Chemistry in Context, 9 th Edition

A Project of the American Chemical

Society
Chapter 8
Water Everywhere: A Most Precious Resource
• What are the unique properties of water?
• Where is the water we and other animals (& plants) use and drink?
• How does water interact with other chemicals?
• How do the properties of water change through its interaction with other
components?
• How can we improve the quality of water?
 Macroscopic Properties of Matter

Takes Shape Completely Fills Definite Definite

of Container? Container? Volume? Shape?
Solid No No Yes Yes
Liquid Yes No Yes No
Gas Yes Yes No No

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Unique Composition of Water
Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure (STP) – 25 C and 1 atm. All
other compounds with similar molar masses (for instance, nitrogen, oxygen, and
carbon dioxide) are gases under these conditions.

Water has an anomalously high boiling point (100 C); liquids with similar molecular
structures such as hydrogen sulfide, H2S, have much lower boiling points.

When water freezes, it expands. Most other liquids contract when they solidify.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Electronegativity

Electronegativity is a measure of the attraction of an atom for

electrons in a chemical bond.

The greater the electronegativity, the more an atom attracts the

electrons in a chemical bond toward itself.

F is the most electronegative element, whereas Cs is the lowest.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Selected Electronegativity Values

Group 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
H (2.1) He (N/A)
Li (1.0) Be (1.5) B (2.0) C (2.5) N (3.0) O (3.5) F (4.0) Ne (N/A)
Na (0.9) Mg (1.2) Al (1.5) Si (1.8) P (2.1) S (2.5) Cl (3.0) Ar (N/A)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Polar Covalent
Bonds
A difference in the electronegativity of
the atoms in a covalent bond creates a
polar bond.

A polar covalent bond is a covalent bond

in which the electrons are not equally
shared, but rather displaced toward the
more electronegative atom. Arrows point
toward the more electronegative atom,
which is referred to as a bond dipole.

A nonpolar covalent bond is found

between two atoms of the same
element, such as Cl2, N2, etc.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Molecular Polarity

A molecule that contains

polar covalent bonds may or
may not be polar. Molecular
polarity depends on the
shape of the molecule.

A water molecule is polar due

to its polar covalent bonds
and bent shape. The bond
dipoles don’t offset one other.
In comparison, BeCl2 is
nonpolar, since the bond
dipoles cancel – they are of
equal magnitude and pointed
in opposite directions.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Hydrogen Bonding

A hydrogen bond is an
electrostatic attraction
between a hydrogen atom
bonded to a highly
electronegative atom, such as
oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine.

Hydrogen bonds are

intermolecular bonds.
Covalent bonds are
intramolecular bonds.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Properties of Water, Explained

Hydrogen bonds are not as strong as covalent bonds. However, the strength
of these intermolecular forces is sufficient to affect the physical properties of
a substance.

The high boiling point of water is due to hydrogen bonds, which must be
broken in order to transform water from its liquid to gaseous state.

Likewise, the high surface tension of water is due to strong hydrogen bonding
between its molecules.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Why Does Ice Float?

Due to hydrogen bonding, the

structure of ice is porous. This
results in a lower density for
solid water than its liquid state.

This is RARE: The solid phase of

most substances is denser than
its liquid.

Aquatic plants and fish can live

in a freshwater lake during cold
winters because of hydrogen
bonding!

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Fresh Water: A Rare and Precious Resource!
• Only 3% of water found on Earth is fresh water. 67% of this fresh water is locked up
in glaciers, ice caps, and snowfields. About 30% is found underground and must be
pumped to the surface for use.
• Lakes, rivers, and wetlands are only 0.3% of fresh water.
• An analogy: if all of the water on our planet fit into a 2-L bottle, only 60 mL of this
would be fresh water. The water easily accessible to us in lakes and rivers: 4 drops!

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Water Use Trends

355 billion gallons of water

are withdrawn daily in the
U.S. – 86% fresh water and
14% salt water.

Hydroelectric power and

irrigation represent the
largest uses of water.

Agriculture accounts for 30%

of global water consumption.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Water Footprints

Food (1 kg) Water Footprint Product Water Footprint

(L, global average) (L, global average)
Corn (maize) 1,200 1 cup of coffee (250 mL) 260
Wheat 1,800 1 cup of tea (250 mL) 27
Soybeans 2,100 1 banana (200 g) 160
Rice 2,500 1 orange (150 g) 80
Chicken 4,300 1 glass of orange juice 200
(200 mL)
Pork 6,000
1 egg (60 g) 200
Sheep meat 8,700
1 chocolate bar (100 g) 1,700
Beef 15,400
1 cotton T-shirt (250 g) 2,500

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Water Pollution
The average American uses
almost 100 gallons of water a day.

Nearly ¾ of the water entering

our homes goes down the drain.

Much of our clean water comes from

underground aquifers. The Ogallala
Aquifer is shown in dark blue.

While normally free of pollutants,

groundwater can be contaminated by
a number of sources:
• Abandoned mines
• Run off from fertilized fields
• Poorly constructed landfills and
septic systems
• Household chemicals poured
down the drain or on the ground.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Solutions

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of uniform composition.

Solutions contain a:
• Solvent (a substance, often a liquid, that is capable of dissolving one or
more pure substances)
• Solute (the solid, liquid, or gas that dissolves in a solvent)

When water is the solvent, you have an aqueous solution.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Concentration of Solutions

Parts per hundred (percent): 20 g of NaCl in 100 g of water is a 20% NaCl

solution

Parts per million (ppm)

1 g solute 1000 mg solute 1000 g water 1 mg solute
1 ppm = 6 × × =
1 × 10 g water 1 g solute 1 L water 1 L water

Parts per billion (ppb)

2 g Hg 2 × 10−6 g Hg 2 μg Hg
2 ppb Hg = = =
1 × 109 g H2O 1 × 103 g H2O 1 L H2O

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Molarity (M)

moles of solute (mol)

Molarity, M =
liter of solution (L)

Brackets are used to indicate “concentration of”: [NaCl] = 1.0 M

This means there are 1.0 moles of NaCl per liter of solution
Also: this solution contains 1.0 M of Na+ ions and 1.0 M of Cl− ions:
[Na+] = 1.0 M and [Cl−] = 1.0 M

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 1.0 M NaCl Solution

A volumetric flask is used to

prepare a 1.0 M NaCl solution.

Remember: To calculate desired

grams, multiply desired moles by
its molar mass:

1.0 moles  58.5 g/mol = 58.5 g

Note: You do NOT add 58.5 g NaCl

to 1.00 L of water. The 58.5 g will
take up some volume, resulting in
slightly more than 1.00 L of
solution- and the molarity would
be lower.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Concentration Calculations

What is the concentration (in molarity and mass %) of the resulting

solution when you add 5.0 grams of NaOH to 95.0 mL of water?

Assume the density of water is 1.00 g/mL; therefore, 95 mL of H2O = 95 g H2O

5.0 g NaOH
Mass % = × 100% = 5.3% NaOH
95.0 g

5.0 g ÷ 39.99 g/mol

Molarity = = 1.3 M
0.095 L

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Ionic Compounds

97% of the water on our planet is found

in the salt water of oceans.

Since water is polar, the partial-negative

charges on the oxygen atoms are
attracted to the positively charged Na+
ions of the salt crystal. Likewise, partial-
positive charges on the hydrogen atoms
surround the Cl− ions of the salt. This
results in dissolution of the salt:

NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

Polyatomic ionic compounds also

dissolve in water:

𝐻2𝑂
Na2SO4(s) 2 Na+(aq) + SO42−(aq)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Ionic Compounds and Water Solubility

Ions Solubility of Compounds Solubility Exceptions Examples

Sodium, potassium, and All soluble None NaNO3 and KBr. Both are
ammonium soluble.
Nitrates All soluble None LiNO3 and Mg(NO3)2. Both
are soluble.
Chlorides Mostly soluble Silver and mercury(I) MgCl2 is soluble. AgCl is
insoluble.
Sulfates Mostly soluble Strontium, barium, and lead K2SO4 is soluble. BaSO4 is
sulfate insoluble.
Carbonates Mostly insoluble Carbonates of Group 1 Na2CO3 is soluble. CaCO3 is
+
metals and NH4 are soluble. insoluble.
Hydroxides and sulfides Mostly insoluble Hydroxides and sulfides of KOH is soluble. Al(OH) 3 is
Group 1 metals and NH4+ insoluble.
are soluble.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Electrical Conductivity of Electrolyte Solutions

When ions (charged particles) are in aqueous solutions, the solutions are able to
conduct electricity. The images below show:

a) Pure distilled water (non-conducting)

b) Sugar dissolved in water (non-conducting): a nonelectrolyte

c) NaCl dissolved in water (conducting): a strong electrolyte

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Strong vs. Weak Electrolytes

If a compound completely dissociates into ions in water: strong electrolyte

If a compound partially dissociates into ions in water: weak electrolyte
If a compound dissolves in water, but does not dissociate into ions: nonelectrolyte

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 “Like Dissolves Like”
A polar compound (e.g., ethanol) will dissolve in a polar solvent (e.g., water)
A nonpolar compound (e.g., oil) will dissolve in a nonpolar solvent (e.g., gasoline)
BUT a polar compound (e.g., water) will NOT dissolve in a nonpolar solvent (e.g.,
oil), and vice versa

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Acids
One way to define an acid is as a substance that releases hydrogen ions, H +, in
aqueous solution.

Since the hydrogen ion has no electron, and only one proton (hence the
positive charge), the hydrogen ion sometimes is referred to as a proton.

Consider hydrogen chloride gas, dissolved in water:

𝐻 2𝑂
HCl(g) HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

Since HCl dissociates completely into ions, it is a strong acid.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The Hydronium Ion

H+ ions are much too reactive to exist alone, so they attach to something else,
such as to water molecules.

When dissolved in water, each HCl donates a proton (H+) to an H2O molecule,
forming H3O+, the hydronium ion. The Cl− (chloride) ion remains unchanged:

HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl−(aq)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Bases
The flip side of the story is the
chemical opposite of acids:
bases.

A base is any compound that

produces hydroxide ions
(OH− ) in aqueous solution.
Characteristic properties of
bases:
• Bitter taste (not
recommended)
• Slippery feel when
dissolved in water
• Turn red litmus paper blue

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Examples of Bases
Strong bases completely dissociate into OH - ions in solution. Examples include
Group 1 or 2 hydroxides, such as KOH:
𝐻 2𝑂
KOH(s) K+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Calcium hydroxide produces 2 equivalents of OH− :
𝐻 2𝑂
Ca(OH)2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq)
What about ammonia (NH3)? It is a weak base, even though it has no OH− group:
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Since this proceeds in both directions, it’s an equilibrium reaction.

Conjugate acid/base pairs: NH 4+ (conjugate acid), NH3 (base)

OH- (conjugate base), H2O (acid)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Neutralization Reactions

When acids and bases react with each other, we call this a
neutralization reaction.

In neutralization reactions, hydrogen ions from an acid combine

with the hydroxide ions from a base to form molecules of water.

The other product is a salt (an ionic compound).

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Ionic Equations
This reaction may be represented with a molecular, ionic, or net ionic equation:
Molecular:
2 HBr(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → BaBr2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

Ionic:
2 H+(aq) + 2 Br−(aq) + Ba2+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) → Ba2+(aq) + 2 Br−(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

Net Ionic (cancel common ions from both sides, called “spectator ions”):
2 H+(aq) + 2 OH−(aq) → 2 H2O(l)
Or, divide both sides of the equation by 2 to simplify it:
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 pH

The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of the H + ions present

in that solution.

The mathematical expression for pH is a log-based scale and is represented

as:
pH = −log[H+]

If [H+] = 1.0  10−3 M, the pH = −log (1.0  10−3), or −(−3.0) = 3.0

Since pH is a log scale based on 10, a pH change of 1 unit represents a power

of 10 change in [H+].

That is, a solution with a pH of 2 has a [H +] ten times that of a solution with a
pH of 3.

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Ion-Product Constant of Water

One useful relationship is the expression:

Kw = [H+][OH−] = 1  10−14 (at 25 C)
where Kw is the ion-product constant for water. Knowing the hydroxide ion
concentration, we can calculate the [H +] and vise versa.

The three possible aqueous solution situations are:

[H+] = [OH−] a neutral solution (pH = 7)
[H+] > [OH−] an acidic solution (pH < 7)
[H+] < [OH−] a basic solution (pH > 7)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 The pH Scale

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Why Is Rainwater Naturally Acidic?

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves to a slight extent in water and

reacts with it to produce a slightly acidic solution of carbonic acid:

CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq) carbonic acid

The carbonic acid dissociates slightly leading to rain with a pH around 5.3:
H2CO3(aq) → H+(aq) + HCO3−(aq)

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Ocean pH

If rainwater is naturally acidic, why is ocean water basic?

Three chemical species responsible for maintaining ocean pH:

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Ocean
Acidification
Over the past 200 years, the
amount of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere has
increased, so more carbon
dioxide is dissolving in the
ocean and forming carbonic
acid.

Ocean acidification: the

lowering of ocean pH due to
increased atmospheric carbon
dioxide

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Aquatic Life and pH

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 A Municipal Water Treatment Facility

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Making Freshwater from Saltwater

Distillation Reverse Osmosis

©McGraw-Hill Education.
 Desalination Processes

Distillation: a separation process in which a liquid solution is

heated and the vapors are condensed and collected

Osmosis: the passage of water through a semipermeable

membrane from a solution that is less concentrated to a solution
that is more concentrated

Reverse Osmosis: uses pressure to force the movement of water

through a semipermeable membrane from a solution that is
more concentrated to a solution that is less concentrated

©McGraw-Hill Education.