BENG 3013

ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC

PRACTICES
CHAPTER 4: SEMICONDUCTOR (PART 2)
BJT Transistor

BENG3013 2015/2016 2
BENG3013 2015/2016 3
Some transistor packages…
3 Collector
3 Collector
3 3 Collector
2
Base 1
2
1 1 Base
1 Emitter Base
2 2 2 Emitter
3 1 Emitter
3 2
1
TO-92 SOT-23 TO-18

E
C
B
C (case)
B
E
C C
E B

TO-3 TO-220AB TO-225AA

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BJT Construction

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 Structure
The BJT has three regions called the emitter,
base, and collector. Between the regions are
junctions as indicated.
C (collector) C
The base is a thin lightly doped region
compared to the heavily doped emitter and
Base-Collector
moderately doped collector regions. n
junction
p
B p B n
(base) Base-Emitter
n p
junction

E (emitter) E

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 BJT Current
The direction of conventional current is in the direction
of the arrow on the emitter terminal.
The emitter current is the sum of the collector current
and the small+ base current. That is, IE –= IC + IB.
+ –
IC IC
IC IC
n p
IB IB IB IB
+ p + – n –
n p
IE IE
IE IE
– +
– +

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NPN Transistor
 This is the construction and terminal voltages for an
NPN transistor. The voltage between the Base and
Emitter ( VBE ), is positive at the Base and negative at
the Emitter because for an NPN transistor, the Base
terminal is always positive with respect to the Emitter.
Also the Collector supply voltage is positive with
respect to the Emitter ( VCE ). So for an NPN transistor
to conduct the Collector is always more positive with
respect to both the Base and the Emitter.
 We know that the transistor is a "current" operated
device (Beta model) and that a large current ( Ic ) flows
freely through the device between the collector and
the emitter terminals when the transistor is switched
"fully-ON".

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NPN Transistor
 However, this only happens when a small biasing
current ( Ib ) is flowing into the base terminal of the
transistor at the same time thus allowing the Base to
act as a sort of current control input.
 The transistor current in an NPN transistor is the ratio
of these two currents ( Ic/Ib ), called the DC Current
Gain of the device and is given the symbol of hfe or
nowadays Beta, ( β ). The value of β can be large up to
200 for standard transistors, and it is this large ratio
between Ic and Ib that makes the NPN transistor a
useful amplifying device when used in its active region
as Ib provides the input and Ic provides the output.
 Note that Beta has no units as it is a ratio.

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PNP Transistor
 The PNP Transistor has very similar
characteristics to their NPN bipolar cousins,
except that the polarities (or biasing) of the
current and voltage directions are reversed
for any one of the possible three
configurations.
 The voltage between the Base and Emitter (
VBE ), is now negative at the Base and
positive at the Emitter because for a PNP
transistor, the Base terminal is always biased
negative with respect to the Emitter.
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PNP Transistor
 Also the Emitter supply voltage is positive with
respect to the Collector ( VCE ). So for a PNP
transistor to conduct the Emitter is always more
positive with respect to both the Base and the
Collector.
 To cause the Base current to flow in a PNP
transistor the Base needs to be more negative
than the Emitter (current must leave the base)
by approx 0.7 volts for a silicon device or 0.3
volts for a germanium device with the formulas
used to calculate the Base resistor, Base current
or Collector current are the same as those used
for an equivalent NPN transistor.

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BJT Amplifiers
A BJT amplifies AC signals by converting some of the DC power from the
power supplies to AC signal power. An AC signal at the input is
superimposed in the DC bias by the capacitive coupling. The output AC
signal is inverted and rides on a DC level of VCE.
RC
Vin

VBB
RB +
0 r e′ VCC
Vc Vc –
+
Vin VBB Vb
–
VCE

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Sample Application
Voice input Loud speaker

Amplifier

BENG3013 2015/2016

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BJT Switches
A BJT can be used as a switching device in logic circuits to turn on or off
current to a load. As a switch, the transistor is normally in either cutoff
(load is OFF) or saturation (load is ON).

+ VCC +VCC +VCC +VCC

RC IC = 0 RC RC IC(sat) RC IC(sat)

RB C RB C
+
0V +VBB
IB = 0 E
E IB –

In cutoff, the transistor In saturation, the transistor

looks like an open switch. looks like a closed switch.

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 Sample Application
 Transistor switches can be used to switch
and control lamps, relays or even motors.
 When using the bipolar transistor as a
switch they must be either "fully-ON" or
"fully-OFF".
 Transistors that are fully "ON" are said to
be in their Saturation region.
 Transistors that are fully "OFF" are said to
be in their Cut-off region.
 When using the transistor as a switch, a
small Base current controls a much larger
Collector load current.

Automatic On/Off Lamp

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Basic Transistor Operation
2 PN junction (BC and BE) must be correctly biased with external DC
voltages to operate properly as an amplifier.
BC → reverse biased ; BE → forward biased

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Transistor Currents

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BJT Biasing
➢Biasing a circuit means to establish a fixed level of current and voltage.

➢Makes sure that the transistor operates at the correct operating point.

➢Operating point means the point of voltage and current in which the
transistor is operating.

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Base Bias
Base bias is used in switching circuits because of its simplicity, but not widely used
in linear applications because the Q-point is ß dependent.
Base current is derived from the collector supply
through a large base resistor.
Formula for base current: VCC − VBE +VCC
+VCCV
IB = +15
RB
RC
1.8 k
RB
Find IB?
560 k

VCC − 0.7 V 15 V − 0.7 V

IB = = = 25.5 mA
RB 560 k

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Base Bias
Compare VCE for the case where b = 100 and b = 300.

For b = 100: I C = βI B = (100 )( 25.5 μA ) = 2.55 mA +VCC

+15 V
VCE = VCC − I C RC
= 15 V − ( 2.55 mA )(1.8 k ) = 10.4 V RC
1.8 k
I C = βI B = ( 300 )( 25.5 μA ) = 7.65 mA
RB
For b = 300:
VCE = VCC − I C RC 560 k

= 15 V − ( 7.65 mA )(1.8 k ) = 1.23 V

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 Emitter-Feedback Bias
An emitter resistor changes base bias into emitter-feedback bias, which is more
predictable. The emitter resistor is a form of negative feedback.

The formula for base current IB is:

VCC − VBE +VCC
IB =
RB + ( b + 1) RE
RC

And the formula for collector-emitter voltage VCE is: RB

VCE = VCC − I C RC − I E RE
RE

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 Emitter-Feedback Bias
+20V
+VCC

RC
2kΩ
Find IB , IC , IE and VCE? RB
ß = 150
430kΩ
RE
VCC − VBE 20 − 0.7
IB = = = 33.22mA 1kΩ
RB + ( b + 1) RE 430k + (150 + 1)(1k )

I C = bI B = 150(33.22m ) = 5mA

I E  I C = 5mA

VCE = VCC − I C RC − I E RE = 20 − (5m)(2k ) − (5m)(1k ) = 5V

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Multisim allows you
to do a quick check
of your results…

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Integrated Circuit

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Integrated Circuit
An integrated circuit is an electronic circuit designed to perform some
function, in which the electronic components (transistors, resistors,
diodes, capacitors, etc.) are miniaturized, built into a small chip made of
silicon, and interconnected through tiny strands of aluminium.
Today, integrated circuits are more commonly referred to as microchips,
or ICs.
Integrated circuits are classified as solid state technology, since they
have no moving parts.

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Integrated Circuit:
Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

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What is an op-amp?
Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are very high gain DC coupled amplifiers with
differential inputs.

One of the inputs is called the inverting input (−); the other is called the non-
inverting input. Usually there is a single output.
+V
Most op-amps operate from positive and
negative supply voltages, which may or may not –
be shown on the schematic symbol.
+

–V
8
20 1 1
8 8
1 1
DIP DIP SMT SMT

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Functions of an op-amp?
When combined with resistors, capacitors, and inductors, it
can perform various useful functions:
◦ amplification/scaling of an input signal
◦ sign changing (inversion) of an input signal
◦ addition of multiple input signals
◦ subtraction of one input signal from another
◦ integration (over time) of an input signal
◦ differentiation (with respect to time) of an input signal

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The ideal op-amp
The ideal op-amp has characteristics that simplify analysis
of op-amp circuits. Ideally, op-amps have:
1. infinite voltage gain,
2. infinite bandwidth,
–
3. infinite input impedance,
Vin Zin = ‘ Vout
4. zero output impedance. AvVin
Zout = 0
Av = ‘

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The Ideal Op-Amp
Parameter Ideal Characteristic
Open Loop Gain, (Avo) Infinite - The main function of an
operational amplifier is to amplify the
input signal and the more open loop gain
it has the better. For an ideal amplifier the
gain will be infinite but typical real values
range from about 20,000 to 200,000.
Input impedance, (Zin) Infinite - Input impedance is the ratio of
input voltage to input current and is
assumed to be infinite to prevent any
current flowing from the source supply
into the amplifiers input circuit. Real op-
amps have input leakage currents from a
few pico-amps to a few milli-amps.

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The Ideal Op-Amp
Parameter Ideal Characteristic
Output impedance, (Zout) Zero - The output impedance of the ideal
operational amplifier is assumed to be
zero acting as a perfect internal voltage
source with no internal resistance so that
it can supply as much current as
necessary to the load. Real op-amps have
output-impedance in the 100-20Ω range.
Bandwidth, (BW) Infinite - An ideal operational amplifier
has an infinite frequency response and
can amplify any frequency signal from DC
to the highest AC frequencies so it is
therefore assumed to have an infinite
bandwidth.

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The practical op-amp
Practical op-amps have characteristics that often can be
treated as ideal for certain situations, but can never actually
attain ideal characteristics. In addition to finite gain,
bandwidth, and input impedance, they have other
limitations. Practically, op-amps have:
1. very high voltage gain,
2. very high bandwidth, –

3. very high input impedance, Vin Zin AvVin Vout

Zout

4. very low output impedance.

+

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 Op-amp configurations
By playing around with external components connected to the
op-amp, we can make the op-amp perform many functions.

 While there are so many applications

that we can make by using op-amp,
let’s just take a look at a few basic
configurations…
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Non-Inverting Amplifier
A non-inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the signal is on the
non-inverting input and a portion of the output is returned to the
inverting input.
Output voltage can be calculated
+
by using formula below:
Vout
Ri + R f Vin –
Vout = Vin Rf
Ri Vf Feedback
circuit
Ri

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Non-Inverting Amplifier
Determine the output voltage of the non-inverting amplifier given that input
voltage, Vin = 12V.
Vin +
Vout
Ri + R f
Vout = Vin – Rf
82 k
Ri
3.3k + 82k Ri
= 12 3.3 k
3.3k
= 310.18V
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 Non-Inverting Amplifier
Rf

1 kΩ
Rs
1 kΩ
What type of op-amp configuration is this?
What is the output voltage? Vo
Rg
Vg 1 kΩ
=2V

Observation:
1. Vin is connected to (+) which is non-inverting input of op-amp.
2. Output is taken as a feedback to (-).
Verdict: This is a Non-inverting Amplifier.

Ri + R f 1k + 1k
Vout = Vin = 2 = 4V
Ri 1k
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Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier is a configuration in which the non-inverting
input is grounded and the signal is applied through a resistor to the
inverting input.
Rf
Output voltage can be calculated
by using formula below:
Ri
Rf –
Vout = − Vin Vout
Ri Vin +

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Inverting Amplifier
Determine the output voltage of the amplifier in below figure given that input
voltage, Vin = 24V.
Rf

Rf 82 k
Vout = − Vin Ri
Ri –
3.3 k
Vout
82k
=− 24 Vin +
3.3k
= −596.36V
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Summing Amplifier
A summing amplifier has two or more inputs;
normally all inputs have unity gain. The output is
proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum
of the inputs.
Rf
R1
VIN1
R2
VIN2 –
R3 VOUT
VIN3
+

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Summing Amplifier

What is VOUT if the input voltages are +5.0 V, −3.5 V and +4.2 V and all
resistors = 10 k? Rf
R1
VIN1
R2
VIN2 –
R3 VOUT
VOUT = −(VIN1 + VIN2 + VIN3) VIN3
+
= −(+5.0 V − 3.5 V + 4.2 V)
= −5.7 V

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End of Chapter 4 (Part 2)

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