
= −= Da A(Ca2 − Ca1 )
D
∴ = Da = . (12.26)
Δx
For the process of water vaporization,
Mw
Sw1 − Sw2 = ( Pw − Pw2 ) = Cw1 − Cw2 .
Ru T 1
(12.27)
From Equation (12.22),
DAM w Pt pt − pw2 M
mw1 = ln = hDw A w ( pw1 − pw2 ) (12.28)
Ru T ( x2 − x1 ) pt − pw1 Ru T
⎛ pt − pw ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜⎜
Dw Pt 2 ⎟
hDW = ⎟⎟ (12.29)
( x2 − x1 )( pw1 − pw2 ) ⎝ t ⎜ p − p w1 ⎟⎠
12.7 MASS TRANSFER THROUGH BOUNDARY LAYER

,IWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQSUR¿OHH[LVWVRQWKHVXUIDFHDVVKRZQLQ)LJCa > C, then the component
µA¶GLIIXVHVLQWRWKHÀXLGWKURXJKconcentration boundary layer.
Cd
ud Cd
y
Plate Ca
x
Figure 12.1 Concentration Boundary Layer
For a laminar boundary layer:

Energy equation is given as
∂u ∂u ∂ 2u
u +v =H 2 (12.30)
∂x ∂y ∂y
Momentum transfer equation is given as
∂T ∂T ∂ 2T
u +v =B 2 (12.31)
∂x ∂y ∂y
'LIIXVLRQRQDÀDWSODWHLQDODPLQDUERXQGDU\OD\HUJLYHVWKHPDVVHTXDWLRQDV
∂Ca ∂C ∂C
u + v a = D 2a (12.32)
∂x ∂y ∂y
MASS TRANSFER | 407
where Ca is the concentration of the species, which diffuses through the boundary layer.
From Equations (12.30) and (12.31)
v v μ
= Prandtl number and = = Schmit number,
α D ρD
and the Schmit number plays an important role where both convection and mass transfer are
important.
Combing Equations (12.31) and (12.32) we get,
B
= Lewis number.
D
7KHWHPSHUDWXUHDQGFRQFHQWUDWLRQSUR¿OHVZLOOEHVLPLODUZKHQ B D = 1 .
7KHFRQFHQWUDWLRQDQGYHORFLW\SUR¿OHVZLOOEHVLPLODUZKHQ H D = 1.
The governing equations for heat, mass, and momentum transfer give an empirical conclusion for
PDVVWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWZKLFKLVVLPLODUWRKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW)RUOLTXLGVGLIIXVHLQWRDLULQVLGH
the columns in which the liquid wets the surface and air is forced, we get
⎛ ρU d ⎞
0.83
⎛ γ ⎞⎟
0.44
hD d
= 0.023⎜⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟ . (12.33)
D ⎝ μ ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ D ⎟⎠
=x =d
The ratio or is called the Sherwood number.
D D
7KHPDVVWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLQWHUPVRIDIULFWLRQIDFWRULV
hD 2 / 3 f
Sc = . (12.34)
Um 8
Compared with the heat transfer analogy, we get

h f
Pr 2 / 3 = . (12.35)
U mC p S 8
)RUODPLQDUÀRZRYHUDVPRRWKÀDWVXUIDFHWKHReynolds analogy of mass transfer gives
hD 2 / 3 C f
Sc = = 0.332 Re−x 0.5 . (12.36)
u∞ 2
Also, Shx = 0.332 ( Re)

1/ 2
Sc1 / 3 .
For WXUEXOHQWÀRZRYHUDÀDWVXUIDFHWKH5H\QROGVDQDORJ\RIPDVVWUDQVIHUJLYHV
hD 2 / 3 C f
Sc = = 0.0296 Rex−1 / 5 (12.37)
u∞ 2
Shx = 0.0298 ( Re)

1/ 2
Sc1 / 3 .
0DVVDQGKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWPD\EHH[SUHVVHGDV
⎛ Sc ⎞ ⎛α⎞
2/3 2/3
h
= ρC p ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = ρC p ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ = ρC p ( Le)
2/3
. (12.38)
hD ⎜⎝ Pr ⎠ ⎜⎝ D ⎠
12.8 EVAPORATION PROCESSES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmospheric air receives water from water bodies of the earth by evaporation and by condensation
it gives back some water. These processes are complicated and in practice governed by convection
currents. The diffusion of water vapor from the surface into atmospheric air can be estimated. With
the partial pressure of vapor ( ps), the YDSRUSUHVVXUHGURSVZLWKWKHLQFUHDVHLQHOHYDWLRQµz’ to the free
DWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHRIµp’, the diffusion of water vapor is given by
mw M d pw
= −Dw w . (12.39)
A Ru T d z
The total pressure is

Ru
pt = St T
M
ZKHUHµȡ¶LVWKHGHQVLW\DQGµM’ is the molecular weight of the moisture air.

Neglecting the molecular weights of water vapor, we get
Pa M a
Ru T =
Sa
mw M S d pw
= −Dw w . a (12.40)
A M a pa d z
mw S d pw
= −0.622 Dw . a (12.41)
A pa d z
By using boundary conditions, pw = ps, at z = 0 and pw = p, at z = z1:
mw S ⎛ p − p∞ ⎞⎟
= 0.622 Dw . a ⎜⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟ (12.42)
A pa ⎜⎝ z1 ⎟⎠
12.9 CONCLUSIONS
The amount of commodity per unit volume is known as concentration. It can be represented based on
mass basis as kg/m3 and based on mole basis as Kmol/m3. Mass transfer is the movement of a chemical
species from a higher concentration region toward a lower concentration one (due to concentration
GLIIHUHQFH%XONÀXLGPRWLRQRFFXUVRQDPDFURVFRSLFDVDÀXLGLVWUDQVSRUWHGIURPRQHORFDWLRQWR
another due to temperature difference.
)LFN¶VODZRIGLIIXVLRQVWDWHVWKDWWKHUDWHRIPDVVÀRZLVGLUHFWO\SURSRUWLRQDOWRWKHFRQFHQWUDWLRQ
JUDGLHQW DQG DUHD QRUPDO WR WKH ÀRZ GLUHFWLRQ 0DVV WUDQVIHU LQYROYHV WKH GLIIXVLRQ RI D VSHFLHV
MASS TRANSFER | 409
through a plane – parallel medium that does not involve any chemical reaction. Similarly, heat is
transferred by conduction through a plane wall without heat generation.
The growth of velocity and concentration boundary layer is governed by Schmidt number. It states
the magnitude of thermal and concentration boundary layer. Mass transfer takes place by diffusion,
convection, and phase change.
0DVVWUDQVIHUE\FRQYHFWLRQLQYROYHVWKHWUDQVIHURIPDVVEHWZHHQDPRYLQJÀXLGDQGDVXUIDFH
,W GHSHQGV RQ WKH WUDQVSRUW SURSHUWLHV DQG G\QDPLF FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI WKH ÀRZLQJ ÀXLG 0DVV
transfer by phase change occurs whenever there is a change from one phase to another. Velocity of a
component relative to the mass average velocity of the mixture is known as mass diffusion velocity.
Velocity of a component relative to the molar average velocity of the mixture is known as molar
diffusion velocity.
Evaporation of water, dissolution of sugar in water, diffusion of smoke into atmosphere, and neutron
diffusion within nuclear reactor are examples for mass transfer. The ratio of mass of a component to
the total mass of the mixture is known as mass fraction. The ratio of number of moles of a component
to the total number of moles of the mixture is known as mole fraction. (TXLPRODUGLIIXVLRQLVGH¿QHG
as the isothermal diffusion process in which one mole of a component is replaced by one mole of
another component in a binary gas mixture and vice versa.
)LFN¶V GLIIXVLRQ FRHI¿FLHQW LV D IXQFWLRQ RI SUHVVXUH WHPSHUDWXUH DQG QDWXUH RI WKH V\VWHP
component. But it is assumed as constant for ideal gases and dilute liquids. The rate of mass transfer
can be represented similar to heat transfer.
Stefan’s law of diffusion gives the diffusion of an ideal gaseous component through a practically
stagnant and ideal constituent of the binary system.
0RODUFRQFHQWUDWLRQLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLREHWZHHQWKHQXPEHURIPROHVVSHFLHVLQDPL[WXUHWRWKH
YROXPHRIWKHPL[WXUH0DVVIUDFWLRQLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLREHWZHHQWKHPDVVRIVSHFLHVWRWKHWRWDO
mass of the mixture.
0DVVDYHUDJHYHORFLW\ÀRZLVWKHVXPRISURGXFWVRIVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\DQGYHORFLW\RIVSHFLHVLQD
mixture. It can be measured by pitot tube and hot wire anemometer.
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
12.1 &
DOFXODWHWKHGLIIXVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWIRU&22LQDLUDWDDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHRI.DQGFRPSDUHZLWK
WDEOHYDOXH
VCO2 = 34.0 M CO2 = 44
Vair = 29.9 M air = 28.9
(435.7)(298)
3/ 2
⎡1 1 ⎤
D= . ⎢ + ⎥
⎢⎣ 44 28.9 ⎥⎦
(1.0132 ×105 ) ⎡⎢⎣(34)
1/ 3
+ (29.9) ⎤⎥
1/ 3 2
⎦
= 0.132 cm 2 /s
From the table, D=0.164 cm2/s.

12.2 &
DOFXODWHWKHGLIIXVLRQUDWHRIZDWHUYDSRUIURPWKHERWWRPRIDWHVWWXEHPPLQUDGLXVDQGFPORQJ
LQWRGU\DWPRVSKHULFDLUDW.
The partial pressure at the bottom of a tube surface ( Pw1 ) = saturated pressure at 298 K
= 0.03169 bar
Water vapour pressure at the top of the tube ( Pw2 ) is zero because it is dry air.
PA1 = Pt − Pw1 = 9.815 ×104 Pa

PA2 = Pt − Pw2 = 1.0132 ×105 Pa
From the table, D = 0.256 cm2/s = 0.256q104 m2/s
DPw M w A PA
mw = ln 1
RuT ( x2 − x1 ) PA2
(0.256 ×10−4 )(1.0132 ×105 )(18) ⎡⎢⎣Q (5×10−3 ) ⎤⎥⎦

2
⎛ 9.8155 ⎞⎟
= ln ⎜⎜
(8315)(298)(0.2) ⎜⎝1.0132 ⎟⎟⎠
−10
= 2.35 ×10 kg/s.
12.3 '
U\DLUDW&DQGRQHDWPRVSKHULFSUHVVXUHIORZVRYHUDZHWIODWSODWHRIPORQJDQGDWD
YHORFLW\RIPV'HWHUPLQHWKHPDVVWUDQVIHUFRHIILFLHQWRIZDWHUYDSRULQDLUDWWKHHQGRIWKH
SODWH
D for water vapor in air = 0.26 q 104 m2/s
Properties of air at 30°C are ȡ = 1.16 kg/m3; ȝ = 18.46 q 106 Ns/m2; 3U = 0.71
Reynolds number
ρU ∞ L
Re =
μ
1.16 × 60 × 0.5
=
18.46 ×10−6
= 18.85×105 (Turbulent flow)
Schmit number
μ 18.46 ×10−6
Sc = = = 0.612
ρ D 1.16 × 0.26 ×10−4
hm 2 / 3 0.0288
Sc =
U∞ Re0.2
0.0288 U ∞
hm =
Re0.2 ( Sc)2 / 3
(0.0288)(60)
=
(18.85×105 ) (0.612)2 / 3
0.2
= 0.133 m/s.
12.4 $
ZHOOLVPKHLJKWDQGPUDGLXVDQGWKHDWPRVSKHULFWHPSHUDWXUHLV&7KHDLULVKDYLQJDUHOD-
WLYHKXPLGLW\RIDWWKHWRSRIWKHZHOO)LQGWKHUDWHRIGLIIXVLRQRIZDWHUYDSRUIURPWKHZHOO$VVXPH
' qm2VDQG3t EDU
Partial pressure of water vapor ( Pw1 ) at 25°C = 0.03169 bar
At the top of well, RH = 0.5
Pw2 = RH q Saturated pressure at 25°C.
Mass of water vapor diffused
MASS TRANSFER | 411
⎛ p − p ⎞⎟
M w DPt A ⎜ t b2 ⎟
mw = ln ⎜⎜ ⎟
RwT ( x2 − x1 ) ⎜⎝ pt − pb1 ⎟⎟⎠
(18)(2.58×10−5 )(1×105 )(Q × 52 ) (1 − 0.5× 0.03169)
mw = ln
8315 × 298 × 50 (1 − 0.03169)
= 4.8 ×10−7 kg/s.
12.5 7
KHZDWHULQDPqPRXWGRRUVZLPPLQJSRROLVPDLQWDLQHGDWDWHPSHUDWXUHRI&7KHZLQG
VSHHGLVPVLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRIWKHORQJVLGHRIWKHSRRO7KHDYHUDJHDPELHQWWHPSHUDWXUHDQGUHODWLYH
KXPLGLW\DUH&DQGUHVSHFWLYHO\)LQGWKHPDVVWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWIRUWKHHYDSRUDWLRQRIZDWHU
IURPWKHSRROVXUIDFHDQGUDWHRIHYDSRUDWLRQRIZDWHUSHUGD\
For air at 30°C: Ȗ = 15.89 q 106 m2/s

Density of saturated water vapor at 30°C
1 1
ρv = = = 0.0436 kg/m3
υv 22.93
For water vapor–air: D = 0.26 q 104 m2/s

H 15.89 ×10−6
Sc = = = 0.61
D 0.26 ×10−4
UL 2 × 20
Re = =
H 15.89 ×10−6
= 25.17 ×105 (turbulent)
Thus, a mixed boundary layer condition exists.
ShL = (0.037 ReL4 / 5 − 870) Sc1 / 3
= ⎡⎢(0.037)(18.88 ×105 ) − 870⎤⎥ (0.61)

4/5 1/ 3
⎣ ⎦
= 2553
⎛ D ⎞ (2553)(0.26 ×10 )
−4
hml = Shl ⎜⎜ AB ⎟⎟⎟ =

⎜⎝ L ⎠ 15
= 4.4 ×10−3 m/s.
Partial pressure of water vapor at 25°C at water surface = 3531 N/m2

Saturated pressure of water at 33°C = 6221 N/m2
Therefore, partial pressure of water vapor at 33°C and 40% RH is
p∞ = 0.4 × 6221 = 2488.4 N/m 2
Total pressure of air = pw + pair = 101.325 q 103 N/m2
M w psat
Therefore, ȡAS at the water surface =
RTw
(18)(3531)
S AS = = 0.02547 kg/m3
8316(300)
18 × 2488.4
S a∞ = = 0.01737 kg/m3
8316 × 310
Rate of evaporation
= hm (S AS − S A∞ )
= (4.4 ×10−3 )(0.025476 − 0.01737)(3600) 24
= 3.081 kg/m
m 2 day
Hence, total heat lost from the swimming pool
= 3.081× 5 ×15
= 231.1 kg/day
REVIEW QUESTIONS
:KDWLVPHDQWE\µFRQFHQWUDWLRQ¶" 12.10. What are the mass diffusion velocity and
12.2. Write the difference between mass transfer and PRODUGLIIXVLRQYHORFLW\"
WKHEXONÀRZRIÀXLG 12.11. Give examples for mass transfer.
12.3. State the Fick’s law of diffusion. 'H¿QHPDVVIUDFWLRQDQGPROHIUDFWLRQ
12.4. Write the analogous between one-dimensional :KDWLVPHDQWE\µHTXLPRODUGLIIXVLRQ¶"
heat and mass transfer.
:ULWHWKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRI)LFN¶VGLIIXVLRQ
'H¿QH6FKPLGWQXPEHUDQG/HZLVQXPEHU
:KDWLVPHDQWE\PDVVWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW"
'H¿QH6KHUZRRGQXPEHU
12.7. What are the dimensionless parameters used in 12.16. Write the Stefan’s law of diffusion.
PDVVWUDQVIHU" 'H¿QH PRODU FRQFHQWUDWLRQ DQG PDVV IUDF-
:KDWDUHWKHPRGHVRIPDVVWUDQVIHU" tion.
12.9. What is meant by mass transfer by convection 12.18. What is meant by mass average velocity
DQGSKDVHFKDQJH" ÀRZ"
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
12.1 The one-dimensionless parameter not used in 12.4 Which are the statements correct with respect to
mass transfer is WKHVLJQL¿FDQFHRI)LFN¶VGLIIXVLRQ"
(a) Schmidt number (b) Lewis number (a) It is based on experimental principle not
(c) Sherwood number (d) Biot number IURP¿UVWSULQFLSOH
(b) It is valid for all matter irrespective of the state.
12.2 The modes of mass transfer are
(c) Mass transfer due to temperature gradient,
(a) by diffusion (b) by convection pressure gradient is negligibly small.
(c) by phase change (d) all (d) All
12.3 Which statement is not connected with mass 7KH PDVV DYHUDJH YHORFLW\ ÀRZ LV WKH VXP RI
WUDQVIHU" SURGXFWVRIVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\DQG ————— of
(a) Boiling of water species in a mixture.
(b) Dissolution of sugar in water (a) mass (b) velocity (c) mixture (d) density
(c) Diffusion of smoke into atmosphere Answer:

(d) Neutron diffusion within nuclear reactor 12.1 (d); 12.2 (d); 12.3 (a); 12.4 (d); 12.5 (b)
MASS TRANSFER | 413
EXERCISE PROBLEMS
12.1 A mixture of O2, N2, and H2 with partial pres- 12.4 A tank of size 599 cm q 15.995 m with water
sures of 0.21 bar, 0.305 bar, and 0.5 bar, respect- is kept at a temperature of 302 K in the atmos-
ively, is inside a container at a temperature of phere. The atmospheric temperature is 302 K
300 K. Estimate the molar concentration, the and relative humidity is 49%. The wind speed
mass density, the mole fraction, and mass frac- in the direction of the long side of the tank is
tion of each species for a total pressure of 1 bar NPKU)LQGWKHPDVVWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWRI
and molecular weight of the mixture. evaporation from the surface.
(Ans: 0.00794, 0.0119, 0.198 k mol/m3; 0.254, (Ans: 9.6 q 103 m/s)
0.333, 0.0396, kg/m3; 0.2, 0.3, 0, 0.405, 0.531, 12.5 A plate of 39.9 cm long in wet condition is placed
0.0632) in dry air stream. Air at 302 K, 1 bar moves at
12.2 In a system, air and H2 experience equimolar PVRYHULW)LQGWKHPDVVWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
counter diffusion in a circular pipe of 59 mm of water vapor at the end of the plate in air stream.
diameter and 1.499 m length. The ends of the (Ans: 0.143 m/s)
tube are connected to the reservoirs in which the
12.6 A stream of air at 1 bar and 299 K with small
concentrations of the species are kept at contact
DPRXQW RI LRGLQH LV ÀRZLQJ ZLWK D YHORFLW\ RI
values. The system is maintained at a total pres-
PVLQDSLSH)LQGWKHPDVVWUDQVIHUFRHI¿-
sure of 1 bar and a temperature of 298 K. The
cient of iodine. Assume the diameter of the pipe
partial pressure of H2 at one side is 0.2 bar and
as 4 cm.
other side is 0.1 bar. Find the mass transfer rate
of air and H2 through the pipe. (Ans: 0.013 m/s)
12.7 A vessel of 6 m diameter has 2 mm deep layer
(Ans: 2.25 q 105 kg/s; 32.26 q 105 kg/s)
of benzene at the bottom. Vapour pressure of
12.3 A pipe line carries water at 1 bar pressure and EHQ]HQH LQ WKH YHVVHO LV EDU 7KH ¿OP
299 K. A vent tube at the top of the pipe main- thickness is 3 mm and the system is under 1 bar
tains the pressure inside the pipe. The diameter pressure and 292 K temperature. Estimate the
of the vent pipe is 49.9 mm and the height is time required to evaporate the entire benzene.
1 m. Calculate the rate of water diffusion into $VVXPHWKDWWKHUHLVDVWDJQDQWDLU¿OPDERYHWKH
dry air at 299 K and 1 bar. benzene through which the diffusion takes place.
(Ans: 1.14 q 104 kg/day) (Ans: 39.9 units)
Appendix A
DESIGN OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE COOLING SYSTEM
Objective:
(VWLPDWLRQ RI KHDW WUDQVIHU FRHI¿FLHQWV DQG KHDW WUDQVIHU UDWH IRU DQ LQWHUQDO FRPEXVWLRQ HQJLQH
F\OLQGHUWRVHOHFWWKHVXLWDEOHFRROLQJV\VWHPV
Heat transfer model:

Heat transfer from ⎛Heaat transfer by Heat transferr by⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟
high temperature = ⎜⎜convection from + radiation from ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎝gas to wall ⎟⎟
gas to cylinder wall gas to wall ⎠
= Heat transfer from wall to coolant
Assumptions:
L 6WHDG\VWDWHFRQGLWLRQ
LL 2QHGLPHQVLRQDOFRQGXFWLRQWKURXJKDVLQJOHVODE
Problem:
7KHGLDPHWHUDQGERUHRIDIRXUVWURNH,&HQJLQHF\OLQGHUDUHP7KLFNQHVVRIWKHF\OLQGHU
PP$YHUDJHJDVWHPSHUDWXUHLV.GXULQJWKHSRZHUVWURNH$WPRVSKHULFDLUWHPSHUDWXUHLV
.7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIJDVK :PN'\QDPLFYLVFRVLW\RIJDVȝ î±1VP
0DVVÀRZUDWHRIJDV NJV
Step 1: Estimation of gas side heat transfer coefficient

$VWKHSLVWRQLVPRYLQJWKHJDVDOVRPRYHVDWWKHVDPHVSHHGDVSLVWRQ+HQFHIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQ
KHDWWUDQVIHUPHFKDQLVPFDQEHDVVXPHG
ρVD
Reynolds number =
μ
where
ρ = density of gas, kg/m3
V = velocity of gas, m/s
D = cylinder diameter, m
μ = dynamic viscosity of gas, NS/m 2
m
,QWKLVFDVH SV
A
m = mass flow rate of gas, kg/s
A = area of cross-section of cyllinder, m 2
0.0195
ρV = =1.7235 kg/m 2 s
⎛ π × 0.122 ⎞⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎠
⎝ 4
ρVD 0.7235× 0.12
ReD = = = 1034.1
μ 20×10−6
)RULQVWDQWDQHRXVKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHIURPWKHJDVWRF\OLQGHUZDOOWKH1XVVHOWQXPEHUIRUWXEHV
ZLWKVPDOOHUOHQJWKV
⎡ Re Pr ⎤
0.333
NuD = 1.67 ⎢ D /D⎥

⎢⎣ x ⎥⎦
⎡1034.1× 0.6 ⎤
0.333
= 1.67 ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 1 ⎥⎦
= 14.21
hg D
therefore, = NuD
K
K
hg = × NuD
D
0.06
= ×14.21
0.12
= 7.1 W/m 2 K
Step 2: Estimation of heat transfer rate

$V WKH KHDW LQSXW IURP JDV WR F\OLQGHU ZDOO LV RQO\ IRU RQHIRXUWK RI HYHU\ F\FOH IRU VWHDG\VWDWH
DVVXPSWLRQWKHUDWHRIKHDWIURPJDVWRF\OLQGHUZDOOFDQEHHVWLPDWHGDV
Qgw = hg Ai (Tg Twi ) W
2
LQZKLFK hg = 7.1 W/m K.
,QQHUVXUIDFHDUHDRIF\OLQGHU Ai = Q di l = Qq 0.12q 0.12 = 0.0452 m 2
/HWXVDVVXPHWKDWWKHLQQHUF\OLQGHUZDOOWHPSHUDWXUHTwiVKRXOGEHPDLQWDLQHGDW&
7KHUHIRUH
Qgw = 7.1× 0.0452×[1100 − (60 + 273)] “W”
Step 3: Estimation of cylinder outer wall temperature

For steady-state condiction assumption, this heat should be conducted through the wall
Qgw = Qconduction
(Twi Two )
= K w Ai
x
APPENDIX A | 417
ZKHUHKw LVWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIF\OLQGHUZDOODQGxLVWKHWKLFNQHVVRIWKHZDOOTwiDQGTwo are
WKHLQQHUDQGRXWHUWHPSHUDWXUHVRIWKHF\OLQGHUZDOO
⎛ x ⎞⎟ ⎡ 0.01 ⎤
Two = Twi − ⎜⎜⎜Qgw ⎟⎟ = (60 + 273) − ⎢ 246× ⎥
⎜⎝ K w Ai ⎟⎠ ⎢⎣ 62.76× 0.0452 ⎥⎦
= 333 − 0.867 = 332 K
6LQFHWKHWKLFNQHVVLVYHU\VPDOODOPRVWVDPHWHPSHUDWXUHH[LVWVRQWKHRXWHUZDOODOVR
Step 4: Cooling system selection

7R GHVLJQ D VXLWDEOH FRROLQJ V\VWHP WR UHMHFW KHDW DW WKH UDWH RI Qgw WKH SRVVLEOH PHWKRGV DUH L
QDWXUDO FRQYHFWXLRQ KHDW WUDQVIHU WR DLU LL QDWXUDO FRQYHFWLRQ KHDW WUDQVIHU ZLWK DGGLWLRQ RI RXWHU
DUHDXVLQJ¿QVLLLIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUWRDWPRVSKHULFDLUDQGLYIRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQKHDW
WUDQVIHUZLWKZDWHUDVFRROLQJPHGLXP
Case 1: Natural convection heat transfer

+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWHIURPZDOOWRFRRODQW
Qwc = hc Ao (Two Tc )
ZKHUH
hc = coolant side heat transfer coefficient, W/m 2 K
Ao = outer surface area of the cylinder wall, m 2
Tc = coolant temperature
)RUYHUWLFDOF\OLQGHUZLWKXQLIRUPWHPSHUDWXUH1XVVHOWQXPEHU Nu = 0.59(GrPr )0.25
7KHSURSHUWLHVRIDLUDW¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH
Two + Ta 332 + 305
= = 318.5 K are
2 2
H = 51×10−6 m 2 /s
Pr = 0.695
K = 4.7×10-2 W/mK
*UDVKRIQXPEHU
g β (Tw − Tc ) L3
Gr =
γ2
9.81× (1/702.5) × (332 − 305)× (0.12)3
=
(51×10−6 ) 2
= 2.5×105
1XVVHOWQXPEHU
Nu = 0.59(2.5q105 q 0.675)0.25 = 11.96
hL
Nu = c = 11.96
K
&RRODQWVLGHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
11.96× K 11.96× 4.7 ×10−2

hc = = = 4.68 W/m 2 K
L 0.12
$YDLODEOHVXUIDFHDUHD
Ao = Q d o L
d o = di + 2t = 0.12 + 2× 0.001 = 0.122 m
Ao = Q × 0.122× 0.12 = 0.046 m 2
3RVVLEOHUDWHRIKHDWWUDQVIHURQFRRODQWVLGH
Qwc = hc Ao (Two − Tc )
= 4.68× 0.046(332 − 305)
= 5.81 W
+HDWWUDQVIHUIURPJDVVWRZDOO Qgw +HDWWUDQVIHUIURPZDOOWRFRRODQWQwc

,QWKLVFDVHHQJLQHZDOOWHPSHUDWXUHFDQQRWEHPDLQWDLQHGDW&
&DVH 1DWXUDOFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUZLWK¿QV
7RPDLQWDLQZDOOWHPSHUDWXUHDW&ZLWKVDPHQDWXUDOFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
Qgw = Qwc
246 W = 5.81× Ao × (332 − 305)
F
$UHDUHTXLUHGDWWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHRIF\OLQGHUZLWK¿QV Ao = 1.57 m 2
F
,QFUHDVHLQDUHDUHTXLUHG = (1.57 0.046) = 1.524 m 2 .
:LWK¿QVLWPD\EHYHU\GLI¿FXOWWRLQFUHDVHDUHDWRWKLVH[WHQW
Case 3: Forced convection heat transfer
Heat transfer, Qwc = hcf Ao (Two Tc )

hcf D
Nusselt number, Nu = = CRe n Pr1/3
K
$VVXPHDYHORFLW\RIDLUDVPV>HTXLYDOHQWWRNPKUYHKLFOHVSHHG@
5H\QROGVQXPEHU
ρVD VD 15× 0.12
Re = = = = 35, 294
μ γ 51×10−6
hcf × D
Nu = = 0.19 Re0.62 Pr1/3
K
APPENDIX A | 419
)RUFHGFRQYHFWLRQKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW
[0.19× (35, 294)0.62 × (0.675)1/3 ]× 4.7 ×10−2

hcf =
0.12
2
= 43 W/m K
Possible heat transfer from wall to coolant = Qwc = hc Ao (Two − Tc )

in this condition without fins = 43× 0.046(332 − 305)
= 53.4 W
6WLOO Qgw > Qwc .

,IWKHRXWHUVXUIDFHDUHDLVLQFUHDVHGE\WLPHVXVLQJ¿QWKHQ Qgw < Qwc . 2WKHUZLVHDLUYHORFLW\
VKRXOGEHLQFUHDVHG6RZLWKSURSHUFRPELQDWLRQRILQFUHDVLQJDUHDXVLQJ¿QVDQGDLUYHORFLW\WKH
GHVLUHGKHDWWUDQVIHUUDWHFDQEHDFKLHYHG
Case 4: Forced convection with water as cooling medium

3URSHUWLHVRIZDWHUDW.DVVXPLQJDWPRVSKHULFDLUDQGZDWHUUHPDLQVDWVDPHWHPSHUDWXUH
K = 53.93×10−2 W/mK
H = 0.129×10−6 m 2 /s
Pr = 0.97
$VVXPLQJWKHYHORFLW\RIZDWHURQWKHZDOOVXUIDFHLVPV
VD 15× 0.12
Reynolds number, Re = = = 1.395×107
H 0.129×10−6
)RUWXUEXOHQWÀRZWKURXJKDFRQGXFWVXUIDFH
NuD = 0.023× ReD0.8 × Pr 0.4
hcf D
= 0.023× (1.395×107 )0.8 × (0.97)0.4 = 11,805.812
K
11,805.812×53.93×10−2
hcf = = 53, 057.3 W/m 2 K
0.12
$VVXPLQJZDWHUÀRZVWKURXJKDQDQQXODUJURRYHWKURXJKWKHF\OLQGHUZDOOWKHPLQLPXPUHTXLUHGDUH
RIFRQWDFWWREHSURYLGHGLV
Qgw = Qwc
246 = hcf A(332 305)
5HTXLUHGDUHDRIFRQWDFW
246
A=
53, 057.3× (332 − 305)
= 1.717 ×10−4 m 2 = 1.717 cm 2
,I ZH DVVXPH WKH GLDPHWHU RI ZDWHU SDWK DV PP WKHQ WKH UHTXLUHG OHQJWK RI ÀRZ SDWK PD\ EH
HVWLPDWHGDV
A = Q dl
1.717 = Qq 0.2q1
1 = 2.73 cm
7KLVLVSRVVLEOH$ORQJHUSDWKZLWKOHVVHUYHORFLW\RIZDWHULVDOVRSRVVLEOH
Case 5: Heat transfer by radiation

+HDWWUDQVIHUIURPJDVWRF\OLQGHULQQHUZDOO
Qgt = σ Ai (εg Tg4 qαg Ts4 )
ZKHUH
Ai = surface area of inner cylinder
Tg , Ts = gas and surface temperaturees
εg = emissivity of gas = 0.18
αg = absorptivity of gas = 0.71
Qgr = 5.188×10−8 × 0.0452(0.18×11004 − 0.71×3334 )
= 597.7 Watts
:HKDYHWRLQFOXGHWKLVDQGUHGRWKHVDPHFDOFXODWLRQVWRSHUIHFWWKHGHVLJQ
Appendix B
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
SI BASE UNITS
The international system of units (SI) is based on the seven units given here.
Table B 1
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Time second s
Luminous intensity candela cd
Amount of a substance mole mol
Electrical current ampere A
SI DEFINED UNITS
7KHIROORZLQJDUHWKHGH¿QHGXQLWVZLWKVWDQGDUGV\PEROV
Table B 2
Force newton, N 1 N = 1 kgm/s2
Power watt, W 1 W = 1 J/s
Pressure pascal, Pa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
Temperature kelvin, K K = °C + 273.15
Work, heat, energy joule, J 1 J = 1 Nm
Potential difference volt, V 1 V = 1 W/A
Electrical resistance ohm, 7 1 7= 1 V/A
SI DERIVED UNITS
Derived units are obtained from the governing equations using the base units, as shown below.
Table B 3
Area metre squared m2
Volume cubic metre m3
Force newton N
Power watt W
Velocity metre per second m/s
Acceleration metre per second squared m/s2
Density kilogram per metre cubed kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity newton second per square Ns/m2
metre
Kinematic viscosity square metre per second m2/s
Radiant intensity watt per steradian W/sr
Specific heat joule per kilogram per kelvin J/kg K
Thermal conductivity Watt per metre per kelvin W/m K
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS IN SI UNITS

Tabel B 4
e 2.718281828
Q 3.141592653
gc 1.00000 kg m N–1 s–2
NA Avogadro constant 6.022169 × 1026 kmol–1
k Boltzmann constant 1.380622 × 10–23 J K–1
C1=2Qhc2 first radiation constant 3.741844 × 10–16 W m2
Ru gas constant 8.31434 × 103 J kmol–1 K–1

G gravitational constant 6.6732×10–11 N m2 kg–2
h Planck constant 6.626196 × 10–34 J s
C2=hc/k second radiation constant 1.438833 × 10–2 m K
c speed of light in a vacuum 2.997925 × 108 ms–1
T Stefan–Boltzmann constant 5.66961 × 10–8 W m–2 K–4
APPENDIX B | 423
CONVERSION FACTORS
Table B 5
Length L 1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 in. = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m
1 mile = 1.6093 km = 1609.3 m
Area A 1 ft2 = 0.0929 m2
1 in.2 = 6.452 × 10–4 m2
Volume V 1 ft3 = 0.02832 m3
1 in.3 = 1.6387 × 10–5 m3
1 gal (U.S. liq.) = 0.003785 m3
Density S 1 lbm/ft3 = 16.018 kg/m3
1 slug/ft3 = 515.379 kg/m3

Mass m 1 lbm = 0.4536 kg
1 slug = 14.594 kg
Mass flow rate m 1 lbh/h = 0.000126 kg/s
1 lbm/s = 0.4536 kg/s
Force F 1 lbf = 4.448 N
Pressure p 1 lnf/in.2 = 6894.8 N/m2 (Pa)
1 lbf/ft2 = 47.88 N/m2 (Pa)
1 atm = 101,325 N/m2 (Pa)
Power W 1 hp = 745.7 W
1 (ft)(lbf)/s = 1.3558 W
1 Btu/s = 1055.1 W
1 Btu/h = 0.293 W
Energy, heat Q 1 Btu = 1055.1 J
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 (ft)(lbf) = 1.3558 J
1 (hp)(h) = 2.685 × 106 J
Heat flow rate q 1 Btu/h = 0.2931 W
1 Btu/s = 1055.1 W
Heat flux q’’ 1 Btu/(h)(ft2) = 3.1525 W/m2
Heat generation per unit volume qG 1 Btu/(h)(ft3) = 10.343 W/m3
Heat transfer coefficient h 1 Btu /(h)(ft2)(8 F) = 5.678 W/m2 K
(Continued)
Specific energy Q/m 1 Btu/1bm = 2326.1 J/kg

Specific heat capacity c 1 Btu/(1bm)(8 F) = 4188 J/kg K
Temperature T T (8 R) = (9/5) T(K)
T (8 F) = [T(8 C)] (9/5) + 32
T (8 F) = [T(K)] – 273.15] (9/5) + 32
Thermal conductivity K 1 Btu/(h)(ft)(8 F) = 1.731 W/mk
Thermal diffusivity B 1 ft2/s = 0.0929 m2/s
1 ft2/h = 2.581 × 10–5 m2/s

Thermal resistance Rt 1 (h)(8 F)/Btu = 1.8958 k/W
Velocity U 1 ft/s = 0.3048 m/s
1 mph = 0.44703 m/s
Viscosity, dynamic N 1 lbm/(ft)(s) = 1.488 N s/m2
1 centipoise = 0.00100 N s/m2

Viscosity, kinematic V 1 ft2/s = 0.0929 m2/s
1 ft2/h = 2.581 × 10–5 m2/s
DIMENSIONLESS GROUPS OF IMPORTANCE FOR HEAT TRANSFER AND

FLUID FLOW
Table B 6
Group Definition Interpretation
Biot number (Bi) hL Ratio of internal thermal resistance of a solid body to
Ks its surface thermal resistance
2
Eckert number (Ec) U∞ Kinetic energy of flow relative to boundary-layer
c p (Ts − T∞ ) enthalpy difference
Fourier number (Fo) Bt Dimensionless time; ratio of rate of heat conduction

L2 to rate of internal energy storage in a solid
Grashof number (GrL) g β (Ts − T∞ )L3 Ratio of buoyancy to viscous forces

υ2
Nusselt number (Nu) hL Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient; ratio of

K convection heat transfer to conduction in a fluid
layer of thickness L
(Continued)
APPENDIX B | 425
Group Definition Interpretation

Reynolds number (Re) UdL Ratio of inertia to viscous forces
V
Prandtl number (Pr) c pμ υ Ratio of molecular momentum diffusivity to
= thermal diffusivity
K α
Peclet number (Pe) Re Pr Product of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers
Rayleigh number (Ra) Gr Pr Product of Grashof and Prandtl numbers
Stanton number (St) h Nu Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient
=
SUdc p Re Pr
Drag coefficient (Cf) τ Ratio of surface shear stress to free-stream kinetic
ρUd
2
/2 energy
Friction factor (f) %p Dimensionless pressure drop for internal flow
(L/D)(SUm2 /2) through ducts
Colburn j factor (jH) St Pr2/3 Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient
7KHGH¿QLWLRQVRIWKHYDULDEOHVXVHGLQWKHDERYHWDEOHDUHDVIROORZV
h = heat transfer coefficient W/m2 K
L = characteristic length m
K = thermal conductivity W/m K
UB = free stream velocity m/s
cp = specific heat at constant pressure J/kg K

Ts = surface temperature K
T = free stream temperature K

⎛K ⎞
Į = thermal diffusivity = ⎜⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎟ m2/s
⎜⎝ PC ⎟⎠
t = time s
g = acceleration due to gravity m2/s
ȕ = temperature coefficient 1/K
ȡ = mass density kg/m3

V = kinematic viscosity (N/S) m2/s
ȝ = dynamic viscosity Ns/m2
Ĳ = shear stress N/m2
∆p = pressure drop N/m2

D = diameter m
Table B 7 Thermodynamic properties of metallic elements 426
Thermal conductivity, K (W/m K) Properties at 20°C
Į× Melting
|
ȡ cp K 106 temperature
Element –73°C 0°C 127°C 327°C 527°C 727°C 927°C (kg/m3) (J/g k) (W/m K) (m2/s) (K)
Aluminium 237 236 240 232 20 2702 896 236 97.5 933
Antimony 30.2 25.5 21.2 18.2 16.8 6684 208 24.6 17.7 904
Beryllium 301 218 161 126 107 89 73 1850 1705 205 63.3 1550
Bismuthc 9.7 8.2 9780 124 7.9 6.51 545
c
Boron 52.5 31.7 18.7 11.3 8.1 6.3 5.2 2500 1047 28.6 10.9 2573
Cadmiumc 99.3 97.5 94.7 8650 231 97 48.5 594
Caesium 36.8 36.1 1873 230 36 83.6 302
Chromium 111 94.8 87.3 80.5 71.3 65.3 62.4 7160 440 91.4 29.0 2118
Cobaltc 122 104 84.8 8862 389 100 29.0 1765
Copper 413 401 392 383 371 357 342 8933 383 399 116.6 1356
Germanium 96.8 66.7 43.2 27.3 19.8 17.4 17.4 5360 61.6 1211
Gold 327 318 312 304 292 278 262 19300 129 316 126.9 1336
Hafnium 24.4 23.3 22.3 21.3 20.8 20.7 20.9 13280 23.1 2495
Indium 89.7 83.7 74.5 7300 82.2 430
Iridium 153 148 144 138 132 126 120 22500 134 147 48.8 2716
Iron 94 83.5 69.4 54.7 43.4 32.6 28.2 7870 452 81.1 22.8 1810
Lead 36.6 35.5 33.8 31.2 11340 129 35.3 24.1 601
Lithium 88.1 79.2 72.1 534 3391 77.4 42.7 454
Magnesium 159 157 153 149 146 1740 1017 156 88.2 923
Manganese 7.17 7.68 7290 486 7.78 2.2 1517
Mercuryc 28.9 13546 234
(Continued)
Thermal conductivity, K (W/m K) Properties at 20°C
Į× Melting
ȡ cp K 106 temperature
Element –73°C 0°C 127°C 327°C 527°C 727°C 927°C (kg/m3) (J/g k) (W/m K) (m2/s) (K)
Molybdenum 143 139 134 126 118 112 105 10240 251 138 53.7 2883
Nickel 106 94 80.1 65.5 67.4 71.8 76.1 8900 446 91 22.9 1726
Niobium 52.6 53.3 55.2 58.2 61.3 64.4 67.5 8570 270 53.6 23.2 2741
Palladium 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 75.5 12020 247 75.5 25.4 1825
Platinum 72.4 71.5 71.6 73.0 75.5 78.6 82.6 21450 133 71.4 25.0 2042
Potassium 104 104 52 860 741 103 161.6 337
Rhenium 51 48.6 46.1 44.2 44.1 44.6 45.7 21100 137 48.1 16.6 3453
Rhodium 154 151 146 136 127 121 115 12450 248 150 48.6 2233
Rubidium 58.9 58.3 1530 348 58.2 109.3 312
Silicon 264 168 98.9 61.9 42.2 31.2 25.7 2330 703 153 93.4 1685
Silver 403 428 420 405 389 374 358 10500 234 427 173.8 1234
Sodium 138 135 971 1206 133 113.6 371
Tantalum 57.5 57.4 57.8 58.6 59.4 60.2 61 16600 138 57.5 25.1 3269
Tinc 73.3 68.2 62.2 5750 227 67.0 51.3 505
c
Titanium 24.5 22.4 20.4 19.4 19.7 20.7 22 4500 611 22.0 8.0 1953
c
Tungsten 197 182 162 139 128 121 115 19300 134 179 69.2 3653
Uraniumc 25.1 27 29.6 34 38.8 43.9 49 19070 113 27.4 12.7 1407
Vanadiu 31.5 31.3 32.1 34.2 36.3 38.6 41.2 6100 502 31.4 10.3 2192
Zinc 123 122 116 105 7140 385 121 44.0 693
c
APPENDIX B
Zirconium 25.2 23.2 21.6 20.7 21.6 23.7 25.7 6570 272 22.8 12.8 2125
|
427
428
|
Table B 8 Water at saturation pressure

Coefficient
of thermal Specific Thermal Thermal Absolute Kinematic
Density, expansion, heat, conductivity, diffusivity, viscosity, viscosity, Prandtl gβ
×10−9
Temperature, S C× 104 cS K B× 106 N× 106 V× 106 number, υ2
T°C (kg/m3) (1/K) (J/kg K) (W/m K) m2/s (Ns/m2) m2/s Pr (1/Km3)
0 999.9 –0.7 4226 0.558 0.131 1794 1.789 13.7 –

5 1000 – 4206 0.568 0.135 1535 1.535 11.4 –
10 999.7 0.95 4195 0.577 0.137 1296 1.300 9.5 0.551
15 999.1 – 4187 0.585 0.141 1136 1.146 8.1 –

20 998.2 2.1 4182 0.597 0.143 993 1.006 7.0 2.035
25 997.1 – 4178 0.606 0.146 880.6 0.884 6.1 –
30 995.7 3.0 4176 0.615 0.149 792.4 0.805 5.4 4.540
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS
35 994.1 – 4175 0.624 0.150 719.8 0.725 4.8 –

40 992.2 3.9 4175 0.633 0.151 658.0 0.658 4.3 8.833
45 990.2 – 4176 0.640 0.155 605.1 0.611 3.9 –
50 988.1 4.6 4178 0.647 0.157 555.1 0.556 3.55 14.59
75 974.9 – 4190 0.671 0.164 376.6 0.366 2.23 –
100 958.4 7.5 4211 0.682 0.169 277.5 0.294 1.75 85.09
(Continued)
Coefficient
×10−9
Temperature, S C× 104 cS K B× 106 N×106 V× 106 number, υ2
T°C (kg/m3) (1/K) (J/kg K) (W/m K) m2/s (Ns/m2) m2/s Pr (1/Km3)
120 943.5 8.5 4232 0.685 0.171 235.4 0.244 1.43 140.0
140 926.3 9.7 4257 0.684 0.172 201.0 0.212 1.23 211.7
160 907.6 10.8 4285 0.680 0.173 171.6 0.191 1.10 290.3
180 886.6 12.1 4396 0.673 0.172 152.0 0.173 1.01 396.5
200 862.8 13.5 4501 0.665 0.170 139.3 0.160 0.95 517.2
220 837.0 15.2 4605 0.652 0.167 124.5 0.149 0.90 671.4
240 809.0 17.2 4731 0.634 0.162 113.8 0.141 0.86 848.5
260 779.0 20.2 4982 0.613 0.156 104.9 0.135 0.86 1076.0
280 750.0 23.8 5234 0.588 0.147 98.07 0.131 0.89 1360.0
300 712.5 29.5 5694 0.564 0.132 92.18 0.128 0.98 1766.0
(Continued)
APPENDIX B
|
429
430
Enthalpy
Saturation pressure, Specific volume of
Saturation temperature, S×10–5 vapor, hf hg hfg
|
T°C (N/m2) Vg(m3/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg)
0 0.0061 206.3 –0.04 2501 2501

10 0.0122 106.4 41.99 2519 2477
20 0.0233 57.833 83.86 2537 2453
30 0.0424 32.929 125.66 2555 2430
40 0.0737 19.548 167.45 2574 2406
50 0.1233 12.048 209.26 2591 2382
60 0.1991 7.680 251.09 2609 2358
70 0.3116 5.047 292.97 2626 2333

80 0.4735 3.410 334.92 2643 2308
90 0.7010 2.362 376.94 2660 2283
100 1.0132 1.673 419.06 2676 2257
120 1.9854 0.892 503.7 2706 2202
140 3.6136 0.508 589.1 2734 2144
160 6.1804 0.306 675.5 2757 2082
180 10.027 0.193 763.1 2777 2014
200 15.551 0.127 852.4 2791 1939
220 23.201 0.0860 943.7 2799 1856
240 33.480 0.0595 1037.6 2801 1764
260 46.940 0.0421 1135.0 2795 1660
280 64.191 0.0301 1237.0 2778 1541
300 85.917 0.0216 1345.4 2478 1403
Table B 9 Freon 12 (CCl2F2), saturated liquid
Coefficient
gβ
Density, expansion, heat, conductivity, diffusivity, viscosity, viscosity, Prandtl ×10−10
Temperature, S C×103 cp K B × 108 N × 104 V × 106 number, υ2
T°C (kg/m3) (1/K) (J/kg K) (W/m K) (m2/s) (Ns/m2) (m2/s) Pr (1/Km3)
–50 1547 2.63 875.0 0.067 5.01 4.796 0.310 6.2 26.84
–40 1519 884.7 0.069 5.14 4.238 0.279 5.4
–30 1490 895.6 0.069 5.26 3.770 0.253 4.8
–20 1461 907.3 0.071 5.39 3.433 0.235 4.4
–10 1429 920.3 0.073 5.50 3.158 0.221 4.0
0 1397 3.10 934.5 0.073 5.57 2.990 0.214 3.8 6.68
10 1464 949.6 0.073 5.60 2.769 0.203 3.6
20 1330 965.9 0.073 5.60 2.633 0.198 3.5
30 1295 983.5 0.071 5.60 2.512 0.194 3.5
40 1257 1001.9 0.069 5.55 2.401 0.191 3.5
50 1216 1021.6 0.067 5.45 2.310 0.190 3.5
APPENDIX B
|
431
432
|
Table B 10 Ammonia (NH3), saturated liquid

Coefficient
gβ
–50 703.7 4463 0.547 17.42 3.061 0.435 2.60

–40 691.7 4467 0.547 17.75 2.808 0.406 2.28
–30 679.3 4476 0.549 18.01 2.629 0.387 2.15

–20 666.7 4509 0.547 18.19 2.540 0.381 2.09
–10 653.6 4564 0.543 18.25 2.471 0.378 2.07
0 640.1 2.16 4635 0.540 18.19 2.388 0.373 2.05 1.51
10 626.2 4714 0.531 18.01 2.304 0.368 2.04
20 611.8 2.45 4798 0.521 17.75 2.196 0.359 2.02 18.64
30 596.4 4890 0.507 17.42 2.081 0.349 2.01
40 581.0 4999 0.493 17.01 1.975 0.340 2.00
50 564.3 5116 0.476 16.54 1.862 0.330 1.99
Table B 11 Unused engine oil, saturated liquid
Coefficient
gβ
0 899.1 1796 0.147 911 3848.0 4280.0 471.0

20 888.2 0.70 1880 0.145 872 799.0 900.0 104.0 8475
40 876.1 1964 0.144 834 210.0 240.0 28.7
60 864.0 2047 0.140 800 72.5 83.9 10.5
80 852.0 2131 0.138 769 32.0 37.5 4.90
100 840.0 2219 0.137 738 17.1 20.3 2.76
120 829.0 1207 0.135 710 10.3 12.4 1.75
140 816.9 2395 0.133 686 6.54 8.0 1.16
160 805.9 2483 0.132 663 4.51 5.6 0.84
APPENDIX B
|
433
434
|
Table B 12 Transformer oil

Coefficient
Density, expansion, heat, conductivity, diffusivity, viscosity, viscosity, Prandtl
Temperature, S C×103 cp K B × 1010 N × 103 V × 106 number,
T°C (kg/m3) (1/K) (J/kg K) (W/m K) (m2/s) (Ns/m2) (m2/s) Pr × 10–2
–50 922 1700 0.116 742 29320.0 31800.0 4286.0

–40 916 1680 0.116 750 3866.0 4220.0 563.0
–30 910 1650 0.115 764 1183.0 1300.0 170.0
–20 904 1620 0.114 778 365.6 404.0 52.0
–10 898 1600 0.113 788 108.1 120.0 15.3
0 891 1620 0.112 778 55.24 67.5 8.67
10 885 1650 0.111 763 33.45 37.8 4.95
20 879 1710 0.111 736 21.10 24.0 3.26
30 873 1780 0.110 707 13.44 15.4 2.18
40 867 1830 0.109 688 9.364 10.8 1.57

Table B 13 n-Butyl alcohol (C4H10O)
Coefficient
×10−6
16 809 1305 0.168 901 3.36 4.16 26.1

38 796 8.1 1392 0.166 816 1.92 2.41 16.1 1367
66 777 8.6 1502 0.164 743 1.00 1.29 9.16 5086
93 756 1609 0.163 666 0.57 0.76 5.6
117.5 737 1706 0.163 769 0.39 0.53 4.1
149 1830 0.28
Table B 14 Benzene (C6H6)

Coefficient
gβ
16 883 1.08 1675 0.161 1089 0.685 0.776 7.2 19072

APPENDIX B
27 875 1759 0.159 1035 0.589 0.673 6.5

38 865 1843 0.151 911 0.522 0.604 5.1
|
66 857 1926 0.387 0.452 4.5

93 0.302 4.0
435
Table B 15 Organic compounds at 20°C, 68°F
436
Coefficient
|

gβ
Chemical S C×104 cp K B × 109 N× 104 V × 106 number, υ2
Liquid formula (kg/m3) (1/K) (J/kg K) (W/m K) (m2/s) (Ns/m2) (m2/s) Pr (1/Km3)
Acetic acid C2H4O2 1049 10.7 2031 0.193 90.6

Acetone C 3 H 6O 791 14.3 2160 0.180 105.4 3.31 0.418 3.97 802.6
Chloroform CHCL3 1489 12.8 967 0.129 89.6 5.8 0.390 4.35 825.3
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 900 13.8 2010 0.137 75.7 4.49 0.499 6.59 543.5
Ethyl alcohol C 2 H 6O 790 11.0 2470 0.182 93.3 12.0 1.52 16.29 46.7
Ethylene C2H6O2 1115 2382 0.258 97.1 199.0 17.8 183.7

glycol
Glycerol C3H8O3 1260 5.0 2428 0.285 93.2 14800.0 1175.0 12609.0 0.0000355
n-Heptane C7H14 684 12.4 2219 0.140 92.2 4.09 0.598 6.48 340.1
n-Hexane C6H14 660 13.5 1884 0.137 11.02 3.20 0.485 4.40 562.8
Isobutyl C4H10O 804 9.4 2303 0.134 72.4 39.5 4.92 67.89 3.82
alcohol
Methyl CH4O 792 11.9 2470 0.212 108.4 5.84 0.737 6.80 214.9
alcohol
n-Octane C8H18 720 11.4 2177 0.147 93.8 5.4 0.750 8.00 198.8
n-Pentane C5H12 626 16.0 2177 0.136 99.8 2.29 0.366 3.67 1171
Toluene C 7H 8 866 10.8 1675 0.151 104.1 5.86 0.677 6.50 231.1
Turpentine C10H16 855 9.7 1800 0.128 83.2 14.87 1.74 20.91 31.4
Table B 16 Mobiltherm 600 (heat transfer fluids)
Coefficient
gβ
10 953 0.621 1549 0.123 833

50 929 0.637 1680 0.120 769 30.28 32.60 424 5.9
100 899 0.658 1859 0.116 694 5.48 6.10 87.9 173.0
150 870 0.680 2031 0.113 640 2.04 2.34 36.6 1218.0
200 839 0.705 2209 0.110 594 1.05 1.25 21.0 4425.0
250 810 0.730 2386 0.106 545 0.64 0.790 14.5 11470.0
Table B 17 Molten salt (equimolar KNO3, NaNO3)

Coefficient
gβ
Temperature, S C×104 cpa K B× 106 N × 106 V × 106 number, υ2
357 1864 3.40 1645 0.512 0.167 2217 1.189 7.12 2.36
367 1858 3.47 1633 0.513 0.169 2100 1.130 6.68 2.67
377 1851 3.53 1621 0.515 0.172 1997 1.079 6.29 2.97
387 1845 3.60 1610 0.517 0.174 1906 1.033 5.94 3.31
397 1838 3.67 1598 0.519 0.177 1826 0.994 5.62 3.64
407 1831 3.74 1586 0.521 0.179 1755 0.959 5.34 3.99
APPENDIX B
417 1824 3.81 1574 0.523 0.182 1692 0.928 5.09 4.34
|
427 1817 3.88 1562 0.525 0.185 1636 0.900 4.87 4.70
437 1810 3.95 1551 0.527 0.188 1585 0.876 4.66 5.05
447 1803 4.02 1539 0.529 0.191 1540 0.854 4.48 5.41
437
Table B 18 Bismuth (liquid metals) 438
Coefficient
|
gβ
316 10011 0.117 144.5 16.44 1.14 16.22 1.57 0.014 46.5
427 9867 0.122 149.5 15.58 1.06 13.39 1.35 0.013 65.6
538 9739 0.126 154.5 15.58 1.03 11.01 1.08 0.011 106
649 9611 159.5 15.58 1.01 9.23 0.903 0.009
760 9467 164.5 15.58 1.01 7.89 0.813 0.008
Table B 19 Mercury (saturated liquid)

Coefficient
gβ
0 13628 140.3 8.20 42.99 16.90 0.124 0.0288

20 13579 1.82 139.4 8.69 46.06 15.48 0.114 0.0249 13.73
50 13506 138.6 9.40 50.22 14.05 0.104 0.0207
100 13385 137.3 10.51 57.16 12.42 0.0928 0.0162
150 13264 136.5 11.49 63.54 11.31 0.0853 0.0134
200 13145 157.0 12.34 69.08 10.54 0.0802 0.0116
250 13026 135.7 13.07 74.06 9.96 0.0765 0.0103
315.5 12847 134.0 14.02 81.50 8.65 0.0673 0.0083
Table B 20 Sodium
Coefficient
gβ
94 929 0.27 1382 86.2 6.71 6.99 7.31 0.0110 4.96

205 902 0.36 1340 80.3 6.71 4.32 4.60 0.0072 16.7
371 860 1298 72.4 6.45 2.83 3.16 0.0051
538 820 1256 65.4 6.19 2.08 2.44 0.0040
705 778 1256 59.7 6.19 1.79 2.26 0.0038
Table B 21 Dry air at atmospheric pressure (thermodynamic properties of gases)

Coefficient
gβ
Temperature, S C×104 cp K B × 1010 N × 104 V× 106 number, υ2
0 1.252 3.66 1011 0.0237 19.2 17.456 13.9 0.71 1.85

20 1.164 3.41 1012 0.0251 22.0 18.240 15.7 0.71 1.36
40 1.092 3.19 1014 0.0265 24.8 19.123 17.6 0.71 1.01
60 1.025 3.00 1017 0.0279 27.6 19.907 19.4 0.71 0.782
80 0.968 2.83 1019 0.0293 30.6 20.790 21.5 0.71 0.600
100 0.916 2.68 1022 0.0307 33.6 21.673 23.6 0.71 0.472
200 0.723 2.11 1035 0.0370 49.7 25.693 35.5 0.71 0.164
APPENDIX B
300 0.596 1.75 1047 0.0429 68.9 39.322 49.2 0.71 0.0709
|
400 0.508 1.49 1059 0.0485 89.4 32.754 64.6 0.72 0.0350
500 0.442 1.29 1076 0.0540 113.2 35.794 81.0 0.72 0.0193
1000 0.268 0.79 1139 0.0762 240 48.445 181 0.74 0.00236
439
Table B 22 Carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure 440
Coefficient
|
gβ
–53 2.4733 783 0.01080 0.0592 11.105 4.490 0.818

–23 2.1657 804 0.01288 0.0740 12.590 5.813 0.793
27 1.7973 3.33 871 0.01657 0.1058 14.958 8.321 0.770 472.0
77 1.5362 2.86 900 0.02047 0.1480 17.205 11.19 0.755 224.0
127 1.3424 2.50 942 0.02461 0.1946 19.32 14.39 0.738 118.0
177 1.1918 2.22 980 0.02897 0.2481 21.34 17.90 0.721 67.9
227 1.0732 2.00 1013 0.03352 0.3084 23.26 21.67 0.702 41.8
277 0.9739 1.82 1047 0.03821 0.3750 25.08 25.74 0.685 26.9
327 0.8938 1.67 1076 0.04311 0.4483 26.83 30.02 0.668 18.2
Table B 23 Properties of carbon dioxide liquid

Specific Kinematic Thermal Thermal Prandtl
Density, heat, viscosity, conductivity, diffusivity, number,
Temperature, S cp V K Bd Pr
T°C (kg/m3) (kg∆1°C) (m2/s) (W/m∆1°C) (m2/s) (–)
–50 1156.34 1.84 0.119 × 10–6 0.0855 0.4021 × 10–7 2.96

–40 1117.77 1.88 0.118 0.1011 0.4810 2.46
–30 1076.76 1.97 0.117 0.1116 0.5272 2.22
–20 1032.39 2.05 0.115 0.1151 0.5445 2.12
–10 983.38 2.18 0.113 0.1099 0.5133 2.20
0 926.99 2.47 0.108 0.1045 0.4578 2.38
Table B 24 Carbon monoxide at atmospheric pressure
Coefficient
gβ
–53 1.554 1043 0.01906 0.1176 13.88 8.90 0.758

–23 0.841 1043 0.02144 0.1506 15.40 11.28 0.750
27 1.139 3.33 1042 0.02525 0.2128 17.84 15.67 0.737 133
77 0.974 2.86 1043 0.02883 0.2836 20.09 20.62 0.728 65.9
127 0.854 2.50 1048 0.03226 0.3605 22.19 25.99 0.722 36.3
177 0.758 2.22 1055 0.04360 0.4439 24.18 31.88 0.718 21.4
227 0.682 2.00 1064 0.03863 0.5324 26.06 38.19 0.718 13.4
277 0.620 1.82 1076 0.04162 0.6240 27.89 44.97 0.721 8.83
327 0.569 1.67 1088 0.04446 0.7190 29.60 52.06 0.724 6.04
APPENDIX B
|
441
442
|
Table B 25 Helium at atmospheric pressure

Coefficient
gβ
–270 5200 0.0106 0.842

–240 1.466 5200 0.0353 0.04625 5.02 3.42 0.74

–129 3.380 6.94 5200 0.0928 0.5275 12.55 37.11 0.70 49.4
–73 0.2435 5.00 5200 0.1177 0.9288 15.66 64.38 0.694 11.8
–18 0.1906 3.92 5200 0.1357 1.3675 18.17 95.50 0.70 4.22
93 0.1328 2.73 5200 0.1691 2.449 23.05 173.6 0.71 0.888
204 0.1020 2.10 5200 0.197 3.716 27.50 269.3 0.72 0.284
316 0.08282 1.70 5200 0.225 5.215 31.13 375.8 0.72 0.118
427 0.07032 1.43 5200 0.251 6.661 34.75 494.2 0.72 0.0574
527 0.06023 1.25 5200 0.275 8.774 38.17 634.1 0.72 0.0305
627 0.05286 1.11 5200 0.298 10.834 41.36 781.3 0.72 0.0178
Table B 26 Hydrogen at atmospheric pressure
Coefficient
gβ
–223 0.50955 10501 0.0362 0.0676 2.516 4.880 0.721 333.8

–173 0.24572 10.0 11229 0.0665 0.2408 4.212 17.14 0.712 55.99
–123 0.16371 6.67 12602 0.0981 0.475 5.595 34.18 0.718 15.90
–73 0.12270 5.00 13540 0.1282 0.772 6.813 55.53 0.719 6.03
–23 0.09819 4.00 14059 0.1561 1.130 7.919 80.64 0.713 2.72
27 0.08185 3.33 14314 0.182 1.554 8.963 109.5 0.706 1.39
77 0.07016 2.86 14436 0.206 2.031 9.954 141.9 0.697 0.782
127 0.06125 2.50 14491 0.228 2.568 10.864 177.1 0.690 0.468
177 0.05462 2.22 14499 0.251 3.164 11.779 215.6 0.682 0.297
227 0.04918 2.00 14507 0.272 3.817 12.636 257.0 0.675 0.134
327 0.04085 1.67 14537 0.315 5.306 14.285 349.7 0.664 0.0677
427 0.03492 1.43 14574 0.351 6.903 15.89 455.1 0.659 0.0379
527 0.03060 1.25 14675 0.384 8.563 17.40 569 0.664 0.0145
727 0.02451 1.00 14968 0.440 11.997 20.16 822 0.686 0.00667
APPENDIX B
927 0.02050 0.833 15366 0.488 15.484 22.75 1107 0.715

|
443
444
|
Table B 27 Nitrogen at atmospheric pressure

Coefficient
gβ
–173 3.4808 1072 0.00945 0.0253 6.86 1.97 0.786

–73 1.7108 5.00 1043 0.01824 0.1022 12.95 7.57 0.747 855.6
27 1.1421 3.33 1041 0.02620 0.2204 17.84 15.63 0.713 133.7

127 0.8538 2.50 1046 0.03335 0.3734 21.98 25.74 0.691 37.00
227 0.6824 2.00 1056 0.03984 0.5530 25.70 37.66 0.684 13.83
327 0.5687 1.67 1076 0.04580 0.7486 29.11 51.19 0.686 6.25
427 0.4934 1.43 1097 0.05123 0.9466 32.13 65.13 0.691 3.31
527 0.4277 1.25 1123 0.05609 1.1685 34.84 81.46 0.700 1.85
627 0.3796 1.11 1146 0.06070 1.3946 37.49 91.06 0.711 1.31
727 0.3412 1.00 1168 0.06475 1.6250 40.00 117.2 0.724 0.714
827 0.3108 0.909 1186 0.06850 1.8591 42.28 136.0 0.736 0.482
927 0.2851 0.833 1204 0.07184 2.0932 44.50 156.1 0.748 0.335
Table B 28 Oxygen at atmospheric pressure
Coefficient
gβ
–172 3.992 948 0.00903 0.0239 7.768 1.946 0.815

–123 2.619 6.67 918 0.01367 0.0569 11.49 4.387 0.773 3398.0
–73 1.956 5.00 913 0.01824 0.1021 14.85 7.593 0.745 850.5
–23 1.562 4.00 916 0.02259 0.1579 17.87 11.45 0.725 299.2
27 1.301 3.33 920 0.02676 0.2235 20.63 15.86 0.709 129.8
77 1.113 2.86 929 0.03070 0.2968 23.16 20.80 0.702 64.8
127 0.9755 2.50 942 0.03461 0.3768 25.54 26.18 0.695 35.8
177 0.8682 2.22 957 0.03828 0.4609 27.77 31.99 0.694 21.3
227 0.7801 2.00 972 0.04173 0.5502 29.91 38.34 0.697 13.3
277 0.7096 1.82 988 0.04517 0.6441 31.97 45.05 0.700 8.79
327 0.6504 1.67 1004 0.04832 0.7399 33.92 52.15 0.704 6.02
APPENDIX B
|
445
446
|
Table B 29 Steam (H2O) at atmospheric pressure

Coefficient
gβ
Temperature, S C×104 cp K B × 1010 N × 104 V× 106 number, υ2
100 0.5977 2034 0.0249 0.204 12.10 20.2 0.987

107 0.5863 2060 0.0246 0.204 12.71 21.6 1.060
127 0.5542 2.50 2014 0.0261 0.234 13.44 24.2 1.040 41.86
177 0.4902 2.22 1980 0.0299 0.307 15.25 31.1 1.010 22.51
227 0.4405 2.00 1985 0.0339 0.387 17.04 38.6 0.996 13.16
277 0.4005 1.82 1997 0.0379 0.475 18.84 47.0 0.991 8.08
327 0.3652 1.67 2026 0.0422 0.573 20.67 56.6 0.986 5.11
377 0.3380 1.54 2056 0.0464 0.666 22.47 66.4 0.995 3.43
427 0.3140 1.43 2085 0.0505 0.772 24.26 77.2 1.000 2.35
477 0.2931 1.33 2119 0.0549 0.883 26.04 88.8 1.005 1.65
527 0.2739 1.25 2152 0.0592 1.001 27.86 102.0 1.010 1.18
577 0.2579 1.18 2186 0.0637 1.130 29.69 115.2 1.019 0.872
Table B 30 Methane at atmospheric pressure
Coefficient
gβ
Temperature, S C×104 cp K B× 1010 N × 104 V × 106 number, υ2
–80 1.014 5.18 0.0207 7.4 7.30 954.0

–60 0.9187 4.69 0.0230 8.1 8.82 592.0
–40 0.8399 4.29 0.0260 8.8 10.48 383.0
–20 0.7735 3.95 0.0278 9.5 12.28 257.0
0 0.7168 3.66 2165 0.0302 0.195 10.35 14.43 0.74 174.0
20 0.6679 3.41 2222 0.0332 0.224 10.87 16.27 0.73 126.0
50 0.6058 3.10 2307 0.0372 0.266 11.80 19.48 0.73 80.1
100 0.5246 2.68 2448 13.31 25.37 40.8
150 0.4626 2.36 2628 14.71 31.80 22.9
200 0.4137 2.11 2807 16.05 38.80 13.8
250 0.3742 1.91 2991 17.25 46.10 8.8
300 0.3415 1.75 3175 18.60 54.47 5.8
APPENDIX B
|
447
448
|
Table B 31 Ethane at atmospheric pressure

Coefficient
gβ
–75 1.870 5.05 0.0114 6.52 3.49 4066.0

0 1.356 3.66 1647 0.0183 0.0819 8.55 6.31 0.77 901.0

20 1.263 3.41 1731 0.0207 0.947 9.29 7.36 0.78 617.0
40 1.183 3.19 1815 0.0235 0.109 9.86 8.33 0.76 451.0
60 1.112 3.00 1899 0.0265 0.126 10.50 9.44 0.75 330.0
80 1.049 2.83 1983 0.0296 0.142 11.11 10.66 0.75 244.0
100 0.992 2.68 2067 0.0328 0.160 11.67 11.76 0.74 190.0
120 0.942 2.54 2152 12.30 13.06 146.0
150 0.875 2.36 2279 12.78 14.61 108.0
200 0.783 2.11 2490 14.09 17.99 63.9
250 0.708 1.91 2680 15.26 21.55 40.3
Table B 32 Atmospheric conditions
Absolute Absolute Sound of
temperature pressure Density sound
Altitude (R × 5 = K) (1bf /ft2) Pressure (1bf /ft3) Density (ft/s)
(m) 9 × 47.88 = N/m2 ratio × 16.02 = (kg/m3) ratio × 0.3048 = m/s
0 518 2116 1.00 7.65 × 10–2 1.00 1120
–1 –2 –1
1524 500 1758 8.32 × 10 6.60 × 10 8.61 × 10 1100
–1 –2 –1
3048 483 1456 6.87 × 10 5.66 × 10 7.38 × 10 1080
6096 447 972 4.59 × 10–1 4.08 × 10–2 5.33 × 10–1 1040
–1 –2 –1
9144 411 628 2.97 × 10 2.88 × 10 3.76 × 10 997
12192 392 392 1.85 × 10–1 1.88 × 10–2 2.45 × 10–1 973
15240 392 243 1.15 × 10–1 1.16 × 10–2 1.52 × 10–1 973
18288 392 151 7.13 × 10–2 7.32 × 10–3 9.45 × 10–2 973
21336 392 94.5 4.47 × 10–2 4.51 × 10–3 5.90 × 10–2 974
24384 392 58.8 2.78 × 10–2 2.80 × 10–3 3.67 × 10–2 974
–2 –3 –2
27432 392 36.6 1.73 × 10 1.67 × 10 2.28 × 10 974
30480 392 22.8 1.08 × 10–3 1.1 × 10–3 1.4 × 10–2 975
–3 –4 –3
45720 575 3.2 1.5 × 10 9.7 × 10 1.3 × 10 1190
60960 623 0.73 3.6 × 10–4 2.2 × 10–5 2.9 × 10–4 1240
–6 –7 –6
91440 487 0.017 9.0 × 10 6.9 × 10 9.0 × 10 1110
–7 –8 –7
121920 695 0.0011 5.2 × 10 2.7 × 10 3.5 × 10 1430
152400 910 1.2 × 10–4 8.5× 10–8 3.1 × 10–9 4.1 × 10–8
182880 1130 4.1 × 10–5 1.9 × 10–8 5.7 × 10–10 7.5 × 10–9
–5 –9 –10
APPENDIX B
213360 1350 1.3 × 10 6.2 × 10 1.5 × 10 1.9 × 10–9

243840 1570 4.6 × 10–6 2.2 × 10–9 4.6 × 10–11 6.0 × 10–10
|
274320 1800 1.9 × 10–6 9.0 × 10–10 1.7 × 10–11 2.2 × 10–10
449
Table B 33 Thermodynamic properties of alloys
Properties at 2088°C
Composition S cS K B × 105
Metal (%) (kg/m3) (J/kg K) (W/m K) (m2/s)
Aluminium
Duralumin 94 – 94 Al, 3 – 5 Cu, 2787 833 164.0 6.676
trace Mg
Silumin 87 Al, 13Si 2659 871 164.0 7.099
Copper
Aluminium 95 Cu, 5 Al 8666 410 83.0 2.330
Bronze
Bronze 75 Cu, 25 Sn 8666 343 26.0 0.859
Red brass 85 Cu, 9 Sn, 6 Zn 8714 385 61.0 1.804
Brass 70 Cu, 30 Zn 8522 385 111.0 3.412
German silver 62 Cu, 15 Ni, 22 Zn 8618 394 24.9 0.733
Constantine 60 Cu, 40 Ni 8922 410 22.7 0.612
Iron
Cast iron ≈4 C 7272 420 52.0 1.702
Wrought iron 0.5 CH 7849 460 59.0 1.626
Steel 1C 7801 473 43.0 1.172
Carbon steel 1.5 C 7753 486 36.0 0.970
1 Cr 7865 460 61.0 1.665
Chrome steel 5 Cr 7833 460 40.0 1.110
10 Cr 7785 460 31.0 0.867
15 Cr, 10 Ni 7865 460 19.0 0.526
Chrome nickel 20 Cr, 15 Ni 7833 460 15.1 0.415
Steel 10 Ni 7945 460 26.0 0.720
Nickel steel 20 Ni 7993 460 19.0 0.526
40 Ni 8169 460 10.0 0.279
60 Ni 8378 460 19.0 0.493
80 Ni, 15 C 8522 460 17.0 0.444
Nickel chrome 40 Ni, 15 C 8073 460 11.6 0.305
Steel 1 Mn 7865 460 50.0 1.388
Manganese steel 5 Mn 7849 460 22.0 0.637
1 Si 7769 460 42.0 1.164
(Continued)
APPENDIX B | 451
Composition S cS K B × 105
Metal (%) (kg/m3) (J/kg K) (W/m K) (m2/s)
Steel
Silicon steel 5 Si 7417 460 19.0 0.555
Type 304 7817 461 14.4 0.387
Stainless steel Type 347 7817 461 14.3 0.387
1W 7913 448 66.0 1.858
Tungsten steel 5W 8073 435 54.0 1.525
Table B 34 Thermodynamic properties of insulations and buildings materials

S cS K B × 105
Material (kg/m3) (J/kg K) (W/m K) (m2/s)
Asbestos 383 816 0.113 0.036
Asphalt 2120 0.698
Bakelite 1270 0.233
Brick
Common 1800 840 0.38 – 0.52 0.028 – 0.034
Carborundum 2200 5.82
(50% SiC)
Magnesite 2000 2.68
(50% MgO)
Masonry 1700 837 0.658 0.046
Silica (95% SiO2) 1900 1.07
Zircon (62% ZrO2) 3600 2.44
Cardboard 0.14 – 0.35
Cement, hard 1.047
Clay (48.7% moisture) 1545 880 1.26 0.101
Coal, anthracite 1370 1260 0.238 0.013 – 0.015
Concrete, dry 500 837 0.128 0.049
Cork, boards 150 1880 0.042 0.015 – 0.044
(Continued)
S cS K B × 105
Material (kg/m3) (J/kg K) (W/m K) (m2/s)
Cork, expanded 120 0.036
Diatomaceous earth 466 879 0.126 0.031
Glass fibre 220 0.035
Glass, window 2800 800 0.81 0.034
Glass, wool 50 0.037
100 0.036
200 670 0.040 0.028
Granite 2750 3.0
Ice (0°C) 913 1830 2.22 0.124
Kapok 25 0.035
Linoleum 535 0.081
Mica 2900 0.523
Pine bark 342 0.080
Plaster 1800 0.814
Plexiglas 1180 0.195
Plywood 590 0.109
Polystyrene 1050 0.157
Rubber, Buna 1250 0.465
Hard (ebonite) 1150 2009 0.163 0.0062
Spongy 224 0.055
Sand, dry 0.582
Sand, moist 1640 1.13
Sawdust 215 0.071
Soil
Dry 1500 1842 ~0.35 0.0138
Wet 1500 ~2.60 0.0414
Wood
Oak 609 – 801 2390 0.17 – 0.21 0.0111 – 0.0121
Pine, fir, spruce 416 – 421 2720 0.15 0.0124
Wood fibre sheets 200 0.047
(celotex) 400 0.055
Wool 200 0.038
APPENDIX B | 453
Table B 35 Normal emittance of metals
Temperature Normal emittance,
Substance State of surface (K) Fna
Aluminium Polished plate 296 0.040
498 0.039
Rolled, polished 443 0.039
Rough plate 298 0.070
Brass Oxidized 611 0.22
Polished 292 0.05
573 0.032
Tarnished 329 0.202
Chromium Polished 423 0.058
Copper Black oxidized 293 0.780
Lightly tarnished 293 0.037
Polished 293 0.030
Gold Not polished 293 0.47
Polished 293 0.025
Iron Oxidized smooth 398 0.78
Ground bright 293 0.24
Polished 698 0.144
Lead Grey oxidized 293 0.28
Polished 403 0.056
Molybdenum Filament 998 0.096
Nickel Oxidized 373 0.41
Polished 373 0.045
Platinum Polished 498 0.054
898 0.104
Silver Polished 293 0.025
Steel Oxidized rough 313 0.94
Ground sheet 1213 0.520
Tin Bright 293 0.070
Tungsten Filament 3300 0.39
Zinc Tarnished 293 0.25
Polished 503 0.045
Table B 36 Normal emittance of nonmetals
Asbestos board 297 0.96
Brick Red, rough 293 0.93
Carbon filament 1313 0.53
Glass Smooth 293 0.93
Ice Smooth 273 0.966
Rough 273 0.985
Masonry Plastered 273 0.93
Paper 293 0.80
Plaster, lime White, rough 293 0.93
Porcelain Glazed 293 0.93
Quartz Fuzed, rough 293 0.93
Rubber
Soft Grey 297 0.86
Hard Black, rough 297 0.95
Wood
Beech Planed 343 0.935
Oak Planed 294 0.885
Table B 37 Normal emittance of paints and surface coatings

Aluminium bronze 373 0.20 – 0.40
Aluminium enamel Rough 293 0.39
Aluminium paint Heated to 3258°C 423 – 588 0.35
Bakelite enamel 353 0.935
Enamel
White Rough 293 0.90
Black Bright 298 0.876
Oil paint 273 – 473 0.885
Red lead primer 293 – 373 0.93
Shellac, black Bright 294 0.82
Dull 348 – 418 0.91
APPENDIX B | 455
Table B 38 Steel pipe dimensions
Nominal Outer Wall Inner
pipe size diameter thickness diameter
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
1 0.405 0.068 0.269
8
0.095 0.215
1 0.540 0.088 0.364
4
0.119 0.302
3 0.675 0.091 0.493
8
0.126 0.423
1 0.840 0.109 0.622
2
0.147 0.546
0.187 0.466
3 1.050 0.113 0.824
4
0.154 0.742
0.218 0.614
1 1.315 0.133 1.049
0.179 0.957
0.250 0.815
1 1.660 0.140 1.380
1
4
0.191 1.278
0.250 1.160
1 1.900 0.145 1.610
1
2
0.200 1.500
0.281 1.338
2 2.375 0.154 2.067
0.218 1.939
0.343 1.689
1 2.875 0.203 2.469
2
2
0.276 2.323
0.375 2.125
3 3.500 0.216 3.068
0.300 2.900
0.437 2.626
1 4.000 0.226 3.548
3
2
0.318 3.364
(Continued)

(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
4 4.500 0.237 4.026
0.337 3.826
0.437 3.626
0.531 3.438
5 5.563 0.258 5.047
0.375 4.813
0.500 4.563
0.625 4.313
6 6.625 0.280 6.065
0.432 5.661
0.562 5.501
0.718 5.189
8 8.625 0.250 8.125
0.277 8.071
0.322 7.981
0.406 7.813
0.500 7.625
0.593 7.439
0.718 7.189
0.812 7.001
0.906 6.813
10 10.75 0.250 10.250
0.307 10.136
0.365 10.020
0.500 9.750
0.593 9.564
0.718 9.314
0.843 9.064
1.000 8.750
1.125 8.500
(Continued)
APPENDIX B | 457
(in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
12 12.75 0.250 12.250
0.330 12.090
0.406 11.938
0.562 11.626
0.687 11.376
0.843 11.064
1.000 10.750
1.125 10.500
1.312 10.126
14 14.0 0.250 13.500
0.312 13.376
0.375 13.250
0.437 13.126
0.593 12.814
0.750 12.500
0.937 12.126
1.062 11.876
1.250 11.500
1.406 11.188
Appendix C
$SSUR[LPDWHRYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWLQKHDWH[FKDQJHUV
Fluid Heat exchanger pipe Fluid (W/m2 K)
Air Cast iron Air 5–6
Air Mild steel Air 7–8
Water Copper Air/Gas 13–14
Water Cast iron Water 235–285
Water Mild steel Water 330–400
Water Copper Water 330–450
Steam Cast iron Air 11–12
Steam Mild steel Air 14–15
Steam Copper Air 16–17
Steam Cast iron Water 900–920
Steam Mild steel Water 1000–1100
Steam Copper Water 1100–1200
Steam Stainless steel Water 600–700
INDEX
A C FRXQWHUÀRZKHDWH[FKDQJHU
269, 285
absorptivity 298, 297 calibrated 373 critical 189
accuracy 373 cartesian co-ordinates 15 FULWLFDOKHDWÀX[
accuracy of prediction 350 Celsius 1, 12 critical thickness 35
DPSOL¿HUFLUFXLW central difference 355 FURVVÀRZ
DQDORJPRGHOV change in phase 221 ±
angle of incidence 297 characteristic length 76, 98, 116, 127, cubic polynomial 176
DQJOHRIUHÀHFWLRQ 130, 132, 161, 318 cylinder and a parallel plate 308
anisotropic 3 characteristics 297 F\OLQGHUVRI¿QLWHOHQJWK
arbitrary function 123 FKDUWV cylindrical co-ordinates 17
arithmetic 255, 268 FKHPLFDOVSHFLHV
arithmetic mean 255, 268 FORVHGW\SHH[FKDQJHUV
automatic controller 373 coaxial 309 D
automatic control systems 373 coaxial circular parallel plates 315
automodellity 391 'DOWRQ¶VODZ
FRHI¿FLHQWRIUHVLVWDQFH
DYHUDJHFRQYHFWLYHFRHI¿FLHQW GDWDDQDO\VLV
FRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ
166 density of liquid 236, 239
121
DYHUDJHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW GHSWKRISHQHWUDWLRQ
combined natural convection and
GHVFULSWLYH
radiation 137
average velocity 239 design of heat 251, 261
compact heat exchangers 267, 268
design of heat exchanger 251
FRPSRVLWH
detectors 381
composite slab 21
B GHWHUPLQLVWLF
concave surfaces 305
GLIIXVHGUHÀHFWLRQ
bands 318 FRQFHQWUDWLRQ
GLIIXVLRQ
bank of tubes 188 FRQFHQWUDWLRQERXQGDU\OD\HU
GLIIXVLRQFRHI¿FLHQW
Beer’s law 318 FRQFHQWUDWLRQSUR¿OH
GLIIXVLRQUDWH
Bessel equation 39 concentric cylinders or spheres 312
GLJLWDOGHYLFHV
bismuth-telluride 380 concentric spheres 135
GLPHQVLRQDODQDO\VLV
black body 297, 387 FRQGHQVDWHOLTXLG¿OP
dimensionless groups 393
black body radiation function 301 FRQGHQVDWLRQ
GLVFUHWH
black enclosure 319
discretization error 359
body force 121 cone angle 358
displacement thickness 181
boiling 221 conservation of energy 305
GLVWULEXWHG
ERXQGDU\OD\HU ± FRQVWDQWKHDWÀX[
drag force 235
126, 127, 137, 163, 166, 169, continuity equation 169
GURSZLVHFRQGHQVDWLRQ
continuity, momentum 120, 137

ERXQGDU\OD\HUSUR¿OHV FRQWUROYROXPH
ducts 189
boundary-layer separation 180 convective heat transfer
G\QDPLF
boundary layer thickness 122, 126, F RHI¿FLHQW
dynamic models 350
170 FRQYHFWLYHPDVVWUDQVIHU
dynamic similarity 388, 391
Bowman 267 FRQYHUJHQFH
dynamic viscosity 169, 239
Buckingham (Theorem) 393 convex 305
EXONPDVVWUDQVIHU correction factor 255, 318, 321
EXONPDVVYHORFLW\ correlation 223, 350, 392 E
bulk mean temperature 189 FRUUXJDWHG¿QV
bundles 185 cosine 303 effectiveness 261, 262, 269, 273, 275,
buoyancy force 119, 121, 137 FRXQWHUÀRZ
burnout point 222 ± HIIHFWLYHQHVVRI¿Q
460 | INDEX
HI¿FLHQF\RI¿Q fouling factor 251, 287 I

elasticity force 389 Fourier 2, 8, 12
electrical analogy 19, 309, 311 Fourier’s law 15, 70, 71 impingement 359
electrical network 310 free convection 3 incident radiation 298
electrical-resistance thermometer 383 IUHHÀRZYHORFLW\ incident radiation energy 297
electric energy 378 IUHHÀXLGYHORFLW\ LQFOLQHGHQFORVXUHV
electromagnetic waves 297 free-stream temperature 177, 386 inclined plates 131
elliptic 351, 352 free-stream velocity 169, 181 LQFRPSUHVVLEOH ±
emission angle 298 freezing/melting 95 LQFRPSUHVVLEOHÀXLGÀRZ
emissive power 298, 300 Froude 391 independent variables 352
emissivities 7 fully developed 173 inertia force 167
emissivity 298 LQ¿QLWHF\OLQGHU ±
empirical models 350 113
enclosed spaces 133 G LQ¿QLWHORQJ¿Q
HQHUJ\EDODQFH LQ¿QLWHSDUDOOHOSODWHV
energy equation 15, 16, 70 ,120, 137 JDVÀRZ LQ¿QLWHSODQH
energy integral equation as 123 gas medium 318 LQ¿QLWHSODWH
entry length 189 gas radiation 318 initial and boundary conditions 79
HTXLPRODUGLIIXVLRQ Gaussian error function 78 inline arrangement 186
error 373 geometrical parameters 305 instrumentation 373
HYDSRUDWLRQ geometric similarity 391 instruments 373
HYDSRUDWRU glass thermometer 382 LQVXODWHGDSSDUDWXV
exact solution 171 governing equations 351 insulated surface 358
excess temperature 222 Graetz number 390 integral analysis 176
H[FKDQJHU ± Grashoff number 127, 129, 390 integral boundary-layer equation 170
±±± gravity force 235 integral equations 353
±±± gray body 298 integral form 356
expansion thermometer 382 grids 359 integral momentum equation 170
experiments 373 JULGVL]H intensity of radiation 302
guarded hot-plate 376 LURQ±FRQVWDQWDQWKHUPRFRXSOH
irradiation 309
F LVRWKHUPDOHYDSRUDWLRQ
H LVRWKHUPDOÀDWSODWH
Fahrenheit 1, 12
isothermal spheres 132
)LFN¶VODZV
heat capacity rate 262 isothermal surface 358
¿ODPHQW
KHDWH[FKDQJHU isotropic 2, 8
¿OPERLOLQJ

¿OPUHVLVWDQFH
KHDWÀRZUDWH K
¿OPWHPSHUDWXUH
KHDWÀX[
¿OPZLVHFRQGHQVDWLRQ KHDWÀX[PHDVXUHPHQWV Kelvin 1
¿QLWHGLIIHUHQFH KHDWÀX[PHWHU kinematic similarity 391
¿QLWHGLIIHUHQFHPHWKRG KHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW kinematic viscosity 168, 389
¿QLWHGLVFUHWHGLIIHUHQFHV measurement 377 Kirchhoff’s law 301
¿QLWHHOHPHQW heat transfer enhancement 266
¿QLWHYROXPH +HLVOHUFKDUWV
L
¿QV hollow composite sphere 30
ÀRZDUHD hollow cylinder 25 laboratory experiments 373
ÀRZERLOLQJ hollow sphere 28 Lambert’s Cosine Law 303
ÀXLGVPL[HG horizontal cylinders 128, 132, 156 ODPLQDU ±
ÀXLGVXQPL[HG horizontal plates 130 ODPLQDUERXQGDU\OD\HU
foil 379 hot-plate method 375 ODPLQDUÀRZ
force by gravity 389 KRWZLUHDQHPRPHWHU laminar sublayer 173
force by inertia 389 hydraulic diameter 191 Laplace 351
force by pressure 388 hydrodynamic 120, 181 Laplace transform 78
IRUFHGFRQYHFWLRQ hydrodynamic boundary layer 176 Laplacian operator 16
189 hyperbolic 351 ODWHQWKHDWRIFRQGHQVDWLRQ
fouling 251, 268, 280, 287, 295 hyperbolic equations 352 leading edge 166, 181
INDEX | 461
/HZLVQXPEHU N perpendicular rectangle plates 309
/¶+RVSLWDO¶VUXOH SK\VLFDOPRGHOV
liquid metal 185 narrow wavelength 318 SLWRWWXEH
/07' ± natural or free convection 119 Planck’s law 298, 300
± net heat exchange 311 plane wall 18
net interchange energy 310 Poisson 351
ORFDOFRQYHFWLRQFRHI¿FLHQW net radiation energy 310 Poisson equation 353
ORFDOÀXLGYHORFLW\ networks 317 polar angle 358
ORFDOIULFWLRQFRHI¿FLHQW Newton’s law 3, 5, 12 polynomial 171
ORFDOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW Newton’s law of cooling 165 polynomial function 123
local Nu 129, 132 noncircular sections 191 pool boiling 221
logarithmic mean area 32 QRQFRQGHQVDEOHJDVHV SRWHQWLDOÀRZUHJLRQ
long cylinder 82, 96 nonlinear 352 potentiometer 385
low-emissivity material 316 nonmetal surfaces 299 Prandtl number 128, 161, 172, 389,
low-velocity 175 178PHWKRG
OXPSHG nucleate boiling 221 SUHGLFWLYH
nucleate pool boiling 223 SUHGLFWLYHPRGHOV
OXPSHGV\VWHP ±
number of heat transfer units 262 pressure drop 188
number of tubes passes 262 pressure forces 169
M QXPHULFDOPRGHOV pressure gradient 121
numerical solutions 351 SUHVVXUHRIYDSRU
Mach number 386, 391 QXPHULFDOWHFKQLTXHV primary dimensions 388
mass balance 169 1XVVHOWQXPEHU ± SUREDELOLVWLF
PDVVGLIIXVLRQ ± probability function 358
PDVVÀRZUDWH 179, 389 probability technique 357
PDVVÀX[ Nusselt’s equation 238 probe 387
PDVVWUDQVIHU product solution method 92
PDWKHPDWLFDOPRGHO properties of shape factor 305
O
PD[LPXPÀXLGYHORFLW\ prototype 350, 392
PD[LPXPYHORFLW\ one shell 257, 266, 280, 287, 291, pyranometer 387
0F$GDPV 293, 295 pyrheliometer 387
mean beam length 319 one shell pass 257, 266, 280, 287, pyrometer 381
PHDQYHORFLW\ 291, 295
measure 373 one tube pass 259, 260
measurement of thermal
R
RSHQW\SHH[FKDQJHUV
FRQGXFWLYLW\ optical pyrometry 385 radiant heat transfer 297
mercury 382 RSWLPL]DWLRQ UDGLDWLRQ ±±
microvolt potentiometer 385 RYHUDOOKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQW radiation pyrometer 381
millivoltmeter 385 ± radiation shape factor 303
mixed convection 136 277, 278, 281, 283, 287, 289, radiation shields 316
PL[WXUH 290, 292 UDGLDWLYHÀX[
PRGHOLQJ radiocity 309
PROHFXODUVSDFLQJ radiometer 381
P
PROHFXODUZHLJKWV rate of energy 302
PRPHQWXPÀRZ parabolic 173, 351 Rayleigh number 133
PRPHQWXPÀX[ parabolic equation 352 UHFLSURFLW\WKHRUHP
momentum integral equation 123 parallel cylinders 307 rectangle plates 308
momentum thickness 181 parallel disks 309 rectangular enclosure 133
momentum transfer 169 SDUDOOHOÀRZ UHÀHFWLYLW\
monochromatic 386 ± UHÀHFWRPHWHU
monochromatic emission power 298 ± UHJHQHUDWRUV
monochromatic emissivity 298 partial differential equation 353 re-radiating surface 310
monochromator 381 pass 255, 257, 259, 260, 266, 267, UHVLVWDQFH
Monte Carlo method 357 275, 280, 287, 291, 293, 295
PXOWLGLPHQVLRQDO Peclet number 390 UHVLVWDQFHPHDVXUHPHQW
multipass 255, 266, 267, 283 SHULRGLFKHDWÀRZ response time 350
multipass heat exchangers 267 perpendicular plates 307 5H\QROGVDQDORJ\
462 | INDEX
5H\QROGVQXPEHU 6WHIDQ¶VODZ truncation errors 359

rotational speed 132 6WHIDQ¶VODZRIGLIIXVLRQ tubes 189
steradian 302 WXEHZDOO
subcooled boiling 221 WXUEXOHQW ±
S surface resistance 310
surface tension 389 WXUEXOHQWÀRZ
saturated boiling 221
surface with convection 358 two inclined parallel plates 306
scale model 391
two parallel plates 306
6FKPLWQXPEHU
WZRSKDVHÀRZ
6HHEHFNHIIHFW T two shell passes 258
VHPLFRQGXFWRU
VHPLLQ¿QLWHVROLG 7D\ORUVHULHV
± Taylor series expansion 355 U
sensitivity 373 TEMA 267
sensor 378 temperature 1, 5 XQLIRUPKHDWÀX[
shape factor algebra 305 temperature distribution 27, 123, uniform wall temperature 128, 139,
VKDSHRUYLHZRUFRQ¿JXUDWLRQIDFWRU 176 131
shear force 170 temperature gradient 166 XQVWHDG\
shear stress 166 WHPSHUDWXUHSUR¿OH
shell-and-tube 266, 288 255, 256
6KHUZRRGQXPEHU thermal boundary layer 120, 172, V
similarity 175 175
vacuum 297
similarity variable 351 thermal boundary-layer thickness
YDOLGDWLRQ
similitude 390 172
YDSRUSUHVVXUH
VLPXODWLRQ thermal conductance 20
variables 373
simultaneous 189 WKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\ ±
YDULDEOHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\
single-pass condenser 255 thermal contact resistance 33
YHORFLW\
slug 378 WKHUPDOGLIIXVLRQ
±
VPDOOHUFDSDFLW\FRHI¿FLHQW thermal diffusivity 16, 71
velocity boundary layer 166
smooth tubes 190 thermal entry length 189
velocity distribution 177, 235
solar radiation 297 thermal equilibrium 301
velocity function 170, 171
solid angle 302 thermal radiation 297, 357
velocity gradient 166
solid cylinder 27 thermal resistance 20, 251, 292
YHORFLW\SUR¿OH
solid sphere 31 WKHUPLVWRU
vertical cylinders 132
space continuum 353 WKHUPRFRXSOH
YHUWLFDOVXUIDFH
VSHFL¿FKHDW thermometer 382
viscosity 120, 161, 166
VSHFLHV thermopile radiometer 380
viscous force 167, 389
VSHFXODUUHÀHFWLRQ thickness (į) of the velocity boundary
viscous heating 176
speed of light 297 layer 166
Von-Karman 120
spherical co-ordinates 17 three planes of an enclosure 307
Von-Neumann’s method 359
stability 391 WLPHGHSHQGHQW
stability condition 359 WLPHGHSHQGHQWSUREOHPV
stable solution 359 WLPHVWHS W
staggered arrangements 187 total emissive power 298
VWDJQDWLRQSRLQW WRWDOSUHVVXUH ZDOOWHPSHUDWXUH
stagnation temperature 386 transient 75, 79, 80, 82, 92, 96, 116, wall thickness 250
Stanton number 190, 390 352 wattmeter 378
static temperature 386 transient models 350 wavelength 297, 359
VWHDG\ ± transition 173 Weber 391
transmissivity 297 weighting functions 353
VWHDG\VWDWHGLIIXVLRQ transmissivity measurements 381 wetted perimeter 191
6WHIDQ±%ROW]PDQFRQVWDQW transparent body 297 white body 297
377 transverse rows 188 Wien’s displacement law 300
6WHIDQ±%ROW]PDQODZ WULDQJXODU¿Q Wien’s law 385

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HEAT AND

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Preface ix 2.4.2 A Solid Cylinder With Heat

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1.3 HEAT TRANSFER MODES

1.3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer

1.3.1.1 Unit of thermal conductivity

1.3.2 Convection Heat Transfer

Figure 1.1 Natural or Free Convection of Air (Tw > T∞)

1.3.2.2 Forced convection

Fluid forced over wall

Figure 1.2 Forced Convection of Air (Tw > T∞)

Velocity Flow Temperature

1.3.3 Combined Convection and Conduction and Overall Heat Transfer

Figure 1.4 Thermal Circuit with Conduction and Convection in Series

1.3.4 Radiation Heat Transfer

1.3.4.1 Shape factor

1.3.5 Combined Convection and Radiation

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2.1 FOURIER’S LAW

2.2 GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION

The energy equation can also be written with Laplacian operator

The 3D unsteady conduction equation without internal heat generation is

∇ 2T = 0 (Laplace equation). (2.7)

Steady-state one-dimensional (radial direction) heat transfer (Fig. 2.2) is given by

2.3 PLANE WALL (SLAB): CONSTANT SURFACE TEMPERATURE

Figure 2.4 One-dimensional Heat Conduction in the Slab

To get the temperature distribution in the slab, integrate Equation (2.10)

Substituting C1 and C2, the temperature distribution is

From Equation (2.11),

Figure 2.5 Electrical Analogy

2.3.1 In a Slab With Convection Boundaries

Th > T1 > T2 > Tc

where ThLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIKRWÀXLGZKLFKVXSSOLHVKHDWWRWKHVODEDQGTc is the temperature of the

2.3.2 One-dimensional Steady-state Conduction Through a Composite Slab

Figure 2.7 (a) Composite Slab; (b) Electrical Analogy

If the composite wall consists of ‘N’ slabs, then

Physical systems Thermal circuit

where Rt = Rh + R1 + R2 + Rc . , and hh, hc and Th, TcDUHWKHKHDWWUDQVIHUFRHI¿FLHQWVDQGWHPSHUDWXUHV

2.3.3 A Slab With Heat Generation and Uniform Thermal Conductivity

The integrations of the equation give

Figure 2.9 Slab with Heat Generation

Case (a) Different wall temperatures

Using these conditions in Equation (2.15), we get

The temperature distribution becomes

In the dimensionless form,

Case (b) Wall surfaces at same temperature

Heat transfer from one side of the wall is given by

2.3.4 One-dimensional Steady-state Heat Conduction in a Slab With Variable

where k0 and C are constants. The governing equation is

Figure 2.10 Slab with Variable Thermal Conductivity

Integrating and substituting the boundary conditions, we get

2.4 A HOLLOW CYLINDER WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION

Figure 2.11 Hollow Cylinder

The boundary conditions are

Integrating Equation (2.20), we get

Heat transfer rate

2.4.2 A Solid Cylinder With Heat Generation

Then the dimensionless form of the temperature distribution becomes

2.5 A HOLLOW SPHERE WITHOUT HEAT GENERATION

Figure 2.13 Hollow Sphere

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where ThLVWKHWHPSHUDWXUHRIKRWÀXLGZKLFKVXSSOLHVKHDWWRWKHVODEDQGTc is the temperature of the

where P is the perimeter of the small element, kLVWKHWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIWKH¿QPDWHULDODQGTa

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where AbLVWKH¿QEDVHDUHDAsLVWKHWRWDOVXUIDFHDUHDRI¿QVTb is the base temperature, and Ta is

(a) The heat transfer rate without the insulation = Q1 = hA(T Ta )

2.8. The electrical resistance of a copper rod is 15 q 10í ohmmí,WFRQGXFWVDFXUUHQWRI$DQGKDV

Heat transfer through the wall, Q = T1 T4 /Rtotal