8 Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Thermodynamics processes are either reversible or irreversible. In a reversible process, if the process is reversed, then the system follows the exact path of the initial process and also retums both the system and the surroundings to their initial states. All real processes are irreversible. There are a number of factors, both intemal and external, that cause irreversibility in the fluid processed. Internal irreversibility is due to internal fluid friction resulting from intermolecular forces and turbulence in the fluid. For example, assume a high pressure gas confined behind a piston in a cylinder. If the piston is moved rapidly, a portion of the gas adjacent to the piston immediately expands into the space created by the receding piston, while another portion of the gas tends to remain at the rear. This causes pressure and temperature differentials in the fluid, with the resulting turbulence and fluid friction accounting for some of the energy that otherwise would be delivered as useful work. For a process to be internally reversible, it must employ an idcal fluid (no intermolecular forces of attraction in the fluid) and the process should be very slow. All the ideal processes discussed here are treated to be intemally reversible, Extemal irreversibility is mainly on account of (a) mechanical friction encountered at rubbing surfaces such as bearings and cylinder walls, and (b) another reason is heat transfer which by its very nature can occur in only one direction, from higher temperature to lower temperature. The frictionless adiabatic (isotropic) process is an externally reversible process and it has particular significance in the analysis of a vapour compression refrigeration cycle. In fact all the processes encountered in thermodynamics used for the analysis of different thermodynamic cycles are assumed to be ideally reversible. Cyclic process or eyele: A closed system is said to undergo a cyclic process or eyele, when it passes through a series of states in such a way that its final state is equal in all respect 0 its initial state. This implies that al its properties have regained their initial values. The system is, then in a position to be put through the same cyele of events again, and the procedure may be repeated indefinitely. Work can be transferred to or from the system continuously by devising 4 machine which undergoes a eyclie process. For example, in a refrigerating machine, the working fluid (reftigerant) undergoes differ- ent processes such as isentropic compression (in compressor), condensation (in condenser), expansion (in expansion valve or capillary) and evaporation (to extract heat in the evaporator), and the eycle repeats. If we consider this whole machine as a system it cools the evaporator at the cost of extemal work supplied to the compressor, Such a system will be dealt with later in more detail in this book. 1.4 TYPES OF ENERGY We have already defined the term energy as the ability to do work. Now we shall discuss the types of energy. Broadly, energy can be classified into two groups, namely (a) stored energy which is contained within the system boundaries, e.g. potential energy, kinetic energy and intemal energy and (b) energy which crosses the boundary (energy in transition, e.g. heat and work), Potential energy (PE): This is the stored energy in a system. This energy topic can be studied in two ways—(a) microscopic way and (b) macroscopic way.Introduction 9 The internal potential energy is the enerey of molecular separation or configuration. It is the energy that molecules have as a result of their positions in relation to one another. The potential energy of a system at a molecular level is better explained in statistical thermodynam- ics. The energy of a system at macroscopic level is discussed in the following text. The energy stored in the system, as a whole, by virtue of its elevation with reference to an arbitrary chosen datum level is known as potential energy. Consider a system of mass m (kg) at height z (m) from a certain datum level. Then the work done in bringing this mass m to the datum level is given by PE or W=m-g-z () (8) where g = gravitational acceleration, 9.80685. m/s? EXAMPLE 1.2. A tank located at a height of 500 metres contains 250 cubic metres of water. Determine the gravitational potential energy with reference to the ground. Solution: Assuming the density of water to be 1000 kg/m?, the total mass of water is 250,000 ke. Applying Eq. (1.8), PE 250,000) x (9.80665) x 500 22583 x 10° J 22583 x 10° kI Ans, Kinetic energy (KE): This can also be dealt with in two ways—at microscopic and ‘macroscopic levels. The energy of molecular motion or velocity is called internal energy. When energy is supplied t0 a substance, it increases the motion or velocity of the molecules, hence the internal KE of the substance is increased, and this increase is reflected by an increase in the temperature of the substance. Conversely, if the internal KE of the substance is diminished by the loss of energy, the motion of the molecules will decrease and the temperature will decrease accordingly. This KE at microscopic level is better dealt with in statistical thermodynamics. The KE of the system at macroscopic level is discussed in the following text. Kinetic energy is the energy that a body (system) possesses by virtue of its motion or velocity. For example, a flowing fluid, a falling body and the moving parts of a picce of ‘machinery all have kinetic energy because of thei motion. The amount of kinetic energy a body possesses is dependent on its mass m and its velocity v as shown in Eq. (1.9). ke= a a9) where KE = kinetic energy (1) im = mass (kg) v = velocity (m/s. EXAMPLE 1.3 A car having a mass of 1565 kg is moving with a velocity of 60 km/h. What is the kinetic energy? Solution: The velocity of the car is 60 km/h, ic. 16.67 mis. Applying Eq. (1.9, (1565)(16.67)" KE = 217361 J = 217.361 kd Ans.10 __ Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Internal energy (U): The molecules of any system may possess potential energy (PE), kinetic energy (KE) and nuclear energy (NE), etc. The total internal energy of a system (U) is the sum of its internal kinetic and potential energy. This relationship is shown by Eq. (1.10), i. U = KE +PE+NE (10) 1.5 WORK In mechanics, work (W) is defined as the product of force (F) and distance (5), while the direction of application of force on the body is in the direction of motion, This is shown in Figure 1.3, W=Fxs aan where force F is in newtons (N), distance 5 is in metres (m) and work W in joules (J). Figure 1.3 Work as in mechanics. Work is considered as one of the basic modes of energy transfer in thermodynamics and work transfer occurs between the system and its surroundings. Work is said to be done by the system if the sole effect external to the system can be reduced to the raising of weight. Thus in thermodynat (a) Work is either done on a system or it is done by the system, (b) The weight may not be raised actually, but the net effect of work can be converted to raise the weight Suppose a battery drives a motor as shown in Figure 1.4, Here the motor drives a fan. If ‘we limit the system boundary for the battery and motor as shown, then work is done by the system (battery and motor) on the surroundings (fan). It means work crosses the boundary. + PY im Assumed ‘System L/__system Battery boundary Figure 14 Battery:motor system driving @ fanIntroduction 14 Now, replace the fan with a pulley-and-weight arrangement as represented in Figure 1.5. The weight will be raised with the help of the pulley and motor arrangement, Thus, the sole effect external to the system is to raise the load. Pulley Weight Figure 1.5 Work transfer from a system. Comments on work (@) Work is nothing but energy in transition. It appears only when it crosses the boundary. (ii) The amount of work performed by a system on the surroundings and vice versa is dependent on the path it follows. Therefore, it is a path function and not a property of the system. Gi) The work sa inexact diferonal te. JW #1 1.6 HEAT Heat is denoted by Q or q and is measured in kJ. Heat is something which appears at the boundary when a system changes its state due to a difference in temperature between the system and the surroundings. Here ‘something’ is a form of energy transfer and this energy transfer is due to temperature difference. Heat, like work, is a transient quantity, which only appears at the boundary when a change is taking place within the system. It is apparent that neither 60 nor SW is an exact differential, and therefore any integration of the elemental quantities, of work or heat which appear during a change from state 1 to state 2 must be written as in Bq, (1.12). fw =Wis ow and ffea=an=4 a2) In thermodynamics, loosely speaking, heat is considered to flow across the boundary. Strictly speaking, it is the energy which is transferred. Heat is therefore defined as a form of energy that is transferred across a boundary by virtue of temperature difference. Heat is an interaction, which may occur between two systems (at different temperatures), when they are brought into communication. The concept of heat is related with the temperature difference between two systems or between a system and surroundings. Heat is not stored in12 _ Refrigeration and Air Conditioning the system; it is the energy in transit, It is not the property of the system, rather it is a path function. It is represented by an inexact differential, ic. fea=an0r0 Comments on heat (i) Heat does not inevitably cause temperature ri 100°C to convert into steam. (ii) Heat is not always present when a temperature rise occurs. For example, compression of gas in an adiabatic insulated cylinder. ‘According to Rutherford (i) Heat is not a conserved fluid that can be transferred from one body to another. Heat ‘exists in transition phase only. Heat should not be confused with temperature. For example, boiling of water at ( Difference between heat and work If a system is in a stable equilibrium state, then no work interaction between the system and. its surroundings can take place, whereas there is no such restriction for heat interaction. Consider, for example, a gas contained in a rigid container at high pressure and temperature. ‘The rigidness of the container provides an upper limit to the volume of the system. In this case, ‘no work interaction will occur. But due to temperature difference between the system and the surroundings, heat interaction would take place. Secondly, for heat interaction between the system and its surroundings, the temperature potential difference should exist between them, but no temperature difference is required for work interaction, After studying the concept of work and heat, it is also important to understand the other forms of work. 1.7 WORK DONE DURING A QUASI-STATIC PROCESS There are numerous ways to obtain work from a system such as by rotating shafts, electrical work, the displacement of the piston in a cylinder-piston arrangement. In this section, a piston-cylinder arrangement is considered and the work done at the ‘moving piston (boundary) during a quasi-static process is assumed. Quasi-static process is one which is infinitely slow. Such a process passes through a number of equilibrium states and is, therefore so slow that at any instant it will be in an equilibrium state. Such a process is also called reversible process. A technically important phenomenon in many engineering processes is the one in which work is obtained when a system expands through the piston-cylinder arrangement and work is performed on the system during a compression process.Introduction _13 In a quasi-static process from state 1 to state 2, assume that the piston moves a small distance dx from left to right. This process is assumed as quasi-static. Total force acting on the piston, F = pA (13) where p = pressure of the system (N/m?), A = cross-sectional area of piston (m?). ‘The small work done on the piston 8W = pAbr aaa or 4w = pav (as) where 6V = change in volume (m’). ‘The net work done by the system in moving the piston from state 1 to state 2 can be worked ‘out by integrating Eq. (1.15). But this is only possible if the relationship between p and V is known for the process. The relationship between p and V can be known from the graph shown in Figure 1.6. yom | = ; Ay 1 sroe=[Poev § é 5 ® My Volume ——> Ve Figure 1.6 pdV work ‘The work done W.2 is 2 Wat J ow 2 =J pV (1.16)