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THE VOL.87
JULY-SEPTEMBER 2021
INGENIEUR
M A G A Z I N E O F T H E B O A R D O F E N G I N E E R S M A L A Y S I A

Environment

Photo courtesy of Lee Soo Leng

 EDITORIAL BOARD
2021-2022

PRESIDENT EDITORIAL BOARD

Dato’ Ir. Haji Mohamad Zulkefly bin Sulaiman
ADVISOR
BOARD MEMBERS Dato’ Ir. Haji Mohamad Zulkefly bin Sulaiman
Datuk Ir. Mohd Adnan bin Mohd Nor
Dato’ Ir. Ahmad Redza bin Ghulam Rasool CHAIRMAN
First Admiral (R) Dato’ Ir. Ahmad Murad bin Omar First Admiral (R) Dato’ Ir. Ahmad Murad bin Omar
Dato’ Prof. Ir. Dr. Mohd Hamdi bin Abd Shukor
Datu Ir. Zuraimi bin Haji Sabki EDITOR
Dato’ Ir. Nor Hisham bin Mohd Ghazali Dato’ Ir. Fong Tian Yong
Ir. Megat Johari bin Megat Mohd Noor
Ir. Sundraraj a/l Krishnasamy
EDITORIAL MEMBERS
Ir. Ali Ahmad bin Haji Hamid
Prof. Emeritus Ir. Dr K S Kannan
Ir. Zailee bin Dollah
Ir. Prem Kumar
Ir. Ong Ching Loon
Ir. Chan Boon Teik
Prof. Ir. Dr. Norlida binti Buniyamin
Ir. Mohd Khir bin Muhammad
Ir. Mohd. Aman bin Haji Idris
Ar. Azman bin Md. Hashim
Sr Rogayah binti Yunus

REGISTRAR
Ir. Dr. Megat Zuhairy bin Megat Tajuddin

SECRETARY
Ir. Suhaizad bin Hj Sulaiman

The Ingenieur is published quarterly by the Board of Engineers Malaysia (Lembaga Jurutera Malaysia)
and is distributed free to registered Professional Engineers. The statements and opinions expressed in
this publication are those of the writers. BEM invites all engineers and readers to contribute relevant
articles and views to the Publisher.
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1
 INGENIEUR

CONTENTS

4 President’s Message
Feature
Announcement
31 Environmental Impact
5 Call for Articles Management for Palm Oil
Production
Cover Feature 45 Greening Batik Industries in
6 Can Integrated River Basin Malaysia
Management Save Our 50 Plastics: Chemically Engineered
Rivers? to Pollute?
Sg Setiu
16 Plastic Waste Management:
Transition to a Circular Do You Know?
Economy
55 Environment
25 Developing National
Emission Factor for Electricity
Sector in Malaysia

45 55

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 31

50
Special Report
58 Impact of Disruptive
Technologies on Malaysia’s
Future Energy Scenario
(Part 2)

Report
74 What Others Say About
Environment
77 Key International Conventions 25
on the Environment

Engineering Nostalgia
80 Johor Bahru Causeway, 1960

58 80

3
 31

50
Special Report
58 Impact of Disruptive
Technologies on Malaysia’s
Future Energy Scenario
(Part 2)

Report
74 What Others Say About
Environment
77 Key International Conventions 25
on the Environment

Engineering Nostalgia
80 Johor Bahru Causeway, 1960

58 80

3
 INGENIEUR
PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE
Environment
On World Environment Day 2021 on June 5, 2021,
the United Nations’ Secretary-General presented
a foreword message with the heading ‘Making
Peace with Nature: A scientific blueprint to tackle
the climate, biodiversity and pollution emergencies’.
He reiterated that making peace with nature is the
defining task of the coming decades. This year,
several major international conferences, including
climate change, biodiversity and desertification,
provide opportunities to increase action on
recovering from climate disruption. The central
objective is to build a global coalition for carbon
neutrality. If adopted by every country, city, financial
institution and company around the world, the drive
to reach net-zero emissions by 2050 can still avert
the worst impacts of climate change.
An environment analyst mentioned that for too
long, humans have been exploiting and destroying
the planet’s ecosystems. Every three seconds, the
world loses enough forest to cover a football pitch,
and over the last century we have destroyed half
of the world’s wetlands. As much as 50% of the
world’s coral reefs have already been lost and up
to 90% of coral reefs could be lost by 2050, even if
global warming is limited to an increase of 1.5°C.
According to UN-Water, the impacts of climate
change are felt first and foremost through water.  forward to address this issue.
Increasing global temperature causes drought,
flooding and other extreme weather events - all
of which pose a direct threat to businesses and
the communities they operate in.  Water scarcity
in particular is a major financial concern for
businesses.  Today 3.6 billion people worldwide
live in water-stressed areas. Without further action
based on projected demand, the world will face
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a 56% shortfall in freshwater supply relative to
demand by 2030.
With Malaysia’s dependence on international
trade, staying aligned to global trends is important.
Malaysian exporters have taken steps to adopt the
United Nations-supported Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) through implementing environmental,
social and governance (ESG) standards that meet the
requirements on ethical impact and sustainability.
The publication of this issue with the theme
‘Environment’ is most timely in view of the global
concern and attention given to environmental
impact on the global community. The Malaysian
Government in the 2021 National Budget has
provided allocations under its fourth strategy
of ‘Ensuring Resource Sustainability’, aimed at
positively influencing environmental decisions in
line with SDGs.
Plastic had been named as one of the worst
pollutants affecting our environment. Blaming
plastics alone is not the solution but rather
focusing more on human behaviour, management
and technologies. The article with critical review
on ‘Plastics: Chemically Engineered to Pollute’
and another on ‘Plastic Waste Management:
Transition to a Circular Economy’ points to the way
With the theme of ‘Ecosystem Restoration’
for World Environment Day 2021, I wish to thank
contributors of articles in this issue and I am sure
they will bring greater awareness to professionals
and the public in general.
Dato’ Ir. Haji Mohamad Zulkefly bin Sulaiman
President, BEM
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M A G A Z I N E O F T H E B O A R D O F E N G I N E E R S M A L A Y S I A
The Ingenieur is published quarterly by the Board of
Engineers Malaysia. The following are the themes

ANNOUNCEMENT
for the coming issues.
Chemical • Vol. 88 Oct-Dec 2021
Engineering Engineering Practice
• Vol. 89 Jan-Mar 2022
Digital Economy
• Vol. 90 Apr-June 2022
Green Engineering
• Vol. 91 July-Sept 2022
Physical Connectivity
• Vol. 92 Oct-Dec 2022
Smart City

Articles and other contributions relevant to the

themes are welcomed, but the decision to publish
rests with the Editorial Board.
Photo Courtesy of Chin Siew Yin

Advertising inquiries are also welcomed. Please

refer to the BEM advertisement in this issue for the
latest rate card and booking form.

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 INGENIEUR
Can Integrated River Basin
Management Save Our
COVER FEATURE
Rivers?
By Dato’ Ir. Haji Nor Hisham bin Mohd Ghazali
Dato’ Ir. Haji Jamil bin Shaari
Ir. Noor Aishah binti Zaharin
Daniel Liew Yu Chuan
Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Malaysia
O
n March 7, 2019, multiple reports
emerged regarding a sudden wave of
suspected gas or chemical poisoning
involving three schools in Pasir Gudang, Johor. A
subsequent investigation by the HAZMAT teams
from the Department of Environment eventually
ascertained that the source was from a location
in Sungai Kim Kim where apparently tonnes of
chemicals were dumped illegally. By April 14,
2021, 71 cases of poisoning were reported. This
led to the temporary closure of 111 schools in the
Pasir Gudang township and the indictment of three
individuals under the Environmental Quality Act
(EQA) 1974. Sungai Kim Kim became a household
name, and the nation was awakened to the reality
of our rivers’ vulnerability to pollution.
The Sungai Kim Kim incident demonstrates the
challenge we face to protect our rivers. Despite
over 25 years of Government river management
programmes, river pollution incidents continue
to occur, demonstrating that rivers have yet to
acquire the reverence they deserve. Integrated
River Basin Management (IRBM) has been
adopted as the primary strategy towards a better
river management since the Ninth Malaysia Plan. It
is the management tool used to achieve the goals
of Integrated Water Resources Management.
This is especially true for Malaysia, where river
water intakes account for more than 90% of the
domestic water supply. With river pollution as the
main threat to this supply, how do IRBM Plans
function as a holistic solution?
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River Pollution
River pollution is defined as the contamination of
the natural river environment by the introduction of
pollutants. Prior to release into the water system,
wastewater must be treated according to approved
standards. Pollution is frequently the result of illicit
waste dumping, ignorance of standards of care, or
the failure of existing regulated treatment systems
to perform.
The problem is exacerbated by the growth of
industry and urbanisation, as water intakes are
now located downstream of industries such as
poultry farms and palm oil mills. Had the upstream
catchments been adequately protected, all that
would flow downstream would be natural run-off.
We can easily see that land use planning and
water resources planning were not co-ordinated
by tracing the rationale for siting water intakes
versus industries and farms. Water intakes are
typically located in upper catchments where
the water quality is essentially Class I or II,
according to national Water Quality Standards.
The location of industries such as palm oil mills
and agriculture farms is determined by the
availability of agricultural land. This disconnect
exists because all information is not presented
contemporaneously. It is only natural that
land will be needed as economic development
progresses. The threat could have been realised
if IRBM and its data inventory had been available.
As development expands into the upper

catchments, older and earlier located water
intakes become increasingly vulnerable. With
an IRBM plan in place, land upstream of water
intakes could be zoned as controlled, protected,
or zero-development zones.
Indiscriminate disposal of solid waste and
Sg Setiu chemical waste on river banks or directly into
the river waters has been a major cause of
water supply disruptions. Among the theories
as to why these incidents occur is that they are
associated with efforts to reduce disposal costs.
The perpetrators are either manufacturers of the
waste, or the contractors employed to dispose of
them. Although more an issue of a lack of integrity
and general civic-mindedness, the option to
locate disposal sites away from business centres
has an impact on transportation and operating
costs. The spatial information provided by IRBM
plans would allow future disposal sites to be
properly sited, allowing businesses to respond
accordingly. However, education and cultural
change are the only ways to increase integrity and
civic awareness.
Sungai Setiu
History of Integrated River Basin
Management
The concept of integrated water resources
management was introduced in the Eighth
Malaysia Plan following Malaysia’s ratification of
the Rio Accord. It is an approach that integrates
the management of natural resources and
economic demands within the river basin — a
geographical unit — serving as the management
unit. The geographical boundaries of the river
basin are the limits within which water quantity
and quality are assessed. IRBM seeks to
achieve an equilibrium between water resources
availability and water demand across all sectors
within current and future development scenarios
by looking beyond the administrative boundaries
of districts and states. In essence, IRBM is about
placing water resources as an economic catalyst
while conserving the natural river environment.
Since 2003, IRBM plans have been regularly
prepared due to a proposal by the Department of
Irrigation and Drainage (DID) that was approved
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 INGENIEUR
by the National Water Council on July 29 of that
same year. It was part of a strategy to reinforce co-
ordination between the Federal, State and Local
Governments towards managing the river basins
effectively and holistically. To date, 37 IRBM plans
have been completed. These cover more than 70%
of Peninsular Malaysia and 25 more IRBM plans
will be completed under the Twelfth Malaysia Plan
which includes Sarawak and Sabah.
DID has continuously been promoting
the adoption of IRBM plans to the relevant
stakeholders. In the latest development, the
National Water Council in April 2021 has
sanctioned that the IRBM plan be a mandatory
reference in land development planning at the
state and district levels.
Objectives and Key Elements
IRBM is geared towards maximising the economic
and social benefits derived from water resources
while maintaining and amplifying the water
resources ecosystem. The IRBM plan synergises
policies, programmes and practices to achieve
four main objectives, namely:
1. To guarantee enough water;
2. To guarantee clean water;
3. To minimise flood risk; and
4. To improve and conserve the environment
The IRBM plan encompasses planning,
implementation and consolidation of strategies.
It frames the blueprint of necessary activities
or action plans to sustainably exploit water
resources, improve and conserve the river basins
in harmony with economic needs. The IRBM plan
also defines the enablers for successful plan
execution, which include financial, institutional
governance and legal considerations.
Formulating an IRBM Plan
The formulation of an IRBM plan begins with
robust primary data input that includes rainfall,
river levels and flows, river engineering surveys
and land use. The operational data of water
extraction and discharge released into the rivers,
such as sewerage treatment plants and water
intakes, are collected to facilitate numerical
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analysis. An extensive hydrodynamic analysis of
the river system, including water balance analysis,
high and low flow river analysis, water quality
analysis and sediment transport analysis are
required when formulating an IRBM plan.
The results of the extensive hydrodynamic
analysis are grouped into four major components:
Water accounting and availability
This analysis determines the present state of
water availability and its prospect in meeting the
water demands within the river basin. The IRBM
plan explores the opportunity to increase reserve
water availability within the river basin, by either
introducing dual-purpose structures or alternative
resources.
Flood risk assessment
This assessment is based on the current and
projected land use for the river basin. Based on the
100 ARI critical storm analysis, an understanding
of the flow behaviour is developed, and conceptual
flood mitigation measures are proposed based on
the flood projection. Existing land use information
and development plans allow non-structural
options to be implemented, such as the gazetting
of flood plains and adjacent state land for future
construction of off-river storage ponds.
Coastal
The sediment transport analysis assesses the
risk of possible coastal erosion at the coastline if
sediment flow towards the sea is inhibited.
River water quality
Published data from the Depar tment of
Environment on river water quality is the primary
data used as a baseline in water quality modelling.
Pollution mapping is performed to identify the
contributing pollutants to the river water body.
Simulations during low and normal flows are
conducted to determine the river carrying capacity.
Appropriate pollution reduction strategy for the
river basin is then proposed to achieve the desired
Class II river water quality.
Aside from the inventory and engineering
analyses of the water resources, qualitative
analysis is conducted through surveys, interviews,
and stakeholder engagements to better
understand social behaviour, acceptance and
 Integrated River
Basin Management (IRBM)
I. Ensure Sufficient Water

25
STUDIES
4 II. Ensure Clean Water
III. Reduce Flood Risk
OBJECTIVES
PLANNED IV. Enhance Environment Conservation
(RMK-12)

37 Contribute
STUDIES
COMPLETED
97%
(Covers >70% to
area of Malaysia’s
Peninsular
water
Malaysia)
resources

189 Since
25
Studies
Complete
Main 2003 d
(RMK-11)
River
Basins

Department of Irrigation and Drainage, 2021

willingness to implement the suggested IRBM
plans. Various awareness programmes are also
offered as a result of these qualitative studies in
order to improve social inclusion in empowering
and fostering river stewardship.
The findings of the assessments are used as a
guide in developing short, medium, and long-term
action plans for the river basin, together with cost
estimates and a recommended key performance
indicator to assess the plan’s effectiveness in
achieving the set goals.
Water governance is imperative to ensure that
IRBM plans will be implemented successfully.
Hence, the Federal and State constitutions are
consulted when creating IRBM programmes. The
IRBM plans are finalised through the principles of
consultation and consensus.
Gaps, Barriers and Enablers
Managing rivers begins with the understanding
of a river basin and its tributaries. Malaysia
has a dense network of rivers with 2,986 river
basins including 189 major river basins. These
river basins are formed by 60,596km of rivers

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 INGENIEUR
59 Most Polluted Rivers in
Malaysia
Class 3 Rivers
1 Sungai Chempedak (Sungai Jawi), Pulau Pinang
2 Sungai Juru (Sungai Juru), Pulau Pinang
3 Sungai Dua Besar (Sungai Kluang), Pulau Pinang
4 Sungai Air Melintas (Sungai Perai), Pulau Pinang/Kedah
5 Sungai Kereh (Sungai Perai), Pulau Pinang/Kedah
6 Sungai Pertama (Sungai Perai), Pulau Pinang/Kedah
7 Sungai Bakar Arang (Sungai Merbok), Kedah
8 Sungai Petani (Sungai Merbok), Kedah
9 Sungai Seluang (Sungai Perak), Perak
10 Sungai Air Busuk (Sungai Klang), Selangor/Kuala Lumpur
11 Sungai Untut (Sungai Klang), Selangor/Kuala Lumpur
12 Sungai Kerayong (Sungai Klang), Selangor/Kuala Lumpur
13 Sungai Klang (Sungai Klang), Selangor/Kuala Lumpur
14 Sungai Toba (Sungai Klang), Selangor/Kuala Lumpur
15 Sungai Buloh (Sungai Buloh, Selangor
16 Sungai Balak (Sungai Langat), Selangor/Putrajaya/Negeri Sembilan
17 Sungai Tuang (Sungai Tuang), Negeri Sembilan/Melaka
18 Sungai Tuang (Sungai Linggi), Negeri Sembilan/Melaka
19 Sungai Malim (Sungai Melaka), Melaka/Negeri Sembilan
20 Sungai Putat (Sungai Melaka), Melaka/Negeri Sembilan
21 Sungai Simpang Kanan (Sungai Batu Pahat), Johor
22 Sungai Batu Pahat (Sungai Batu Pahat), Johor
23 Sungai Panchor (Sungai Batu Pahat), Johor
24 Sungai Semberong (Sungai Batu Pahat), Johor
25 Sungai Serai (Sungai Johor), Johor
26 Sungai Singol (Sungai Endau), Johor
27 Sungai Latoh (Pasir Gudang Catchment), Johor
28 Sungai Anak Sedili Kecil (Sungai Sedili Kecil), Johor
29 Sungai Skudai (Sungai Skudai), Johor
30 Sungai Segget (Sungai Segget), Johor
31 Sungai Plentong (Sungai Tebrau), Johor
32 Sungai Tebrau (Sungai Tebrau), Johor
33 Sungai Merlimau (Sungai Muar), Johor/Negeri Sembilan
34 Sungai Serom (Sungai Muar), Johor/Negeri Sembilan
35 Sungai Pengkalan Chepa (Sungai Pengkalan Chepa), Kelantan
comprising 17,344km of main rivers. With 97%
of Malaysia’s water resources being supplied by
rivers and lakes, their conservation, i.e. through
the protection of water catchments and river
reserves, has often been taken for granted. Water
supply for domestic and industrial sectors have
dominated headlines especially during periods
of scarcity. The National Water Resources Study
2010 concluded that in 2050, with a projected
population of 42 million, several states may
face water shortages. Efforts to improve water
supply and treatment infrastructure will not be
sustainable unless non-structural measures are
implemented. These include strong legislation,
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Class 4 Rivers
36 Sungai Jawi (Sungai Jawi), Pulau Pinang
37 Sungai Rambai (Sungai Juru), Pulau Pinang
38 Sungai Kuyoh (Sungai Klang), Selangor/Kuala Lumpur
39 Sungai Merlimau (Sungai Merlimau), Melaka
40 Sungai Punggur (Sungai Duyong), Melaka
41 Sungai Air Baloi (Sungai Air Baloi), Johor
42 Sungai Temehel (Sungai Batu Pahat), Johor
43 Sungai Semenchu (Sungai Johor), Johor
44 Sungai Danga (Sungai Danga), Johor
45 Sungai Perembi (Pasir Gudang Catchment), Johor
46 Sungai Masai (Pasir Gudang Catchment), Johor
47 Sungai Buluh (Pasir Gudang Catchment), Johor
48 Sungai Tukang Batu (Pasir Gudang Catchment), Johor
49 Sungai Kempas (Sungai Kempas), Johor
50 Sungai Mupur (Sungai Sedili Besar), Johor
51 Sungai Ayer Merah (Sungai Pontian Besar), Johor
52 Sungai Bala (Sungai Tebrau), Johor
53 Sungai Sebulung (Sungai Tebrau), Johor
54 Sungai Pandan (Sungai Tebrau), Johor
55 Sungai Tampoi (Sungai Tebrau), Johor
56 Sungai Sengkuang (Sungai Tebrau), Johor
57 Sungai Neram (Sungai Kemaman), Terengganu
58 Sungai Alor B (Sungai Pengkalan Chepa), Kelantan
Class 5 Rivers
59 Sungai Rambai (Sungai Sepang), Selangor
Source: Department of Environment, 2019
effective execution of the institutional functions,
and a knowledgeable and environmentally
conscious society.
Although IRBM has been officially endorsed
as the key strategy for managing river basins in
Malaysia, pollution problems remain unresolved.
This poses the question as to how effective IRBM
plans are as a management tool against river
pollution.
Pollution is habitually a human contribution
to the natural environment. Curative intervention
through engineering alone is incapable
of controlling pollution since engineering
solutions can only succeed within the limits
 River Water Quality Trend (Source : Environmental Quality Report, 2019)
of design criteria. Engineering facilities such
as wastewater treatment plants, interceptors
and gross pollutant traps require upkeep and
upgrades, which create a maintenance challenge
sustainable only with ample funds. The damage
to rivers imparted by development is reflected in
water quality whilst water scarcity is the result of
poor management of water quantity. The strength
of IRBM plans is in presenting a comprehensive
view of the river basin and how its water
resources are affected by the current land use
and its projected changes. While engineering can
solve some physical threats, development, once
implemented, is almost irreversible. When land
use is managed in tandem with water resources
management, the success is multi-dimensional;
one sector’s development sustainability and its
relationship to other sectors can be determined
at the outset. Threats to rivers can be realised
earlier and reduced.
Current IRBM plans are complete with both
structural and non-structural measures to promote
water security and environmental sustainability.
The main success criterion is adherence to
its recommendations which cannot be legally
imposed unless gazetted as law.
Lost in Translation
Some of the best laid plans fail because of a
literacy divide between the planners and the
implementers. Very often, management plans
reside in documents that require commitment
from administrators and frontline officers to study
and understand. IRBM plans cannot be seen to be
effective if they are not translated into workable
action plans that specifically guide the frontliners
— those responsible for approving and enforcing
the stipulations of the development plans. Even
the language of IRBM plans must be crafted
based on the technical level of the readers. IRBM
plans are information-rich and must not only be a
high-level document for planners and strategists.
The plans must therefore be translated or scaled
down to the operational language of frontliners
in the districts where not everyone is expected
to be water engineers or scientists. IRBM plans
must be owned and understood by all. Early
plans were misconstrued to be relevant only
to the DID when it was meant for all agencies
involved in development. In retrospect, a whole-
of-Government approach was lacking. Frontline
agencies will fail to realise what their roles are and
how to improve their functions if IRBM plans are
11
 INGENIEUR
not implanted into their workflow. This inclusion
would require capacity building for the various
levels of players.
Legislation and Enforcement
The purpose of legislation is to influence human
behaviour. Under the Federal Constitution, both
Federal and State Governments have their specific
functions in matters pertaining to water, rivers,
land and forest. In general, the Federal Government
is responsible for promoting uniformity in
legislation, management of hydrological data from
the planning to the collection stage as well as
providing technical advice, including conducting
required river basin management plans, surveys,
studies and detailed design works. The State
Government, on the other hand, is responsible
for the management of water resources, including
gazetting water catchment areas and controlling
land development in states. Pollutants in rivers
are regulated by the Environment Quality Act 1974,
Water Service Industry Act 2006, Street, Drainage
and Building Act 1974, Local Government Act
1976 and Sewerage Services Act 1993.
The fragmented state of water resources
management was a primary cause for concern as
water was managed by no less than 35 agencies.
Unification of water agencies under one ministry
was among the first solutions implemented and
this has been in effect since 2018. After the 2018
general election, the Department of Irrigation
and Drainage, Department of Sewerage Services
and the Water Supply Division were placed under
the Ministry of Water and Natural Resources and
subsequently under the Ministry of Environment
and Water (KASA). With this union, the co-
ordination of the implementation of infrastructure
projects particularly at the planning and design
level is expected to improve.
Limited legal authority granted to Government
organisations, conflicting interests between
State Governments and insufficient enforcement
due to limited human resources are amongst
the main factors which contribute towards poor
compliance to legislation. A Federal bill designed
to modernise and unify all water resource laws
was mooted in 2015 but this was eventually
relegated to a model law. The proposed bill, if
adopted by all states, would have paved the way
for the establishment of River Basin Authorities
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in transboundary river basins where conflicts are
more complex and touch on the sovereign rights
of State Governments. Nevertheless, a positive
outcome of the draft bill was that it moved many
states to revise their existing Water Enactments to
be in line with the spirit of the proposed law.
Laws can ensure that management systems
are maintained. Legislation that stipulates the
need to adhere to and periodically review IRBM
plans would make them influential as a reference
for future planning and ensure the continuity of
good practices.
Point Source Monitoring and Total Maximum
Daily Load
The Environment Quality Act (EQA) 1974
established the threshold criteria (standards)
for discharged effluents before entering natural
water bodies, assuming that pollutants would be
diluted. The standards, however, do not take into
account the ability of the receiving water body
to dilute the pollutants. To manage discharged
contaminants properly, many water scientists and
engineers support a paradigm shift towards the
Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) approach.
TMDL is defined as the maximum amount
of pollutants a water body can receive without
compromising its desired water quality standard.
Controlling the amount and rate of release is a
promising strategy for restoring, enriching, and
maintaining the river and its habitat. Broadly
speaking, TMDL sets the upper limit of pollutant
entry to ensure that the receiving water body will
not degrade. TMDL can be utilised as a strategy
to place the IRBM approach in action and steer
various Government departments, agencies,
private sectors and local communities towards
the same goal. Exploration and investment in
real-time monitoring are worthwhile endeavours
to address the concerns surrounding effluent
discharge. By stipulating the river’s carrying
capacity, determined through the TMDL approach
in the existing water enactments, a mechanism
for harmonising Federal and State laws could be
achieved.
Inclusivity
The presumption that the Government is the sole
entity accountable for pollution management must
be removed. As water is deemed a human right,
Denai Sungai Kebangsaan - DSK

13
 INGENIEUR

ROLPOP : River Adoption by Local Communities

ROLPOP : River Adoption by Local Communities

Denai Sungai Kebangsaan

correspondingly Pengkalan
all are responsible for Datu,
water. Every done
in collaboration with the State Government
individual has a role to play and this has been the to invite the public to create activities there.
primary objective of community education and
public awareness (CEPA) programmes. Selling
the idea that IRBM promotes efficient water
management which in turn is an economic catalyst
can be the defining strategy to achieve buy-in from
administrators and businesses.
IRBM plans recognise the importance of public
participation to complement the engineering
interventions in managing river pollution. Realising
that illegal waste disposal usually happens along
secluded river reaches, KASA reasons that
frequent public presence along the river banks
would deter illegal dumping and initiated the
National River Trails programme (Denai Sungai
Kebangsaan - DSK).
Under this programme, river trails will be
created for hiking or biking along the river banks.
From simple trails that improves accessibility,
these trails could then gradually be expanded
into recreation areas and public parks. Frequent
human presence will inhibit illegal settlements,
deter the unscrupulous from disposing scheduled
waste or creating dumping areas and landfills and
other activities on the banks of our rivers. Jogging
tracks, trails and parks in the river reserve will be
Kelantan
With a heightened public presence along
the rivers, they could provide voluntary river
surveillance, conservation and beautification.
In the long run, it will inculcate a sense of
ownership and responsibility towards rivers. In
essence, DSK is a programme to acknowledge
societal responsibility by instilling awareness,
accountability and stewardship among the public
in performing CPR — conservation, protection
and rehabilitation — on the rivers. In addition,
DSK also has the potential to contribute to local
eco-tourism as demonstrated by the pilot DSK
in Pengkalan Datu, Kelantan. This unique trail,
which was opened in October 2020, with nearly
50% of its length above water, has become a
popular tourist attraction and a catalyst for the
local economy.
River trails bring people to the river and
improve connectivity. The early success of the
Pengkalan Datu River Trail informs the hypothesis
that a river trail is potentially an economic
stimulus. As the local community realises that
a pleasant river environment could lead to
monetary returns, the river is transformed into
an asset worth protecting.

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Enabling Change and Moving Forward
There is much that we have to achieve in
managing our water resources. Pollution has
been constantly the issue involving our rivers
that are the main source of raw water. Over
time, balancing between the economic benefits
and environmental sustainability has become
very marginal, and it calls for a transformation
in river basin management. Learning from the
gaps and experiences, the Federal Government
has launched the Water Sector Transformation
2040 programme that aspires to transform the
water sector from a supporting entity to a wealth
creation entity. IRBM plans, developed with the
inclusion of living things and their elements in
mind, as well as economic and development needs
while remaining environmentally conscious, will be
a pillar in pragmatic planning and management,
addressing all issues related to water resources.
Meanwhile, the formula for a joint authority over a
transboundary river basin continues to elude us.
The existing challenge for IRBM is that it is a
tool that still requires constant practice in order to
master. The playing field for IRBM is the meeting
rooms where a potpourri of water issues from the
scientific to the socio-economic are discussed,
leading towards compromise and consensus.
Pollution is evidently a common denominator since
it originates from humans, propagates through
the apathy of humans, and can be resolved by
the combined efforts of humans. The elements of
a solution to this perennial problem exist within
the IRBM plans. IRBM plans must be owned by
everyone with a role to play in development be it a
private or public entity.
Many emerging programmes emphasise
the local community and their commitment to
preserving natural resources. A shift from total
reliance on Government initiatives must happen
for society to contribute more and eventually
improve their living environment. This cultural
transformation is heavily dependent on awareness
and education. In the Twelfth Malaysia Plan, CEPA
programmes have been included to achieve this
transformation.
The construction of river trails promises to be
a game-changer in river management. It would
draw the eyes of the public to its beauty, thereby
creating a sense of ownership and appreciation
of its economic potential. Such values will be the
indirect deterrent against pollution.
Using IRBM as a tool, empowering governance
through inclusivity, and with educated and caring
communities as the enablers, river conservation
can be significantly enhanced. River pollution
occurs when planning principles or mitigation
systems fail, or when a would-be polluter acts
upon his dire need for convenience. IRBM with its
capacity to blend scientific and human thinking
processes, can place all issues in their proper
perspective and facilitate the resolution of
conflicts. Everyone is part of a river basin, and the
IRBM serves everyone. The living environment we
desire in the future begins with how well we plan
development in the river basin today.
REFERENCE
Air Selangor (2020), Henti Tugas Loji Rawatan Air
Sungai Selangor Fasa 1, 2, 3 dan Rantau Panjang
Berikutan Pencemaran Sumber Air Mentah [Press
release]. 18 October.
ASM (2016). Transforming the Water Sector:
N ational Integr ate d Water Re sour c e s
Management Plan Strategies and Road Map.
Academy of Sciences Malaysia.
ASM (2019). Lessons from Sungai Kim Kim, Pasir
Gudang. Academy of Sciences Malaysia.
DID (2011). National Water Resources Study:
Review of the National Water Resources (2000-
2050) and Formulation of National Water
Resources Policy. Department of Irrigation and
Drainage, Malaysia.
IEM (2021). Water Hazard & Security – IR4.0 Era.
Jurutera, March 2021. The Institution of Engineers
Malaysia.
IEM (2020). Water Resources – Demand, Climate
and Sustainability. Jurutera, March 2020. The
Institution of Engineers Malaysia.
Violette Geissen, Hans Mol, Erwin Klumpp, Günter
Umlauf, Marti Nadal, Martine van der Ploeg,
Sjoerd E.A.T.M. van de Zee, Coen J. Ritsema
(2015). Emerging Pollutants in the Environment:
A Challenge for Water Resources Management.
International Soil and Water Conservation
Research, 3(1), pp 57-65.
15
 INGENIEUR

Plastic Waste
Management: Transition to
COVER FEATURE

a Circular Economy
By Assoc. Prof. Ir. Dr Umi Fazara Md Ali,
Assoc. Prof. Ts. Dr Siti Khadijah Za’aba
Faculty of Chemical Engineering Technology &
Center for Energy Management and Sustainable Campus (COSCEM)
Universiti Malaysia Perlis (UniMAP)

Ts. Dr Al Amin Mohamed Sultan

Faculty of Manufacturing Engineering
Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka (UTeM)

Khairul Anuar Ahmad

Petronas Chemical Group Bhd (PCHEM)

B
est practices in waste management support
economic growth and societal wellbeing by
enabling a clean, resilient, productive, and
sustainable environment. However, today’s world
economies are dominated by a linear approach
in the way products are manufactured, used,
and disposed of. This means manufacturers
extract natural resources, process them into
products and packaging, then sell the products to
consumers who ultimately dispose of them. That
is reflective of our society which is very linear in
adopting the “take-make-use-dispose” approach.
It is not sustainable financially or environmentally
sound and it is a missed opportunity as valuable
materials are thrown away. Fortunately, there
is a solution; it’s called the circular economy.
In a circular economy, there is minimal waste;
we reduce what we don’t need and reuse what
we do need. By moving to a circular economy
for waste management, Malaysia could capture
an estimated RM900 million annually in lost
value which corresponds to 2.3 million tonnes of
recycled materials going to landfills [1].
Emerging threats due to the unchecked linear
economy growth model subscribed by Malaysia
since the 1900s are causing an adverse impact
encompassing environmental and social spheres.
Malaysia has started to address plastic pollution
through the circular economy approach which
eliminates the production of unnecessary plastic
products, shifting to alternative materials and
circular design, thus extending the life of products
through reuse, repair, resell and finally recycling
discarded products back into the production
phase [2]. As a result, recent trends in waste
management in Malaysia exhibit a substantial
increase in the rate of recovery and recycling of
plastic wastes. The National Recycling Rate to
date is 30.67%, which is a 2.61% increase from
2019. By 2025, the Ministry of Housing and Local
Government (KPKT) is targeting to achieve a 40%
National Recycling Rate [3, 4].
LINEAR ECONOMY VS CIRCULAR
ECONOMY
In the linear economy model, a resource from
nature is exploited for wealth creation without
any consideration of regeneration and post-use
sustainable waste management. For example,
in the logging industry, valuable resources from
the natural environment are taken for granted as
if they are unlimited and forever replenishable

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 Figure 1: The Circular Economy, The Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2017 [6]
by natural processes. As a result, we have lost a
significant amount of CO2 absorbing forests that
have existed for millions of years in our backyard.
Such unsustainable natural resource mining
and processing industry has come full circle,
threatening to cause adverse health impact to
surrounding communities.
Indiscriminate waste generation from modern
lifestyle and unsustainable waste disposal
management are directly causing environmental
pollution and climate change. Moving from
agriculture and mining-based activities to rapid
industrialisation, Malaysia’s linear economic growth
journey is threatened by the growing heap of waste
disposed in landfills. Landfilling is unsustainable as
it takes valuable land and renders it unsuitable for
commercial and residential development until the
site is fully remediated, without a guarantee that
it will not inflict a health impact on people residing
on the site.
Unchecked Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission
also comes directly from waste disposal
management via incineration. An increase in the
atmosphere of CO2 concentration brings about
devastating events that threaten our existence on
planet earth. CO2 acts as an insulator that raises
the atmospheric temperature, causing a rise in
ocean levels due to melting polar ice. Another
source of GHG is methane gas which is released
from landfills due to the decomposition of food
and organic waste.
Waste generation and pollution from
consumerism, specifically single-use plastic
packaging, leaking into the environment and
resurfacing in the Pacific Ocean, along with
discarded fishing gear especially fishnets,
have formed an unnatural garbage island of
approximately 1.6 million square km right in the
middle of the ocean. It has been dubbed the Great
Pacific Garbage Patch with an estimated floating
plastic waste of 79,000 tons in 2018 [5].
Since its first invention in the early 1900s,
plastic has come a long way in every aspect
of the modern world. It has kept food fresh
17
 INGENIEUR
for much longer making it possible for long
distance transportation, catering to population
growth in expanding cities. Plastics made land
transportation more economical due to its
lightweight and durable properties making cars
and trucks lighter, therefore saving fuel. Plastics
replaced expensive glass bottles as the container
of choice for fast-moving consumer goods
(FMCGs) companies selling soft drink beverages
and water to bring down the cost to consumers.
Plastics transformed the packaging industry
making it cheaper to transport manufactured
goods. Unfortunately, when it comes to managing
the disposal of post-consumer plastic materials,
it is much easier to resort to the cradle to grave
approach rather than applying the circular
economy approach.
In essence, the circle economy or circular
economy is more aligned to natural processes
where almost no material is left without a purpose
upon its expiration and is either returned to nature
in one form or another or reformed to serve a new
purpose.
The circular economy concept as promoted
by the Ellen McArthur Foundation, a charity
organisation based out of the UK, encompasses
the wider aspect of the economy, not just the
usual 3R — reduce, reuse, and recycle activities
that we are all familiar with [6]. This is crucial to
the key idea that valuable hard-earned materials
extracted from nature for various purposes do not
Figure 2: Framework of the transition to a circular economy [8]
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become waste and are kept in use for as long as
possible if not indefinitely. This feat is achieved,
among others, through reuse, repair, refurbish,
repurpose, regenerate, and recycle [7]. The
material and energy flowchart (Figure 1) depicts
the general idea of the circular economy.
PLASTIC WASTE MANAGEMENT
TRANSITION TO CIRCULAR ECONOMY
The key enablers for the transition from a linear
economy to a circular economy (Figure 2) includes
(i) policy and regulation, (ii) waste prevention and
optimisation, (iii) technology and expertise, (iv)
renewable energy utilisation, (v) market creation,
(vii) stakeholders’ engagement, (vii) financial
support and (viii) data management [8].
(i) Policy and regulation
Policy and regulation are crucial in changing
the linear economy mentality which can only
be achieved when the components of the
circular economy are acknowledged as a legal
mandate by the governing bodies or local
authorities. This is a ‘stick approach’ to boost
the circular economy and can take place in
several dimensions such as having several
circular economy related directives or laws,
that mandate systems, disposal bans or landfill
bans, and mandate a take back system.
(ii) Waste prevention and optimisation
Waste prevention or minimisation helps to
develop a more sustainable society by reducing
or eliminating the production of undesirable
and persistent wastes. Massive plastic waste
generation can be controlled by eliminating its
use at an earlier point or by extending the life of
plastic based products. Redesigning products and
processes, as well as transforming community
consumption and production patterns, are all part
of waste minimisation.
(iii) Technology and expertise
Advanced technology and expertise are the
backbone for success of the circular economy.
Mature technologies should be in place to drive
the components of the circular economy such as
recycling, and this should be made applicable to
all kinds of plastic waste. Technologies such as for
collecting the waste, separating it, including mixed
waste, cleaning, recycling, and turning it into useful
products either for the same function or cross-sector
use. Such technologies and expertise should be
ready before the legislative enforcement takes place
especially when it comes to mandating recycling.
(iv) Renewable energy utilisation
Renewable energy also contributes to the
conservation of the country’s natural resources.
Renewable energy provides consistent power and
fuel diversification, enhancing energy security and
minimising the risk of fuel leaks while also reducing
the requirement for imported fuels. Renewable
energy technologies have an economic advantage
for two reasons: (i) they require new knowledge,
skills and technology thus resulting in more jobs
per cost invested than traditional electricity
generation technologies; and (ii) they primarily
use indigenous resources, allowing the majority of
energy costs to loop inside the organisation.
(v) Market creation
For a circular economy to work, the creation of a
functioning market for recycled and sustainable
plastics is a must. It is undeniable that market
creation is heavily dependent on current demand.
The demand here is not only for the waste for
re-processing but also the demand for recycled
plastic materials. Diversified market segments
are important and the ability to supply the waste
for recycling is also crucial to keep the market
stable.
(vii) Stakeholder engagement
The circular economy cannot be successful in
a silo type environment, hence the need for big
networks and relevant stakeholder engagement.
This can range from individuals to groups either
profit based or non-profit based organisations
which come together complementing each other
to drive the circular economy initiatives. The
systematic identification, analysis, planning and
implementation of actions that are mutually
agreed upon will help each stakeholder to
contribute based on their strength.
(vii) Financial support
Financial support, either from the Government or
the private sector, is key for the success of the
circular economy. The availability of budgets gives
meaningful space to the relevant parties to work
within the circular economy through incentives,
grants, tax relief, business rewards and others.
The aid could be in a non-monetary form as well.
(viii) Data management
Data capturing is essential for planning circular
economy practices. Data and the management
of data are crucial. In fact, to date, most of the
collection programmes or take back approaches
are struggling because of the minimal amount of
data and information that is available on waste/
material that has been identified for recycling.
It should be compulsory to have data such as
type and quantity of waste that is generated,
the capacity, the transportation mode that is
available, the capacity of reprocessing facilities,
market demand and supply, identification of the
process/organisation which will benefit from
the re-processed material and others. This data
should be valid and traceable whenever needed
at different levels.
Challenges in the implementation of a
Circular Economy
The circular economy transition has reached out
to the relevant stakeholders in Malaysia, but the
acceptance and response levels are still varied.
19
 INGENIEUR

Figure 3: Malaysia Circular Economy Roadmap for Plastics. (Slides from Webinar on UNEA-5 and its
significance to the plastic industry, May 4, 2021)

Roles of • The establishment of the National Solid Waste Management. Department (JPSPN)
the Ministry which is currently responsible for plastic waste management in Malaysia.
of Housing • The National Recycling Programme (NRP) initiated in 1993 by KPKT to encourage
and Local the habit of applying the 3Rs.
Government • A National Recycling Day initiated in 2001.
(KPKT) • The Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Act 2007 (Act 672) was
developed with mandatory separation of household waste at source.
• The Government set a household recycling rate target of 40% by the year 2025 [4].
• In 2019 KPKT announced that waste separation at source (SAS) applies to
commercial organisations, industries, and institutions.
• KPKT established a waste to energy plant to minimise the use of landfills in
Malaysia for plastic wastes [9].
Circular • The Ministry of Energy, Science, Technology, Environment and Climate Change
Economy (MESTECC) initiated the Circular Economy Roadmap (CER) for Malaysia in
Roadmap (CER) September 2019 [11].
for Malaysia
Reducing single- • Malaysia's Roadmap towards Zero Single-Use Plastics 2018-2030 [12].
use plastics • The Ministry of Domestic Trade Cooperatives and Consumerism (MDTCC) launched
a No Plastic Bag Day (NPBD) campaign in which the provision of free plastic bags
in grocery stores was banned nationwide.
State Plastic • City Hall (DBKK) and Blu Hope Ventures Sdn Bhd co-operation for the introduction
Neutral Project and implementation of the ‘Kota Kinabalu Plastic Neutral Project’ programme.
This is aimed at reducing plastic waste by bringing in the latest technologies to
manage, dispose of and solve plastic waste to convert wastes into synthetic oils,
waxes, and gases by working together with local partners such a Borneo Waste
Industries (BWI), WWF Sabah, Sabah Environmental Trust, and others [13].
Table 1: Examples of ‘top-down’ circular economy approaches in Malaysia

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The Malaysian Productivity Centre (MPC) surveyed
500 executives across diverse sectors including
plastics and resins, and the findings indicated that
only 7% of the respondents are currently adopting
circular economy practices. The majority are still
planning to shift towards a circular economy (80%),
while 10% are in the phase of learning more about
the circular economy before implementing and 3%
of the respondents are not considering circular
economy practices at all.
Based on Figure 3, the general challenges to
fully implement the circular economy in plastic
waste management include: the absence of an
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) scheme,
inadequate and incoherent policies on plastic
consumption and disposal, absence of macro
data to monitor plastic production, consumption,
and treatment, as well as limited responsible
investment for innovative small or medium
enterprises (SME). Specifically, challenges are
also categorised as upstream, midstream and
downstream, which are detailed as follows:
1. Upstream
a. Lack of circularity integration in
corporate decision making,
b. Lack of clarity on using recycled plastic
material in food grade applications, and
c. Lack of research and development
(R&D) in plastic design.
2. Mid-stream
a. Lack of awareness of sustainable
consumption, and
b. Consumer price sensitivity to alternative
products.
3. Downstream
a. Unsatisfactory quality of the municipal
waste stream,
b. Unsatisfactory enforcement of policies,
c. Limited recycling facilities, and
d. Lack of alternative end-of-life solutions
for municipal solid waste.
Thus, to successfully implement a plastic
circular economy, these challenges must be met
with the availability of a stable supply of high-
quality plastic as feedstock, increase in material
recovery facilities to improve their output,
adoption of standards for designing plastics
so that they can be recycled, and recycled
content and standards for major plastics used
in industries.
The implementation of circular economy
approaches has resulted in societal, environmental,
and economic benefits across various parts of
the world including China, Japan, and Europe.
Their success stories have a stream of processes
including ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ approaches [9].
The ‘Top-down’ Circular Economy
approaches in Malaysia
The ‘Top -down’ approach involves policy
intervention and the “Bottom-up” approach
involves capacity building, people’s participation,
promotion and use of appropriate technologies
and private sector participation [9]. The
combination of these two approaches and the
successful implementation of circular economic
practices will help in realising the vision of a
circular economy in plastic waste management in
Malaysia [10].
Many ‘Top-down’ initiatives of the circular
economy that can be seen in Malaysia are
primarily driven by Government’s effort, especially
by the relevant Ministries. Several examples are
included in Table 1.
The ‘Bottom-up’ Circular Economy
approaches in Malaysia
The ‘Bottom-Up’ circular economy approaches
are more effective in Malaysia as the relevant
stakeholders and companies set up their plans,
which are in their control in terms of execution
capability. Many companies started with initiatives
that ranged from awareness programmes to the
improvement of technologies, which enable
the development of new products through the
recovery of waste. Some of the circular economy
implementations resulting from the ‘Bottom-Up’
approaches in Malaysia are tabulated in Table 2.
THE WAY FORWARD
It is undeniable that both ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-
up’ approaches should synergise effectively
to boost plastic waste transition to a circular
economy for Malaysia. Although the Government
21
 INGENIEUR
PETRONAS • PCG is collaborating with Plastic Energy Ltd (Plastic Energy) to construct a facility
Chemicals that produces crude naphtha from plastic waste as a feedstock for polymer
Group Berhad production. The plant will be located in Johor and will be the first in the Southeast.
(PCG) • Collaboration with the Ministry of Education, Solid Water Corporation (SWCorp)
and the Malaysian Plastics Manufacturers Association (MPMA) to develop an
educational module for primary and secondary school students on plastic waste
management and the environment.
The Malaysian • The first alliance of its kind in the country comprises 10 key industry leaders in the
Recycling fast-moving consumer goods sector in Malaysia made up of Coca-Cola Malaysia,
Alliance Colgate-Palmolive Malaysia, Dutch Lady Milk Industries, Etika Group, Fraser &
(MAREA) Neave Malaysia, Mondelēz International Malaysia, Nestlé Malaysia, Spritzer, Tetra
Pak Malaysia, and Unilever Malaysia [14].
• MAREA aims to enable a voluntary, industry-led Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR) group of like-minded companies to focus on boosting the value chain and
significantly improve the collection and recycling of post-consumer packaging.
• An incentive scheme will also be implemented via a pilot project where consumer-
packaging waste, including polyethylene terephthalate bottles, used beverage
cartons; high-density polyethylene and flexible packaging will be collected and
channelled to local recycling providers.
Hatta Dolmat • Hatta Dolmat has creatively recycled 200 plastic bottles into scarf and facemasks.
The designer collaborated with Malaysian Green Technology and Climate Change
Centre (MGTC) for the collection of plastic bottles. The imitative which is called
MGTC X Hatta Dolmat, was launched on May 7, 2021 [15].
Heng Hiap • One of a growing number of companies working with environmentalists to collect
Industries and remove plastic waste in the country’s waters. The pellets made by Heng Hiap
Sdn Bhd are sold to companies such as Kian, a furniture maker [16].
• French multinational Capgemini SE is collaborating with Heng Hiap Industries Sdn
Bhd to develop a mobile application to facilitate plastic recycling in three stages
where it begins with consumers calling collectors for the collection of recyclable
plastic waste from their homes. Collectors then accept the requests and have the
ability to review the plastic haul and reward consumers with points. They receive
their payment digitally via a digital wallet from Heng Hiap. The mobile app is
expected to be launched in October 2022.
• Heng Hiap is working with over 28,000 domestic plastic recyclers to buy and convert
plastic scraps into high-performance resins before selling it to clients including major
South Korean appliance manufacturers and Japanese automotive companies [17].
Malaysia • Malaysia Airlines and Firefly have targeted 50% of in-flight and ground waste to be
Airlines, recycled and up cycled by 2025 onwards. Both carriers also aim to achieve net-zero
Firefly carbon emissions by 2050 as part of a newly launched sustainability blueprint by its
and MAG parent company Malaysia Aviation Group (MAG). The MAG Sustainability Blueprint
Sustainability will also promote other green initiatives such as reducing overall carbon dioxide
Blueprint emission by 25 million kg in 2021 and reaching 50% biodegradable materials usage
for in-flight operations [18].
Nestlé • Milo Sayang Bumi campaign – to reduce the production of plastic and promote the
(Malaysia) use of renewable energy sources.
Berhad • Milo UHT Paper Straw – an innovation to make packaged drinks more sustainable
by replacing 100% of plastic straws with paper straws for their products. It is
estimated over 200 million plastic straws will be eliminated yearly.
• Projek CAREton - Used Beverage Cartons recycling campaign that transforms drink
packs into ‘green’ roofing tiles and panel boards
• The Stik Pek X-Change Programme – plastic waste upcycled into handicraft goods
through collaboration with local upcycling communities [19].
Table 2: Examples of ‘bottom-up’ circular economy approaches in Malaysia

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has undertaken many initiatives, the promising
results are still far from expectations. The
awareness campaigns are a good start for many
organisations, but they should be taken to the
next level such as practices where tangible results
can be seen. Awareness programmes such as
3Rs have been practised for almost 30 years but
tangible results cannot be seen comprehensively.
Therefore, legislation and policy interventions
should progressively take place strategically.
The national agenda should be strengthened on
plastic waste issues.
Some of the efforts that could assist towards
the success of plastic waste transition to a circular
economy in Malaysia are:
1. Eco-friendly alternative materials or
products to replace conventional plastics
need to be identified urgently.
2. Implementation of efficient waste take back
policies such as the Extended Producer
Responsibility (EPR) or Product Stewardship
that suit the Malaysian culture.
3. Balancing plastic recycling awareness with
stick approaches such as pay-as-you-throw
or additional disposal fees.
4. Development of recycling technologies
for plastic including the smart waste
separation system.
5. Collaboration between the Government
and the private sector in utilising modern
capabilities and expertise to transform
the plastic linear economy into a circular
economy.
6. Reward systems for companies that
achieve the circular economy goals (e.g.,
levies or tax exemptions)
In a nutshell, a plastic circular economy
roadmap has to be in place to address plastic
production, consumption, recycling, and waste
management and to keep plastic products and
materials circulating in a state of use for as long
as possible, while offering new ways to mitigate
risks to allow the plastics industry to grow and
diversify. Additionally, the Malaysian Government
23
 INGENIEUR
is targeting private sector participation given
that the private sector is well equipped to lead
through innovations in product design, business
models, recycling technologies, experience of
producer responsibility gained from other markets
and project financing. By embracing the circular
economy, Malaysians can build a thriving economy
while also taking care of the planet for today and
future generations.
REFERENCE
[1] Solid Waste Management Newsletter,
SWCorp News Bil 3 (2016). Retrieved
f r o m h t t p s : //w w w. s w c o r p . g o v. m y/
swcorpnews/2016/SWCorpNews-8.pdf
[2] M alay sian s Pla s tic s M anu f ac turer
Association (MPMA) & Malaysian Plastic
Recyclers Association (MPRA), an Advanced
Plastic Recycling Industry for Malaysia
(2019). Retrieved from http://mpma.org.my/
v4/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/White-
Paper-FINALR.pdf
[3] Solid Waste Management Malaysia
Compendium 2019, Solid Waste and
Public Cleansing Management Corporation
(SWCorp).
[4] Berita Nasional RTM (2020), Kadar kitar
semula kebangsaan 30.67%, sasaran 40%.
Retrieved from https://berita.rtm.gov.my/
index.php/nasional/21762-kadar-kitar-
semula-kebangsaan-30-67-sasaran-40
[5] Lebreton, L., Slat, B., Ferrari, F. et al. (2018)
Evidence that the Great Pacific Garbage
Patch is rapidly accumulating plastic. Sci
Rep 8, 4666.
[6] Ellen McArthur (2017). What is Circular
Economy?. Retrieved from https://www.
ellenmacarthurfoundation.org /circular-
economy/what-is-the-circular-economy
[7] Robert Kunzig (2020). Is a world without
trash possible? Retrieved from https://www.
nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/
how-a-circular-economy-could-save-the-
world-feature
[8] Mhd Saiful Anuar Zainal (2020). The
Adoption Of A Circular Economy Towards
Sustainability: What Are The Benefits
And Barriers? Waste to Wealth Holding,
Malaysian Productivity Centre (MPC).
[9] Chen, H. L., Nath, T. K., Chong, S., Foo, V.
et al. (2021). The plastic waste problem
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in Malaysia: management, recycling and
disposal of local and global plastic waste.
SN Applied Sciences, 3(4), 1-15.
[10] Switchasia (2020). Moving towards Circular
Economy for Plastic Waste Management.
Retrieved from https://www.switch-asia.eu/
event/moving-towards-circular-economy-for-
plastic-waste-management.
[11] Circular Economy Roadmap - Malaysia’s
Practice (2020). Retrieved from http://
mddb.apec.org/Documents/2020/PPSTI/
PPSTI1/20_ppsti1_029.pdf
[12] Malaysia’s Roadmap towards Zero Single-
Use Plastics 2018-2030: Towards a
sustainable future (2018) Ministry of Energy,
Science, Technology, Environment & Climate
Change (MESTECC), Malaysia.
[13] Borneo Post (2021). MOU to reduce KK
plastic waste. Retrieved from https://www.
theborneopost.com/2021/05/06/mou-to-
reduce-kk-plastic-waste/
[14] Murugiah Surin (2021), Ten fast-moving
consumer goods players’ team up to kick
start Malaysian Recycling Alliance, The Edge
Markets.
[15] Tong Xiao (2021). From plastic to tudung and
mask. Retrieved from https://www.thestar.
com.my/news/nation/2021/05/08/from-
plastic-to-tudung-and-mask
[16] Ebrahim Harris (2020). Malaysia’s battle
against plastic waste spans beaches and
city shops, Environment Reuters. Retrieved
from https://nypost.com/2020/09/18/
malaysias-battle-against-plastic-waste-
spans-beaches-and-city-shops/
[17] Jalil Asila (2021). Capgemini partners
Heng Hiap on plastic recycling app. The
Malaysia Reserve. Retrieved from https://
themalaysianreserve.com/2021/04/27/
capgemini-partners-heng-hiap-on-plastic-
recycling-app/
[18] Chester Chin, The Star (2021) Malaysia
airlines and firefly to recycle 50% airline
cabin waste by 2025. Retrieved from
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to-recycle-50-airline-cabin-waste-by-2025
[19] Milo (2021) Milo Sayang Bumi. Retrieved
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bumi
Developing National
Emission Factor for

COVER FEATURE
Electricity Sector in
Malaysia
By Radin Diana R. Ahmad
Sazalina Zakaria
Ahmad Rosly Abbas
Mohd Faizzi Fadzli
Syahirah Amirah Saleh,
Built Environment and Climate
Change Unit, Generation and
Environment Department,
TNB Research Sdn Bhd

and Raja Shazrin Shah Raja Ehsan Shah

Yuan Ji Mok
Galaxy Tech Solutions, Innovation
Incubator Complex, University of
Malaya

E
ven though we might not expect many
differences in ramping our air conditioning
up or down by 2°C, the same increase in our
climate could be the tipping point causing global
and catastrophic irreversible changes. The IPCC1
Special Report on Global Warming of a 1.5°C
increase concluded that various portions of land
on the earth’s surface will in fact experience
higher temperatures than the global average
surface temperature. Furthermore, at a 1.5°C
increase in Global Warming, approximately 14% of
Earth's population will be exposed to severe heat
wave at least once every five years and this figure
worsens to 37% at 2°C warming. Climate-related
risks and threats to human health, livelihoods,
food security, human security, water supply and
economic growth will increase and will increase
even more at 2°C warming. The impact of global
warming will be experienced all around the globe
and will be most severe in the Arctic ecosystems,
dry land regions, small-island developing states
and least developed countries. Limiting warming
to 1.5°C will reduce the number of people
susceptible to climate-related poverty risks by as
much as several hundred million by 2050.
To stabilise atmospheric concentrations at a
level that would minimise the risk of major global
climate change, more than 130 countries ratified
the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) at the 1992 Earth

1 IPCC: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations body for assessing the science
related to climate change.

25
 INGENIEUR
TNB Research Sdn Bhd has embarked on a project to develop Tier 2 country-specific GHG emission
factors for the electricity generation sector in Malaysia.
Summit in Brazil. This initial effort was later
followed by the third meeting of the Conference of
Parties in Kyoto (December 1997) where decision-
makers agreed on country-specific greenhouse
gas (GHG) emission reduction targets. Malaysia
became a Non-Annex I Party to the UNFCCC
when it ratified the UNFCCC in 1994. Malaysia
also ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 and
subsequently also became a signatory party to the
Paris Agreement in 2016.
Signatories to the Paris Agreement are
required to submit National Determined
Contributions (NDC). These NDCs document the
countries’ capacity to fulfil commitments made
as a signatory to the Paris Agreement. Malaysia
has committed to a reduction of carbon intensity
by 45% per unit of GDP by 2030 compared with
2005 levels — 35% unconditional basis and a
further 10% on the conditional basis upon receipt
of support from developed countries on climate
finance, technology transfer and capacity building.
Additionally, Malaysia committed to maintaining at
least a 50% level of forest and tree conservation.
Malaysia reported a 32.5% reduction of carbon
emissions intensity in 2011 which equates to a
reduction of 18,578.80 ktCO2eq.
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It is well understood that GHG is the key driver
for climate change. Hence, several initiatives have
been taken by Government agencies, private
companies as well as NGOs. Therefore, in this
context, TNB Research Sdn Bhd has embarked on
a project to develop Tier 2 country-specific GHG
emission factors for the electricity generation
sector in Malaysia. The project was funded by
the Akaun Amanah Industri Bekalan Elektrik
(AAIBE) under the Ministry of Energy and Natural
Resources (KeTSA), formerly known as Ministry
of Energy, Science, Technology, Environment &
Climate Change (MESTECC). The 36-month project
aims to analyse and develop the major GHG
emission factors for carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from the stationary
combustion of coal and natural gas for selected
power plants. These emission factors will further
enhance the accuracy and credibility of Malaysia’s
NDC reporting. Accurate estimation of GHG
emissions is essential for developing strategies to
mitigate global warming. Additionally, guidelines
to measure and report GHG emission data, and a
database to securely and systematically store the
data on GHG emissions in the electricity sector in
Malaysia, were developed.
2014 where electricity generation from fossil fuels was the largest source of GHG emissions at 59%. The
transport sector was the second-largest source at 28% whilst combined emissions from manufacturing
industries and construction were around 10%. GHG emissions will continue to rise in tandem with the growing
consumption of fossil fuels to generate electricity unless there are concerted efforts to utilise cleaner fuels and
a shift towards energy efficiency across all sectors.

Source: Hanna et.al.2017 and Third National Communication, 2018

Figure 1: Malaysia’s CO2 Emissions by Sector from 1973 - 2014
Source:Figure
Hanna 1: et.al.2017 and
Malaysia’s CO Third National
2 Emissions Communication,
by Sector from 1973 - 20142018

EMISSION FACTOR FOR ELECTRICITY The combustion processes for electricity

SECTOR
Malaysia is still dependent on finite sources of
energy such as fossil fuels for its power generation
sources. Currently, coal, natural gas and large
hydro have been the main sources. The remaining
energy is derived from a relatively smaller number
of renewable energy (RE) sources. Energy from RE
sources needs to be significantly increased in the
coming years.
The sectoral GHG emissions in Malaysia
shows that electricity and heat production were
the largest emitters since 1973, followed by the
transport sector as shown in Figure 1. The same
trend was observed in 2014 where electricity
generation from fossil fuels was the largest
source of GHG emissions at 59%. The transport
sector was the second-largest source at 28%
whilst combined emissions from manufacturing
industries and construction were around 10%.
GHG emissions will continue to rise in tandem
with the growing consumption of fossil fuels to
generate electricity unless there are concerted
efforts to utilise cleaner fuels and a shift towards
energy efficiency across all sectors.
generation are optimised to derive the maximum
amount of energy per unit of fuel consumed,
producing CO2 in the process. Some carbon
monoxide (CO), methane (CH4) and other gasses
also known as non-methane volatile organic
compounds (NMVOC) are also produced. Efficient
fuel combustion ensures the maximum oxidation of
carbon available in the fuel, hence producing less CO,
CH4 and NMVOC. Assuming efficient fuel combustion
takes place, the CO2 emission factor is considered
insensitive to the combustion process itself and is
primarily dependent only on the carbon content of
the fuel. The carbon content may vary considerably
both among and within primary fuel types on a
per-mass or per-volume basis. For natural gas,
the carbon content depends on the composition,
which in its delivered state is primarily methane but
can include small quantities of ethane, propane,
butane and heavier hydrocarbons. For coal, carbon
emissions per ton vary considerably, depending on
the composition of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, ash,
oxygen and nitrogen.
IPCC presented three tiers in the 2006 IPCC
Guidelines for estimating emissions from fossil fuel
combustion as shown in Figure 2. The 2006 IPCC

27
 INGENIEUR

Tier 1 Data from national/international energy statistics and default emission factors;

Data from national energy statistics, together with country-specific emission factors,
Tier 2
where possible, derived from national fuel characteristics; and
Statistics and data on combustion technologies applied together with technology-
Tier 3 specific emission factors; this includes the use of models and facility-level emission
data where available.

Figure 2: 2006 IPCC estimating emissions from fossil fuel combustion.

Guidelines estimate GHG emissions separately
in terms of the species. The Tier 1 approach
accounts for emissions by relating national
activity data with default emission factors. In the
context of energy generation, emission factors are
dependent only on fuel type and disregard quality
of fuel and technology. The Tier 2 approach takes
into account the national fuel characteristics by
utilising country-specific emission factors. The Tier
3 approach goes further to take into consideration
technology and facility-level emission data. While
higher tiers will ensure more representative data
being generated, resource and expertise required
for data collection and reporting could be a
challenge for developing economies where the
infrastructure and policies are not in place.
Generally, GHG emissions are estimated using
the following equation which converts the quantity
of fuel consumed with an appropriate emission
factor for a specific fuel.
GHG = Σi,j ( Fi • NCVi • ρi • EFij • GWPj)
where:
GHG: GHG emissions due to the fuel used (kg
CO2eq/ year),
Fi: quantity of the fuel type “i” used in the
reference period (L/year),
NCVi: net calorific value of the fuel type “i” (J/kg),
ρi: fuel type “i” density (kg/l),
GWPj: Global warming potential of “j” greenhouse
gas (kgCO2/kgGHGj),
EFij: emission factor (on NCV basis) for the fuel
type “i” (kgGHG j/J),
i: fuel type, and
j: greenhouse gas type.
Although the 2006 IPCC Guidelines provide
default values, applying countr y- specific
emission factors is recommended when
estimating national greenhouse gas emissions
(IPCC, 2006) to achieve a more representative
reporting. According to United States Agency
for International Development (USAID), under
the Low Emission Asian Development (LEAD)
Programme 2013, the need to develop country-
specific emission factors is mainly because the
default emission factors provided by IPCC do not
reflect the exact values for each country because
conditions may vary and this is the main source
of uncertainty with national GHG inventories. To
obtain an accurate estimation of GHG emissions,
fuel density, net calorific values and country-
specific emission factors should be determined
locally through extensive experimental analyses.
There have been ongoing scholarly studies on
developing CHG emission factors in several
countries around the globe to estimate actual
CHG emissions of combustion systems with the
Tier 2 method, which consider the characteristics
of national fuels (Quick and Glick, 2000; Sheng
and Li, 2008).
Jeon et. al. (2010) reported that CO2 emission
factors mainly depend on the carbon content
of the fuel rather than combustion conditions.
Emission factors are used to relate the emission
from sources to a common activity level associated
with those emissions. Emission factors are derived
from measured data, either experimentally or
collected over a specific period. Emission factors
are typically expressed as ratios; for example, the
weight of a substance emitted (i.e. CO2, CH4, N2O,
etc.), denominated by the unit weight, volume,
distance, or duration of the activity emitting the
substance (EPA, 1999). To estimate emissions,
the emission factors are multiplied by the activity
level, which may be determined by direct data
collected from relevant facilities.
In this TNB Research project, both fuel and
fuel data were analysed to develop the country-

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 CO2
Fuel Coal Type
kgCO2/TJ
Bituminous 93,089
Coal Sub Bituminous 96,260
Lignite 105,116
Natural Gas 50,911
Table 1: The annual weighted average of the emission factor for the electricity sector in
Malaysia
specific emission factor which could be used to
better estimate and assess the amount of GHG
emissions for the country. The CO2 emission
factors developed and assessed in this project
were based on fuel carbon contents, which are
directly related to the composition of fuels.
All coal power plants in Malaysia except
those located in Sarawak utilise imported coal
from countries such as Indonesia, Australia and
other coal-producing countries. Bituminous, sub-
bituminous and lignites are used in Malaysia.
Coal combustion emits a significantly higher
amount of CO2 per unit of heat energy compared
with liquid and gaseous fuels. Furthermore, the
project reinforced that even within the same
classification of coal, the different origin and
quality of coal exhibit different compositions of
carbon content. The diversity of fuel sources is
the main reason to further improve national GHG
inventories and adopt Tier 2 and Tier 3 methods
by reducing uncertainties and increasing the
representativeness of data. Additionally, the use
of default GHG emission factor values as in Tier
1 becomes more questionable because some
coal power plants in Malaysia operate by mixing
coal from different origins and different classes to
meet the calorific values needed to produce the
required electricity.
Gaseous fuels such as natural gas are
mostly mixtures of hydrocarbons, carbon
dioxide and monoxide, hydrogen and oxygen.
The carbon content in the fuel depends on its
composition, which is usually expressed in terms
of the volume or mass percentage of individual
components. The CO2 emission factor depends
CH4 N2O
kg CH4/TJ kg N2O/TJ
0.10 0.70
0.09 0.95
0.04 0.56
0.09 0.43
on the composition of the gaseous fuel, which is
primarily methane and small quantities of other
hydrocarbons.
Table 1 summarises the CO2, CH4 and N2O
emission factors from the TNB Research study.
The CO2 emission factor of bituminous coal was
lower, while the sub-bituminous and lignite coal
factors were higher than the IPCC default values.
The overall difference of the CO2 emission factor
with the IPCC default value was about 1-4%.
The natural gas CO2 emission factor was lower
than the IPCC default value. This is primarily
because the net calorific value in the natural
gas consumed by the power plants was higher
than IPCC default values by 9-12%. The coal
and natural gas CH4 emission factors are lower
from the Tier-1 fuel-based method suggested by
the IPCC. In contrast, the N2O emission factor is
lower for all coal types except for natural gas.
To benchmark our emission factor with
other countries, we find that Germany reported
a lower CO2 emission factor value with similar
trends as Malaysia for bituminous coal while
other countries reported higher values. The sub-
bituminous coal and lignite emission factors for
Malaysia are slightly higher than IPCC and show
the same trend as other countries.
The power generation sector is the key
source of GHG emissions because it is a major
contributor. The development of a country-specific
emission factor is crucial in taking the first step
towards the Tier 2 method in estimating the GHG
inventory. High quality, credible and representative
reporting is essential to move forward in GHG
emissions mitigation strategies. The sector players
29
 INGENIEUR
can use the newly developed GHG emission
factor to improve GHG emissions assessment by
determining the actual emissions value, which
is expected to be lower than the default value
of the IPCC emission factor. On the other hand,
the emissions assessment will help the country
continue to benefit from the good qualities of fuel
and make progress in mitigation planning to avoid
the undesirable effects of fuel use.
CONCLUSION
This project has exhibited the emission factor and
overall emission change due to changes in fuel
quality, particularly the carbon content as well as
calorific value. In conclusion, the current variation
in methodologies and approaches in calculating
and reporting emission factors undermines the
reporting integrity and contributes to uncertainties
in Malaysia’s NDC reporting and hinders efforts
in measuring the success of potential carbon
mitigation efforts. This project has shown that
the application of accepted and standardised
guidelines combined with a centrally managed
database, the application of varying and incorrect
default emission factors can be avoided. At a
minimum Malaysia needs to continue to carry on
with this study to annually calculate and document
all of the generation and fuel consumption
statistics for the entire electricity industry to
improve the quality, credibility and transparency
of published emission factors, and use this
information as a reference for policymaking for fuel
and technology within the energy sector. On the
other hand, the development of the GHG emission
factor shows a commitment to further increase
the quantification of GHG emissions, enhance
reporting and verification practices in Malaysia
which will develop a basis for measurement,
reporting and verification.
REFERENCE
Davison, J. (2007). Performance and costs of
power plants with capture and storage of CO2.
Energy. 32,1163-1176.
Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser (2017) - "CO2 and
Greenhouse Gas Emissions". Published online
at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: 'https://
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ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-
gas-emissions' [Online Resource]
Jeon E-C, Myeong S, Sa J-W, Kim J, Jeong
J-H. 2010. Greenhouse gas emission factor
development for coal-fired power plants in
Korea. Appl Energ.87:205–210. doi: 10.1016/j.
apenergy.2009.06.015.
EPA, 1999. Emission Factors and AP 42,
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors.
IPCC. 2006 IPCC guidelines for national
greenhouse gas inventories; 2006.
USAID 2013, Low Emission Asian Development
(LEAD) Program: Current Challenges and Priorities
for Greenhouse Gas Emission Factor Improvement
in Select Asian Countries.: 1-111.
Quick JC, Glick DC (2000) Carbon dioxide from
coal combustion: variation with rank of US coal.
Fuel 79:803–812.
Radin D., Ahmad R., Sazalina et.al. 2020.
Development of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emission
Factor for The Electricity Sector In Malaysia. TNB
Research Sdn. Bhd.
Sheng C, Li Y (2008) Experimental study of ash
formation during pulverised coal combustion
inO2/CO2mixtures. Fuel 87:1297–1305,1714
Environ Earth Sci (2013) 70:1709–1715.
Lee J., Cho C., Hong K.,Jeong J., Kim S., Jeon E.,
2013 A study on carbon dioxide emissions from
bituminous coal in Korea, Environ Earth Sci.
70:1709–1715
IPCC, 2018: Global Warming of 1.5°C.An IPCC
Special Report on the impacts of global warming
of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and related
global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in
the context of strengthening the global response
to the threat of climate change, sustainable
development, and efforts to eradicate poverty
[Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner,
D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W.
Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors,
J.B.R. Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E.
Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield
(eds.)]. In Press.
Environmental Impact
Management for Palm Oil
Production
By Mohd Radzi Bin Muhamad Dul
O
il palm plantations in Malaysia were started
in 1870 by the British colonials when
oil palm seeds (elaeis guineensis) were
brought to Malaysia from West Africa. The first
commercial oil palm plantation was established
in the Tennaram Estate, in Batang Berjuntai,
Selangor in the year 1917. The cultivation of
oil palm was boosted in the 1960s when the
Government introduced a policy to diversify the
agricultural sector with an emphasis on high
commercial value products. Malaysia became
the world’s largest oil palm producer until 2006
when Indonesia became the largest. The common
oil palm hybrid that is planted in Malaysia is the
Tenera hybrid that was bred from dedicated Dura
and Pisifera hybrids. Over the years, research and
development has been carried out to produce
high quality Tenera seeds to maximise palm oil
production.
In 2019, the nationwide planted area of oil
palms was recorded at 5.90 million hectares with
the crude palm oil (CPO) production recorded
Table 1: Productivity of Various Major Oil Crops 2006/2007 (Source MPOB)
FEATURE
at 19.86 tonnes. Palm oil is recognised as a
versatile vegetable oil which is used in all manner
of daily life including food, cosmetics, utilities, etc.
Compared with other oil seeds, oil palm is the
world’s highest yielding oil crop with an average
yield per hectarage recorded at 3.83 t ha-1 year-1,
almost four times compared with other oil seeds.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECT AND IMPACT
OF OIL PALM ACTIVITIES
Palm oil production is divided into three major
categories: upstream, midstream and downstream
activities. Upstream activities involve pre-nursery,
nursery, land clearing and preparation, planting,
harvesting, loading and delivery of fresh fruit
bunches (FFB) to a palm oil mill. Midstream
activities involve FFB processing in a palm oil
mill to produce two major products: crude palm
oil (CPO) and palm kernel (PK). While downstream
activities involve further processing of the CPO and
31
 INGENIEUR
Figure 1: Process flow chart of Oil Palm Plantation and value chain from
upstream to downstream activities. (Source: J Occup Health 2013; 55: 405-414)
PK to produce a wide range of products including
foods, pharmaceuticals, biofuel, oleochemicals,
animal feed, lumber and personal care products.
Figure 1 shows the flowchart of the activities.
Upstream and midstream activities have
a significant impact on the environment. In
plantation operations, the main environmental
impact arises from activities in land establishment,
planting crop management and harvesting, while
in palm oil mills, environmental problems can be
generated from receiving and processing FFBs to
producing CPO and PK.
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Oil Palm Plantation
The main environmental aspect in plantation
activities is land establishment for new planting
or replanting oil palms. Site preparation which
involves land clearance activities have a
significant environmental impact caused by land
degradation and soil erosion. Other than that,
the removal of old oil palms creates agricultural
waste that needs to be managed carefully. This
activity is also an environmental risk as it leads
to soil, water and air pollution if there is no proper
management. However, most of Malaysia’s
 Figure 2: Common beneficial plant in Oil Palm Plantation
(Source: http://www.salcra.gov.my/en/sustainable-plantation)
plantation companies have adopted mitigation
plans to minimise the impact of land activities
on the environment. The Environment Impact
Assessment (EIA) was established to ensure
that the impact from all pre-planting activities
are controlled to protect the environment.
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) have
been established to ensure that the land
preparation follows best practices in protecting
the environment. Typically, sub-activities involved
during replanting include felling, shredding,
road construction, terrace construction,
platform construction, drain construction, water
conservation, lining, holing and planting.
Under the provision of the Environment
Quality Act 1974, open air burning cannot be
conducted in any land clearing activities. A zero
burning technique has been adopted by most of
Malaysia’s plantation companies in replanting
activities. The technique involves felling and
shredding to manage the old oil palm stand. This
technique can also produce nutrients from the old
oil palm shredded chips when added to the soil
through decomposition. New oil palm seedlings
benefit from the organic content produced by
the decomposing shredded chips. To reduce soil
erosion and water pollution from a plantation site,
a Legume Cover Crop (LCC) is planted to cover the
soil and reduce the impact of heavy rains. This
also benefits the soil by improving its structure
and texture and improves soil fertility through
the decomposition of organic matter. It facilitates
the nitrogen fixation process, soil moisture
conservation and also recycles soil nutrients
naturally.
During oil palm plantation maintenance,
the use of chemical fertiliser has a major
environmental impact due to leaching out of
fertilisers into rivers causing water pollution.
Therefore, to mitigate the impact, plantation
management has to establish a riparian buffer
zone to allow natural vegetation to grow along the
riverbanks. The buffer zone absorbs the nutrients
from the plantation area so that they don’t leach
into the river resulting in water pollution.
Another practice in palm oil plantation
operations that has an environmental aspect
is plant protection which involves the use of
chemicals to guard against pest attacks on the oil
palms. The common pests in oil palm plantations
are rats, bagworms, nettle caterpillars, rhinoceros
beetles, bunch moths and termites. To reduce the
impact on the environment, an Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) practice has been established
as a sustainable practice to control and protect
oil palms from pest attack. Planting beneficial
plants such as Turnera Subulata, Antigonon
Leptopus, and Casia Cobanensis provides shelter
and also attract predator insects (see Figure 2).
The predators attack the beneficial plants instead
of the oil palms. The best practices in oil palm
plantation management result in the production
of good fresh fruit bunches.
Palm Oil Mill Operations
Palm oil mill operations can have a significant
negative environmental aspect if they are not
properly managed and cause air and water
pollution. Due to the high risk of palm oil mill
operations impacting the environment, there
33
 parameter in CPO is Free Fatty Acid (FFA), Moisture and Deterioration of
Bleachability Index (DOBI). Figure 3 shows the flowchart of the Palm Oil Mill
processing and Figure 4 shows the mass balance for Palm Oil Mill from FFB to major
INGENIEUR
products and byproducts.

PALM OIL MILL PROCESS FLOW

FFB

Steam Sterilisation Condensate

Fibrous Material
Stripping EFB

Steam Digestion
Water Crude Oil Press Cake
Pressing

Screening Nut/Fibre Mesocarp Fibre

Clarification Nut Drying

Desanding Purification Dirt Nut Cracking

Separation Drying Dry Separation Dry Shell

POME CPO Waste Water Wet Separation Wet Shell

Kernel Drying Kernel

Figure3:3:
Figure Typical
Typical flowchart
flowchart for palm
for palm oil milling
oil milling process process

TYPICALL PALM OIL MASS BALANCE

STEAM FFB MOISTURE LOSS

10%
25% 100%
CONDENSATE EFB
15% 20%
LOOSE FRUIT
80%
HYDROCYCLONE WATER
5%
PRESS CAKE DILUTED DRUDE OIL
CLEANING WATER 60%
26%
5%

NUT
12%
MESOCARP FIBRE
14%
SLUDGE
40%
CRUDE PALM OIL
20%
4

SHELL KERNEL
5.5% 5.5%

PALM OIL MILL

EFFLUENT (POME)
65%

Figure 4: Typical Mass Balance for Palm Oil Mill (Source: MPOB)
Figure 4 : Typical Mass Balance for Palm Oil Mill (source MPOB)

FFB will be graded to ensure the FFB meets the specifications according the
standard by MPOB. After that, the FFB will be load into Loading Ramp prior
transported into Steriliser for Sterilisation process. The sterilization process purposes
is to deactivate the lipolytic enzyme activity to prevent rise of Free Fatty Acid (FFA)
due to the lipase reaction. It also facilitate the fruitlet detachment process and also
minimise the un-stripped bunches (USB). Other than than, sterilization process also let
the nut to be preconditioned for cracking process to separate kernel from the shell with
good cracking efficiency. Typically, sterilization process took about 60 minutes to 90
minutes depend on the sterilizer types and capacity. The by-product or waste generated
6
34 fromVOLthis
VOL 87 process
2013is 2021
55JULY-SEPTEMBER
JUNE sterilizer condensate which is contain of water, sand, oil and
organic particle. As figure 3, the sterilizer condensate estimated to be produce about
% from the overall FFB process. After sterilization process completed, the Sterilised
is a special legal provision enacted under the
Environmental Quality (Prescribe Premises) (Crude
Palm Oil) regulation 1977, under the Environmental
Quality Act 1974 (Act 127). In addition, the
operation of palm oil mills are subject to the
Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations
2014 and Environmental Quality (Schedule
Wastes) Regulation 2004. The Environment
Quality (Clean Air) Regulation 2014 imposed on
palm oil operations was to minimise the negative
environmental impact due to the operation of
the biomass boiler. The Environmental Quality
(Schedule Wastes) Regulation 2004 was imposed
to minimise the negative environmental impact
arising from the generation of scheduled waste
from the use of chemicals in laboratory analysis
and mineral oil for machinery operation.
Fresh fruit bunches are transported from the
estate to the palm oil mill for processing into CPO
and PK. To ensure that the quality of CPO meets
high quality specifications, the FFBs need to be
processed within 24 hours. The typical quality
parameters in CPO is Free Fatty acid (FFA) and
Moisture and Deterioration of Bleachability Index
(DOBI). Figure 3 shows the flowchart of palm oil
mill processing and Figure 4 shows the mass
balance of the products produced in the palm oil
mills as a percentage of the FFBs.
The FFBs are graded to ensure they meet the
specifications according to the standards set by
the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB). After that,
they are loaded onto the loading ramp prior to
transportation to the steriliser for sterilisation.
The purpose of the sterilisation process is to
deactivate the lipolytic enzyme to prevent the rise
of FFA due to the lipase reaction. It also facilitates
the fruitlet detachment process and minimises
un-stripped bunches (USB). Other than that, the
sterilisation process preconditions the nuts for
cracking to separate the kernel from the shell with
good cracking efficiency. Typically, the sterilisation
process takes from about 60 to 90 minutes
depending on the steriliser type and capacity. The
by-product or waste generated from this process is
steriliser condensate which contains water, sand,
oil and organic particles. As shown in Figure 4, the
steriliser condensate is estimated to be about 15%
from the overall FFBs processed. After sterilisation
is complete, the sterilised fruit is conveyed to
the threshing station to strip the fruitlets from
the bunch. The loose fruit is transported to the
digester while the empty fruit bunches (EFB) are
transported to the EFB press station for pressing
to recover the oil residue inside the bunches, and
for shredding as a precondition process for the
bio-composting process. The EFB also becomes
another agricultural waste. The digester breaks
up the oil bearing cells from the mesocarp fibre to
ensure that oil extraction during pressing is done
efficiently. The oil extraction process is carried out
by a pressing machine and produces crude oil and
press cake.
Crude oil is transferred to a clarification station
for oil clarification to separate pure oil and sludge.
Pure oil is processed in a vacuum dryer to remove
moisture to produce CPO which is stored in the
storage tank. The by-products from the clarification
process include waste water specifically called
palm oil mill effluent (POME). The press cake that
contains a mix of mesocarp fibre and nut is then
sent to the depericarper station to separate the
mesocarp fibre from the nut. The mesocarp fibre
is used as fuel in the biomass boiler for steam
generation and the nut is processed in the nut
cracker to produce a cracked mixture containing
shell and kernel. The shell is then separated from
the kernel through both dry and wet separation.
The shell is used as fuel for the biomass boiler
while the kernel is dried in the kernel silo before it
is stored in the kernel bunker.
Palm Oil Mill Waste Management And Emission
Control
Generally, the agricultural wastes generated from
palm oil mill operations are EFB, shell, mesocarp
fibre and POME while the major air emissions
come from the biomass boiler. As shown in Figure
4, EFB production accounts for about 20% of the
total FFB processed. The EFB is commonly used as
mulching in oil palm plantations where it degrades
naturally. However, in order to better utilise and
boost the potential of EFB, it is converted to bio-
compost. This process involves the utilisation of
both the EFB and POME from the POME treatment
system (POMETS). The POME is the source of living
micro-organisms that facilitate the decomposition
process in EFB, releasing the nutrients from the
organic compounds in the EFB. The shredded EFB
is mixed with POME and fermented for around 45
days. The EFB is stacked and sprayed with POME
35
 stacking, POME spraying, turning and monitoring. Matured bio-compost will be sent
to plantation site as biofertilizer. This approach benefited the oil palm plantation by
reducing the dependency to chemical fertilizer. Figure 5 shows the Biocomposting
INGENIEUR
operation flowchart.

BIOCOMPOSTING PLANT OPERATION

POME FROM POMETS

BIOCOMPOSTING PLANT
EFB FIBER FROM MILL (Stacking, POME Spraying & Turning) MATURED COMPOST SENT TO ESTATES
45 days

Leachate

LEACHATE COLLECTING SUMP

PUMP BACK TO POMETS

Figure
Figure 5:
5: Flow processinina Biocomposting
Flow process Plant
Biocomposting Plant

Mesocarp fiber and Palm Shell productions estimated around 14% and 5%
while being turned and monitored. Mature bio- oil mill biomass boilers as the primary air pollution
respectively from the total FFB processed. It will be used as fuel in Biomass Boiler to
compost is sent to plantations as biofertiliser. This system. However, to enhance the dust separation
generate high pressure steam. The high pressure steam will be used to derive steam
approach benefits oil palm plantations by reducing process, a few other systems have been designed
their turbine
dependencyto produce power
on chemical for plantFigure
fertilisers. usage5andand the installed
rest will to
befacilitate
used for the
heating purposes
process such as a
at processing plant. Palm oil
shows the biocomposting operation flowchart.mill also can be recognized as self-sustaining plant
wet scrubber system, electrostatic precipitatorsdue
to its ability to use the existing resource from waste to generate power
Mesocarp fibre and palm shell products, (ESP), a mechanical re-cyclone, a vortex separator for plant usage.
During
estimated to the operation
be around 14%biomass
and 5% boiler, the emission
respectively (clean control is very
flow system) andcrucial. TheFigure
a bag filter. emission
6 shows
of thefrom
totalthe boiler contains
processed FFB, are several
used asatmospheric
fuel in thepollutants
electrostatic such as Particulate
precipitator Matters
(ESP) system.
(PM), black
the biomass boilersmoke, Carbon
to generate highMonoxide
pressure (CO),POME Nitrogen Oxide (NO
is typically the ), and Sulphur
largestx percentage
steam.Oxides (SOpressure
The high x). To reduce
steamthe impact
is used of the emission,
to drive the installation
of agricultural of Airduring
waste produced Pollution
palm oil
Control
a turbine Systempower
to produce (APCS) become
for the a critical
plant and part. It alsoOnstipulated
the production. average, itinisRegulation
about 55% 7, mass
heat processing plant. Palm oil mills are now balance in palm oil processing. POME comes from
recognised as self-sustaining due to their ability three major sources including the sterilisation
to use existing resources from waste to generate process, the clarification station and the hydro-
power for plant usage. cyclone operation. POME is a viscous brownish 6
Emission control is crucial during the operation liquid mixture which contains about 95% water,
of the biomass boiler because the emission from 4% solids and 1% residual oil. Due to the large
the boiler contains several atmospheric pollutants amount produced daily, palm oil mills have to
such as particulate matters (PM), black smoke, install a POME treatment facility. POME is purely
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and non-toxic as there are no chemical substances
sulphur oxides (SOx). To reduce the environmental used in processing operations. However, POME
impact of the emission, the installation of an is a serious pollutant if it is not treated prior to
Air Pollution Control System (APCS) is a critical discharge into the environment. As stipulated in
component. It is also stipulated in Regulation 7 of the Environmental Quality Act 1974, palm oil mills
the Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulation have to comply with the Environmental Quality
2014 that the biomass boiler has to be equipped (Prescribed Premises) Crude Palm Oil Regulations
with a system to control air pollution to meet the 1978. Therefore, an operational license to operate
emission standard determined by the Department a palm oil mill will consider the effectiveness of
of Environment (DOE). Commonly, a multi-cyclone the POME treatment facility before the POME is
dust separator system is widely used in most palm safely discharged into the environment. There

6
36 VOL
VOL87
55JULY-SEPTEMBER
JUNE 2013 2021
 Figure 6: Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP)

Proposed Standard Discharge Limit

(DOE,2019)
PARAMETER RAW POME*
Watercourse Land
Application
Chemical Oxygen Demand, COD 51,000 - -
(mg/L))
Biochemical Oxygen Demand, 25,000 50 5,000
BOD (mg/L)
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (mg/L) 35 20 -
Total Nitrogen (mg/L) 750 - -
Suspended Solid (mg/L) 18,000 200 -
Total Solid (mg/L) 34,000 - -
pH 9.0 5.0 – 9.0 -
Oil and Grease (mg/L) 4,000 – 6,000 5 -
Manganese (mg/L) 2.0 -
Zinc (mg/L) 2.3 -
Copper (mg/L) 0.8-0.9
Iron (mg/L) 46.5
Phosphorus (mg/L) 180
Potassium (mg/L) 2,270
Magnesium (mg/L) 615
Boron (mg/L) 7.6
Calcium (mg/L) 439
Chromium (mg/L) 10.2
Note: *As cited in Nahrul Hayawin et al. (2017)

TableTable 2: Characteristic
2: Characteristic of rawand
of raw POME POME anddischarge
standard standard limits
discharge limits
by DOE by DOE
(Source: MPOB)
(source: MPOB)

The POME Treatment System (POMETS) in palm oil mill commonly involving 37

primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment as shown in Figure 7.

Primary treatment involve the physical process such as screening, decanting and oil
 Where Engineers Excel THE
ING JANU
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L E M B AG A J U R U TE R A M A L AY S I A
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17

INGENIEUR
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Engineers Act 1967. BEM falls within the

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ambit of responsibility of the Minister of of

Works. Its primary role is to register
facilitate the
CAPACITY
and regulateofengineering
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41
 INGENIEUR
Figure 7: Components in POME Treatment System
are two types of discharge that are allowed by
the Department of Environment (DOE) that may
be discharged into a watercourse or for use in
land applications. These have different standard
discharge limits. Table 2 shows the characteristics
of raw POME and standard discharge limits set by
the DOE.
The POME Treatment System (POMETS),
commonly involving primary treatment, secondary
treatment and tertiary treatment is shown in
Figure 7. The primary treatment involves a
physical process such as screening, decanting
and oil trapping with the purpose of reducing the
solid content and the substrate burden prior to
secondary treatment.
The secondary treatment involves a series
of biological processes which are anaerobic,
aerobic and facultative, typically employing a
ponding system. The anaerobic process breaks
down the organic substance in the POME by
anaerobic micro-organisms in the absence of
oxygen and produces biogas with methane
gas (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) being the
major components. The biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) can be significantly reduced by
the anaerobic process (Hassan et al., 2006)
and the BOD reduction efficiency can be up
to 90%. The anaerobic process involves four
stages which are hydrolysis, acidogenesis,
6
40 VOL
VOL87
55JULY-SEPTEMBER
JUNE 2013 2021
acetogenesis and methanogenesis. Each stage
requires different microorganism populations to
carry out the process. This process requires less
maintenance cost because it is a natural process
that only requires hydraulic retention time
(HRT), a pumping system for POME transfer and
circulation, which also controls other parameters
such as pH, to let the micro-organisms to
effectively break down the substrate. However,
the aerobic process requires oxygen to degrade
the organic substances in the POME. Figure 8
shows the anaerobic pond commonly used in a
palm oil mill.
The tertiary treatment involves extended
aeration to boost the reduction of POME’s BOD
and also to further reduce residual suspended
solid, ammonia, oil and grease as well as
colour to meet the discharge standard. There
are many types of tertiary treatment is used
by palm oil mills such as an extended aeration
system, an activated sludge system, a sequence
batch reactor and a contact surface aeration
system. The system can be a combination of
biological and mechanical systems depending
on the specification of standard requirements
of the discharge set by the DOE. Commonly, the
installation of a tertiary plant requires significant
maintenance and running costs due to the need
to install additional machinery such as an air
requires less maintenance cost due it nature process that only demand on the Hydraulic
Retention Time (HRT), pumping system for POME transfer and circulation, also
control of parameter such as pH to let the microorganism to breakdown the substrate
effectively. While the aerobic process requires oxygen to degrade the organic substance
in the POME. Figure 8 shows the anaerobic pondcommonly used in palm oil mill.

system, Activated Sludge system, Sequence Batch Reactor and also Contact Surface
Aeration system. The system can be the combination of biological and mechanical
system depends to the demand of the specification discharged standard required by the
DOE. Commonly, the installation of tertiary plant required significant maintenance and
running cost due the need of installation additional machinery such as air blower, air
diffuser, circulation system and
Figure 8: filtration
Anaerobicsystem.
pond in Figure
POMETS9 shows the Activated Sludge
system.
While the tertiary treatment involves extended aeration process to boost the

ammonia, oil & grease as well as colour to meet the discharge standard.There are many
COMPONENTS INI POME TREATMENT FACILITY
type of tertiary treatment has been used by the palm oil mill such as
E xtended A eration
SERIES OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM

ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEM

BOD3 INLET: 500 mg/L BOD3 OUTLET: <100 mg/L
9
POME Inlet from Sedimentation Pond
Return Sludge Return Sludge
Air Blower

Final
POME Discharge
inlet

AEROBIC AEROBIC CLARIFIER AEROBIC AEROBIC CLARIFIER

TANK NO. 1 TANK NO. 2 TANK NO. 1 TANK NO. 3 TANK NO. 4 TANK NO. 2

PARAMETER CONTROL RANGE

Dissolve Oxygen 2 - 5 mg/L
pH 7-9
MLSS 2000 – 6000 mg/L
SSV30 15 – 35 %
AQUARATOR
Plant Overview Control Parameter

Figure 9: Activated Sludge System

Figure 9: Activated Sludge System
Despite the anaerobic process is commonly adopted in treating POME in most
of palm oil mill in Malaysia, the biogas production as the product of Anaerobic Process
blower,creates emissiona of
an air diffuser, Greenhouse
circulation Gasand
system (GHG)
the into the atmosphere.
installation Oneplant
of a biogas cubicismeter of
the best
POME
a filtration would
system. generate
Figure 28 meter
9 shows cubic of methane
the activated on average
control measure (Andrew
to reduce et al.,emission
biogas 2013). Itto
sludge will
system.create negative impact to the environment. Therefore,Atobiogas
the environment. mitigate
plantthis issue, of
consists thean
As development
the anaerobic and installation biogas plant cloud be the best control measure to reduce
process is commonly anaerobic digester, a biogas treatment facility
adopted the biogas emission
in treating POME to the
in most environment.
of the Biogas
palm oil such as a plant comprises
biological scrubberoftothe Anaerobic
reduce hydrogen
mills inDigester, Biogas treatment facility such as Biological2 Scrubber to reduce Hydrogen
Malaysia, biogas, which is a product of the sulphide (H S), a biogas gas engine power
anaerobic process, contributes to greenhouse generator and a flare stack to burn excess biogas.
Sulfide (H S) for biogas gas engine power generation and also flare stack to burn excess
2
gases (GHG) if discharged into the atmosphere. The cost of running a palm oil mill is significantly
biogas. It is also become the wealth to the palm oil mill due to the source of energy
One cubic meter of POME generates 28 cubic reduced through the use of waste by-products as
comes from the sustainable resources and the byproduct from the palm oil mill waste.
meters of methane on average (Andrew et al., a sustainable source energy. Figure 10 shows the
2013) Figure
and will10have
shows the schematic
a negative impactdiagram
on the ofschematic
Biogas powerdiagramgeneration plant
of a biogas in Palm
power Oil
generation
Mill.
environment. Therefore, to mitigate this issue, plant in a palm oil mill.

41
 INGENIEUR

BIOMASS UTILISATION

Electrical Power Electrical Power

(Mill operations) (send back to Mill)

Palm Oil Mill 600kW

POME (Palm Oil Mill Effluent)
Biogas
POME From Mill Electrical Energy

Biogas Engine
Biogas Plant Biogas Scrubber for Biogas Treatme
(to Produce Electrical Energy
(to reduce H2S)
Treated POME to Existing Pond

Figure 10:10:
Figure Schematic diagram
Schematic diagramofofBiogas powergeneration
biogas power generationplant
plant
in in Palm
palm Oil Mill.
oil mill.

3. SELF-REGULATION APPROACH AND SUSTAINABILITY IN PALM OIL

PRODUCTIONS. APPROACH
SELF-REGULATION aspects, and transparency in reporting and
Plantations
AND industry now
SUSTAINABILITY become
IN PALM OILa significantcommunication.
source of income to the Malaysia. The
impact to environment become a major issue seek to serious attention to ensure the business
PRODUCTION
can be sustainability growth to wealth the nation. The effort
Sustainability not only come from the
Certification
government,
The oil palm itplantation
also need the cooperation
industry is nowfrom
a theThepalm oil industry
Malaysian Palm players and also Non-
Oil Certification Council
Government Organisation (NGO) to keep it successfully.
significant source of income for the counry. (MPOCC), an independent non-profit organisation,
However, its impact on the environment has is responsible for developing and operating the
3.1. Environmental
become a major issuemainstreaming tools
which requires serious Malaysia Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) certification
Department
attention to ensure of
thatEnvironment
the business (DOE)
can growMalaysia has initiated
in scheme which isa mandatory
program “Guided Self- oil
for all palm
growers, traders, millers who are licensed by the
Regulation (GSR)” to assist the community in complying the environmental regulation
a sustainable manner to add to the wealth of the
nation. The effort should not only come from the MPOB. The certification commenced on January 1,
and encouraging the industry player to do their roles in protecting the environment. To
Government, but it also needs the co-operation 2020. This certification will help the industry to be
achieve that, the “Environmental Mainstreaming Tools (EMT)” has been establish as
of palm oil industry players and Non-Government a credible business with a sustainable approach
a guidelines. The details of the EMT as Figure
Organisations (NGOs) for it to be successful.
11 comprises
to the protection of thethe contribution
environment. and 12
Figure
commitment from management of the organisation, budget availability, monitoring by
shows the principles of the MSPO certification.
the competence
Environmental person,Tools
Mainstreaming facility to monitor andAnother
manage cer
the tification
environmental aspect and
authority is the
also transparency in reporting and communication.
The DOE has initiated a programme titled “Guided Roundtable Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) which
Self-Regulation (GSR)” to assist the community is also a non-profit organisation that unites
in complying with the environmental regulations stakeholders from the seven sectors of the palm
and encouraging industry players to do their part oil industry, namely palm oil producers, processors
in protecting the environment. To achieve this, or traders, consumer goods manufacturers,
Environmental Mainstreaming Tools (EMT) have retailers, banks/investors, and environmental
been established as guidelines. The details of and social NGOs. RSPO is developing and
the EMT are shown in Figure 11 and includes the implementing global standards for sustainable
contribution and commitment of management palm oil. The certification scheme is also based
of organisations, budget availability, monitoring on the principles of prosperity for businesses and
operations by competent persons, facilities protecting the environment and people’s welfare.
to monitor and manage all environmental The RSPO certification has been recognised

6
42 VOL
VOL87
55JULY-SEPTEMBER
JUNE 2013 2021
 1.
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICY

7. 2.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL
TRANSPARENCY BUDGETTING

ENVIRONMENTAL
MAINSTREAMING
TOOLS (EMT)
6. 3.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL
REPORTING AND MONITORING
COMMUNICATION COMMITTE

5. 4.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENTAL
COMPETENCY FACILITY

FigureFigure
11: Environmental
11: Environmental Mainstreaming Tools
Mainstreaming Tools (EMT)(EMT) by Department
by Department of Malaysia.
of Environment Environment
(DOE) Malaysia.

3.2. Sustainability certification

Toward to the sustainability in palm oil industry in Malaysia, there is effort from the
NGO to come out with the certification scheme to ensure that the industry can be
sustain in business by considering the protection of environmental and also people
welfare. Malaysian Palm Oil Certification Council (MPOCC) is an independent non-
profit organization who are responsible to develop and operate the Malaysia
Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) certification scheme which is become a mandatory to
the palm oil growers, traders, millers and who are been licensed by Malaysian Palm
Oil Board (MPOB) in Palm Oil businesses starting on 1 January 2020. This st

certification can help the industry to be as a credible company with the sustainable
approach in their business. Figure 12 shows the principles in MSPO certifications.

Figure 12: Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) Principles

Figure 12: Malaysian Sustainable Palm Oil (MSPO) Principles (Source: mpocc.org.my)
(source: mpocc.org.my)

Another certification is Roundtable Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) which also non- 43

profit organisation comprises of the unites stakeholders from the 7 sectors of the palm
oil industry which are oil palm producers, processor or traders, consumer goods
criteria which to obtain the prosperity in business, protecting environment and people
welfare. The RSPO certification has been recognized internationally who are also
facilitate the Malaysia palm oil industry to penetrate the worldwide market. Figure 13
INGENIEUR
shows the principles in RSPO certifications.

Figure
Figure 13: Principles
13: Principles in RSPO(Source:
in RSPO Certification Certification
rspo.org)
(source: rspo.org)

internationally and helps the Malaysian palm oil
industry to penetrate the worldwide market. Figure
13 shows the principles of the RSPO certifications.
CONCLUSION
The environment is the most precious property
of the nation and the world. Despite the
increased demand for palm oil, and the support
that the business has been receiving from the
Government, awareness in managing the impact
of the business activities on the environment has
to be managed properly. The latest technology
in utilising wastes has resulted in a source of
energy and products that make the palm oil
industry a more sustainable and resilient industry.
Mainstreaming guidelines as legal requirements,
and the issuance of national and international
sustainable certifications will help the industry to
be long lasting and reliable for years to come.
REFERENCE
J Occup Health 2013; 55: 405–414 | Ergonomics
Observation: Harvesting Tasks at Oil Palm
Plantation | Yee Guan Ng1, Mohd Tamrin Shamsul
Bahri1, Md Yusoff Irwan Syah2, Ippei Mori3 and
Zailina Hashim1
The Oil Palm Tree, http://mpoc.org.my/the-oil-
palm-tree/
https://www.theedgemarkets.com/article/85-
malaysias-oil-palm-plantations-mspocertified-
%E2%80%94-mpob
13
Journal of Oil Palm Research Vol. 30 March 2018
p. 13-25 | Journal of Oil Palm Research Vol. 30
March 2018 p. 13-25
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1087612/
mature-palm-oil-plantations-size-malaysia/
ht tp://w w w.salcra.gov.my/en/sustainable -
plant ation/p e s t- di s e a s e s - c ontrol.
html#:~:text=The%20major%20pests%20of%20
oil,lesser%20extent%2C%20Marasmius%20
bunch%20rot.
Palm Oil Mill & Processing Handbook, MPOB
Fermentation Pathway for Palm Oil Mill Effluent,
Andrew Yap Kian Chung* and Fatah Yah Abdul
Manaf*, Palm Oil Engineering Bulletin No.109 (Oct
- Dec 2013) p13 – 23
Environmental Mainstreaming Directive,
https://www.doe.gov.my/portalv1/wp-content/
uploads/2016/06/Environmental-Mainstreaming-
Directive.pdf, DOE Malaysia.

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 Greening Batik Industries
in Malaysia
By Shaliza Ibrahim
Institute of Ocean and Earth Sciences, Universiti Malaya

FEATURE
Choong Choe Earn
Formerly at Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Malaya

Traditional batik making

G
reening batik industries in Malaysia is
attainable through the adoption of Cleaner
Production (CP) methods which provide
options for reduction in material and energy
usage, resource recovery, and good housekeeping
practices. Such an approach was successfully
implemented in a small scale home-based
premise. Batik manufacturers are receptive to
the concept of greening their industry, but need
support in various forms, in order to sustain
the good practices. Cost effective wastewater
treatment systems and implementation of
standard operating procedures can impactfully
transform batik manufacturing into a more
sustainable industry .
Batik is the traditional art of hand-painted or
block-printed fabric which is popular particularly
in the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. The
majority of batik making factories are located in
Kelantan and Terengganu. Over the last 50 years
batik has grown to become an important cottage
industry in Malaysia, contributing significantly to
the country’s economy. Batik is widely done at
home as cottage or rural industries. There are also
a number of larger enterprises operating as Small
and Medium Industries (SMIs).
Typical of textile industries, batik making
uses large quantities of water and a wide range
of organic and inorganic chemical compounds.
The batik wastewater has a high pH, Biochemical

45
 INGENIEUR
Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD), Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), Total
Suspended Solid (TSS), and high color content
from the use of dyes and pigments on the fabric.
Appropriate treatment is essential to remediate
the effluents to meet discharge standards, but
due to their sporadic locations it is a challenge to
build centralised wastewater treatment systems
for batik premises. As a result, batik effluent is
mostly discharged into waterways, public drains
or estuaries untreated.
Batik production can be seasonal, depending
on demand and the availability of labour force,
mainly coming from household members or
villagers in the neighbourhood. A typical home
factory set-up can look like makeshift workshops
where painting, soaking, boiling and washing
activities are carried out. It is also the place to
store paints, chemicals and solvents, making
it look somewhat haphazard in some cases. A
CP approach for this industry will contribute to
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) and
can potentially increase the global market for
Malaysian batik. This in turn will work favourably
towards the continued livelihood of batik makers
who may depend on batik as their main source
of income. Effluent treatment methods have also
been developed and operated in a few premises.
Implementation of the Cleaner
Production Integration Concept
This ar ticle refers to a project on CP
implementation at a batik premise, which
aims to create a showcase for other premises
to follow. The study began with an audit to
assess the premise, followed by an exercise to
identify and select the best practical options for
improvement. Detailed audits were done on the
use of raw materials, fuel and utilities, waste and
wastewater generation, as well as health and
safety levels. Extensive analyses of the audit
findings led to the generation of numerous CP
options as deemed appropriate for the premise.
These CP options are then screened according to
their feasibility factors, based on the commitment
of the premise and the availability of resources,
namely the facilities available on the premises
and financial resources. The selected CP options
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are fully exercised on the premises and the
returns are monitored and evaluated in terms of
finance, productivity, environment and company
image. Additionally, the estimated Carbon Impact
that can be reduced after implementing CP
options on the premises was calculated as a new
component to assess returns on environment
impact. A few methods were developed and
prototypes were fabricated for two techniques
which were successfully installed and operated
at two premises to deal with the recalcitrant
wastewater from the process.
Based on the information obtained from
the implementation of CP options, an SOP was
developed for batik entrepreneurs, as a reference
and guide in implementing the CP programme on
their respective premises. Finally, promotional
programmes, namely CP Seminar Roadshow,
CP Workshop and Awareness Training for Batik
Entrepreneurs, were instrumental in educating
the owners of batik premises. They also visited the
demonstration premise to see for themselves the
CP options that have been implemented, as well
as the wastewater treatment system.
Batik Making Process
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the batik making
process. Raw materials used are white fabrics
of either cotton, rayon or silk jacquard material,
wax and resin, dye and sodium silicate. The
premise selected for the demonstration study was
producing on average 7,500 metres of batik per
month. The batik making process starts with the
cutting and washing of the white fabric, at times
using bleach to whiten the fabric further. After
drying, the batik design is created on the white
cloth by either hand painting using a method
known as canting, screen printing or block printing
(stamping). The outline of the batik design is
made possible by the use of wax to prevent the
dye from penetrating the fabric. When the design
is complete, the color fixing process is done by
soaking the fabric in sodium silicate at least
overnight. The fabric is then allowed to drip dry
before being soaked, boiled in a vat, washed and
rinsed a final time. The whole process uses a high
volume of water at almost every step, from the
soaking procedure onwards. Energy is required
 Figure 1: Flow chart of batik making process

Cleaner Production Option Benefits to Batik Premise

Concretised floor to replace bare ground
Concrete tubs for soaking in sodium silicate
Waste separation bins
Proper storage area and containers for raw
materials
Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
for workers
Ease of cleaning and collection of chemical spillage
Replaces plastic containers which are easily damaged
leading to leaks
Facilitates recycling of reusable items
More organised, less risk of damage to raw materials
Increased health and safety standards especially in
handling chemicals and the boiling process

Table 1: Examples of CP Options and their benefits

for boiling, and the chemicals used are sodium
silicate, solvents and dyes.
Recommendations for Cleaner Production
Options
The main concerns identified from the CP audit
were the usage of raw materials and resources,
discharge of untreated effluent which can amount
to 5m3 per day per premise depending on the scale
of operation, potential health and safety risks from
exposure to solvents and chemicals, lack of proper
organisation of premise which could potentially
pose a hazard to workers and residents. Cleaner
production options were generated based on:
1) use of raw materials;
2) usage of utilities (electricity, fuel, water);
3) premise environment; and
4) storage of raw materials and product.
Numerous CP options were generated and the
effects were evaluated for savings on materials
(including those discarded in effluent), electricity
and heat, increase in productivity and reduction

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 INGENIEUR

Figure 2: Pilot scale batik wastewater treatment system (top), batik wastewater treatment
before and after (bottom left and bottom middle). Batik wastewater treatment process
(bottom right)

in health and safety risks. Some of these are
tabulated in Table 1.
The reduction in carbon impact estimate
was calculated for the reduction in usage of
wax, resin, dye, sodium silicate, firewood, water,
electricity and generation of waste, as a result of
improvements made in the process and methods.
An overall reduction of 10,707.8 kg CO2 per year
was determined.
The Standard Operating Procedure document
is made available to existing as well as new batik
premises for ease of reference to abide to CP
and resource efficiency practices. All the options
and recommendations are shared with batik
manufacturers through engagement activities.
Such activities should be held more regularly to
provide support in creating awareness, educating
and addressing issues faced by them.
Effluent Treatment
Wastewater generated from batik making is highly
alkaline with high levels of polluting compounds

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from the dye, wax and chemicals used in painting
and colour fixing. Premise owners face the
predicament of prohibitively high installation
and operation costs for treatment systems that
would effectively reduce the effluent pollution
level. The use of membrane technology and
Fenton methods were considered, but for the
sake of cost-effectiveness an activated carbon
treatment process was first installed at the
premise. The system successfully treated the
effluent to meet the Department of Environment
discharge Standard B. Potential issues related to
the activated carbon process is in ensuring proper
column operation and maintenance to maximise
the capacity of the adsorption column.
Another issue is in ascer taining the
breakthrough point and the management of spent
adsorbent. Further research on the batik effluent
treatment resulted in the development of an
improved system comprising a three-step process
that included a catalytic step, pH balancing, and
a final polishing step (1). The system successfully
treated the wastewater to remove colour and
reduce pH and COD to acceptable levels for
discharge. A prototype of the batik treatment
system was installed in a premise in Gombak,
Selangor as shown in Figure 2. The unique feature
about this system is that it is additionally equipped
with a step which successfully precipitated out
the silicate compounds from the wastewater, as
well as reducing COD, pH and other parameters
to discharge standards. The process generated
a substantial quantity of silicate sludge that
solidified out of the effluent. The DOE considers
this sludge as scheduled waste and the batik
premise would have to discard it according to
procedure. This would incur cost to the premise
owner which in the long term can be a burden
to the batik makers. We developed a method
to reuse the sludge and convert it into a zeolite
type adsorbent of mesoporous silica, which when
impregnated with alumiium hydroxide, proved to
be effective as an absorbent to remove bisphenol
A and ibuprofen (2).
Conclusion
Handcrafted batik remains popular in Malaysia as
well as abroad despite the proliferation of much
cheaper digital batik fabrics. The value lies in its
authenticity as an artwork. However, this very fact
also means that it is not the most sustainable
product, especially when they are produced
in large quantities and volume, due to the raw
materials and techniques applied in the traditional
process. This dilemma can be overcome with
careful implementation of CP options that
generates savings in material and energy usage,
resource recovery and waste reduction, as well as
precautionary steps on health and safety concerns.
Establishing an SOP for CP implementation and
regular engagement with batik manufacturers who
primarily come from rural areas are key to ensuring
that the good practices of CP are maintained. It
may be necessary to initiate services for effluent
treatment to make it feasible for premise owners
so that they do not need to pay the high capital
costs on the installation of treatment systems to
treat the effluent before discharge.
REFERENCE
(1) Payam Moradi Birgani, Navid Ranjbar, Rosniah
Che Abdullah, Kien Tiek Wong, Gooyong Lee,
Shaliza Ibrahim, Chulhwan Park, Yeomin Yoon
and Min Jang, “An efficient and economical
treatment for batik textile wastewater
containing high levels of silicate and organic
pollutants using a sequential process of
acidification, magnesium oxide, and palm
shellbased activated carbon application”,
Journal of Environmental Management, Volume
184, Part 2, 15 December 2016, Pages 229-
239
(2) Choong, C.E, S. Ibrahim, W.J. Basirun,
“Mesoporous silica from batik sludge
impregnated with aluminum hydroxide for the
removal of bisphenol A and ibuprofen”, Journal
of Colloid and Interface Science, Volume
541, 1 April 2019, Pages 12-17
Acknowledgement
This article is based on an extensive project on
Cleaner Production conducted by a team of
experts from the UM Consultancy Unit (UPUM).
The author (Shaliza Ibrahim ) would like to thank
Ms Farahin Jais for her assistance in preparing
Figure 1.
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 INGENIEUR

Plastics: Chemically
Engineered to Pollute?
By Dr Theng Lee Chong
Environment / Waste Management Specialist
FEATURE

P
lastic pollution is one of the most pressing
environmental issues today as the
consumption of plastic products has
increased drastically over the past century and
plastic waste generation has been overwhelming,
to an alarming level that is beyond the world’s
ability to deal with. Many initiatives have been
proposed and adopted to address the issues, with
a tremendous amount of money spent on these
various activities. Many business opportunities
have been created, and not only technologies but
many experts have suddenly emerged in recent
years in matters dealing with plastic waste issues.
Are we putting our focus right? Or we are just
focussing only on the tip of the iceberg, while other
bigger issues are left hidden? Why don’t we just
replace plastics with some other materials and Figure 1
then all problems are solved?

containers. Most people are not aware that many

How much we rely on plastics
There are different literatures showing the year
when plastics were invented on earth. Some
believe plastics were first invented in 1862, while
the first fully synthetic plastic was recorded to
be introduced in New York in 1907. Since then,
life has evolved into an era where in our daily life
we are heavily reliant on wide range of products
made from plastics with their unique properties:
durable, lightweight, high strength, resistant to
shock, corrosion, chemicals, water, and having
excellent insulation against both electricity and
high temperatures.
It is not unusual that people tend to associate
plastics with products such as plastic straws,
plastic bags, plastic cutlery, food and detergent
of the things we use have “hidden” plastics,
such as disposable diapers (baby and adult),
face masks, sanitary pads, cigarette butts,
synthetic or nylon clothes and even your so-called
environmentally-friendly non-woven fibre shopping
bags! Don’t be surprised that paper cups are
also coated with a layer of plastic and are totally
non-recyclable. Even the metal cans for food and
drinks have a layer of plastic to prevent chemical
reactions.
Based on the statistics, worldwide plastic
production has increased from 1.5 million tons/
year in 1950, to 322 million tons/year in 2015,
with Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of
8.6% from 1950 to 2015 (see Figure 1).
Table 1 presents statistics on the consumption
of plastic products worldwide which may be an eye

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Plastic bottles used worldwide (yearly) ~ 480,000,000,000 (480 billion) pcs
Single-use plastic bags used worldwide (yearly) ~ 1,000,000,000,000 (1 trillion) pcs
Plastic straws used worldwide (yearly) ~ 183,000,000,000 (183 billion) pcs
Plastic cups used worldwide (yearly) ~ 500,000,000,000 (500 billion) pcs
Disposable coffee cup (plastic coated / use plastic lids)
~ 16,000,000,000 (16 billion) pcs
used worldwide (yearly)
Cigarette butts littered worldwide (yearly) ~ 4,500,000,000,000 (4.5 trillion) pcs
Face mask used worldwide (yearly) ~ 1,548,000,000,000 (1.5 trillion) pcs
~ 400,000km (enough to wrap around the
Amount of bubble wrap produced worldwide (yearly)
Earth’s Equator 10 times)
Disposable single-use baby diapers used in Malaysia
~ 4,300,000,000 (4.3 billion) pcs
(yearly)
Lady’s disposable sanitary pad used in Malaysia (yearly) ~ 2,500,000,000 (2.5 billion) pcs
Table 1: Worldwide consumption of plastic products.
(Note: Quoted from various sources, at different year references)

opener for many people, to understand how much

we rely on plastics in our daily lives nowadays. 
Plastics cause suffocation, starvation and
While we enjoy the benefits and convenience drowning to animals, especially sea life and
from a wide range of products made of plastics, the birds, when they ingest them.
tremendous amounts of plastic waste disposed in

Uncontrolled burning of plastics releases
the world everyday becomes an emerging threat
toxic fumes, creating serious pollution to the
to the entire ecosystem of the world, from plastic
atmosphere and threatening human health
pollution in the land to microplastics in the ocean,
through inhalation.
and toxic fumes in the atmosphere from the
burning of plastics.

All these impacts from plastics are undeniable,

Are Plastics the Real Culprit? because we have seen how plastic sheets choke
sea creatures to death; we have seen how a turtle
In general, the most common impact caused by suffer from a plastic straw stuck up the nostril;
plastics from environmental perspectives include and we have also seen how much plastic wastes
the following: are found in the stomachs of whales and sea birds
lying along the beach.

Plastics are made from non-renewable We have also read reports of plastic wastes
resources; it is naturally non-degradable and clogging drains and causing serious flash floods
stays for hundreds or thousands of years. in many cities; tremendous amount of plastics
in the waste traps installed at major rivers;

Plastics consumption, especially the huge patches of plastic wastes found floating
single-use products, is tremendous, thus in the oceans; landfill sites stuffed with plastics
generating and accumulating enormous wastes, which will remain till the time of our
amounts of plastic waste. great grandchildren; and microplastics that are

Plastics drained into the ocean cause
now found in the body systems of animals and
the serious problem of microplastics in
humans.
the seawater, creating a big threat to the
Don’t all these show that plastics are the
ecosystem, and human and animal lives
culprits that pollute our environment and endanger
through the food chain.
our lives? Why do we create something that
threatens our lives, and we continue using it every

51
 INGENIEUR
day? Are all these plastic products engineered to
pollute and kill humankind on Earth?
Are plastics the real culprits to be blamed?
When we think thoroughly and rationally, none
of the abovementioned threats would have
happened if not for the attitudes of humans
and the improper management of plastic waste
after usage. Even worse is the habit of illegal
dumping or littering on the streets. We can’t see
that our own attitude is actually the real culprit
and the root cause of all the problems that we
are facing now, but we blame plastics irrationally.
We blame plastics for choking the animals, we
blame plastics for clogging the drains, we blame
plastics filling up the landfills, we blame plastics
for destroying the ocean ecosystem, and we
blame plastics for the presence of microplastics
in our body systems.
Let’s Talk about Replacements
Since plastics are seen to seriously threaten the
environment and human lives, many initiatives
have been taken to find replacements for plastic
products. The most commonly seen initiatives
include replacement of styrofoam food boxes
with boxes made from polypropylene (PP) or
plant-based fibres; replacement of plastic straws
with straws made from paper or metal; and
replacement of conventional plastic bags with
bags made from so-called degradable materials.
Some of the facts on replacements are uncovered
as shown in Table 2.
All the facts elaborated in Table 2 show that
replacement does not necessarily help as a
whole, unless everyone understand the science
behind them, and actions are taken holistically
from all aspects. Unfortunately, there is often
a lack of detailed study and planning before a
decision or policy is made to ban or to replace
plastics with some other materials, and even
worse, when all the facts and science are over-
ruled by business or political wills. It is quite
interesting anyway, to imagine what people will
use to replace baby diapers, sanitary pads and
cigarette butts when zero single-use initiatives
come into force, because all these as mentioned
are “single-use” and their quantities are
enormous.
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Clearing the Misleading Air
The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) has conducted
a research and published that each Malaysian
generate about 16.78kg of plastic packaging
waste every year, the highest among the countries
covered under the research, i.e., Thailand,
Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines and China.
Many people were shocked by newspaper
headlines such as “Malaysians Asia's biggest
plastic consumers”, “Malaysians named as Asia's
plastic polluters”, and few others, in announcing
the report.
WWF later published a statement to clarify
that those were inaccurate headlines because the
study only covered six countries, and it is too much
to conclude that Malaysia is the highest plastic
packaging waste generator. The statement also
clarified that Malaysia has in reality rather good
plastic recycling initiatives, and that we also have
the best waste collection rate among all the six
countries researched.
Plastic waste generation per capita is correlated
with the standard of living and development status
of a country, which means that when a country is
more developed, the per capita generation rate
will be higher. Therefore, it is not surprising to see
the per capita generation rate is higher in Malaysia
than in the Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia,
Vietnam and China. As a comparison, the plastic
packaging waste generation per capita for some
other more developed countries are shown below:

European Union (EU) countries – on
average more than 40kg/cap/year

More than 85% of EU countries generate
more than 20kg/cap/year 

Ireland has the highest generation rate
in EU at 54kg/cap/year, followed by
Luxemburg (43kg), Denmark (42kg),
Germany (39kg), UK and France (35kg
each)

For Asian countries, Japan generates
about 30kg/cap/year, Singapore is even
higher at 46kg/cap/year
So, where does Malaysia stand with 16.78kg/
cap/day of plastic packaging waste generation
Styrofoam -> PP 
It is misleading to say that styrofoam cannot be recycled. Styrofoam can
or fibre boxes actually be fully recycled, just that it is often not recycled because it is too
lightweight and not feasible economically in terms of logistics (imagine you are
transporting >95% of air).

Polypropylene (PP) boxes can be a better alternative only if the PP box is
cleaned up after use and segregated for recycling. Otherwise, it will end up
at the landfills, and the impact could be worse because it is heavier. Both are
plastics that will stay in the landfills for centuries.

Boxes made from fibre are generally coated with a layer of plastics, and thus
they are still not recyclable and not fully degradable. The carbon footprint could
also be higher due to heavier weight and production footprint.
Plastic straw -> 
Plastic straws should be avoided if not necessary, although there is the
paper straw possible concern about hygiene from direct contact with the cup/glass.

Use of paper straw as replacement is inexplicable, as the paper straw is
coated with plastics or wax or unknown materials, which makes the straw
not recyclable. Conventional plastic straws are fully recyclable if properly
segregated.

Even worse, there is no control on the quality of paper straws in the market to
ensure it is a food grade product, especially from health perspective whether
there is any use of colouring, bleaching agent or chemicals.

Using a metal straw could be the most reasonable replacement but it is
questionable how many people will carry a metal straw around in the pocket.
Conventional 
There are many replacements for conventional plastic bags now in the market,
plastic bags -> whether they are “degradable”, “biodegradable” or some claim to be “oxo-
degradable bags degradable”.

Oxo-degradable bags are particularly confusing because it is physically
impossible to differentiate whether bags are oxo-degradable or just normal
plastic bags printed with the word “oxo” on them.

Plastic bags made of food starch (such as corn or tapioca starch) are
degradable for sure, but probably it makes more sense to feed the starch to
people rather than making them into plastic bags, considering that the world
hunger has increased to more than 100 million in 2020.

Any degradable plastic mixed in the waste stream will distort the entire effort to
recycle conventional plastics, unless they are completely segregated out from
the plastic waste stream.

One better option is to use “recycling bags” made from non-woven fibre as a
replacement for “plastic” bags. However, non-woven fibre is actually also made
of non-recyclable plastics. Thus, the bags should be used as many times as
possible, as otherwise it will not be more environment friendly.

Table 2: Replacement for plastic products

53
 INGENIEUR
and said to be the highest in Asia? It is truly
misleading and there are surely many other
developed countries in Asia that is ahead of
Malaysia in this awful race. It is not even an issue
worth highlighting, but still those headlines are
repeatedly quoted by many people, including the
Ministers, regardless that they are actually not
true and misleading.
Conclusion
In conclusion, plastics are definitely not something
created or chemically engineered to pollute the
world and kill the animals. It is an invention that
makes our daily life more efficient and convenient.
It is mismanagement and bad attitudes that have
caused all the troubles and the impact on us in
return. It is a fact that we are relying heavily on
plastic products in our daily lives now, and the
impacts from mismanagement of plastic waste
are therefore enormous, to an alarming stage
where it is slowly destroying the entire ecosystem
of the natural environment and endangering
human lives.
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The wide range of packaging made from plastics.
When the problems of mismanagement and
attitudes cannot be rectified, no doubt other
approaches will be necessary in order to find long
term and sustainable solutions. However, the issues
of plastics should not be managed emotionally.
Decisions should be science-based and rational,
supported by sufficient facts from detailed studies.
Most importantly, they should never be business or
politically oriented. Particularly in the case of banning
of specific types of plastic products, the alternative
or replacement should be studied in depth to avoid
creating another undesirable problem.
It is meaningless to compare one country to
another in terms of plastic waste generation.
More importantly, we should understand how
much effort each country has taken to address
the problems effectively. Data does not indicate
that Malaysia is low in plastic generation such
that we have nothing to worry about. We have a
lot to do to ensure that we are on the right track in
tackling the global plastic issues. In knowing the
actual culprits behind the problems, we should
probably put more focus on plastic production
requirements and consumer behaviours, instead
of blaming plastic products.

Do You
Know?
Environment
By Pang Soo Mooi
Asian cities face greatest environmental
risks - Bloomberg
Asian cities face the greatest risk from
environmental issues including air pollution and
natural disasters, according to a report released
by a research firm. Of the 100 most vulnerable
cities, 99 are in Asia. Of those, 37 are in China and
43 are in India, the world's first and third biggest
emitters of greenhouse gases respectively.
Globally, 1.5 billion people live in 414 cities that
are at high risk from pollution, water shortages,
extreme heat, natural hazards and the physical
impacts of climate change. Jakarta, the capital of
Indonesia, topped the list of combined risks based
on all nine factors analysed. India is home to 13
of the 20 riskiest cities in the world, a result of its
extreme levels of air and water pollution. China's
flood-prone Guangzhou and Dongguan topped the
list of cities facing threats from natural hazards,
followed by Japan's Osaka and Tokyo for being
vulnerable to earthquakes and typhoons.
Trees need wind to reproduce –
Popular Science
Trees may seem sedentary, but movement is a big
part of their lives. To reproduce, many trees rely
on wind to move their pollen and seeds around,
says Matthew Kling, a post-doctoral researcher in
plant biogeography at the University of California,
Berkeley. 
A study reported in the journal  Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, examines
how wind patterns affect the exchange of DNA
between populations of trees. Their findings
suggest that factors such as wind strength and
direction can help mould the genetic makeup of
forested landscapes. 
As the climate heats up, some plants won’t
thrive as well in their current environments, and
will need to be in historically cooler locations to
stay within a comfortable temperature range. But
plenty of questions remain around precisely how
the plants will get there. One of the biggest areas
of uncertainty in plant movement is related to wind
because wind dispersal can be tricky to measure
at large scales. 
Kling and his co-author David Ackerly, a
professor of integrative biology at UC Berkeley,
used 72 previously published scientific papers to
gather genetic data on nearly 2,000 populations
of trees belonging to nearly 100 different tree
species around the globe. The researchers took
this genetic data and compared it to a “windscape”
model they developed, which pulls from three
decades of hourly wind data.
The wind model provides a prediction for the
way we would expect dispersal of seeds and pollen
to take place across large geographic scales and
long time periods. “The genetic data provides a
measured estimate, totally independent of the
wind data, of the way that the seeds and pollen
have dispersed across large landscapes in the
past,” says Kling. The authors then compared the
predictions made by the windscape model to the
observed genetic patterns, allowing them to test
whether the wind was actually driving them. 
“We found evidence that migration of seeds
and pollen tends to happen preferentially in the
direction of the prevailing wind,” says Kling. In other
words, the seeds and pollen are carried downwind
more often than they’re carried upwind. They also
found that populations located downwind—in
the direction the wind is blowing—were typically
more genetically diverse overall. In addition, they
found that distinct tree populations connected by
stronger winds were more similar to one another
than populations connected by weaker winds,
suggesting that migration is happening between
those populations. 
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“In many ways the findings of the paper are
predictable—many plant-focussed researchers
have understood the links between wind dispersal
of pollen and seed, and how those factors can
contribute to or limit reproduction, dispersal,
connectivity, and genetic diversity,” wrote Jasmine
Janes, an evolutionary biologist at Vancouver
Island University who was not involved in the
research, in an email to Popular Science. What’s
interesting about this paper is that it brings many
of these ideas together and tests them on a
range of data sets so that scientists and forest
managers can gain a deeper understanding of
broad patterns. 
Understanding how quickly the location range
of a species of trees can migrate in response to
climate change is important, says Kling, but it’s
also important to consider how different genetic
adaptations may be able to travel between
populations of a given tree species. “We can
imagine that over time, perhaps populations
in different climates and different parts of the
species range have evolved different adaptations
to survive better in those particular climates,” says
Kling. “As climate warms, it’s going to be important
for those genetic variants to be able to move
around different populations in the species range,
to help those other populations be better adapted
to the warmer conditions of the future.”
Amazon Rainforest emitted more CO2
than it absorbed - AFP
The Brazilian Amazon released nearly 20% more
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere over the last
decade than it absorbed, according to a stunning
report that shows humanity can no longer depend
on the world's largest tropical forest to help absorb
man-made carbon pollution.
From 2010 through 2019, Brazil's Amazon
basin gave off 16.6 billion tonnes of CO2, while
drawing down only 13.9 billion tonnes, researchers
reported in the Nature Climate Change journal.
The study looked at the volume of CO 2
absorbed and stored as the forest grows, versus
the amounts released back into the atmosphere
as it has been burned down or destroyed.
"We half-expected it, but it is the first time
that we have figures showing that the Brazilian
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Burning of trees in Amazon Forest
Amazon has flipped, and is now a net emitter,"
said co-author Jean-Pierre Wigneron, a scientist
at France's National Institute for Agronomic
Research (INRA).
"We don't know at what point the changeover
could become irreversible," he told AFP in an
interview.
The study also showed that deforestation —
through fires and clear-cutting — increased nearly
four-fold in 2019 compared to either of the two
previous years, from about one million hectares
to 3.9 million hectares, an area the size of the
Netherlands.
Terrestrial ecosystems worldwide have been
a crucial ally as the world struggles to curb CO2
emissions, which topped 40 billion tonnes in
2019.
Over the last half century, plants and soil
have consistently absorbed about 30% of those
emissions, even as they increased by 50% over
that period.
Oceans have also helped, soaking up more
than 20%.
The Amazon basin contains about half of
the world's tropical rainforests, which are more
effective at soaking up and storing carbon that
other types of forests.
If the region were to become a net source
rather than a "sink" of CO2, tackling the climate
crisis will be that much harder.
Using new methods of analysing satellite data
developed at the University of Oklahoma, the
international team of researchers also showed
for the first time that degraded forests were a
more significant source of planet-warming CO2
emissions that outright deforestation.
Over the same 10-year period, degradation
— caused by fragmentation, selective cutting,
or fires that damage but do not destroy trees —
caused three times more emissions than outright
destruction of forests.
ADB rules out coal, sets conditions for
gas projects in draft energy policy –
Straits Times
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has said it will
formally rule out financing for new coal projects
and will also ban financing for coal, oil and gas
exploration and extraction as pressure grows on
the institution to end all support for fossil fuels on
climate concerns. The pledges are contained in
a draft energy policy, following the bank's annual
meetings in Manila.
"ADB will not finance any coal mining, oil and
natural gas field exploration, drilling or extraction
activities. ADB will not finance any new coal-fired
capacity for power and heat generation or any
facilities associated with new coal generation,"
the draft said. But the bank will continue to
consider financing gas projects such as pipelines
and power plants. Burning fossil fuels is the single
largest source of emissions heating up the planet
and driving wilder weather.
ADB came under criticism from Oil Change
International and Fossil Free, an international
coalition of non- Government groups and
movements, for channelling USD4.7 billion to gas
projects since the adoption of the 2015 Paris
Climate Agreement. The policy draft said the
bank will still consider support for gas projects,
such as transmission and distribution pipelines,
LNG terminals, gas-fired power plant and gas
for heating and cooking, when five conditions
are met. These include improving energy
access,  comparing projects with the cost of
renewable alternatives, showing a plan for long-
term carbon neutrality that also avoids locking into
long-term carbon infrastructure, and lowering the
emissions of local electricity grids. ADB said it will
develop more detailed guidelines on future gas
investments.
Green groups, while welcoming the pledges
on new coal and fossil fuel mining and extraction,
said the bank should speed up its investment
focus on renewable energy.
Species extinction 100 to 1,000 times
higher than the background rate, the
standard rate of extinction in earth’s
history before human pressure became a
prominent factor – World Wildlife Fund
All economic activity ultimately depends on services
provided by nature, estimated to be worth around
USD125 trillion a year. As we better understand
our reliance on natural systems, it’s clear that
nature is not just a ‘nice to have’. Business and the
finance industry are starting to question how global
environmental risks will affect the macroeconomic
performance of countries, sectors and financial
markets, and policy-makers wonder how we will
meet climate and sustainable development targets
with declining nature and biodiversity.
Exploding human consumption is the driving
force behind the unprecedented planetary change
we are witnessing, through the increased demand
for energy, land and water. Consumption indicators
— such as the Ecological Footprint —provide a
picture of overall resource use. The products we
consume, the supply chains behind them, the
materials they use and how these are extracted
and manufactured have myriad impacts on the
world around us.
Marine and freshwater ecosystems are also
facing huge pressures. Almost six billion tonnes of
fish and invertebrates have been taken from the
world’s oceans since 1950. Plastic pollution has
been detected in all major marine environments
worldwide, from shorelines and surface waters
down to the deepest parts of the ocean, including
the bottom of the Mariana Trench.
The latest Living Planet Index shows an overall
decline of 60% in population sizes between
1970 and 2014. Species population declines
are especially pronounced in the tropics, with
South and Central America suffering the most
dramatic decline, an 89% loss compared to 1970.
Freshwater species numbers have also declined
dramatically, with the Freshwater Index showing
an 83% decline since 1970.
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Impact of Disruptive
Technologies on Malaysia’s
SPECIAL REPORT
Future Energy Scenario
(Part 2)
By Ir. Dr Amir Basha Ismail
3. Impact of Disruptive Technologies on
Malaysia’s Future Energy Security
As discussed in Section 2 (see The Ingenieur
Vol 86, Part 1), the question of Malaysia’s future
energy security must necessarily address the
electricity demand-generation balance as part of
its national energy policy agenda. This overarching
national energy policy depends on the ability to
secure primary fuels (a mix of gas and coal) for
the development and operation of centralised
large-scale electricity generating stations and
the associated high-voltage transmission and
distribution power grid.
Reliable power system operation requires the
continuous balance of supply and demand at
every moment in time. Power system planners
and operators who have been working with
conventional electricity power grid systems with
centralised large-scale fossil-fuelled power
plants are quite familiar with a certain amount of
variability and uncertainty, particularly with regard
to system demand. Depending on the season
and weather conditions, demand can fluctuate
significantly over a single day, week, or month.
For example in the Malaysian power system grid,
the extensive use of electricity for air-conditioning
loads creates a relationship between increase in
electricity demand with increase in temperature
amounting close to 1000MW per °C rise. In
addition to meeting this variability requirements,
there is always some inherent uncertainty about
future power demand and future availability of
generators. The power system must thus be able
to manage both variability and uncertainty.
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Today, various combinations of hydro and
thermal generation are used to manage variability
and these operate as a portfolio to meet demand.
Each generator has various characteristics, but
the most important one for this article relates to
flexibility.
Daily and weekly patterns of system demand
often involve short-term forecasting. Knowing the
time horizon over which significant ramps (MW per
minute) take place, such as during the morning
demand rise, has allowed operators to plan and
implement effective strategies for flexibility.
Traditionally, long-term resource planning
with conventional thermal and hydro generation
requires little information about the variability of
the net demand/load in time scales of minutes to
days, whereas characterising the daytime cycle
is an important feature of day-ahead operational
generation dispatch planning. Power system
planners/operators are quite familiar with the
‘system needs’ in order to ensure that the balance
between supply and demand is maintained
continuously by refining the generation output
and demand delivered by the wholesale electricity
market.
These ‘system needs’ in the order they are
required from real time are:
● System Inertia and Rate of Change of
Frequency (RoCoF)
● Frequency Response
● Reserve
● Reactive Power/Voltage Support
● Blackstart
System Inertia comes from the rotational
energy stored in the synchronous generators of
gas-fired, coal-fired and hydropower plants. Inertia
determines how quickly the 50Hz AC system
frequency will change when there is an imbalance
between generation and demand. Inertia stabilises
the frequency and reduces the RoCoF. The lower
the level of Inertia on the system, the higher the
RoCoF will be in the event of a sudden generation
or demand loss.
As levels of solar photovoltaic/distributed
renewable energy generation continue to increase
in our future national energy generation mix
portfolio, System Inertia is expected to decrease.
Thus, the challenging issue of managing System
Inertia and RoCoF is of utmost importance in
order to secure future Malaysian electricity power
grid against increased probability of partial system
collapse.
One characteristic that variable renewable
generation (VG) such as solar photovoltaic have
in common is that their generation output is
governed by atmospheric/climatic conditions and
consequently difficult to predict over some time
scales. Thus, large-scale penetration/integration
of VG leads to increases in the variability and
uncertainty in the system’s generation output,
driving the need for greater flexibility. This is
required in order to ensure the overall demand-
generation balance, at 50Hz system frequency, is
maintained at all times.
In both technical policy papers published
in the quarterly publications of The Ingenieur,
Vol 60 & Vol 75 [Ref. 5, Ref. 6], this author has
recommended that the Government design and
shape its future long-term (at least up to 2050)
electricity generation energy mix with clear targets
for each primary portfolio fuel based on the
following key drivers:
● extent of concern about domestic energy
security;
● availability and price of ‘legacy’ indigenous
natural gas for electricity generation;
● extent of integration of renewable energy
variable generation, particularly solar PV
plants;
● cost and availability of imported coal for
electricity generation;
● cost and availability of the nuclear option
for electricity generation; and
● environmental policy objectives expected
over the next decade.
Each of these key drivers requires supportive
policies and regulatory processes to enable
appropriate commercial decisions to be taken in a
prudent and timely manner.
4. Renewable and Distributed Generation
Variable Generation
Globally, Renewable Energy (RE) has experienced
significant decline in costs, further driving
the global push to decarbonise the electricity
generation supply industry, as shown in Figure 16.
Domestically, Solar PV is almost cost
competitive with conventional fossil fuels, with grid
parity expected by 2025, as shown in Figure 17.
According to the McKinsey Global Institute
Report (MGI) [Ref. 3], solar and wind power
could represent 15% to 16% of global electricity
generation in 2025, up from only 2% in 2013. The
incremental economic impact of this growth could
be USD165 billion to USD275 billion annually
by 2025. Of this, USD145 billion to USD155
billion could be the direct value-added to the
world economy from this power, less the cost of
subsidies.
For Malaysia, solar power could generate
enormous benefits for businesses that provide
or consume energy, as well as consumers
and society, but this would still require strong
Government support, including green tax rebates.
Greater demand for this variable solar photovoltaic
generation could provide opportunities for
technology providers and suppliers of ancillary
equipment to manage the variability issue by
providing that much-needed flexibility on the power
system grid operation. Electricity utility companies
could play a major role in the adoption of these
Large-Scale Solar power plants by making some
investments in battery energy storage systems to
accommodate intermittent flows of solar power
into their grids.
Also, distributed solar photovoltaic renewable
energy generation – power/energy bought
from local, small-scale operations or from
commercial and residential users – could help
defer investment in transmission and distribution
infrastructure.
While the cost of solar PV cells and the overall
cost of solar power generation have dropped
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Figure 16: Fossil-fuels power plants decarbonisation push & reduction in RE Costs [Ref. 7]

Figure 17: Cost competitiveness (LCOE) of Large-Scale Solar PV plants with Gas & Coal plants [Ref. 7]

dramatically in the past decade, solar power
is still not cost competitive with fossil fuels on
a global basis, although in some regions it has
achieved grid parity, or soon will. The typical
levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) of conventional
electric power plants (coal and combined cycle
gas) is around RM360 per MWh [36 sen per
kWh], compared with nearly RM400 per MWh [40
sen per kWh] for solar. However, there is potential
for this rate of improvement to continue through
2025. The PV cell module and inverter, typically
60% of the capital costs in these technologies
presently, could follow a semiconductor-like
improvement in price performance, while panel
installation, usually a fifth of the cost, can be
made quicker and cheaper through GPS-guided
power tools and robots. Overall, it is estimated
that technology improvements could reduce

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 Figure 18: Forecast of Capital Cost for Large-Scale Solar PV System [2016-2027]
Source: Malaysia Solar PV Roadmap 2016-2030, MPIA Industry Engagement, June 2018
Large-Scale Solar PV power plant costs to 65% of
its current capital expenditure by 2025 as shown
in Figure 18.
According to the Malaysian Photovoltaic
Industry Association (MPIA) forecast report
[Ref. 8], year 2020 LCOE for utility-scale solar
photovoltaic generation (10MWp to 50MWp
range) plus transmission & distribution grid asset
utilisation cost would be about 39 sen/kWh, lower
than the forecast average electricity tariff of about
45 sen/kWh , as shown in Figure 19.
Grid-connected distributed solar photovoltaic
generation, principally solar panels used to power
individual households or supply part of a building’s
energy requirements, enjoys a large share of
overall solar power production in some countries,
such as the UK, the Netherlands and Singapore,
where more than half of renewable generation
is residential (mostly rooftop solar). Distributed
generation could also provide other benefits,
such as lower line losses due to shorter distances
transmitted, productive use of unutilised rooftops,
and environmental benefits. It could be particularly
relevant for heavily-congested areas where adding
new infrastructure is impractical.
If renewable solar PV generation costs continue
to fall and energy storage capabilities/efficiencies
grow rapidly (see next section), it can be
envisioned that entire neighbourhoods or factory
complexes will be served through distributed
solar photovoltaic power generation and localised
distribution smart grid infrastructure. This could
make remote housing and manufacturing plants
more viable by reducing the transmission capacity
required from the central transmission grid or even
eliminating the need to access the transmission
grid altogether.
Future Power System: High flexibility
Requirement
The flexibility of the system represents its ability
to accommodate variability and uncertainty in the
demand-generation balance while maintaining
satisfactory levels of performance for any timescale.
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Figure 19: Past Trend and Forecast Average Electricity Tariff vs Solar PV Electricity Generation Cost
Source: MPIA Proposal for Net Energy Metering Programme 2016-2030. [Ref.8]
As mentioned earlier, with the anticipated
large-scale integration of solar PV renewable
var i ab l e gener at io n in t he el e c t r ic i t y
infrastructure grid network, future power
systems need to have higher levels of flexibility
requiring challenging MW ramping rates in the
operational time frame. Characterising these
ramping rates within the planning domain is
becoming increasingly necessary. Operational
flexibility is related to the system’s ability to deal
with variability within system operation time
scales — normally from a day ahead to real time.
The type of operational flexibility required will
depend on the time scale:
● Increased frequency response and reserves
from seconds to minutes;
● Increased ramping capability from minutes
to hours; and
● Scheduling flexibility from hours to a day
ahead.
The time scales of flexibility, from the system-
planning perspective down to very short-term
operation, and the impacts of VG on flexibility can
be seen in Figure 20.
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Figure 21 depicts how each part of the
system affects the need for and supply of
flexibility. Variability sources drive the need for
flexibility to restore a system’s power balance,
while the flexibility sources respond to restore
that balance.
While flexibility resources are commonly found
on the supply-side, there is also the possibility
of harvesting flexibility from the demand-side
(Demand Response, DR). Large-scale industrial
processes and direct control of certain loads have
been utilised for many years. Recent advances
in information and communication technologies
(ICT), together with the large-scale rollout of
advanced smart meters, have created a new
window of opportunity to make better use of DR to
increase flexibility.
The flexibility required can be obtained by
scheduling and dispatching certain loads (either
individually or as an aggregation of smaller loads)
according to system needs while respecting a
set of pre-conditions, such as comfort levels.
Alternatively, price-responsive demand can be
used with price signals that reflect flexibility
 Figure 20: The impacts of variable generation on the flexibility time line.

Figure 21: The Balancing Mechanism between Variability and Flexibility

requirements. An example of the ability of such
DR to provide flexibility is found in France, where
six million domestic water heaters, equivalent
to 12GW of potential demand, are centrally
controlled to modify electricity demand. Demand
response flexibility from large consumers is also
used in France to provide a two-hour ramping
reserve in critical periods.
For the Malaysian electricity supply industry in
the future, VG resources, principally solar power
plants, are set to increase significantly as part of
the Government drive to promote green sustainable
energy for powering and lighting up the nation.
However, these VG resources will require increasing
the flexibility of the national power system grid.
Assessing these new flexibility needs, the resources
available to meet them, and the system flexibility
adequacy, will probably be a significant aspect of
the system planning and business development
functions of the national utility board (TNB). There is
no one-size-fits-all solution to increasing flexibility.
Options that achieve the technical objective
of fulfilling flexibility needs must be evaluated
economically so that low-cost solutions can be
offered to the customers through institutionalised
market access mechanisms.

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Figure 22: Smart Grid technologies for enhancing network grid stability, flexibility & security
Thus, increasing variable Renewable Energy/
solar PV penetration into Malaysia’s power
system grid requires investments in network and
system upgrades to ensure stability, flexibility and
security of supply. This is as shown in Figure 22
which incorporates investments in automation of
knowledge work Smart Grid technologies.
5. Energy Storage
Energy storage systems convert electricity into a
form that can be stored and converted back into
electrical energy for later use, providing energy
on demand. This enables utilities, for example,
to generate extra electricity during times of low
demand and use it to support capacity at times of
high demand. Today, about three to four percent
of the electricity that is produced by utilities
worldwide is stored, almost all of it through a
technique called pumped hydro-electric storage
(PHES) which involves pumping water uphill during
times of low demand and/or low cost and releasing
it downstream to turn power-generating turbines
during times of demand and high cost.
Battery energy storage systems [BESS] in their
various forms constitute the most widely known
energy storage technology that will impact future
electricity grid infrastructure development and
operation.
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Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely used in
consumer electronic devices such as laptop PCs,
as well as in electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles.
According to Global lithium-ion battery market:
Growth trends and application analysis, Malavika
Tohani, Frost & Sullivan, Feb. 2013 [Ref. 10],
the Li-ion battery market is expected to double
in the coming years to USD24 billion in global
revenue, and significant performance and cost
improvements are also expected in Li-ion batteries
in the coming decade.
Prices for complete automotive Li-ion battery
packs could fall from RM2000–RM2400 per
kWh today to about RM650 per kWh in 2025,
while lifecycle could increase significantly at the
same time, potentially making plug-in hybrids and
electric vehicles cost competitive with traditional
internal combustion engine vehicles on a total
cost of ownership basis.
For utility grid applications, the average cost of
owning and operating Li-ion BESS could fall from
about RM2000 per MWh [RM2 per kWh] to about
RM400 per MWh [40sen per kWh] by 2025. This
could make Li-ion BESS cost competitive for some
electricity grid applications, such as for providing
BESS-Solar PV hybrid distributed renewable
energy, based on the LCOE, a standard measure
of electricity costs. LCOE measures the cost of
electricity generated by different sources using a
present value payment stream of the total cost of
 Figure 23: LCOE of Grid-storage BESS vs Gas-turbine peaking plant for flexible capacity [Ref. 7]
capital, operating costs, fuel, and maintenance
over a technology’s useful life and is very useful for
comparing the prices of technologies with different
operating characteristics.
With growing electricity demand and top-
level Governmental concerns over carbon
dioxide emissions and climate change, there
is growing national and international pressure
for ‘green’ means of electricity production and
usage. On a world-wide scale, 13 billion tonnes
of CO 2 are released annually from electricity
generation and 7 billion tonnes annually through
transportation [Ref. 11]. The electricity and
transportation sectors are now more committed
to adding more sustainable energy sources and,
in both sectors, these efforts rely on energy
storage.
For the electricity sector, BESS can help to:
1. accommodate variable electricity from
renewable solar photovoltaic generation;
2. maintain capacity for peak demand; and
3. maintain frequency regulation.
For the transportation sector, advanced
batteries make electric and partially electric
vehicles adoption more competitive compared to
petrol-engine vehicles.
Grid-storage BESS
Rapidly decreasing technology costs could make
grid-storage BESS a dominant option over gas
for flexible capacity by 2025–2030 as shown in
Figure 23.
Grid - storage BES S is set to play an
increasingly important role in integrating solar
photovoltaic renewable variable generation
as part of the future Malaysian electricity grid
infrastructure fossil fuels-renewable energy
mix portfolio. The main role of BESS will be to
deal with peak demand capacity issues and
as part of Smart Grid applications. BESS in
Smart Grid applications can help with system
frequency regulation and guaranteed peak
power services.
Grid-storage BESS enables peak load shifting,
higher utilisation of existing grid infrastructure,
and efficient balancing of small fluctuations in
power output, as well as providing temporary
power in the event of outage. However, for these
benefits to be realised, energy storage must be
cost competitive with other methods of addressing
these issues, such as gas turbine power
generation used for peak power applications and
demand-side management for DR applications
(that is getting consumers and businesses to
voluntarily reduce usage during peak demand
periods). It is estimated that by 2025, grid-storage
BESS could have a moderate economic impact of
USD45 billion to USD70 billion annually, principally
from frequency regulation and peak load shifting
applications.
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Frequency Regulation
When generation and demand are out of balance,
the system frequency deviates from its 50Hz
set point. Significant demand increases cause
system frequency to drop and voltage to sag.
Similarly, frequency increases are caused by
loss of demand. Conventional power plants such
as gas or coal- fired provide their own frequency
regulation — a constant flow — by setting aside a
portion of generating capacity (typically 1 to 4%)
that can be ramped up to regulate frequency. By
committing to reserve a portion of capacity in
this way, utilities limit their output, losing some
production efficiency.
Today, BESS are already competitive in the
frequency regulation market where they are
permitted by regulations which require reserve
generating capacity to fulfil this role. BESS will
become more competitive as prices decline.
In this context, the potential economic impact
of energy storage on frequency regulation for
utilities worldwide can run into billions of dollars
annually, assuming that BESS could replace all
of the 4% of generation capacity set aside for
frequency regulation by conventional plants.
Peak Load Shifting
To meet peak demand (when generation prices are
highest), utilities can either build excess generation
capacity or purchase electricity from other utilities
or from specialised peaking plant suppliers. Energy
storage could save costs by enabling utilities to
avoid purchasing electricity at peak prices, and
instead buying (or generating) when it is least
expensive, regardless of when it will be used. The
ability to store energy for use at a later time is also
useful for integrating energy from solar photovoltaic
generation into the electricity supply grid, due to the
variable nature of this resource.
Implications on Electricity Supply Industry
BESS solution providers need to gain the
support of utility company leaders to plan and
commit BESS for grid utility applications (as
discussed above), as utilities tend to invest in
10-year development plan programmes. They
also need to demonstrate that BESS work
seamlessly with existing grid infrastructure and
renewable solar photovoltaic systems, potentially
requiring partnerships with companies with
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core competencies in software, process control
systems, and grid integration. To get utilities to
be comfortable with newer BESS technology,
companies may also want to consider co-
investing in initial pilot projects.
Utilities face both risks and opportunities due
to advanced battery energy storage. While energy
storage may help improve the quality, reliability
and efficiency of their electricity supply, other
uses could affect overall demand as in the case
of accelerated adoption of electric and hybrid
vehicles. Peak load demand could grow quite
substantially if charging is unconstrained (that is,
if most drivers come home after work and charge
their vehicles when demand is highest). This could
place a new strain on peaking generation capacity,
thus requiring new investment.
Future energy policy/regulation for electricity
supply should include impact studies on energy
storage technologies to determine whether there
are incentives or disincentives for investment
in grid storage and other relevant applications.
The overall goal should be to ensure that energy
storage is permitted to compete on an equal
footing with other solutions. For example, grid-
storage BESS should be allowed to compete
with generation for frequency regulation and
with peaking plants for peak load electricity
supply. Introduction of renewable variable energy
generation quotas (solar photovoltaics) could also
promote investment in energy storage.
It is envisaged that by 2025, the potential of
energy storage for grid applications could become
much more clearly defined in terms of advances in
battery storage technology and cost. This market
development will have longer-term potential
(beyond 2025) to disrupt electricity generation
and distribution.
It is possible to envision a post-2025 scenario
in which renewable solar photovoltaic generation,
combined with cheap battery energy storage,
and higher energy prices of conventional fossil-
fuels for electricity production, could eventually
lead to significantly increased adoption of locally-
distributed solar photovoltaic power generation.
This could vastly alter the utility industry energy mix
in terms of fossil-fuels (coal and gas) for electricity
production, ushering in an era of localised micro-
grid of electricity/energy independence with
drastically reduced emission levels.
 Consumers and businesses stand to benefit
greatly from advances in battery energy storage
technologies, whether they are used to power
mobile internet devices, vehicles or entire
households.
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
Based on an expected doubling of lithium-ion
battery capacity in the next decade, electric-
powered vehicles (EVs) are expected to become
cost competitive with petrol-engine vehicles by
2025 on a total cost of ownership basis [Ref. 10].
Car manufacturers are investing heavily
developing both hybrid and pure electric models
to help meet tightening emissions standards.
Towns and cities want to impose restrictions on
conventional cars to reduce pollution and in the
long term, some European countries, including the
UK and France, want to ban them altogether by
2040.
In July 2017, the UK Government announced
that it would ban the sale of new petrol and diesel
cars and vans from 2040 onwards in order to cut
carbon emissions by 80% by 2050 from the 1990
levels, in tandem with phasing out remaining
coal-fired power plants by 2025. According to
experts, although some conventional cars will
remain on the road, numbers of EVs could balloon
to 20 million by 2040 from around 90,000 today.
Charging them all will require additional electricity
from the UK power grid and would add around
5% to the annual energy demand. This is where
“smart charging” will be deployed.
Smart charging facilities/systems will allow EVs
to draw power from the grid only when it is readily
available; avoiding peak periods, while ensuring
that they are fully charged when their owners
need them. Electricity utility companies will offer
different tariffs at different times of day (time-
of-use, ToU tariff), so that it will be worthwhile
financially to subscribe to smart charging, as it
could be a useful tool for managing demand when
EVs are parked for hours at a time, either at home
or at the workplace.
Implications on Electricity Supply Industry
One major hurdle for EV adoption in many
countries, including Malaysia, in the medium/
long-term, is the need to develop adequate
infrastructure in the form of recharging stations.
In this context, Governments, deep-pocketed
car makers and electricity utilities should be
primarily responsible for building the EV charging
infrastructure in order to facilitate electric and
hybrid vehicle adoption. This can be realised
through effective incentive-based regulations
considering the impact of retail petrol fuel pricing
on future adoption of EVs and carefully weighing
the trade-offs.
Going a step further, the smart charging
system can be further developed and configured
to deliver electricity to the grid — Vehicle to
Grid or V2G System — which are currently
being tested at few trial hubs in Europe and
Asia (Japan/Korea/China). Basically, EVs are in
effect energy storage devices on wheels, and
because they spend much of their time parked
and not doing anything, they can help smooth
out the peaks and troughs in electricity demand.
The V2G system uses software to regulate the
charging levels of multiple EVs parked at a smart
charging facility. When the grid needs extra
power, it can draw very small amounts from
each individual EV. During off-peak periods,
the grid can re-charge these vehicles again and
these EV users will get paid for the electricity
they provide. This V2G system technology has
the potential to be embedded in the Smart
Grid infrastructure, especially at the micro-grid
distribution/consumer end.
6. Smart Grid with Knowledge Automation
With the post Covid-19 pandemic world economic
fallout, many countries are accelerating their
investments in Energy Transition Programme for
Sustainable Renewable Energy/Energy Efficiency
(RE/EE) infrastructure projects with green
stimulus packages for rebuilding their economies.
Job creation and/or job upskilling as a result of
this Energy Transition investments is significant
compared to fossil fuels, and many countries are
already investing in it. See Figure 24.
A Smart Grid is an infrastructure comprising
electricity generation, delivery (transmission &
distribution) and consumer network, and which
incorporates information and communications
technology and automation technology to minimise
environmental impact, enhance markets, improve
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Figure 24: Job Creation due to Energy Transition Program Investments [Ref. 7]
reliability and service, reduce costs and improve
efficiency. It is in this context that the Smart Grid
is considered disruptive. It empowers customers to
engage directly with operators and stakeholders/
asset owners in electricity markets leading to a
more sustainable electricity supply industry and
greener economy.
With Advanced/Smart Metering Infrastructure
(AMI) and ToU electricity pricing mechanism
deployed at the distribution/consumer end,
consumers can actually tailor and optimise their
own usage/consumption. Consumers can also
engage in DR application as part of the demand-
side management (DSM) market through the
AMI infrastructure. Figure 25 illustrates the
architecture of AMI infrastructure as will be
deployed by a typical electricity utility company.
Figure 26 (a) and Figure 26 (b) graphically
show the transformation of the traditional
electricity grid infrastructure/centralised fossil-
fuelled generation to full smart grid realisation
[Ref. 6]. The transformation is through
integration of large-scale solar photovoltaic
power plants and BESS, and distributed solar
photovoltaic generation on consumers’ rooftops
with deployment of AMI for smart charging of
electric vehicles, ToU pricing and ancillary
market services (such as frequency regulation,
peak load shifting and DR applications) and
enhanced distribution management automation
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(DMA). Distribution management automation will
include functions, such as distribution network
security assessment, loss optimisation, fault
location-isolation-restoration and automatic
feeder reconfiguration.
Many utilities in US, UK/Europe and Australia
have already deployed regulatory-driven smart
grids in their electricity infrastructure. One of the
challenges of smart grid deployment is that it is
capital intensive. In UK, Italy and Australia, smart
grid cost recovery is through minimum monthly
rental fees, whereas in the US it is bundled into
the electricity tariff.
Malaysia is currently in the process of crafting
the necessary regulations which will address
smart grid cost recovery mechanism and the roles
and responsibilities of the Regulator (Suruhanjaya
Tenaga), the utility (TNB) and the customer. The
other issues with smart grid deployment pertain to
security of data and job threat to meter readers/
disconnectors. Key success factors to smart
grid deployment in the Malaysian electricity
infrastructure are:
● Clear regulatory framework
● Funding mechanism (Government grant/
support and/or regulatory pass-through)
● Robust technology infrastructure and
interoperability with pilot project at initial
stage of smart grid journey
● Effective customer engagement strategies.
 AMI involves smart meters, 2 -way communications network, MDMS and backend IT Systems

Figure 25: Architecture of Advanced/Smart Metering Infrastructure (AMI)

Source: TNB [Ref. 6]

7. Internet of Things tracked, co-ordinated, or controlled across a data

Physical objects, such as infrastructure, plants,
machinery, shipments, equipment and devices are
being equipped across the world with networked
sensors and actuators that enable them to
monitor their environment, report their status,
receive instructions, and even take actions based
on the information they receive. This is what is
meant by the “Internet of Things” (IoT). It is growing
rapidly and it is disruptive to traditional business
enterprises.
IoT refers to the use of sensors, actuators,
and data communications technology built into
physical objects that enable those objects to be
network or the Internet. There are three steps in
IoT applications: capturing data/information from
the object, aggregating that information across a
data network, and acting on that information —
taking immediate action or collecting data over a
period of time to design process improvements.
According to the MGI Report [Ref. 3], the IoT
has the potential to create economic impact
of USD2.7 trillion to USD6.2 trillion annually by
2025. Some of the most promising applications
are in health care, manufacturing, electricity
grid, urban water infrastructure and urban public
transport system. To capture the potential value of
these applications, enterprises will need to have

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Figure 26 (a) : Transformation to full smart grid

Figure 26 (b): Transformation to full smart grid

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systems and capabilities to mine and analyse the
Big Data that remote sensors can provide.
The article “Better Connected Enterprises”,
Jarrett Potts, The Ingenieur, Vol.73, [Ref. 9], notes
that by 2018 there will be 22 billion IoT devices
installed worldwide and by 2022 one million new
devices will come online every hour. IoT devices and
solutions have the potential to redefine competitive
advantages in every type of business activity and
fundamentally alter how consumers interact with
business enterprises and how these enterprises
interact with their supply chain suppliers and
distribution partners.
Merging the physical and digital world also has
implications for privacy and security. As with data
connection, the connections that allow remote
machines to take action without human operator
are subject to hacking by unauthorised people,
criminals or terrorists. The data collected via health
monitoring could be abused. For example, the in-
home controllers for smart grid applications (such as
controllers that can selectively turn air-conditioning
or appliances on and off to save energy or take
advantage of lower tariff rates at different times
of day) have implications on home privacy and
autonomy. These issues will need to be addressed
before society and businesses will be able to reap
the full benefits of the Internet of Things.
Implications on Electricity Supply Infrastructure
Electricity utilities have been among the early
adopters. By bringing plants, equipment and other
assets of the electricity utility grid infrastructure
(generation, transmission and distribution
network) and its electricity consumers into
the connected world, IoT enables new ways of
monitoring and managing all the “moving parts”
that make up the electricity utility business. At
any moment, management can see the status
and flow of goods and materials through the utility
grid infrastructure to its connected consumers. By
monitoring those critical assets in real time, the
utility company can better gauge and control the
usage and optimise network performance, and
avoid disruptions by engaging in condition-based
preventive maintenance of these assets.
This means that rather than waiting to receive
calls from customers whose lights have gone out,
the electricity company can locate a failure as it
happens and, under some circumstances, even
restore power by re-routing service around the
failed transmission/distribution or generating
equipment.
Smart electrical grid systems are an important
IoT application, with a potential annual value of
about USD200 to USD500 billion by 2025 [Ref.3].
The bulk of this impact would come from demand-
side management (DSM) applications that could
reduce costly peak generation, which often
requires utilities to buy electricity at the highest
rates from the electricity market or invest in extra
peaking capacity plant such as fast-response gas-
turbine generators. Many commercial customers
already avoid scheduling energy-intensive
processes and production during periods of
peak power/energy demand, when costs are at
their highest, and some have formal agreements
with utilities to reduce usage whenever demand
reaches a certain level.
With IoT-embedded smart grids, consumers
can let the utility company automatically power
down high-use systems and appliances during
periods of peak demand or they can make
their own choices based on real-time tariff
rate information (time-of-use pricing) that the
company provides. DSM could reduce peak
power (Megawatt) capacity demand by 2 to
4% and cut overall energy demand (Megawatt-
hours) by 1 to 2%. This would allow utilities (such
as TNB) to avoid building potentially billions of
ringgit worth of additional peaking generating
capacity and transmission & distribution
infrastructure.
IoT sensors embedded in the smart grids
can monitor and diagnose in real-time, network
problems to prevent unplanned outages and
reduce corrective maintenance costs through
condition-based preventive maintenance
strategy. At the user end, smart meters equipped
with two-way communication capabilities could
reduce outage minutes and enable faster
outage restoration. They can also enable remote
automatic meter reading, eliminating the need for
personnel to gather that information.
The Internet of Things is such a sweeping
technology development that it is a challenge to
even explore all the possible ways in which it will
affect businesses, economies and society. For the
first time, computers are now able to receive data
from almost any kind of physical object, enabling
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managers and operators to monitor the well-being
and performance of plants, machines, equipment
and even people.
Hardware manufacturers that supply sensors,
actuators and communications devices will
continue to refine their products and reduce costs.
For example, the electricity power systems for
smart grid application could include hundreds of
thousands of devices, sensors and other hardware
that will need to be reliable, maintenance-free,
and interoperable. Some of the best-positioned
companies may be suppliers of big data and
analytical software that can help to extract
meaning from the enormous amount of data
flows that the Internet of Things will produce for
the power systems. With sensors, networks and
computer systems controlling these critical power
systems, the consequences of cyber-attacks could
be staggering. It will take a great deal of thought
and planning, as well as collaboration with private
sector vendors to create proper safeguards and
keep them up to date as these technological
advances continue.
In terms of data security and personal
privacy/autonomy, both business enterprises
and Government policy makers will have to come
together to craft the necessary regulations to
protect the consumers and society at large. Only
when these issues are addressed in parallel with
adoption of these technologies can widespread
adoption of IoT be successful.
In terms of public policy, Government will need
to establish clear understanding of the privacy
risks that accompany the Internet of Things.
The ability to put sensors virtually anywhere
— to observe the traffic on a residential street
or to monitor a home’s electricity use — will
undoubtedly raise serious concerns about how all
that information will be used.
8. Conclusion
This article discusses at length the issues and
challenges of the four identified disruptive
technologies that can significantly impact
Malaysia’s future energy scenario/outlook in terms
of electricity grid infrastructure demand-supply
development planning and the associated national
power system grid operation security.
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From the author’s viewpoint, the most
impactful disruptive technology for Malaysia’s
future electricity infrastructure is the anticipated
substantial integration of renewable and distributed
solar photovoltaic generation (greatly characterised
by its high variability and uncertainty) into the
energy mix portfolio of the generating systems. This
in turn will greatly affect the national electricity/
energy security in terms of demand-generation
balance, both for real-time power system operation
and short-term/medium-term operational planning
resource dispatch. If there is a lack of rigorous
power system security assessment strategic
studies, there is increased probability of partial
or full system collapse of the infrastructure as
System Inertia is expected to decrease in tandem
with increase in the levels of solar photovoltaic/
distributed renewable energy generation. Thus, the
current power system grid resiliency and capability
need to be greatly enhanced to support the
integration of this variable renewable energy solar
PV plants to mitigate this increased probability of
power system ‘blackout’.
This Renewable Energy (RE) Solar PV disruptive
technology plus the other three disruptive
technologies, namely, Energy Storage, Knowledge
Automation Smart Grid, and Internet-of-Things
will, however, bring about the so-called Energy
Transition period for Malaysia, just as for other
world economies. This Energy Transition will
accelerate the decarbonisation of the electricity
generation supply sector, particularly phasing out
the coal-fired power plants projects. The LCOE
of RE Solar PV are already competitive against
gas combine-cycle plants, meaning building new
RE Solar PV plants has economic imperative for
energy system costs. And, by 2025-2030, RE
Solar PV plus Grid-storage BESS is projected to
reach price parity with marginal cost of gas-fired
power plants.
Over the much longer-term horizon, from
2035 to 2050, the Government should
seriously revisit/reconsider the Nuclear Power
option scenario recommendation (which was
temporarily shelved in 2018) as contained in
the Nuclear Power Infrastructure Development
Plan Feasibility Study undertaken by Malaysia
Nuclear Power Corporation. This Nuclear Power
option will certainly improve further the fuel mix
diversification index of the generation supply,
enhance the national power system grid resiliency,
capability and security, and offer long-term LCOE
buffer against natural gas and coal price volatility
risk. In this context, both China and South Korea,
which are presently heavily investing in the Energy
Transition RE Green Sustainability Initiatives and
pushing for coal-fired power plant phase-out
decarbonisation programmes, are very much
nuclearised in their long-term energy/electricity
development planning scenario outlook. Malaysia
should take heed of this.
Additionally, the Energy Transition will also
witness mass adoption of electric vehicles
in the 2025–2030 period, further driving
decarbonisation via electrification through
the Smart Grid EV charging infrastructure. By
promoting Energy Efficiency (EE) initiatives
through the Knowledge Automation Smart Grid
and Internet-of-Things technologies, there will
be handsome opportunities for future electricity
consumers to optimise their energy usage and
increase their monetary savings. Finally, there will
be great opportunities for this Energy Transition
to create new high-skilled jobs and build new
economic engines for Malaysia.
REFERENCE
[3] McKinsey Global Institute (MGI). Disruptive
Technologies: Advances that will transform
GLOSSARY
AMI Advanced Metering /Smar t
Infrastructure
BESS Battery Energy Storage System
DSM Demand Side Management
DR Demand Response
EE Energy Efficiency
ESI Electricity Supply Industry
GWh GigaWatt hour (unit of energy)
Hz Hertz (electricity frequency in cycles
per second)
IoT Internet-of-Things
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
IEA International Energy Agency
Joule Basic unit of energy: 1 GWh = 3.6
TeraJoules
ktoe Kilotonne of oil equivalent: 1 ktoe =
11.63 GWh
Life, Business and the Global Economy,
Report May 2013
[5] Amir Basha Ismail. Electricity Demand-
Generation Balance: The Question of National
Energy Security. The Ingenieur, Vol. 60, Board
of Engineers Malaysia (BEM), Oct-Dec 2014
[6] Amir Basha Ismail. Impact of Disruptive
Technologies on Electricity Grid Infrastructure.
The Ingenieur, Vol. 75, Board of Engineers
Malaysia (BEM), July-Sept 2018
[7] World Energy Forum (WEF): Malaysia Energy
Roundtable - Energy Transition. TNB, Aug.
2020
[8] Malaysia Solar PV Roadmap 2016 -2030.
MPIA Industry Engagement, June 2018
[9] Jarret Potts. Digital Transformation: Better
Connected Enterprises. The Ingenieur, Vol.
73, Board of Engineers Malaysia (BEM), Jan-
March 2018
[10] Malavika Tohani. Global Lithium-ion Battery
Market: Growth trends and Application
analysis. Frost & Sullivan Report, Feb. 2013
[11] World Energy Outlook 2011. International
Energy Agency, Nov 2011
LCOE Levelised Cost of Electricity
MESI Malaysian Electricity Supply Industry
Mmscfd Million standard cubic feet per day
(for volumetric measurement of
Natural Gas fuel)
Mmbtu Metric million British Thermal Unit
(for measurement of heat quantity or
energy value)
MW MegaWatt (unit of power): 1 Watt = 1
Joule/Sec
NLDC National Load Dispatch Centre
PV Photovoltaic
RE Renewable Energy
ST S u r u h a n j a y a Te n a g a /E n e r g y
Commission
ToU Time-of-Use (of electricity)
TNB Tenaga Nasional Berhad
VG Variable Generation
WEF World Energy Forum
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 INGENIEUR
What Others Say About Environment
By Samniang Saenram
UN Global Compact launches Climate
Ambition Accelerator (Source: UNEP)
REPORT
With 500 companies already committed to the
Business Ambition for 1.5°C campaign, the
United Nations Global Compact has launched
the  Climate Ambition Accelerator, a six-month
learning programme to equip more companies
with the knowledge and skills they need to help
halve global emissions by 2030 and to reach net-
zero by 2050.
“This is a make-or-break year to confront the
climate emergency. Meaningful actions taken by
businesses collectively now have the power to
limit global warming to 1.5°C. Our new Climate
Ambition Accelerator enables more companies in
our Local Networks to join the transition to a net-
zero future and get started in setting ambitious,
credible, science-based targets,” said Sanda
Ojiambo, CEO & Executive Director of the UN
Global Compact.
Led by the UN Global Compact with support
from patrons Ørsted and Natura & Co, and
sponsored by En+ Group, the Climate Ambition
Accelerator aims to scale-up credible climate
action across companies of all sizes, sectors
and regions, to enable them to set and deliver on
meaningful commitments to reduce emissions
and deliver on the Paris Climate Agreement.  or how to get there. That's why the launch of the
The new programme builds on the UN
Global Compact’s work to develop and promote
the  Science Based Targets initiative  and
the  Business Ambition for 1.5°C campaign.
It also complements the Global Compact’s
existing environmental sustainability efforts
such as the Action Platform on Climate Ambition,
the  Sustainable Ocean Business Action
Platform and the Water Resilience Coalition, which
in turn contribute to the Race to Zero and Race
to Resilience campaigns in the lead up to COP26.
Through the Global Compact Local Networks
around the world, companies participating in the
Climate Ambition Accelerator will gain access to
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best practices, peer-to-peer learning opportunities,
capacity building sessions and on-demand
training. The Climate Ambition Accelerator aims to
engage 750 companies, including SMEs, across
industries in more than 25 countries to focus on
setting science-based targets. Companies of all
sizes are encouraged to apply for the accelerator
programme at unglobalcompact.org/climate-
ambition-accelerator.
Mads Nipper, CEO of Ørsted said: “Companies
can and must be catalysts for green action. We
believe that the companies that will thrive in
10 or 20 years from now, are those that take a
fundamentally sustainable approach. That’s why
Ørsted is honoured to be a patron of the UN Global
Compact’s Climate Ambition Accelerator, which
aims to help companies put carbon reduction at
the heart of their business. By sharing insights
on how Ørsted has transformed sustainably and
performed well at the same time, we hope to
inspire companies globally to engage in a faster
green transformation."
Roberto Marques, Executive Chairman and
Group CEO for Natura & Co said: “This is the
decade for action to address the climate crisis and
we have no time to lose. Every business needs to
commit to a better, more sustainable future. It
may be challenging to understand where to begin
Climate Ambition Accelerator is so important. It
will help companies to act, move faster, be more
accountable, and to ultimately reach their net zero
goals.”
High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices
(Source: Carbon Pricing Leadership
Coalition)
The High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices’
objective is to identify indicative corridors of
carbon prices that can be used to guide the design
of carbon-pricing instruments and other climate
policies, regulations, and measures to incentivise
bold climate action and stimulate learning and
innovation to deliver on the ambition of the Paris
Agreement and support the achievement of the
Sustainable Development Goals.
a. Ta c k l i n g c l i m a t e c h a n g e i s a n
urgent and fundamental challenge.
At COP21 in Paris in December 2015,
nearly 200 countries agreed to hold
“the increase in the global average
temperature to well below 2°C above pre-
industrial levels and to pursue efforts to
limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C.”
The goal of stabilising the temperature
increase to well under 2°C is largely
motivated by concerns over the immense
potential scale of economic, social, and
ecological damages that could result from
the failure to manage climate change
effectively. These temperature targets
require a large-scale transformation
in the structure of economic activity—
including a major change in energy
systems (especially power generation);
industrial processes; space heating and
cooling systems; transport and public
transportation systems; urban forms; land
use (including forests, grasslands, and
agricultural land); and the behaviours of
households. However, climate policies,
if well designed and implemented, are
consistent with growth, development, and
poverty reduction. The transition to a low-
carbon economy is potentially a powerful,
attractive, and sustainable grow th
story, marked by higher resilience, more
innovation, more liveable cities, robust
agriculture, and stronger ecosystems.
To succeed, that is, to deliver efficiently
and fully realise the potential benefits of
climate policies, careful policy design is
essential.
b. A well-designed carbon price is an
indispensable part of a strategy for
reducing emissions in an efficient way.
Carbon prices are intended to incentivise
the changes needed in investment,
production, and consumption patterns, and
to induce the kind of technological progress
that can bring down future abatement
costs. There are different ways to introduce
a carbon price. Greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions can be priced explicitly through
a carbon tax or a cap-and-trade system.
c. Achieving the Paris Agreement objectives
will require all countries to implement
climate policy packages. These packages
can include policies that complement
carbon pricing and tackle market failures
other than the GHG externality.
d. The Commission explored multiple lines
of evidence on the level of carbon pricing
that would be consistent with achieving
the temperature objective of the Paris
Agreement, including technological
roadmaps, analyses of national mitigation
and development pathways, and global
integrated assessment models, taking into
account the strengths and limitations of
these various information sources.
e. Explicit carbon-pricing instruments can
raise revenue efficiently because they help
overcome a key market failure: the climate
externality.
f. Carbon pricing by itself may not be sufficient
to induce change at the pace and on the scale
required for the Paris Agreement target to be
met, and may need to be complemented by
other well-designed policies tackling various
market and Government failures, as well as
other imperfections.
A combination of policies is likely to be more
dynamically efficient and attractive than a single
policy. These policies could include investing in
public transportation infrastructure and urban
planning; laying the groundwork for renewable-
based power generation; introducing or raising
efficiency standards, adapting city design,
and land and forest management; investing in
relevant R&D initiatives; and developing financial
devices to reduce the risk-weighted capital
costs of low-carbon technologies and projects.
Adopting other cost-effective policies can mean
that a given emission reduction may be induced
with lower carbon prices than if those policies
were absent.
Countries may choose different instruments
to implement their climate policies, depending
on national and local circumstances and on the
support they receive. Based on industry and
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 INGENIEUR
policy experience, and the literature reviewed,
duly considering the respective strengths
and limitations of these information sources,
this Commission concluded that the explicit
carbon-price level consistent with achieving the
temperature target is at least USD40–80/tCO2 by
2020 and USD50–100/tCO2 by 2030, provided a
supportive policy environment is in place.
The temperature objective of the Paris
Agreement is also achievable with lower near-
term carbon prices than indicated above if
needed to facilitate transitions; doing so would
require stronger action through other policies and
instruments and/or higher carbon prices later, and
may increase the aggregate cost of the transition.
The carbon pricing and complementarity
measures indicated here are substantially stronger
than those in place at present (85% of global
emissions are currently not priced, and about
three-quarters of the emissions that are covered
by a carbon price are priced below USD10/tCO2 ).
This statement is consistent with the
observation that the Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) for 2030 associated
with the Paris Agreement represent emission
reductions that are substantially smaller than
those necessary for achieving the target of “well
below 2°C.”
World’s forests still big carbon store for
now, but threats growing
(Source: Straits Times)
The world’s forests are still soaking up billions of
tonnes of planet-warming carbon dioxide (CO2)
every year, a global study has found, despite
millions of hectares being burned and cleared for
agriculture.
The findings show that forests remain a key
brake on the pace of climate change by locking
away large amounts of CO 2 from industry,
power stations and cars even after decades of
destruction.
But the analysis shows that some forests,
especially those in South-East Asia and the
Amazon, are in trouble, becoming major sources
of greenhouse gas emissions. It is a situation that
could worsen unless land clearing and fires are
rapidly reined in. Failure to do so could significantly
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undermine global efforts to fight climate change,
scientists say.
The study, published in the journal Nature
Climate Change, involved researchers from US
space agency Nasa, the World Resources Institute
(WRI), the Centre for International Forestry
Research and others.
To get a better idea of the role of forests in
regulating global CO2 emissions, they came up
with a method of calculating how much of the
gas forests soak up naturally every year and how
much of it is produced through deforestation,
fires, clearing and draining peatlands and other
disturbances.
The researchers created a map of greenhouse
gas emissions (sources) and CO2 removals (sinks)
from global forests at a resolution of 30m  by
30m between 2001 and 2019.
They found that the world’s forests sequestered
about twice as much CO2 as they emitted between
2001 and 2019. This “carbon sink” totalled a net
7.6 billion tonnes of CO2 per year, 1.5 times more
than the United States emits annually.
In all, forests absorbed about 16 billion tonnes
of CO2, or about 30% of mankind’s greenhouse
gas emissions.
But deforestation, burning and other damage
released more than eight billion tonnes of
emissions every year, the researchers found. And
that has been taking a toll on some of the world’s
richest and largest carbon stores.
“Over the past 20 years, forests across South-
east Asia have collectively become a net source of
carbon emissions due to clearing for plantations,
uncontrolled fires and drainage of peat soils,” co-
authors Nancy Harris and David Gibbs of WRI said
in a blog post.
The region has the world’s third largest stretch
of tropical rainforest, yet these forests now emit a
net 490 million tonnes of CO2 a year.
For the Amazon too, the picture is grim.
“The Amazon River basin, which stretches
across nine countries in South America, is still
a net carbon sink, but teeters on the edge of
becoming a net source if forest loss continues at
current rates,” the co-authors said.
Over the past four years, clearing for cattle
pasture and degradation from fires have caused
a big jump in deforestation and degradation in the
Amazon Basin.
Key International
Conventions on the
Environment
By Lim Tau Wee
Montreal Protocol
The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
the Ozone Layer is the landmark multilateral
environmental agreement that regulates the
production and consumption of nearly 100
man-made chemicals referred to as ozone
depleting substances (ODS). When released to
the atmosphere, these chemicals damage the
stratospheric ozone layer, Earth’s shield that
protects humans and the environment from
harmful levels of ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
Adopted on September 15, 1987, the Protocol
is to date the only UN treaty ever that has been
ratified by every country on Earth — all 198 UN
Member States.
Nagoya Protocol
The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic
Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing
of Benefits Arising from their Utilisation is a
supplementary agreement to the Convention
on Biological Diversity (CBD). It provides a
transparent legal framework for the effective
implementation of one of the three objectives
of the CBD: the fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic
resources.
REPORT
MINAMATA Convention on Mercury
The Minamata Convention on Mercury is a global
treaty to protect human health and the environment
from the adverse effects of mercury. It was agreed
at the fifth session of the Intergovernmental
Negotiating Committee on mercury in Geneva,
Switzerland on January 19, 2013 and adopted
later that year on October 10, 2013 at a Diplomatic
Conference (Conference of Plenipotentiaries), held
in Kumamoto, Japan. The Convention entered into
force on August 16, 2017 on the 90th day after the
date of deposit of the 50th instrument of ratification,
acceptance, approval or accession.
Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora
The Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES) is an international agreement
between Governments. Its aim is to ensure that
international trade in specimens of wild animals
and plants does not threaten the survival of the
species.
CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution
adopted in 1963 at a meeting of the members of
IUCN (The World Conservation Union). CITES came
77
 INGENIEUR
into force on July 1, 1975. Because the trade in
wild animals and plants crosses borders between
countries, the effort to regulate it requires
international co-operation to safeguard certain
species from over-exploitation. Today, it accords
varying degrees of protection to more than 37,000
species of animals and plants, whether they
are traded as live specimens, fur coats or dried
herbs. For many years, CITES has been among
the conservation agreements with the largest
membership at 183.
Stockholm Convention
The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to
protect human health and the environment from
persistent organic pollutants (POPs). POPs are
chemicals that remain intact in the environment
for long periods, become widely distributed
geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue
of living organisms and are toxic to humans and
wildlife. POPs circulate globally and can cause
damage wherever they travel. In implementing
the Convention, Governments will take measures
to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into
the environment. Over 152 countries ratified
the Convention and it came into force on May
17, 2004.The Stockholm Convention focuses on
eliminating or reducing the release of POPs. It
sets up a system for tackling additional chemicals
identified as unacceptably hazardous. Ultimately,
the Convention points the way to a future free of
dangerous POPs and promises to reshape our
economy's reliance on toxic chemicals.
Convention on Biological Diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) came
into force on December 29, 1993. It has three
main objectives:
a) the conservation of biological diversity;
b) the sustainable use of the components of
biological diversity; and
c) the fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising out of the utilisation of
genetic resources. in global average temperature to well below 2°C
It provided an overarching framework on
biodiversity, not only for the biodiversity-related
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conventions, but for the entire United Nations
system and all other partners engaged in
biodiversity management and policy development.
Basel Convention
The Basel Convention is an international treaty
that was designed to reduce the movements of
hazardous waste between nations and specifically
to prevent the transfer of hazardous waste from
developed to less developed countries (LDCs).
It does not, however, address the movement
of radioactive waste. The convention is also
intended to minimise the rate and toxicity of
wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally
sound management as closely as possible to
the source of generation, and to assist LDCs
in environmentally sound management of the
hazardous and other wastes they generate.
Kyoto Protocol
The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which
extended the 1992 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that
commits state parties to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions, based on the scientific consensus that
(part one) global warming is occurring and (part
two) that human-made CO2 emissions are driving
it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan,
on December 11, 1997 and entered into force
on February 16, 2005. There were 192 parties
(Canada withdrew from the protocol, effective
December 2012) to the Protocol in 2020.
Paris Agreement
The Paris Agreement is an agreement within the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), on climate change mitigation,
adaptation, and finance, signed in 2016. As of
March 2021, 191 members of the UNFCCC are
parties to the agreement. The Paris Agreement's
long-term temperature goal is to keep the rise
(3.6°F) above pre-industrial levels and to pursue
efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C (2.7°F),
recognising that this would substantially reduce
the risks and impacts of climate change.
Ramsar Convention
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands is an
international treaty for the conservation and
sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as
the Convention on Wetlands. It is named after the
city of Ramsar in Iran, where the Convention was
signed in 1971.
Every three years, representatives of the
contracting parties meet at the Conference of
the Contracting Parties (COP), the policy-making
organ of the Convention which adopts decisions
(resolutions and recommendations) to administer
the work of the Convention and improve the way
in which the parties are able to implement its
objectives.
UN Convention to Combat Desertification
The United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD) is a Convention to
combat desertification and mitigate the effects of
drought in those countries experiencing serious
drought and/or desertification, particularly in
Africa, through national action programmes
that incorporate long-term strategies supported
by international co-operation and partnership
arrangements. The Convention is based on
the principles of participation, partnership
and decentralisation—the backbone of Good
Governance and Sustainable Development. It has
197 parties, making it near universal in reach.
UN Framework Convention on Climate
Change
The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international
environmental treaty addressing climate change,
negotiated and signed by 154 states at the
United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), informally known as
the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from
June 3 to 14, 1992.
The UNFCCC seeks for the stabilisation of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
at a level that would prevent dangerous
anthropogenic human-induced interference with
the earth’s climate system. Such a level should
be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow
ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change,
to ensure that food production is not threatened
and to enable economic development to proceed
in a sustainable manner.
ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary
Haze Pollution
The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze
Pollution is a legally binding environmental
agreement signed in 2002 by the member states
of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
to reduce haze pollution in Southeast Asia. The
Agreement recognises that transboundary haze
pollution which result from land and/or forest fires
should be mitigated through concerted national
efforts and international co-operation.
International Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Co-operation
The International Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Co-operation
(OPRC) is an international maritime convention
establishing measures for dealing with marine oil
pollution incidents nationally and in co-operation
with other countries. As of November 2018, there
were 112 state parties to the convention. OPRC
Convention was drafted within the framework of
the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and
adopted in 1990, entering into force in 1995. In
2000, a Protocol to the Convention relating to
hazardous and noxious substances (HNS) was
adopted (the OPRC-HNS Protocol).
In accordance with this Convention, States-
Parties to the 1990 Convention undertake,
individually or jointly, to take all appropriate
measures to prepare for and respond to oil
pollution incidents.
REFERENCE
UNEP, Wikipedia
79
 INGENIEUR
ENGINEERING NOSTALGIA

Johor Bahru Causeway, 1960

By Cheo Hong Keyong

Johor Bahru Causeway, 1960: Notice the cross-flow current of the balancing culverts in the middle
section. Most were later blocked after a series of widening works resulting in stagnant water on both
sides of the structures. Notice the vehicles were mainly of continental make such as Volkswagen,
Austin, Ford and Vauxhall. (Source: Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia.)

The history of the Johor Bahru Causeway dates
back to a proposal by the Federated Malay States
(FMS) Director of Public Works, W. Eyre Kenny
to build a rubble Causeway. The proposal was
supported by the Federal Council of the FMS.
The plan by consultant engineers Messrs Coode,
Fitzmaurice, Wilson & Mitchell of Westminster, UK
was approved in 1919.
The Causeway construction was one of the
largest engineering projects in Malaya then. Tidal
studies were carried out prior to the construction,
and design features considered its structure,
surroundings, and continued ship passage
through the Straits. The orientation also factored
in the current railway terminations on both shores.
It was designed to be 3,465ft long, 60ft wide,
sufficient enough for two lines of metre-gauge
railway tracks and a 26-foot-wide roadway, with
space reserved for laying of water mains at a later
date. Floodgates were incorporated at the lock to
control the tides. A total of 24 balancing culverts
were laid underneath the Causeway to allow cross
current flow between two sides of the structure.
The construction contract was awarded to
Messrs Topham, Jones & Railton Ltd of London
on June 30, 1919. The Causeway was officially
completed in 1924 at an estimated cost of 17
million Straits dollars. Over 2,300 staff and
labourers were employed during the course of
the construction. An opening ceremony was
conducted in Johor on June 28, 1924.
The Causeway was widened in 1964 and
further widened in 1976, and again from 1989 to
1991 due to increasing traffic volume.
REFERENCE
Wikipedia
Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia

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