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Introduction to Linear Vibrations 183

It follows from the latter equation that

ω
a 2 = – d 2 ------ (6.58)
ωn

Substituting the above constants into Equation 6.55 yields

ω
y c ( t ) = d 2  sin ω t – ------ sin ω n t (6.59)
 ωn 

where (see Equation 6.41)

D ( ωn – ω )
2 2 2
d 2 = -----------------------------
- (6.60)
p0

and (see Equation 6.37)

p0
D = -----------------
-2 (6.61)
ωn – ω
2

Thus, the final form of the solution of forced vibrations starting from zero initial
conditions is

p0  ω
-2 sin ω t – ------ sin ω n t
y c ( t ) = ----------------- (6.62)
ωn – ω
2  ω n


The obtained result shows that the forced vibration in this case is a superposition
of two motions: one with the frequency of the external force ω and the other with
the natural frequency ωn. The resultant amplitude of vibrations is a function of the
frequency ω, and at ω = ωn it becomes undetermined since both numerator and
denominator equal zero at this frequency. One can use L’Hopital’s rule to resolve
the uncertainty by taking the ratio of derivatives of the numerator and denominator
with respect to ω and then setting ω = ωn. The result is

– sin ω n t + ω n t cos ω n t
y c ( ω = ω n ) = --------------------------------------------------- (6.63)
–2 ωn

One can see that the amplitude of vibrations in this case is proportional to the time t
and thus grows to infinity. This phenomenon of unlimited amplitude growth is called
resonance, and the corresponding frequency is called the resonance frequency.
As is clear, the resonance frequency is the natural frequency of the system. It
will be seen later that in real systems with damping these frequencies are close
but not equal.
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184 Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms

yc(t)
y st
40

20

Time
2 4 6 8 10

-20

-40

FIGURE 6.5 Dynamic response in time of an SDOF system without damping (yst is the
static displacement). Dashed line = ω/ωn = 0.5; solid thin line = ω/ωn = 0.75; solid thick line
= ω/ωn = 1.

In Figure 6.5 the displacement of the mass in a system without damping is shown
at different frequencies of external force. One can see that at the resonance frequency
the amplitude of displacement grows linearly with time.

6.5 STEADY-STATE FORCED VIBRATIONS OF AN

SDOF SYSTEM WITH NO DAMPING ( ξ = 0 )
In this case the effect of the initial conditions is neglected and thus only the particular
solution is considered. The latter is given by Equation 6.55 in which both a1 and a2
equal zero. Thus, Equation 6.62 in which the second term in the parentheses is absent
gives the solution

p0
-2 sin ω t
y c ( t ) = ----------------- (6.64)
ωn – ω
2

This solution shows that the frequency of vibrations in this case is equal to the
frequency of the forcing function, and the amplitude is a function of this frequency.
One can see now that when ω = ωn the amplitude becomes infinite. Now look more
closely at the amplitude as a function of forcing frequency ω.

p0
D = -----------------
-2 (6.65)
ωn – ω
2

From the latter equation it follows that, when ω = 0, then

p p0 m p
D = -----0-2 = ---------
- = -----0 = D st
ωn mk k
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Introduction to Linear Vibrations 185

yc
yst
20

10
ω
2 4 6 8 10 ωn
-10

-20

FIGURE 6.6 Amplitude–frequency diagram of an SDOF system without damping (yst is

the static displacement).

where Dst is the static displacement of the mass caused by the force P0. Furthermore,
when ω approaches ωn from the left (ω < ωn), then the amplitude tends to infinity
while remaining positive, whereas when ω approaches ωn from the right (ω > ωn),
then the amplitude tends to infinity while remaining negative. Also, when ω tends
to infinity, then the amplitude tends to zero while being negative. This dependence
of the amplitude on the frequency is shown in the diagram of Figure 6.6 in normalized
coordinates. This diagram is called the amplitude–frequency diagram.
The function in the diagram depicted in Figure 6.6 comprises two continuous
functions. Such a function is called a piecewise continuous function and can be
described as follows:

 p 0 sin ( ω t ) if ω < ω
 -----------------
-2 n
 ωn – ω
2
yc ( t ) =  (6.66)
 p 0 sin ( ω t – π ) if ω > ω
 ------------------2 n
 ωn – ω
2

In Equation 6.66 the amplitude is now always positive, whereas the sign change
after the resonance is controlled by the shift in the angle by π. This angle π is called
the phase angle. Thus, up to the resonance frequency the phase angle is equal to 0,
and after the resonance frequency it becomes –π. Below it will be seen that for
systems with damping this change in the phase angle is continuous.

6.6 FREE VIBRATIONS OF AN SDOF SYSTEM WITH

DAMPING ( ξ ≠ 0, p 0 = 0 )
As was discussed in Section 6.2.1, the form of the general part of the solution
depends on the degree of damping. Consider each case separately.
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186 Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms

• Overdamped system ( ξ > 1)

In this case Equation 6.42, in which d1 and d2 equal zero, gives the complete
solution:

λ1 t λ2 t
yc ( t ) = c1 e + c2 e (6.67)

and c1 and c2 are determined by the initial conditions:

yc ( 0 ) = c1 + c2 = Y 0 (6.68)

and

ẏ c ( 0 ) = c 1 λ 1 + c 2 λ 2 = V 0 (6.69)

Taking into account that λ 1 = ( – ξ + ξ 2 – 1 ) ω n , λ 2 = ( – ξ – ξ 2 – 1 ) ω n (see Equa-

tion 6.21), the expressions for the constants c1 and c2 become

Y 0 λ2 – V 0
c 1 = – ---------------------------
- (6.70)
2 ξ – 1 ωn
2

and

Y 0 λ1 – V 0
c 2 = ---------------------------
- (6.71)
2 ξ – 1 ωn
2

One can see that the two initial conditions are independent of each other. In Figure 6.7
the response of the overdamped system to initial conditions is shown for the case
of ξ = 1.2 , ω n = 10 rad/s , Y 0 = 1 cm , and V 0 = 5 cm/s.

• Underdamped system (ξ < 1)

In this case the complete solution is given by Equation 6.49 in which d1 and d2
equal zero.

– ξω n t
yc ( t ) = e ( a 1 cos β t + a 2 sin β t ) (6.72)

where a1 and a2 are obtained from the initial conditions requirements

yc ( 0 ) = a1 = Y 0 (6.73)
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Introduction to Linear Vibrations 187

yc
yst
6

2 4 6 8 10
Time

FIGURE 6.7 Response of the overdamped (ξ = 1.2) SDOF system to initial conditions.

and

dy c ( t ) = –ξ ωn a1 + a2 β = V 0 (6.74)
--------------
dt t=0

Taking into account Equation 6.73, the second constant is

V 0 + ξω n Y 0
a 2 = ---------------------------
- (6.75)
β

where β = 1 – ξ 2 ω n (see Section 6.2.1).

Recall that the undamped system oscillates with natural frequency ωn when
subjected to initial disturbance. In the case of a damped system, the frequency of
oscillation becomes

β = ωd = 1 – ξ ωn
2
(6.76)

One can see that this frequency of free damped vibrations is always smaller than the
natural frequency, ω d < ω n .
The displacement of the mass in time is shown in Figure 6.8. As is seen from
Equation 6.72 the amplitude of the oscillating motion is decreasing exponentially.
This property of the declining amplitude is used to determine the damping coefficient
experimentally. This will be discussed in Section 6.8.
It is important to point out that the coefficient of damping is not the property of
the material only, since it depends also on the system mass and stiffness. Note that
the material properties are not present explicitly in motion equations. It was only
assumed in Section 6.2 that the material possesses some damping properties repre-
sented by the damping coefficient.
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188 Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms

yc
yst

2 4 6 8 10
Time
-2

-4

FIGURE 6.8 Response of the underdamped (ξ = 0.2) SDOF system to initial conditions.

• Critical damping (ξ = 1)

The solution is given by Equation 6.50 in which d1 and d2 equal zero.

–ωn t
yc ( t ) = e ( c1 + c2 t ) (6.77)

Satisfying the initial conditions yields

yc ( 0 ) = c1 = Y 0 (6.78)

and

dy c ( t ) = –ωn c1 + c2 = V 0 (6.79)
--------------
dt t=0

From Equations 6.78 and 6.79 the coefficient c2 follows

c2 = V 0 + ωn Y 0 (6.80)

In Figure 6.9 the system response to initial conditions in the case of critical
damping is shown. In Figure 6.10 the graphs from Figures 6.7 through 6.9 are shown
together for the sake of comparison.

6.7 FORCED VIBRATIONS OF A DAMPED (ξ < 1) SDOF

SYSTEM WITH INITIAL CONDITIONS
Equation 6.49, repeated here for the sake of convenience, gives the complete solution:

– ξω n t
yc ( t ) = e ( a 1 cos β t + a 2 sin β t ) + d 1 cos ω t + d 2 sin ω t (6.81)