SKELETAL SYSTEM

MOVEMENT OF THE UPPER LIMB

● The upper limb movement, or arm movement, involves bones, muscles, and joints. It
helps us do many things like reaching, grasping, and throwing.

Structure of the upper limbs:

● The upper limbs include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
● These bones connect at joints and are surrounded by muscles, tendons, and ligaments.

Joints Involved:
● The upper limbs have three main joints: shoulder, elbow, and wrist.
● The shoulder joint connects the upper arm bone to the shoulder blade, providing
extensive mobility in multiple directions.
● The elbow joint allows bending and straightening of the arm.
● The wrist joint, made up of small bones, enables various movements, providing dexterity
and precision in hand motions.
Muscles and Movement:
● Muscles in the upper limbs help us move. There are two types: flexor muscles and
extensor muscles.
● Flexor muscles bend the joints. For example, the biceps muscle in the upper arm bends
the elbow when it contracts. (The biceps contract and the triceps relax)
● Extensor muscles straighten the joints. For instance, the triceps muscle in the upper arm
extends the elbow when it contracts.

The upper limbs can perform different movements:

Flexion:
● Bending a joint, like bringing the hand closer to the shoulder by bending the elbow.

Extension:
● Straightening a joint, such as straightening the arm at the elbow.

Abduction:
● Moving a limb away from the body's center, like raising the arm sideways.

Adduction:
● Bringing a limb toward the body's center, like bringing the arm back to the side.

Rotation:
● Turning a limb around its axis, like rotating the forearm to change the palm's direction.

ANTAGONISTIC MUSCLES

● Antagonistic muscles are pairs of muscles that work in opposite ways to create movement
at a joint. One muscle contracts while the other relaxes.
● They provide balance and control during movement, allowing for smooth and
coordinated motion.
● For example, when you bend your arm, the biceps muscle contracts to flex the arm, while
the triceps muscle relaxes. Similarly, the quadriceps and hamstrings work together for
knee movement.
● It is important to maintain a balance between these muscle pairs to prevent injuries and
maintain joint stability.

MUSCLE TONE
 ● Muscle tone refers to the tension present in a healthy muscle even when it is at rest.

IMPORTANCE OF LOCOMOTION TO MAN

Locomotion is important because:

● It plays a crucial role in our daily activities,
● Allows us to move from one place to another,
● It promotes physical fitness,
● Enhances cardiovascular health,
● Strengthens muscles and bones.

EXCRETION IN MAN

DEFINITION OF EXCRETION

● Excretion is the elimination of metabolic waste from the body.

● Metabolic waste products are created in the body as a result of chemical reactions.

STRUCTURE OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

Kidneys:
● The kidneys are the main organs of the excretory system.
● They filter waste products from the blood and produce urine.
● The kidneys also regulate the balance of water, salts, and other substances in the body.

Urinary System:
● The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
● The ureters are tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
● The bladder stores urine until it is expelled through the urethra during urination.

Skin:
● The skin eliminates small amounts of waste products, such as salts and water, through
sweat glands.
● Sweating helps regulate body temperature and removes some waste substances from the
body.

Lungs:
 ● The lungs remove carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration, from the
bloodstream and release it into the air when we exhale.
Gut:
● This removes feces, water, bile, and salts from the body.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM

● The excretory system helps remove waste and toxins, maintain proper balance of water
and salts, and regulate the body's internal environment.

Waste removal:
● The excretory system eliminates waste products produced by our body's cells.
● The system filters them out of the blood and removes them from the body through urine,
sweat, and breathing.

Water and salt balance:

● The excretory system helps regulate the balance of water and salts in our body.
● It adjusts the amount of water reabsorbed by the kidneys and controls the concentration
of salts in our blood.

pH regulation:
● The excretory system helps regulate the levels of acids and bases by excreting excess
hydrogen ions or bicarbonate ions.
● This pH balance is important for the proper functioning of enzymes and other
biochemical processes in our body.

Blood pressure control:

● The kidneys filter the blood, removing waste products and excess water.
● The kidneys also produce hormones that control blood pressure by influencing the
constriction or dilation of blood vessels.

Red blood cell production:

● In the kidneys, a hormone called erythropoietin (EPO) is produced, which stimulates the
bone marrow to produce red blood cells.
● Red blood cells are essential for carrying oxygen throughout the body.

DIABETES

Dehydration:
 ● Excreting large amounts of urine can lead to fluid loss from the body, which can cause
symptoms of thirst, dry mouth, and an increased risk of dehydration.

Increased urine production:

● High blood sugar levels can also lead to increased urine production, a condition called
polyuria.
● When blood sugar levels are elevated, the kidneys try to eliminate the excess glucose by
excreting it in the urine causing increased frequency of urination and an increased
volume of urine.
NERVOUS SYSTEM

COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

● The nervous system has two main components: the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Central Nervous System (CNS):

● Consists of the brain and spinal cord.
● Controls and processes information from the body and environment. (Stimuli)
● Brain handles thinking, sensing, moving, and emotions.
● Spinal cord acts as a pathway for transmitting signals between the brain and the
peripheral nervous system.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

● Nerves that extend from the CNS to the body.
● Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements and senses.
● Autonomic Nervous System: Manages automatic body functions like heartbeat and
digestion.

STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN

Cerebrum:
● This is the largest part of the brain and is divided into two hemispheres.
● It is responsible for higher cognitive functions such as thinking, memory, reasoning, and
voluntary muscle movement.
● It also controls our senses like vision, hearing, and touch.
● The outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex, which is involved in
complex mental processes.
Cerebellum:
● The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain, just below the cerebrum.
● It plays a vital role in coordinating and controlling movement, balance, and posture.
● It enables us to walk, run, and perform tasks that require fine motor skills.

Brainstem:
● The brainstem is located at the base of the brain and connects the brain to the spinal cord.
● It regulates essential functions necessary for survival, such as breathing, heart rate, and
blood pressure.
● It also serves as a pathway for nerve signals traveling between the brain and the rest of
the body.

VOLUNTARY AND INVOLUNTARY ACTIONS

Voluntary Actions:
● These are actions that we consciously control and initiate.
● We decide to perform these actions and have control over when and how they happen.
● We use our thoughts and make a conscious decision to move our body in a specific way.
● Eg: Raising your hand, walking, responding to your name being called, etc.

Involuntary Actions:
● These are actions that occur without our conscious control.
● These actions happen automatically and are not under our direct command.
● They are regulated by our body's systems and happen in response to stimuli or as part of
essential bodily functions to ensure our survival.
● Eg: Breathing, blinking, digesting food, or your heart beating.

HORMONES

GLANDS, HORMONES, ROLES

● Glands are special organs in our body that produce and release chemicals called
hormones.
● Hormones are like messengers that travel through our bloodstream to different parts of
the body, carrying important signals and instructions.

Roles of Hormones:
 ● They help regulate and control many different processes, such as growth, metabolism,
reproduction, and mood.
● Hormones also play a role in controlling our sleep-wake cycles, our response to stress,
and even our emotions.

Types of Hormones and their Role:

Glands:
● The pituitary gland in the brain produces several hormones that control the functions of
other glands in the body.
● The thyroid gland produces hormones that help regulate our metabolism.
● The adrenal glands produce hormones that help us deal with stress.
● There are also endocrine glands (gland without a gland), and exocrine (gland with a duct)
● Examples of exocrine glands: Salivary gland, pancreas.
● Example of endocrine glands: Pancreas.

Glands, Hormones and Roles

● The hypothalamus gland located in the brain, secretes several hormones that control
homeostasis.
● The pituitary gland located in the brain below pituitary secretes several hormones (TSH)
that help with metabolism and growth.
● The thyroid gland located in the neck secretes thyroxine that controls growth rate.
● The pancreas located in the loop of duodenum secretes insulin which converts sugar to
glycogen, and glucagon which converts glycogen to sugar.
● The adrenal gland located above the kidney secretes adrenaline which converts glycogen
to sugar when stressed.

THE EYE
FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN EYE

Cornea:
● The cornea is the clear, dome-shaped outer layer at the front of the eye.
● It helps to focus incoming light onto the retina and protects the eye from dust, debris, and
harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Iris:
● The iris is the colored part of the eye.
● It controls the size of the pupil, regulating the amount of light that enters the eye.
● In bright light, the iris contracts, making the pupil smaller. In dim light, the iris expands,
making the pupil larger to allow more light in.

Pupil:
● The pupil is the dark, circular opening in the center of the iris.
● It controls the amount of light that reaches the inner parts of the eye, such as the lens and
retina.

Lens:
● The lens is a clear, flexible structure located behind the iris.
● It adjusts its shape to focus light onto the retina, which is important for near and far
vision.
● The lens helps create clear and sharp images on the retina.
Retina:
● The retina is a thin layer of tissue lining the back of the eye.
● It converts light into electrical signals. These signals are then transmitted to the brain via
the optic nerve for visual processing.

Rods and Cones:

● Rods and cones are the two types of light sensitive cells in the retina.
● Rods are responsible for vision in dim or low-light conditions, while cones are
responsible for color vision and visual acuity in brighter light conditions.

Optic Nerve:
● The optic nerve connects the retina to the brain, transmitting visual information.
● It carries the electrical signals generated by the light sensitive cells to the brain's visual
cortex, where they are interpreted as visual images.

Sclera:
● The sclera is the tough, white outer layer of the eye that helps maintain the eye's shape
and protects the inner structures.

ACCOMMODATION

● This is the way the lens adjusts to view near and distant objects.

Viewing Distant Objects:

● When you look at a distant object, the ciliary muscles relax, which causes the suspensory
ligaments attached to the lens to pull the lens thin and flat.
● The flattened lens allows incoming light rays from the distant object to come together
properly onto the retina at the back of the eye.

Viewing Near Objects

● When you look at a nearby object, the ciliary muscles surrounding the lens contract and
cause the suspensory ligaments attached to the lens to loosen.
● As a result, the lens becomes thicker and more curved, increasing its refractive power.

EYE DEFECTS

Myopia (Nearsightedness):
● Definition: Myopia is a condition in which a person can see nearby objects clearly, but
distant objects appear blurry.
 ● Cause: Myopia occurs when the eyeball is longer than normal or when the cornea (clear
front part of the eye) has excessive curvature. These structural variations cause light to
focus in front of the retina instead of directly on it.
● Correction: Myopia can be corrected using concave (minus) lenses, which help to diverge
light rays before they enter the eye, allowing them to focus properly on the retina.

Hyperopia (Farsightedness):
● Definition: Hyperopia is a condition in which a person can see distant objects more
clearly than nearby objects.
● Cause: Hyperopia typically occurs when the eyeball is shorter than normal or when the
cornea has insufficient curvature. This causes light to focus behind the retina rather than
directly on it.
● Correction: Hyperopia can be corrected using convex (plus) lenses, which help converge
light rays before they enter the eye, enabling them to focus properly on the retina.

Astigmatism:
● Definition: Astigmatism is a condition in which the cornea or lens has an irregular shape,
resulting in blurred or distorted vision at all distances.
● Cause: Astigmatism occurs when the cornea or lens is curved more in one direction than
the other. This causes light rays to focus on multiple points on the retina, leading to
blurred vision.
● Correction: Astigmatism can be corrected using cylindrical lenses, which have different
powers in different meridians to compensate for the irregular shape of the cornea or lens.

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Definition:
● The transportation of blood and other useful substances around the body.
● There are two types: Pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.

COMPONENTS OF BLOOD

Red Blood Cells (RBCs):

● Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are the most abundant cells in the blood.
● They contain a protein called hemoglobin that binds to oxygen and carries it to different
tissues and organs.
● RBCs also play a role in removing carbon dioxide, a waste product, from the body.
 ● They have no nuclei and are made in bone marrow with the help of Vitamin B12.

White Blood Cells (WBCs):

● White blood cells, also called leukocytes, are involved in the immune response of the
body.
● They help defend against infections and foreign substances.
● There are different types of white blood cells, including neutrophils, lymphocytes,
monocytes, eosinophils, and basophils, each with specific functions in the immune
system.
● They have a nucleus.

Plasma
● Plasma is the liquid component of blood, making up about 55% of total blood volume.
● It is a yellowish fluid that carries various substances, including hormones, nutrients,
waste products, antibodies, and clotting factors.
● Plasma also helps maintain blood pressure and regulates body temperature.

Platelets
● Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small cell fragments that play a crucial role in blood
clotting.
● When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets aggregate at the site of injury, forming a clot to
stop bleeding.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

EFFECTS OF SMOKING

Reduced Lung Function:

● Smoking damages airways and lungs, making it harder to breathe and decreasing lung
capacity over time.

Lung Cancer:
● Smoking is the primary cause of aggressive lung cancer due to harmful chemicals
damaging lung cell DNA.
Increased Respiratory Infections:
● Smoking weakens the immune system and damages the respiratory lining, making
smokers more prone to infections like pneumonia and bronchitis with more severe
symptoms and complications.