Chemistry in Context, 9th Edition

A Project of the American Chemical

Society

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Chapter 2
The Air We Breathe
• What is air? What are the components that make up the air we
breathe?
• How does the composition of air change from place to place?
• What are the impurities in air and how did they get there?
• Are there harmful components in the air you breathe indoors?
• Are there ways we can prevent or limit contaminants from
polluting our atmosphere?
 The Troposphere
75% of our air, by mass, is in
the troposphere, the lowest
region of the atmosphere in
which we live.

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 The Composition of Air

It’s a mixture – a physical

combination of two or more
substances present in variable
amounts.

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 What’s in a Breath?

Substance Inhaled Air (%) Exhaled Air (%)

Nitrogen (N2) 78.0 78.0

Oxygen (O2) 21.0 16.0

Argon (Ar) 0.9 0.9

Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.04 4.0

Water Variable Variable

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 What Else Is In a
Breath?
These images show Beijing,
China from the same vantage
point on different days.

In addition to nitrogen,
oxygen, and other colorless
gases, there are harmful
nitrogen oxides and
particulate matter that
contribute to air pollution.

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 Air Inversions
Cooler air can be trapped
beneath warmer air due to
weather conditions.

Pollutants often accumulate

in the cooler air of an
inversion layer.

This situation is worsened

when air flow is limited, such
as in cities surrounded by
mountains.

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 Visualizing the
Molecules in Air
A molecule is a fixed number
of atoms held together by
chemical bonds in a certain
spatial arrangement.

The chemical formula

symbolically represents the
type and number of each
element present.

Chemists use three

viewpoints to study and
understand matter,
macroscopic, symbolic, and
particulate.

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 Molecular Structures

The particulate view of matter

shows the 3-D molecular
structure, with atoms color-
coded.

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 Naming Binary Compounds
Prefixes are used to designate the number of each type of
element:

Number Prefix
1 mono
2 di
3 tri
4 tetra
5 penta
6 hexa
7 hepta
8 octa
9 nona
10 deca

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 Naming Binary Compounds of Nonmetals

Prefixes are used to designate the number of each type of

element:

N2O = dinitrogen monoxide (also known as nitrous oxide, or

laughing gas)

P2O5 = diphosphorus pentoxide

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 Naming Binary Compounds of Nonmetals

Name the following molecular compounds: (a) PBr5 and (b)

As2O5.

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 Naming Binary Compounds of Nonmetals

Name the following molecular compounds: (a) NF3 and (b)

Cl2O7.

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 Naming Binary Compounds of Nonmetals

Write chemical formulas for the following molecular

compounds: (a) bromine trifluoride and (b) diboron trioxide.

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 Naming Binary Compounds of Nonmetals

Write chemical formulas for the following molecular

compounds: (a) sulfur tetrafluoride and (b) dinitrogen
pentoxide.

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 Naming Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms

Chemical Formula Number of Carbon Compound Name

Atoms
CH4 1 Methane
C2H6 2 Ethane
C3H8 3 Propane
C4H10 4 Butane
C5H12 5 Pentane
C6H14 6 Hexane
C7H16 7 Heptane
C8H18 8 Octane
C9H20 9 Nonane
C10H22 10 Decane

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 Air Pollutants: Risk Assessment
Risk Assessment – evaluating scientific data and making
predictions in an organized manner about the probabilities of an
occurrence.

Toxicity – intrinsic health hazard of a substance.

Exposure – the amount of the substance encountered.

Evaluate the risk of breathing the amount of ozone in the air

between the hours of 4:00 p.m. and 6:00 p.m. where you live.
Note: You may have to go online to access information from the
EPA to help in your calculation.
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 Concentration Terms

Parts per hundred (percent)

Atmosphere is 21% oxygen = 21 oxygen molecules per 100 molecules and atoms in air

Parts per million (ppm)

Midday ozone levels reach about 0.4 ppm:

0.4 ozone molecules

1  106 molecules and atoms in air

Parts per billion (ppb)

Sulfur dioxide in the air should not exceed 30 ppb:

30 sulfur dioxide molecules

1  109 molecules and atoms in air

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 Concentration Conversions

21% means 21 parts per hundred…

• means 210 parts per thousand

• means 2,100 parts per ten thousand The difference between %

and ppm is a factor of 10,000.
• means 21,000 parts per hundred
thousand

• means 210,000 parts per million

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 The Harmful Few…

These gases represent the most harmful for our health and the
health of our planet:

• Carbon monoxide
• Ozone
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
• Particulate matter (PM)

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 Philippines Ambient Air Quality Standards

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 EPA’s Air Quality Index

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 Example: Air Quality Index Values for Phoenix, AZ

Variations reflect those in the

local weather patterns.
Regional events such as forest
fires and volcanic eruptions
can influence air quality.

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 Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions are

characterized by the
rearrangement of atoms
when reactants are
transformed into products.

This is an example of a
combustion reaction.

The number of atoms on each

side of the arrow must be
equal (Law of Conservation of
Mass).

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 Balancing Equations

Tips for balancing equations:

• If an element is present in just one compound on

each side, balance it first

• Balance anything that exists as a free element last

• Balance polyatomic ions as a unit

• Check when done – same number of atoms, and

same total charge (if any) on both sides

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 Balancing Equations: An Example

As an example, consider the combustion of methane (CH4) to generate carbon

dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O):
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O (unbalanced)
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O (balanced)

When balanced, there is 1 carbon atom, 4 oxygen atoms, and 4 hydrogen

atoms on either side of the equation.

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 Balancing Equations: An Example

KClO3 → KCl + O2

C2H6 + O2 → CO2 + H2O

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 “Incomplete Combustion”

If the amount of oxygen is altered, the hydrocarbon can burn incompletely:

2 C8H18 + 25 O2 → 16 CO2 + 18 H2O (complete combustion)

2 C8H18 + 17 O2 → 16 CO + 18 H2O (incomplete combustion)

Verify that both of these equations are properly balanced!

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 Vehicle Emissions

This U.S. auto emissions

report shows the amount of
CO generated from the
exhaust, which can tell if the
vehicle is operating properly
or exhibits incomplete
combustion products.

Philippines:
https://air.emb.gov.ph/emissi
on-inventory-2018/

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 Direct Source of Sulfur Trioxide

S + O2 → SO2

2 SO2 + O2 → 2 SO3

Sulfur trioxide then reacts with water to produce sulfuric acid, a

contributor to acid rain. The good news: Since 1985, we have seen a
55% reduction in SO2 emissions in the U.S.
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 The Complexities of Nitrogen
NO2 is a brown gas, giving
Dioxide Formation smog its characteristic
brown tinge.

At high temperatures:
i) N2 + O2 → 2 NO
ii) 2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2

NO2 is also produced from the

reaction with ground-level
ozone:
NO + O3 → NO2 + O2

Volatile Organic Compounds

(VOCs) emitted from vehicle
exhausts are also involved in
NO2 production:
i) VOC + ⋅ OH → A
ii) A + O2 → A’
iii) A’ + NO → A’’ + NO2
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 Vehicle Catalytic
Converters

Catalytic converters reduce

the amount of carbon
monoxide (CO) in the exhaust
due to catalyzing the
combustion of carbon
monoxide to carbon dioxide
(CO2).

Newer designs also limit the

release of nitrogen oxides by
reducing them to nitrogen
and oxygen gases.

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 Ozone (O3): A Secondary Pollutant

Unlike nitrogen and sulfur oxides that are direct pollutants, ozone is a “secondary
pollutant”. It is produced from one or more other pollutants (VOCs and NO2):
Sunlight
i) NO2 NO + O
ii) O + O2 → O3
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 Indoor Air Pollutants?

Do you think of harmful

pollutants when you light
your incense candle or want
to begin painting a room in
the house? Why do you think
these are considered indoor
air pollutants?

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 What is “Green Chemistry”?

The EPA Design for the Environment Program initiated green chemistry
programs. Green chemistry reduces pollution through the design or redesign
of chemical processes.
“Green” processes use less energy, create less waste, use fewer resources,
and use renewable resources. Some examples include:
• Plastics synthesized from renewable sources instead of typical fossil-fuel
derived precursors.
• Paints that contain fewer volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Cheaper and less wasteful ways to produce consumer products.
• Limiting or eliminating the use of organic solvents.
• Removing arsenic from the touchscreens of portable electronic devices.

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