14 _ Refrigeration and Air Conditioning This integration indicates that it is an area under the curve. If the process is carried out from state 2 0 state 1, it is a compression process. The piston will do the work which is considered negative, and the work done by the system is positive. It is also important to note that the system considered is a closed non-flow process. The Josv is the work done during a reversible process for only a non-flow system. Flow work Inte presiding text, sam the mechanical work, the pV work in hemodynamic reversible process. Now we shall see another important form of work, ie. flow work. Flow work is invariably associated with the maintenance of flow of fluid through a channel or conduit. This concept of flow work is explained with the help of Figure 1.7. Imaginary piston XP) (eR ZLLIZA Figure 1.7. Flow work Consider a fluid flowing through a tube (cross-sectional area) with a uniform velocity. Let us assume an imaginary line X-X. Some work is required to push the mass past this imaginary line from left to right. This work is known as flow work or flow energy. This flow work is necessary for maintaining a continuous flow through this tube. Let 3m be a small quantity of mass with its volume 6V on the left side of fine X-X. ‘The specific volume of the fluid is wv dm a7 Let p be the absolute pressure at section X-X. The fluid immediately upstream (left of dm) will act like a piston and will force the fluid clement (Sm) to cross section X-X. In order to push the fluid mass dm across the section X-X, a force pA must act through a distance &. aw ‘Therefore, dx A (18)Introduction 15 ‘And the flow work per unit mass (19) where p is the pressure of fluid (N/m?) and v is the specific volume (m*/kg). 1.8 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS Heat and work, the two forms of energy, are related by the first law of thermodynamics It is @ law of conservation of energy which states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. This law cannot be proved mathematically, but no exception has been observed, Scientist Joule had shown that Q,.» is proportional to Wy. (Qi-2 = Wy.2) for a system undergoing a cyclic process. This constant of proportionality is known as Joule’s equivalent or the mechanical equivalent of heat. If the cycle shown in Figure 1.8 involves many more heat and work transfers, the same conclusion will be found and when expressed mathematically, we have Wace = JED AsJ=1, aw = Gao (1.20) whee he symbol dents he plicit te closed path THis i te it aw lid to a closed system undergoing a cyclic process. yee 2, , (Ou) Thermodynamic cyole. Figure Other statements of first law of thermodynamics Its said that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. This implies that the sum of the energies of a system at microscopic and macroscopic levels is fixed, unless there is an interaction with the surroundings involving an energy exchange.16 _ Refrigeration and Air Conditioning This can be simply stated as: The total energy of an isolated system, measured with respect 10 any given frame of reference, remains constant. Mathematically, for an isolated system, otal) = U + KE + PE + Chemical energy + ~ = constant ‘The expression (EW).yeie = (ZQ)ajcw applies only to a system undergoing a cyclic process. But in practice, a system may undergo a non-cyclic process which produces a change in state in the system, Let us consider a system interacting with its surroundings, which involves work and heat transfer (Figure 1.9) Surroundings System boundary “ o Figure 1.9. System interacting with the surroundings whien involves work and heat transfer, If Q is the amount of heat transferred to the system and W is the work obtained from it, then (Q — W) is the energy stored in the system. This stored energy in the system is not the heat or work but is referred as internal energy or simply energy of the system, ice. AU=0-W a2) where AU is the increase in internal energy of the system. If more energy transfers are involved in the process, as shown in Figure 1.10, the application of first law gives (Or + Qy- Q)) = AU +, + Wy Wa) (1.22) a4 Me o 2, we Ms Figure 1.10 System interacting with the surroundings involving more energy exchanges.Introduction _17 1.9 PROCESSES FOR IDEAL GASES A gas is said to undergo a process when it passes from one condition (initial) to another (final) condition, This change in the condition of an ideal gas may occur in a number of ways, Only the following non-flow processes are explained here. A non-flow process is the one in which the gas (mass) of the system does not cross the boundary. The non-flow processes arc: (a) Constant volume or isochoric process (V = C) () Constant pressure or isobaric process (p = C) (6) Constant temperature or isothermal process ( () Reversible adiabatic or isentropic process ( (6) Polytropie process 1.9.4 Constant Volume Process This is illustrated in Figure 1.11(a) and (b). A gas is heated in a rigid container so that its volume remains constant » gene ale 7 cas | 7% ML Ate + oO © Figure 4.11. (a) Heating of gas in a closed vessel and (b) p-V diagram for a constant volume process. Work done dW = p-dV=0 (since dV = 0) Heat supplied a0 = meat From the frst law of thermodynamies, do - aw =a ‘Therefore, ned? 0 = dU For unit mass a= car «-(¥) (123)18 _ Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Since fue J * me, «dT Uy ~ Uy = me,(T ~ T)) a2 19.2 Constant Pressure Process Consider a gas in the cylinder with a frictionless piston arrangement represented in Figure 1.12. ‘When this gas is heated, its temperature increases and the piston displaces due to the expansion, of gas in such away that the pressure of the gas remains constant, Therefore, the volume of the gas increases in accordance with Charle's law, TW2 = TM, (1.25) where T; and T; are the initial and final absolute temperatures and V, and V2 are the initial and final volumes of the gas respectively. Since the volume of the gas increases during the process, work is done by the gas on surroundings and also at the same time its internal energy increases. For this process, the energy equation can be written as AQ = AU + AW (1.26) % » w, Za _|y as << % w fle @ ® awe 152 (0) Fas finden ernment at) ep np dag The equton for work done wil be Wha fav = 0s -¥9 aan = Area under the curve on p-V plot ‘And the internal energy equation becomes AU. = AQu2~ AW, 2 (1.28) 1.9.3 Constant Temperature Process According to Boyle's law, when a gas is compressed or expanded at a constant temperature, the pressure varies inversely with volume. It means that the pressure increases as the gas isIntroduction 19, compressed and decreases as the gas is expanded. When the gas expands, it performs work. If the temperature of the gas is to remain constant, then the external energy supplied to it must be equivalent to the amount of work being obtained during the process. During the compression process, work is performed on the gas, and if the gas is not cooled during compression, the internal energy of the gas increases by an amount equal 10 the work of the compression process, Therefore, if the temperature of the gas is to be maintained constant during the compression process, then the gas must reject heat to the surroundings by an amount equal to the amount of work done on it. As the temperature remains constant, there is no change in the internal energy of the gas, ie. AU = 0. Therefore, the energy equation reduces 10 AQ.» A p-V diagram of an isothermal process is shown in Figure 1.13. In this process, both pressure and volume change according to Boyle's law. The path followed by an isothermal process is shown by the curve 1-2 and the work by the area under the curve. AW,2 (1.29) ° ia condton pha » i t Fave 189 Picea ap 4 tit ape Teron, x= ff nav =fSu ceo (130) asp =mRT; In (132) [As AU = 0 for the isothermal process, the heat transferred or supplied is Q,-2 = pV, In 2 (1.33) Pa