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Introduction to Linear Vibrations 189

yc
yst
6

2 4 6 8 10
Time

FIGURE 6.9 Response of the critically damped (ξ = 1) SDOF system to initial conditions.

yc
yst
8

2 4 6 8 10
Time
-2

-4

FIGURE 6.10 Comparison of an SDOF system response to initial conditions. Dashed line =
overdamping (ξ = 1.2); solid thin line = underdamping (ξ = 0.2); solid thick line = critical
damping (ξ = 1).

Take the same initial conditions as in the case of no damping in Section 6.4,
namely, that Y0 = 0 and V0 = 0 at t = 0, and the forcing function is also the same,
p0 sin(ω t). The equations defining constants are given by Equations 6.46 and 6.47:

– d 1 λ2 + d 2 ω
c 1 = ------------------------------
- (6.82)
λ2 – λ1

and

– d 1 λ1 + d 2 ω
c 2 = ------------------------------
- (6.83)
λ1 – λ2
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190 Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms

where λ terms are given by Equation 6.21, λ 1, 2 = ( – ξ ± ξ 2 – 1 ) ω n , and d1 and d2

by Equations 6.40 and 6.41, d 1 = – 2D 2 ξω n ω ⁄ p 0 and d 2 = D 2 ( ω 2n – ω 2 ) ⁄ p 0 . One can
take into account that the roots of the characteristic equation in this case are complex
and use simplified expressions for the λ, λ1,2 = α ± iβ, where α = – ξω n and
β = 1 – ξ ω n . Then, the constants c1 and c2 become complex conjugate numbers:
2

α ω
c 1 = – 0.5 d 1 – i  – d 1 --- + d 2 ---- (6.84)
 β β

and

α ω
c 2 = – 0.5 d 1 + i  – d 1 --- + d 2 ---- (6.85)
 β β

Thus, the constants a1 and a2 in Equation 6.81 become [recall that a1 = c1 + c2 and
a2 = i(c1 – c2)]

a1 = c1 + c2 = –d 1 (6.86)

and

α ω
a 2 = i ( c 1 – c 2 ) = d 1 --- – d 2 ---- (6.87)
β β

In Figures 6.11 and 6.12 the vibrations of an SDOF initially undisturbed system
are shown for two forcing frequencies and ξ = 0.4, p0 = 1. It is seen that for a
frequency close enough to the resonance frequency, ω = 0.75ωn, the effect of initial
conditions is visible only for the first cycle of motion (Figure 6.11), while for a
frequency far enough from the resonance frequency, ω = 0.25ωn, the effect of initial
conditions is not visible at all (Figure 6.12).
In general, the effect of initial conditions diminishes very quickly. This allows
one to neglect it all together in applications and thus to consider forced vibrations
of systems with damping as a steady-state process.

6.8 FORCED VIBRATIONS OF AN SDOF SYSTEM WITH

DAMPING (ξ < 1) AS A STEADY-STATE PROCESS
In this case the coefficients a1 and a2 in Equation 6.81 are set to zero. Thus, the
motion is described by the particular solution of the nonhomogeneous equation,
Equation 6.28:

y p ( t ) = D sin ( ω t – φ ) (6.88)
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Introduction to Linear Vibrations 191

yc (t)
yst

0.5

5 10 15 20
Time
-0.5

-1

FIGURE 6.11 Forced vibrations of an SDOF system with damping from undisturbed state
(ω = 0.75ωn).

yc (t)
yst
1

0.5

5 10 15 20
Time

-0.5

-1

FIGURE 6.12 Forced vibrations of an SDOF system with damping from undisturbed state
(ω = 0.25ωn).

where

p0
D = -----------------------------------------------------------
- (6.89)
2 2
( ω n – ω ) + ( 2 ξω n ω )
2 2

and the angle φ

2 ξω n ω 
φ = arc tan  -----------------
-2 (6.90)
ωn – ω 
2

The maximum amplitude is achieved when ω = ω n 1 – 2 ξ 2 and it is equal to

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192 Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms

D
Dst
5

1
ω
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 ωn
FIGURE 6.13 Amplitude–frequency diagrams for an SDOF system with damping; ξ = 0.1
(solid line), ξ = 0.15 (dashed line).

p0
D max = ---------------------------------- (6.91)
2 ξω n 1 – 2 ξ
2 2

where p 0 = P 0 ⁄ m and ξ = c ⁄ 2m ω n .
Equation 6.91 can be used to measure damping properties experimentally by
finding the amplitude of vibrations at the resonance for the given amplitude of the
forcing function.
In Figure 6.13 the normalized (with respect to the static displacement) amplitude–
frequency diagram for a system with damping are shown for two damping properties.
One can see that the maximum amplitude takes place at ω < ωn.
In Figure 6.14 the change of the phase angle with frequency is shown. For
comparison, a phase angle in the system without damping is also given. One can
see that the higher the damping, the more it affects the phase angle. The change in
sign of the phase angle means that below the resonance frequency the response lags
behind the forcing function, whereas above the resonance frequency it forestalls this
function.
It was assumed above that the forcing function has the form p 0 sin ω t . Assume a
more general complex forcing function, P ( t ) = P 0 e i ω t . Then Equation 6.27 becomes

ẏ˙ + 2 ξω n ẏ + ω n y = P 0 e
2 iωt
(6.92)

Here a particular solution of Equation 6.92 is of interest. One can see that the solution
will be a complex number as well. By separating it into real and imaginary parts,
one can find solutions to periodic excitations by p 0 sin ω t and p 0 cos ω t . The particular
solution of Equation 6.92 has the form:

iωt
y ( t ) = De (6.93)
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Introduction to Linear Vibrations 193

Phase angle, φ
0
-0.5
-1
ω
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 ωn
-2
-2.5
-3

FIGURE 6.14 Phase angle vs. normalized frequency for an SDOF system: ξ = 0.1 (solid
thick line), ξ = 0.15 (dashed line), ξ = 0 (solid thin line).

After substitution of the above form of the solution into Equation 6.92 and canceling
iωt
e , one obtains D = D ( i ω )

p0
D ( i ω ) = -------------------------------------------
- (6.94)
ω n – ω + i2 ξω n ω
2 2

The latter can be transformed into a conventional complex number by multiplying

the numerator and denominator by ω 2n – ω 2 – i2 ξω n ω . As a result,

ωn – ω 2ξ ω n ω
2 2
D ( i ω ) = p 0 -------------------------------------------------------
2 2
-2 – i -------------------------------------------------------
2 2
-2 (6.95)
( ω n – ω ) + ( 2 ξω n ω ) ( ω n – ω ) + ( 2 ξω n ω )
2 2

Any complex number can be represented as a + ib = a + ib e i φ , where a + ib =

a + b , and φ = arc tan ( b ⁄ a ) . Applying this to Equation 6.95 yields
2 2

p0
D ( i ω ) = -----------------------------------------------------------
- (6.96)
2 2
( ω n – ω ) + ( 2 ξω n ω )
2 2

and

2 ξω n ω
φ = – a rc tan -----------------
-2 (6.97)
ωn – ω
2

The results are the same as in Equations 6.89 and 6.90, except for the sign of the
phase angle. Now one can present the particular solution with complex forcing
function in the form:

i(ωt – φ)
y p ( t ) = p0 H ( i ω ) e (6.98)
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194 Fundamentals of Kinematics and Dynamics of Machines and Mechanisms

where H ( i ω ) = D ( i ω ) ⁄ p 0 , and H ( i ω ) is called the complex frequency response

function, which does not depend on the external force but only on the properties of
the system. From Equation 6.98, it can be seen that

–i φ
H (iω) = H (iω) e (6.99)

The frequency response function is a convenient way to describe the dynamic

properties of systems and it will be considered again later for the case of a 2DOF
system.

6.9 COEFFICIENT OF DAMPING, LOGARITHMIC

DECREMENT, AND ENERGY LOSSES
In the previous section it was indicated that the coefficient of damping c can be
determined from vibration tests at resonance frequency (Equation 6.91). At the same
time, Figure 6.8 showed that in a free vibrating system the amplitude decreases
exponentially according to Equation 6.72. If the curve shown in Figure 6.8 is found
experimentally, then it provides enough information to find the damping properties
of the system. Identify two consecutive maximums on a curve in Figure 6.8. Appar-
ently, the time difference between these two points is the period of free damped
oscillation Td. Now, consider the ratio of these two amplitudes:

– ξω t
yc ( t ) e n a 1 cos β t + a 2 sin β t
- = ----------------------
----------------------- - ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- (6.100)
yc ( t + T d ) e n
– ξω ( t + T d ) a 1 cos β ( t + T d ) + a 2 sin β ( t + T d )

In the above equation, the second ratio on the right-hand side is equal to 1, since Td
is the period of the trigonometric functions. Thus, the above ratio is reduced to

yc ( t ) ξω T
- = e n d
----------------------- (6.101)
yc ( t + T d )

The logarithm of this ratio is called the logarithmic decrement, δ, and it is equal to

yc ( t )
δ = ln -----------------------
- = ξω n T d (6.102)
yc ( t + T d )

Taking into account that

2π 2π
T d = ------ = ------------------------ (6.103)
β ωn 1 – ξ
2

the nondimensional damping coefficient can be expressed through the logarithmic

decrement: