LESSON 1: DECRIBING WRITTEN TEXT AS CONNECTED DISCOURSE

 SENTENCES – self-contained unit that expresses thought.\

 TEXT – the original words of something written, printed, or spoken.
- A coherent stretch of language that may be regarded as an object of critical analysis
- This refers to content rather than form.
 PARATEXT – information related to a text and often printed alongside it – such as authors name, publishers,
date of publication.
 DAVID BARTON AND CARMEN LEE – linguist
- TEXT can no longer be thought of as relatively fixed and stable.
- It becomes increasingly multimodal and interactive.

AREAS OF LINGUISTICS
 PHONOLOGY – abstract sound system of a particular language
 PHONETICS – speech sounds and equivalent gestures
 MORPHOLOGY – structure of words.
 SYNTAX – rules governing the structure of sentences.
 SEMANTICS – meaning.
 PRAGMATICS – how social context contributes to meaning.
TEXT – any passage – spoken or written, of whatever length, which does a unified whole.
CONNECTED DISCOURSE – also known as connected speech.
- A spoken language or written text that is used in continuous sequence of sounds.
2 TYPES OF CONNECTED DISCOURSE
Spoken Language – words that are pronounced.
Written Text – is from spontaneous discreteness that predetermined its connectedness.

READING AND THINKING STRATEGIES ACROSS TEXT TYPES

Views toward the nature of sentences have changed through time. Customarily, sentences are regarded as self-
contained units. Now, the focus is given to studying how sentences are used in connected stretches of language,
termed as "texts." Language is presented as sets of sentences and not just fragments of sentences. Fowler (1991)
maintained that a text is made up of sentences, but there exist separate principles of text-construction that is beyond
the rules for making sentences. As an extended structure of syntactic units, TEXTS are any passage- spoken or written,
of whatever length, that does form a unified whole.

CONNECTED SPEECH, also known as 'connected discourse, is spoken language that is used in continuous
sequence of sounds, just like in normal conversations. As observed, there is often a significant difference between the
way words are pronounced in isolation and the way they are pronounced in the context of connected speech
(grammar.about.com) In most aspects, written text shares the same nature as that of spoken language. As connected
discourse, written text is formed from spontaneous discreteness that predetermined its connectedness.

Texts are any of a wide variety of types of genres of linguistic forms which can be spoken or written. Among
written texts, the range of possibilities extends from labels and forms and charts to essays and manuals and books.
"Textbook" is one type of text, a book for use in an educational curriculum.

In our highly literate society, there are literally hundreds of different types of written text, much more of a variety
than found in spoken texts. Each of the types listed below represents, or is an example of, a genre of written language.
BROWN (1994)
- Henry Douglas brown
- A professor and a TESOL awardee (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language)
Brown (1994) presented the inexhaustive list of written text:

 Non-fiction  Business  Labels

 Reports  Greeting cards  Signs
 Editorials  Diaries, journals  Recipes
 Essays, articles  Memos (e.g. interoffice memos)  Bills (and other financial statements)
 Reference (dictionaries, encyclopedias)  Messages (e.g. phone messages)  Maps
 Fiction  Announcements  Manual
 Novels  Newspaper "journalese"Personal  Menus
 Short stories  Schedules (e.g. transportation
 short answer test response reports
 Jokes information)
 essays, papers
 Dramas  Advertisements
 theses, books
 Poetry  Commercial
 Forms, applications
 Letters  Personal ('want ads")
 Questionnaires
 Personal  Invitations Directories (e.g.
 Directions
telephone, yellow pages)
 Academic writing  Comic strips, cartoons
 Comic strips, cartoons
 "Texts in general are self-contained, well-formed, hang together (cohesive), make sense (coherent), have a clear
communicative purpose, recognizable text types, appropriate to their contexts of use.
Scott Thornbury, Beyond the Sentence, p 19, Macmillan, 2005

SEQUENTIAL IMPLICATIVENESS
Written text is viewed in much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an
understanding of the entire text. Text linguistics takes into account not just the form of a text, but also its setting, i.e. the
way in which it is situated in an interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well
as its addressee is taken into consideration in their respective (social and/or institutional) roles in the specific
communicative context. In general, it is an application of discourse analysis at the much broader level of text, rather than
just a sentence or word.

Text is extremely significant in all aspects of communication because we communicate not by means of individual words
or fragments of sentences, but by means of texts that are recognized as extended structure of syntactic units (super
sentence).

There is clear distinction between a surface text and deep text. While SURFACE TEXT refers to the set of expressions
actually used to make some knowledge explicit, DEEP TEXT occurs during processing, leaving other knowledge implicit.
What makes a text understandable is the element of TEXTURE.

Crane (1994) described texture as the basis for unity and semantic interdependence within text. He added that any
written text that lacks texture would simply be a bunch of isolated sentences that have no relationship to each other.

A feature of texture is 'SEQUENTIAL IMPLICATIVENESS. This denotes connectionism- each line in a text is connected
from or connected to the previous line. Each succeeding line is built upon the preceding lines; henceforth, language
contains a linear sequence. The linear progression of text creates a context of meaning- the "with" the text.

LESSON 2: SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION

One of the most invigorating things we have is the fact that we constantly need to deal with a number of information
every day. How we select and organize such information is crucial as our decision brings about success or failure in
whatever course of action we take. Probably the most pressing need right now is the need to systematize- choosing
what to keep and what to throw away. There can be sufficient variety in selecting and organizing techniques to keep us
armed with the essential information.
There seems to be no end to the amount of information and knowledge you acquire every day from myriad sources-
interesting articles, posts, courses and other types of information research you have done. Your skills in selecting and
organizing information will prevent extremely valuable information from being dormant and not helping you at all.

Blake (2002) accentuated that organization, to a large extent, determines whether you have effectively communicated
your main points to your readers. To him, people want to get to the main message without wading through lots of
extraneous material, and they like to know where they can find the information they're expecting, whether it's figures, a
list of issues, or your opinions

Important points must not be left out when dealing with any material at hand. As such; there are techniques in
selecting and organizing information. These include using brainstorming list, graphic organizers and outlines.

BRAINSTORMING LIST

BRAINSTORMING is a powerful group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific
problem by gathering a LIST OF IDEAS spontaneously contributed by its members. The term was popularized by Alex
Faickney Osborn in the 1953 in his book, Applied Imagination.

Brainstorming is an informal way of generating topics to write about, or points to make about your topic. It can be done
at any point along the writing process. You can brainstorm a whole paper or just a conclusion or an example. The
important point about brainstorming is that there should be no pressure to be "brilliant." You should simply open your
mind to whatever that pops into it.

Listing is a brainstorming technique many people find useful. It means doing just what its name suggests - listing
possible topics and then sublists of things you could say about each topic. For instance, a list could consist of the main
topic of regional dialects and then sublists would be regional dialects you know or have experienced. Additional sublists
might include the particular words of each of those dialects, things you have noticed about those dialects
(http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/gentopic/pop4d. cfm)
Brainstorming with a group of people is a powerful technique. Brainstorming creates new ideas, solves problems,
motivates and develops teams. However, brainstorming is not simply a random activity. Brainstorming needs to be
structured and it follows brainstorming rules. This is crucial as it needs to involve the team, which means that everyone
must be able to see what's happening. Brainstorming places a significant burden on the facilitator to manage the
process, people's involvement and sensitivities, and then to manage the follow up actions. Use brainstorming well and
you will see excellent results in improving the organization of your ideas as you about something
http://www.businessballs.com/brainstorming.html).

Our brain can absorb the ideas easily if we keep connected notes and ideas on a single paper. It is then imperative that
we should link common terms (meltiwater. com) within a random list, or perhaps show categories or themes or simply to
overwrite notes free from confusing mess. Our notes will be much more useful than ever. In addition, colors also are
helpful in organizing the list. Chapman (2016) cited that using different colors in creative jottings and written records
helps in making the notes and diagrams clearer. A sample color guide is provided for color-coding notes (using
underlines or circle or boxes):

Nouns/people/things black (Entities)

Verbs ('doing'/functional words) red (relationships)
Adjectives (describing a noun/thing/etc) blue (attributes)
Adverbs (describing a verb/function) green (degrees/range/etc))
Timings/costs/quantities yellow (measures)

The following tools and models listed in the succeeding page can be used within the brainstorming process to build and
create a context for brainstorming and a framework for brainstorming actions. When using any of these tools or models
within the brainstorming process, select models appropriate to the group, and the desired development and outcomes
for the brainstorming session.

MODELS/TOOLS FOR BRAINSTORMING

 SWOT analysis - for assessing the strength of a company, departmen, proposition or idea.
 PEST analysis - for measuring the attractiveness and potential of a market.
 The McKinsey Seven-S's - criteria for a successful company Adizes corporate life-cycle model - phases of
company development
 Delegation model - successful task delegation and staff development through delegation
 Tuckman's group development model - forming, storming, norming, performing.
 Kolb's learning styles - for training the trainers, coaching the coaches, and management development.
 Leadership attributes - for developing leadership among managers.
 Negotiation process - for sales and commercial staff and optimizing on profitable outcomes and customer
relationships.
 Cherie Carter-Scott's rules of life - behavior and attitude development and soft skills development
 The Four Agreements - behavior and attitude development and soft skills development
 Advanced 'Kaleidoscope Brainstorming © technique

GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Graphic organizers such as concept maps and mind maps are important and effective pedagogical tools for
organizing content and ideas and facilitating learners comprehension of newly acquired information.

Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences posits that students are better able to learn and internalize information
when more than one learning modality is employed in an instructional strategy. Since graphic organizer is a visual
display, it demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts of ideas. It guides the learner's thinking as they fill in and
build upon a visual map or diagram. Consequently, the students are facilitated in internalizing what they are learning.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS come in a variety of formats depending upon the task. The can be applied across the
curriculum to enhance learning and understanding of' topic. When used appropriately, these organizers help in
identifying areas of fock within a broad topic, such as novel or article, thereby, maximizing the learning of new material.
McKnight (2010) purported that graphic organizers enable the writer to organize material logically and to see
relationships between and among ideas. Effective use of graphic organizers can help the writer to present his or her
ideas in an effective and persuasive manner, resulting in a focused and coherent text. Depending on the nature of the
topic, graphic organizers come in different forms.
USING GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Graphic organizers actively engage a wide variety of learners by integrating text and visual imagery. Because graphic
organizers are often used as prompts for students to fill in the blanks, graphic organizers provide many benefits to
students who use them including:
 Helping students structure writing project
 Encouraging students to make decisions.
 Making it easy for students to classify ideas and communicate.
 Allowing students to examine relationships.
 Guiding students in demonstrating their thinking process
 Helping students increase reading comprehension.
 Making it easy to brainstorm
 Encouraging students to organize essential concepts and ideas.
50 USES OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS

1. Assist students in organizing information. 30. Help study for a test.

2. Assist teachers in planning lessons/units/themes.
31. Classroom organization chart with associated
3. Illustrate school's goals or plan for Parent-Teacher
responsibilities
Organization
32. How to/step by step for learning new software.
4. Illustrate instructional goal links to testing
33. Developing a course or workshop
expectations.
34. Planning a WebQuest
5. To show what each grade will be teaching and how
35. Documenting job responsibilities
units fit into the larger picture of curriculum for the
36. Planning a Web site
whole school.
37. Personal professional goals
6. Assess student learning.
38. Concept maps to send home to parents to help
7. Show integration of different topics across the
explain a unit so they can help their children
curriculum for a unit, lesson, or long-range plan
study/review.
8. Present difficult material in a step-by-step manner
39. Assist cooperative groups in defining projects and
9. Plot summaries
dividing job responsibilities.
10. Create cause effect/solution diagrams to resolve
40. Faculty/district - responsibilities of committees
social issues within the classroom.
41. Flow charts for behavior plans for either the
11. Book design elements
classroom or a specific student.
12. Illustrate digestive system.
42. Similarities between different units through the use
13. Local government diagram
of the same structure in the graphic organizer.
14. Defining new terms
43. A tool for students to identify when they do not
15. Introducing a new concept
understand information and identify the where the
16. Note-taking organizer.
breakdown is in their comprehension.
17. Detailed processes (how to add polynomials etc.)
44. To add more depth in a compare/contrast lesson, for
18. Creating storyboards for PowerPoint and Hyper
example, identifying the important variables by color-
studio presentations
coding/other visual element, & then deciding if the
19. Comparison activities
variable is the same/different in the 2 objects of
20. Historical cause and effect
study.
21. Cycles (recycle, weather, etc.)
45. Showing relationships.
22. To construct a food chain
46. Procedures to follow during an emergency drill such
23. Map of where items are stored in desk, trapper, or
as a fire or storm drill.
locker.
47. Lab procedure explanation
24. Library orientation
48. To present lab conclusions and highlight important
25. Language Arts - character descriptions, plot
concepts (especially prior to completing a written
movement, action that leads to the climax.
explanation)
26. Math-to teach algorithms (especially division)
49. In foreign language classes create an organizer that
27. Math-problem solving because it is non-linear.
shows the English word on one side and the foreign
28. Create instructions for games.
language word equivalent on the other side with
29. Create picture charts that students can follow if they
pictures as hints.
are communication impaired. Kids can follow picture
50. When studying a poem, in the center concept list the
symbols such as the symbols found on the Mayer-
name of the poem and the connecting lines contain
Johnson Boardmaker software.
phrases from the poem. The subconcept explains
the words in the phrase and the literary technique
used such as personification.
 There are four basic graphic organizers: an outline (which will be discussed in the succeeding pages), Venn
diagram, hierarchical topical organizer and bubble organizer (see Figure 1). A Venn diagram is extremely effective
when the writer plans to compare and contrast elements, as it helps to visualize similarities and differences. Connected
organizational charts and bubble graphs are particularly helpful for visual learners, as they allow writers to map out
ideas spatially.
To create a concept map, write your topic in the middle of a page, then jot down different ideas, points, or facts
that are related to or support your topic. Your concept map might look something like in Figure 2.

Tools and templates for creating graphic organizers can be found at the following sites:
 Bubbl.us
-a free tool for creating color-coded mind maps online
 Thinkport.org
-offers a variety of pre-formatted graphic organizers in HTML, PDF, and Word document format
 Teacher Vision
-provides access to an extensive list of graphic organizers for all subject areas
OUTLINES
Another way of organizing information is through an outline. An outline, also called hierarchical outline, organizes
materials hierarchically and sequentially by classifying the main topics, subtopics and the supporting details. Outlines
allow you to group materials by similar concepts or content and put them into a logical order. The arrangement of items
follows a consistent principle. It is important to point out that each organizational level in an outline has at least two
subcategories as advised by major style manuals in current use. An outline of any type follows a special formatting
using the characters in this order: Roman Numerals, Uppercase Letters, Arabic Numerals and Lowercase Letters.

An alphanumeric outline includes a prefix at the beginning of each topic as a reference aid. The prefix is in the form
of Roman Numerals for the top level, 'uppercased letters in the alphabet for the next level, 'Arabic numerals for the next
level, and then lowercase letters for the next level. For further levels, the order is started over again. Each numeral or
letter is followed by a period, and each item is capitalized, as in the following sample:

Ex. D. Syntax
I. Distinctions in Linguistics E. Semantics
A. Synchronic and Diachronic F. Pragmatics
B. Langue and Parole III. Branches of Applied Linguistics
C. Competence and Performance A. Sociolinguistics p
D. Oral and Written B. Psycholinguistics
II. Technical Aspects of Linguistics C. Stylistics
A. Phonetics D. Corpus Linguistics
B. Phonology E. Historical Linguistics
C. Morphology F. Descriptive Linguistics
TYPES OF OUTLINES
There are two general types of outlines- the sentence outline and the topic outline. A sentence outline, as the
name suggests, is a hierarchical outline composed of sentences. Each includes a heading or single sentence of a
planned document about the subject of the outline. It is the type of outline typically used to plan the composition of
books, stories, and essays. It can also be used as a publishing format, in which the outline itself is the end product. On
the other hand, a topic outline is a hierarchical outline composed of topics. Each entry is a subtopic of the subject of
the outline application of topic outlines is the college course overview/outline, provided by professors to their students,
to describe the scope of the course.

Outlines Reading Text in Various Disciplines

Alphanumeric outline - It uses both letters and numbers as labels.
Coordination - It requires ideas of the same relevance to be labeled in the same way.
Cycle diagrams - Cycle Diagrams are a type of graphic organizer that shows how items are related to one another in a
repeating cycle. Use a cycle diagram when there is no beginning and no end to a repeating process.
Decimal outline - It only uses numbers as labels.
Division - It requires that no cluster should contain only one item.
Fishbone map- It is also called a cause and effect diagram or Ishikawa diagram, is a visualization tool for categorizing
the potential causes of a problem in order to identify its root causes
Graphic organizer - It is a visual and graphic display that depicts the relationships between facts, terms, and or ideas
within a learning task.
Idea list - It is simply involves listing ideas about a topic. It also helps you find the main idea and supporting details.
KWL - This chart is great for encouraging students to brainstorm and think about a topic prior to studying it.
Network tree - It shows the casual information or hierarchy or branching procedures.
Outline - An outline is a tool for organizing ideas. It is used not only as a pre-writing strategy but also a post-reading
activity.
Parallel construction - It requires all entries in each cluster to use the same structure and format.
Plot diagram - It is an organizational tool focusing on a pyramid or triangular shape, which is used to map the events in
a story and allows readers and writers to visualize its key features.
Sentence Outline - It uses complete sentences as its entries. You use a sentence outline when the topic being
discussed is complicated and requires details.
Spider map - It is sometimes called a semantic map which is used to investigate and enumerate various aspects of a
single theme or topic, helping the student to organize their thoughts.
Subordination- It shows that minor details must be placed under their respective major details.
Topic Outline - It uses words and phrases as its entries.
Venn diagram - Another graphic organizer that helps you visually represent a comparison of differences and
similarities between two subjects. It can include more than two topics and one common area.

LESSON 3- USING PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT IN WRITING ACROSS DISCIPLINE

For better understanding of the lesson, some important terms are defined.
1. Pattern - A particular way in which something is done, is organized or happens.
2. Discipline - A subject and a systematic way of approaching subject.
3. Feature - Distinctive attributes or aspects of something.
4. Transition - A process or a period of changing from one state or condition to another.

A pattern of development in writing refers to the particular strategy writers use to develop ideas. It is
the logical arrangement of ideas in a text. The pattern helps you follow ideas easily and understand a text
better. Moreover, knowing that these common patterns of human thought exist, will help you to both develop
and organize information in your essays or compositions.

Pattern of paragraph development presents ideas in logical and consistent structure to manage
information in an essay. Thus, the logical organization of paragraphs greatly enhances the ease with which
one can understand and remember the information presented. People seek out patterns to help make sense of
information. When a reader is not able to find a pattern that make sense, chaos and confusion abound.

NARRATION. It is the most basic pattern of development. It describes how, when and where an event
or occurrence actually happened. Likewise, it is used to tell a story or focus on a set of related events.
EXAMPLE:
It was July 21, 1969, and Neil Armstrong awoke with a start. It was the day he would become the first human being to
ever walk on the moon. The journey had begun several days earlier, when July 16th, the Apollo 11 launch from Earth
headed into outer space. On board with Neil Armstrong were Michael Collins and Buzz Aldrin. The crew landed on the
moon in the Sea of Tranquility a day before the actual walk. Upon Neil’s first step onto the moon’s surface, he declared.
“That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”

DESCRIPTION. The pattern of development which goes into details about a specific object, person, or
location, in order to firmly set its appearance.
EXAMPLE:
Sunset is the time of day when our sky meets the outer space solar winds. There are blue, pink, and
purple swirls, spinning and twisting, like clouds of balloons caught in a blender. The sun moves slowly to hide
behind the line of horizon, while the moon races to take its place in prominence atop the night sky. People slow
to crawl, entranced, fully forgetting the deeds that still must be done. There is coolness, a calmness, when the
sun does set.
 DEFINITION. It explains not just what something means or is, but also what something does, what
something is used for.
EXAMPLE:
Déjà vu is a French word meaning “already seen”. It has also been described as a feeling or experience that one has
seen something before. For example, you are waiting in line to check out the grocery store and the lady behind you
asks you to hand her a pack of gum. Suddenly you get an overwhelming feeling that you have been there in the exact
same spot, talking to the same lady, even the same brand gum. Even though everything seems so familiar you know
there is no way that could have happened before. There are many theories as to why and how this phenomenon
happens. One theory is that déjà vu is connected with temporal-lobe epilepsy, but people without a history of epilepsy
have also experienced déjà vu. Psychiatrists believe it is something in your brain that confuses an event that happened
in the past with the present. Another theory is parapsychologist think it is connected with past life experiences. Whether
déjà vu is an experience of the paranormal or simply some confusion in the brain, it a perplexing feeling of having
“already
CLASSIFICATION. A pattern that organizes ideas into categories or divisions based on criteria and
standards. This pattern can be used when classifying people, objects, events, things, places and other.
EXAMPLE:
There are three kinds of book owners. The first has all the standard sets and best sellers – unread, untouched (this
deluded individual owns wood pulp and ink, not books). The second has many great books – a few of them read
through, most of them dipped into, but all of them read as clean and shiny as the day they were bought (this person
would probably like to make books his own, but is restrained by a false respect of their physical appearance). The third
has a few books or many – every one of them dog eared and dilapidated, shaken and loosened by continual use,
marked and scribbled in from front to back (this man owns his books). In which classification would you belong? ---
Mortimer J. Adler, “Book Owners”
EXEMPLIFICATION. This pattern presents the general statement and then provides specific and
concrete examples to expound on the main idea. Simply put, this pattern is used to provide an example of
something.
EXAMPLE:
While Internet offers so many benefits to man, it also has its downsides. One of these is phishing, which
refers to act of obtaining personal information, such a s passwords and credit card details, through online
means. In other words, phishing is a form of cybercrime. As an example, let us consider the case of Mr. X. He
received an email stating that his Gmail account has been compromised and that he needed to click a link to
update personal information. If. Mr. X clicks on the link, his personal information will be illegally.
COMPARISON-CONTRAST. This pattern organizes ideas based on how events, places, people, things
and concepts are similar to or different from one another.
EXAMPLE:
Oceans and lakes have much in common, but they are quite different. Both are bodies of water, but
ocean are very large bodies of salt water, while lakes are much smaller bodies of fresh water. Lakes are usually
surrounded by land, while oceans are what surround continents. Both have plants and animals living in them.
The ocean is home to the largest animals on the planet, whereas lakes support much smaller forms of life.
When it is time for vacation, both will make a great place to visit and enjoy.
CAUSE AND EFFECT. This pattern explains why something happens or what results a particular event
produces. It organizes details based on the causes, the reason, and the result or consequences of certain
phenomenon.
EXAMPLE:
I do well in school, and people think I am smart because of it. But it’s not true. In fact, three years ago I
struggled in school. However, two years ago I decided to get serious about school and made a few changes.
First, I decided I would become interested in whatever was being taught, regardless of what other people
thought. I also decided I would work hard every day and never give up on any assignment. I decided to never,
never fall behind. Finally, I decided to make school a priority over friend and fun. After implementing these
changes, I became an active participant in classroom discussions. Then, my test scores began to rise. I still
remember the first time that someone made fun of me because “ I was smart:. How exciting! It seems to me
that being smart is simply a matter of working hard and being interested. Unfortunately, learning a new video
game doesn’t help you get into college or get a good job.

PROBLEM SOLUTION. This pattern organizes ideas into problems and proposed solutions. The
problem section usually includes the what, who, when, why and how of the problem. The other part then
presents the major effects of the problem and the possible solutions to address it, as well as the steps in
implementing the solution.
EXAMPLE:
Last week we installed a kitty door so that out cat come and go as she pleases. Unfortunately, we ran
into a problem. Our cat was afraid to use the kitty door. We tried pushing her through, and that caused her to be
even more afraid. The kitty door was dark, and she couldn’t see what was on the other side. The first step we
took in solving this problem was taping the kitty door open. After a couple of days, she was confidently coming
and going through the open door. However, when we removed the tape and closed the door, once again, she
would not go through. They say you catch more bees with honey, so we decided to use food as bait. We would
sit next to the kitty door with a can of wet food and click the top of the can. When kitty came through the closed
door, we would open the can and feed her. It took five days of doing this to make her unafraid of using the kitty
door. Now we have just one last problem, our kitty controls our lives!
PERSUASION. A persuasion pattern organizes ideas to show how a set of evidence lead to a logical
conclusion or argument. Specifically, this pattern presents the issue, the position, and the supporting evidence
that supports the position.
EXAMPLE:
 Last year was the first time I had ever been the new kid at school. For the first four days, I was
completely alone. I don’t think I even spoke to a single person. Finally, at lunch on the fifth day, Karen Watson
walked past her usual table and sat down right next to me. Even though I was new, I had already figured out
who Karen Watson was. She was popular. Pretty soon, all Karen’s friends were sitting there right next to me.
I never became great friend with Karen, but after lunch that day. It seemed like all sorts of people were
happy to be my friend. You cannot convince me that Karen did not know what she was doing. I have a great a
great respect for her, and I learned a great deal about what it means to be a true leader.

Note: Extemporaneous speech is a planned and prepared speech. Unlike memorized or manuscript
speeches which are delivered word-for-word, an extemporaneous speech is delivered with the help of short
notes and a clear outline. Most people who speak in public often prefer the extemporaneous method of
delivery. Although it might look more challenging than the manuscript or memorized speeches, it is more
spontaneous and personal.

PATTERN PURPOSE TRANSITIONAL

DEVICES
Narration The purpose of narration is to tell a story or relate an About Later meanwhile
event prior to
tomorrow
Description The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or Above across
visually present a person, place, event or action so that alongside between
the readers can picture that which is being described. beyond
Definition It moves beyond a dictionary definition to deeply is defined as as defined
examine a word or concept as we actually use and means refers to
understand it. to define
Classification It is used to classify people, objects, events, things, Another another kind
places and other items. classified final type
the first category
Exemplification This pattern is use to extend the idea further: it carries For instance as an
one or more examples into great detail in order to show example for example
the details of a complex problem in a way that’s easy for in particular namely
readers to understand.
Comparison The goal of comparison and contrast is generally to show Also as equally
and Contrast that one item is superior to another, based on a set of in a similar fashion both
evaluations included as part of the writing.
Cause and This pattern is used to show the different causes and as since, due to
Effect effects of various conditions. for the reason consequently
Problem This pattern is designed to compel the reader to make nonetheless one reason
Solution some kind of change in opinion or behavior by one solution is one way is
establishing that a problem exists, then providing a the problem
solution.
Persuasion This is used to presents the issue, the position, and the truly in fact
supporting evidence that supports the position inevitably
in essence
certainly

PITCHING PATTERN PAGES IN WRITING

Patterns of development in writing refer to the particular strategies writers use to develop ideas. These patterns help
sort out information and shape paragraphs. They serve as aids in writing as they provide certain direction on where the
writer wants his or her work to go. Furthermore, they set the structure of the written work depending on what type of
mood statement or purpose that is intended for the readers to convey. They deliver emphasis of the points with greater
weight of the texts base on the various intentions of each patterns.

 ESSAY - An analytic or interpretative literary composition usually dealing with its subject from a limited or
personal point of view.
 DEVELOPMENT - Act or process of growing or causing something to grow or become larger or more
advanced.
 ORGANIZE - Form into a coherent unity or functioning whole; arrange elements into a whole of interdependent
parts
Paragraph writing is the foundation of all essay writing, whether the form is descriptive, narrative,
persuasive, etc.
Organizing Paragraphs using the different patterns

1. Problem-Solution Paragraph
 2. Narrative Paragraph

3. Cause and Effect Paragraph

4. Persuasive Paragraph
Overview of the argument/thesis

Piece of evidence

Supporting Details

Opposing view

Conclusion

5. Classification Paragraph

1. Descriptive Paragraph

2. Definition Essay

1. Comparison and Contrast Paragraph

2. Exemplification Paragraph

Make yourself familiar with the words listed below.

1. Organization – the way a text is organized that helps to guide the reader logically through it
2. Physical format – it is how the text physically appears like headings and subheadings,
bullet points or font emphasis
3. Signal words - these are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text
4. Structure - this is the framework upon which the text is organized
5. Chronological - it organizes events in the order they happened
6. Spatial - it describes a scene typically organizing that information by location
7. Sequence – arrangement
8. Logical – reasonable
Text organization is the way a text is organized that helps to guide the reader logically through it. This property
makes a text readable and clear. In simpler words, it is the consistent development and completeness of ideas in a
text. You have to remember that a well-organized piece of writing supports readers by making it easy for them to
follow.

As you start studying this module, you will encounter some difficult words that might hinder you
in understanding the lesson. Try to make yourself familiar with the words listed below.
1. Organization – the way a text is organized that helps to guide the reader logically through it
2. Physical format – it is how the text physically appears like headings and subheadings, bullet points or
font emphasis
3. Signal words - these are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text
4. Structure - this is the framework upon which the text is organized
5. Chronological - it organizes events in the order they happened
6. Spatial - it describes a scene typically organizing that information by location
7. Sequence – arrangement
8. Logical – reasonable
What are the techniques to achieve text organization?
Organization can be achieved through the following techniques:
1. PHYSICAL FORMAT
- it is an aspect of the organization that is immediately apparent to the reader. It is seen in how the text
physically appears like headings and subheadings, bullet points or font emphasis. However, use this
technique with discretion as improper or superfluous formatting can be confusing.
Example: Marxist ideology has three main theories. Historical materialism claims that all the features of society
can historically be traced back to economic activity. Social class in capitalist societies is what produces unjust
structures of power that exist today. Socialism would be the next rational step for the development of human
society.
Explanation: The words in bold are the three main most important Marxist theories that the first sentence is
referring to. By emphasizing these words, the reader can identify the correct term for the concepts along with their
definitions; this would also aid in remembering the theories since they stick out from the rest of the text.
2. SIGNAL WORDS
- are textual cues that readers can use to follow a text. They can “signal” the transition from one point to another,
the ordering of events and concepts, or the writer’s chosen text type (e.g., linear narration, question and
answer).
Example: Chuck Palahniuk’s novel Fight Club greatly influenced me as a fictional writer. First, his use of the
unreliable narrator fascinated me, and I have written similar characters in my works. Second, the theme of
patriarchal oppression can also be found in the stories I write. Third, the novel’s stunning twist is something that I
have been trying to recreate. Thus, I am extremely grateful to have encountered Palahniuk’s genius early in my
writing career.
Explanation: The words in bold are the three main most important Marxist theories that the first sentence is
referring to. By emphasizing these words, the reader can identify the correct term for the concepts along with their
definitions; this would also aid in remembering the theories since they stick
3. STRUCTURE
- provides the framework upon which the text is organized. It consists of the following:
Beginning: introduction, thesis statement, hook
Middle: supporting details
- End: conclusion, summary, final message
Example: Ancient philosophies believe that a person has an “aura,” this appears as a rainbow of light around the
body that can be seen by individuals with clairvoyant abilities. The colors change depending on one’s mood, health
and thoughts. Some scientists believe that the existence of the aura has something to do with the electromagnetic
fields produced by cells and tissues in the human body. Whether auras are real or not, the fact remains that there
are forces everywhere that are real even though we cannot see them.
Explanation Organization in this paragraph is not readily noticeable as it does not use cues like formatting or signal
word: . However, the text is organized in this way:
 Beginning: Introduce topic of aura
 Middle: Definition and evidence of existence of auras
 End: Ending message about forces in the world

By adhering to the structure, the writer can produce a text that is still easy to follow. The topic, supporting details and
concluding message is still clear to the reader
 PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT

The organization of ideas is invariably one of the aspects in writing which is often highly valued. The overriding principle
of effective and well-written text is the writer's knowledge of the fundamental properties of text-organization, coherence
and cohesion, language use and mechanics. These properties show the interplay of both the physical aspects of
organization and deeper textual aspects.

A well-written text, therefore, is built around effective paragraphing, on coherence and on established
conventions

A well-organized piece of writing is not only clear but also logical and aesthetic. Existence of organizational markers
and coherent flow of ideas are typically the focus in evaluation of writing.

LESSON 4: FOUR FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT:

1. organization,
2. Coherence and cohesion,
3. language use
4. mechanics

1. ORGANIZATION
Strong organization constitutes proper paragraphing and logical order presentation of ideas. Paragraphing.
is dividing a text into paragraphs. Ostrom (1978) averred that it is a way of making visible to the reader the stages
in the writer's thinking. Although conventions about the length of paragraphs vary, that is, with one sentence, five
sentences or half a page) most guides suggest that you adapt paragraph length to your topic and audience.

The unity and coherence of ideas among sentences is what makes the paragraph. The paragraph is
essentially a unit of thought, not of length. It is also noteworthy to point out that length as well as the
appearance does not define a paragraph. In journalistic styles, for example, one-sentence paragraph is used.
Henceforth, paragraphing is determined by rhetorical situation.

Blakesley and Hoogeveen (2008) in the Thomson Handbook, shed light on the nature of rhetorical situation. To
them, the form, length, style, and positioning of paragraphs will vary, depending on the nature and
conventions of the medium (print or digital), the interface (size and type of paper, screen resolution and
size), and the genre. For example, paragraphs in a newspaper are quite a bit shorter, typically, than paragraphs in
a college essay because of the newspaper's narrow columns. On a website, paragraphs on the opening page may
consist of more signposts than would be typical in a printed work, allowing readers to select which direction to track
via hyperlink. Paragraphs in a work of creative nonfiction will likely include transitional words and sentence
structures not often found in lab reports.

"In short, the rhetorical situation should always guide your use of paragraphing. When you understand
paragraph conventions, your audience and purpose, your rhetorical situation, and your writing's subject matter, you
will be in the best position to decide how to use paragraphs strategically and effectively to teach, delight, or
persuade with your writing.”

Paragraphing is organizing ideas. To make your paragraph reader-friendly, break up the mass of words and use
appropriate signals as you make a new point. Normally, readers want to see how the argument is advancing from
one point to the next.
An unparagraphed page gives the reader the feeling of hacking a way through a thick jungle without a track in
sight--not very enjoyable and very hard work. A neat series of paragraphs acts like stepping stones that can be
followed pleasurably across the river."

There are 'basics’ to a well-organized paragraph. First, each paragraph must be built around a single idea termed
as the "controlling idea." Next, create a topic sentence which is generally written as opening sentence of the
paragraph. Then, an appropriate technique from a variety of ways of developing a paragraph must be employed to
develop the topic sentence/ key idea. Finally, in order to achieve unity, appropriate connectives between and
within paragraphs must be used. The formula of STTC (single idea, topic sentence, appropriate technique and
connectives) makes a well-structured paragraph

2. COHERENCE AND COHESION

Coherence and cohesion are two basic features that facilitate textual continuity. The terms are used in discourse
analysis to describe the properties of text. Basically, coherence refers to the rhetorical aspects of your writing,
which include developing and supporting your argument (e.g. thesis statement development), synthesizing and
integrating readings, organizing and clarifying ideas. Cohesion of writing is focused on the "grammatical" aspects of
writing (www.bothell.washington.edu).
 Coherence and cohesion are connected but cannot be used interchangeably. The term COHERENCE' means
the overall understandability of what you write or say. When writing an essay, coherence involves such
features as: summarizing the overall argument of an essay in the introductory paragraph; presenting ideas
in a logical sequence; putting separate, major points into separate paragraphs; and beginning each
paragraph with a 'topic sentence', following by supporting sentences.

COHERENCE is based more on the logic of the ideas and how they are presented rather than on the language that
is used to express these ideas.

COHESION, on the other hand, refers to the degree to which sentences (or even different parts of one sentence)
are connected so that the flow of ideas is easy to follow. To achieve good cohesion, you need to know how to use
cohesive devices, which are certain words or phrases that serve the purpose of connecting two statements, usually
by referring back to what you have previously written or said.

Cohesion has nothing to do with the content but rather on whether the paragraph has well connected or merely a
group of unrelated sentences. It helps locate meanings and accommodate the understanding of a conversation.
Through the use of cohesive devices, cohesion serves as the glue that holds the structure together. Good cohesion
leads to good coherence. Here is chart of the transitional devices (also called conjunctive adverbs or adverbial
conjunctions) accompanied with a simplified definition of function (note that some devices appear with more than
one definitions)

CHART OF THE TRANSITIONAL DEVICES

again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in
ADDITION
addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too
COMPARISON also, in the same way, likewise, similarly
CONCESSION granted, naturally, of course
although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same fime, despite that, even so, even
CONTRAST though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding,
on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet
EMPHASIS certainly, indeed, in fact, of course
EXAMPLE OR after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in
ILLUSTRATION other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly
all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in
SUMMARY particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it
differently, to summarize
after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that time,
before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the
TIME SEQUENCE first place, in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second,
shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until,
until now, when.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
Coherence - the connection of ideas at the idea level.
Cohesion - the connection of ideas at the sentence level
Reference words - are words that are used to refer to something which is mentioned elsewhere in the text usually
in a preceding sentence
Transitional signals - are also called cohesive devices or linking words
Synonyms - are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning as another word
Parallelism - is the use of matching words, phrases, clauses or sentence structures to express similar ideas
Cohesion
o it is the connection of ideas at the sentence level
o it focuses on the “grammatical” aspects of writing
GOOD COHESION IS ACHIEVED THROUGH THE FOLLOWING FIVE MAIN METHODS:

Repeated words/ideas – one way to achieve cohesion is to repeat words, or to repeat ideas using different words.
Example: Most students are intimidated by the works of William Shakespeare. They believe
Shakespeare’s sonnets and plays are far too complicated to read and understand.
Reference words – are words which are used to refer to something which is mentioned elsewhere in the text,
usually in a preceding sentence. The most common type is pronoun.
Example: Mr. Thompson agreed to meet with members of the worker’s union before he signed the contract.
He was interested in hearing their concerns about the new insurance plan.
Transitional Signals – are also called cohesive devices or linking words. These are words or phrases which show
the relationship between ides. Some examples of transitional signals are:
Time – first, immediately, afterward, before, at the same time, after, earlier, simultaneously, finally, next, in the
meantime, later, eventually, then, meanwhile, now, subsequent, etc.
 Sequence – moreover, furthermore, next, also, finally, last, another, first, second, third, besides, additionally, etc.
Space – above, next to, below, behind, beside, etc.
Illustration – for instance, specifically, for example, namely, in this case, to illustrate, etc.
Comparison – similarly, also, in the same way, still, likewise, in comparison, too, etc.
Contrast – but, despite, however, even though, yet, on the other hand, although, on the contrary, otherwise,
conversely, nevertheless, instead, in spite of; etc.
Cause and effect – because, as a result, consequently, then, so, since,
Example: Many students believe they cannot write a good essay because they are not writers. However,
as they practice writing and work on developing their writing skills, most students are able to gain the needed
confidence to start thinking of themselves as writers
Synonyms – are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning as another word. They provide alternative
word choices that can add variety to a text and can help eliminate unnecessary repetition.
Example: Teenagers face an enormous amount of peer pressure from friends and schoolmates. As a
result, many young adults are exhibiting signs of severe stress or depression at an early age.
Parallelism – is the use of matching words, phrases, clauses or sentence structures to express similar ideas.
Parallel structures allow the reader to flow smoothly from one idea, sentence or paragraph to the next and to
understand the relationships and connections between ideas.
Example: Usually, the children spend the summer weekends playing ball in park, swimming in the
neighbor’s pool, eating ice cream under the three, or camping in the backyard.
Poor Cohesion Strong Cohesion
Thousands of people visit Yosemite National
Park each year. They come to experience the Thousands of people visit Yosemite National
natural beauties of the magnificent rock cliffs and Park each year. They come to experience the
to enjoy the great outdoors. These rock cliffs natural beauties of the magnificent rock cliffs
pose a great danger from rockslides. and to enjoy the great outdoors. However, what
they do not realize is that as
beautiful as they are, these rock cliffs pose a
great danger from rockslides.
What is Coherence?
it is the connection of ideas at the idea level
it is the overall sense of unity in a passage including both the main point of sentences and the main point of each
paragraph
rhetorical” aspects of writing include developing and supporting arguments (e.g. thesis statement development,
synthesizing and integrating readings, organizing and clarifying ideas)

3. LANGUAGE USE
As a writer, it is important not only to think about what you say, but how you say it. To communicate effectively, it is
not enough to have well organized ideas expressed in complete and coherent sentences and paragraphs. One
must also think about the style, tone and clarity of his/her writing, and adapt these elements to the reading
audience.
Again, analyzing one's audience and purpose is the key to writing effectiveness. In order to choose the most
effective language, the writer must consider thep objective of the document, the context in which it is being written,
and who will be reading it.

Appropriate language increases one's credibility, strengthens his argument and keeps his audience. Major
issues with appropriate language use include levels of language formality, deceitful language and euphemisms,
slang and idiomatic expressions; using group-specific jargon; and biased stereotypical language.

The overview of the different aspects of using appropriate language is presented on the following pages.
1. Levels of Formality
 Writing in a style that your audience expects and that fits your purpose is key to successful writing.
2. In-Group Jargon
 Jargon refers to specialized language used by groups of like-minded individuals. Only use in-group
jargon when you are writing for members of that group. You should never use jargon for a general
audience without first explaining it.
3. Slang and idiomatic expressions
 Avoid using slang or idiomatic expressions in general academic writing.
4. Deceitful language and Euphemisms
 Avoid using euphemisms (words that veil the truth, such as "collateral damage" for the unintended
destruction of civilians and their property) and other deceitful language.
5. Biased language
 Avoid using any biased language including language with a racial, ethnic, group, or gender bias or
language that is stereotypical.

The writer's choices about language can affect or aid his argument. Since written language is the representation of
a spoken language, certain conventions must be considered. It is believed that an effective language has the
features of concreteness, conciseness, familiarity, preciseness, constructiveness and appropriately.
The Six Characteristics of Effective Language

1. Concrete and Specific Language

Concrete language includes descriptions which create tangible images with details the reader can visualize.
Abstract language is vague and obscure, and does not bring to mind specific visual images. Consider the two
sets of statements below. The statement at the top is abstract, but the statements become increasingly
concrete and specific toward the bottom.
He is a bad roommate
He is lazy and discourteous
He is untidy and unclean
He doesn't clean up his own messes
He leaves his dirty dishes on the kitchen counter

Notice how much more effective the statements become as the language becomes more specific and concrete.
The statements at the top, which are more abstract, can be interpreted in many possible ways, and leave many
questions answered. The statements at the bottom, which are more concrete, are less open to multiple
interpretations.

2. Concise Language
A hallmark of effective writers is the ability to express the desired message in as few words as possible.
Good writers, in other words, use language which is straightforward and to-the-point. Consider the following
examples.
(1) It is widely discussed by employees that many of them will be forced to change jobs and take on new
responsibilities when the merger takes place between the two companies.
(2) Before making a decision about whether the person on trial is guilty or innocent in this case, the members of
the jury should be sure to carefully think about, ponder and reflect on all of the important and relevant
testimonies in the case.

Notice how long-winded these sentences are, and how easily they could be shortened and simplified. An important part
of revising and editing involves rephrasing sentences to avoid excessive wordiness by eliminating redundancies and
fillers.

3. Familiar Language
Familiar language is that which the readers easily recognize and understand because they use it on a
regular basis. One of the most important functions of language is to build homophily or a sense of commonality
with one's readers. Language, which is foreign and unfamiliar to the reader tends to emphasize the differences
between writer and reader, and makes the message difficult to understand. By using language that is familiar to
the reader, the message is likely to have more impact.

Consider the following examples.

An assignment given to a class of business students by their philosophy professor: "The presently assigned paper
necessitates an eloquently articulated analysis of the Existentialist perspective as it pertains to contemporary living.
You should adumbrate the points which represent the sine qua non of your analysis.”
A letter sent to high school students warning them of the risks of an unhealthy diet:

'Individuals who maintain a diet of high fat content are exposed to an increased risk of developing atherosclerosis,
which is a buildup of fat deposits on the inner walls of the arteries. This condition can reduce or cut off the flow of blood
in the arteries serving the major organs of the body. This can lead to poor health.

In both examples aforementioned, the language that is used is unfamiliar to the readers. As a result, the message loses
its impact.

4. Precise and Clear Language

The use of appropriate language is a tricky matter because the meaning of words is relative and
situational. This implies that words can be interpreted in different ways by different people in different
situations. For this reason, it is important to choose the language that is as precise and clear as possible. The
more precise and clear one's use of language becomes, the fewer the number of possible interpretations for a
message. Clarity decreases the potential misinterpretations.

 Consider the following examples. Note the potential confusion or ambiguity in these phrases.

(1) Why the student body should continue in this state of apathy is not really understandable.
(2) Our student body is dull and slack-minded.

 Each of the following is an actual headline printed in newspapers. Notice their double meaning.
(1) Include your children when Baking Cookies
(2) Safety Experts Say School Bus Passengers should be Belted
(3) Bank Drive-in Window Blocked by Board
(4) Killer Sentenced to Die for Second Time in Ten Years
(5) Eye Drops Off Shelf

5. Constructive Language
Constructive language phrases a potentially negative message in a positive way, whereas destructive language directs
blame and criticism toward the reader, creating defensiveness. Readers are likely to become defensive when the
writer's language expresses any or all of the following:
  Superiority over the reader
 Indifference or apathy about an issue of importance to the reader
 Negative evaluation or judgment of the reader (as opposed to neutral descriptions or observations)
 Command or control over the reader
 Skepticism or doubt about the reader's credibility or the legitimacy of their claims

Consider the following examples.

Boss to employee: "Your job performance recently has been unacceptable and there are no excuses for it. You have
claimed that you are having some serious personal problems, but even if this is true, you cannot allow it to affect the
quality of your work. If your work doesn't improve, I'll have to replace you with someone else.”
Student to instructor: "You have confused me so badly with your lectures that I don't know what to do. I am
considering dropping out and taking the class next quarter from Dr. Johnstone, who can explain the information much
more clearly. I don't want to drop out, but I have never been so frustrated with an instructor in my whole life”
Instructor to student: "I have never had a student who was so confused with this material. Perhaps you should take an
easier course from an easier professor. It makes no difference to me.”

Why would these examples create defensiveness in the reader? How could you hange the use of language to make
these examples more constructive?

6. Formality of Language
The formality of the language one uses should match the formality of the situation nd the relationship between the
writer and reader. Consider the following examples.
Very Formal:
Exceedingly large segments of the population are expressing their discontent with medical practitioners who
appear to be more engrossed in amassing financial assets than in providing efficacious care to people with
health disorders.
Formal:
A large number of consumers are complaining about medical doctors who are apparently more interested in
making money than in providing effective health care.
Informal:
A lot of people are u
nhappy with their doctors who only seem to care about how much money they make, and not about giving
their patients good care.

4. MECHANICS
Mechanics describe the technical aspects of writing. It specifies the established conventions for words that you
use- spelling, punctuation, capitalization, etc.

This element is as important as well-developed story lines. A piece of writing must look worth reading such that it is not
hard to figure out what you are trying to say.

Consider this example below from

Memorable Students
they are the memorable students in any class they participate fully in any mischief they see no point in volunteering for
extra jobs they delight in distracting their classmates they take no pleasure in learning they are never satisfied
Not only is the above example difficult to read because of the lack of punctuation and capitalization, but it is also
impossible to understand its meaning. If it had punctuation, it could be read in either of these ways:
Memorable Students
They are the memorable students. In any class, they participate fully. In any mischief, they see no point. In
volunteering for extra jobs, they delight. In distracting their classmates, they take no pleasure. In learning, they are
never satisfied. Or

Memorable Students
They are the memorable students in any class. They participate fully in any mischief. They see no point in volunteering
for extra jobs. They delight in distracting their classmates. They take no pleasure in learning. They are never satisfied.
In the paragraphs above the readers have no way of knowing whether the "memorable students" are good students or
bad students. Mechanics, indeed, is very important in order to arrive at the meaning of a written text.

Additional Information:
1. Spelling – the forming of words from letters according to accepted usage
2. Abbreviation – a shortened form of a written word or phrase used in place of the whole word or phrase
3. Capitalization – the use of capital letter in writing or printing
4. Acronym – a word formed from the initial letter or letters of each of the successive parts or major parts of
a compound term

What is Mechanics?
Mechanics focuses on the technicalities of the structure. It determines errors on subject-verb agreement, prepositions,
tenses, the grammar, spelling, capitalization, abbreviations and acronyms, the use of numbers as part of the statement,
and the punctuation marks.
 Where does mechanics focuses?
Spelling
When you write, always make sure that you are consistently using one standard with regards to the spelling of your
words. Remember that there are slight differences in American English spelling and British English spelling.

American spelling British spelling

color colour
defense defence
organize organise
traveled travelled
theater theatre
learned learnt
airplane aeroplane
anesthesia anaesthesia
analyze analyse
aging ageing

Capitalization
It is the act of writing the first letter of the word in uppercase while the rest of the letters are in lowercase. There are
rules in capitalization that you must remember. Here are some examples of words that require capitalization.

Rules for capitalization Example

Proper nouns Manila,
Proper adjectives Candian
Specific course or title Reading and Writing
Days of the week Sunday
Months of the year January
adjectives, verbs, adverbs, nouns, and pronouns Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There
in a title and the first and last word in a title (Literature)
historical periods, events, documents Great Depression, the Renaissance, the Constitution

Abbreviation and Acronyms

Mention the full name of an institution or organization, with the abbreviation in parenthesis, in first mention. Thereafter,
use the abbreviation.

Numbers
Numbers from zero to ten should be spelled out while numbers higher than nine and should be written in figures.

PUNCTUATION MARKS
1. period (.) used after sentences, in abbreviations, and as decimals
2. exclamation point (!) placed at the emphatic or forceful sentences
3. question mark (?) placed at the end of a question and to note questionable items
4. quotation marks (“ ”) to indicate direct quotations for titles of poems, short stories, chapters, essays, songs,
episodes of television shows
5. apostrophe (’) to show possession (Angel’s bag), to show missing letters and number (you’re, ’95), to show
plurals of letters (I got all A’s last semester.)
6. colon (:) after independent clauses to introduce elements. “The coach demanded three things from his
players: loyalty, devotion, and teamwork.”
7. slash / to separate items in numerals, ratios, titles and subtitles, time references, scripture references
8. parentheses () to set off nonessential details and explanations, to enclose letters and numbers used when
listing items, first-time use of acronym
9. brackets [ ] to set off clarifications inserted in quotations, Eric observed, “I think [Rodrigo] Duterte was the
greatest president.”
10. hyphen ( - ) to separate or join words We saw her on television
last night. Never pay a higher-than-average price.
11. dash ( -- ) to show sudden break of thought “Ted was angry after his car was stolen— who wouldn’t be?”/ to
set off an introduction to a series “They have everything needed to succeed—ideas, money, and
marketing.”
12. slash (/) to separate words or to show alternatives (he/she)
13. semicolon (;) to join independent clauses when and, or, yet, but, or so are not present, to separate items in
a series that contains commas “The governor will meet with Rey Simon, the mayor of Concepcion; Bert
Vesca, the vice mayor; and Peter Cayabyab.”
14. ellipsis (. . . ) to indicate that words have been deleted from quoted material
Original text
 The mayor said, “Our city, which is one of the country’s most progressive, deserves a high-tech light-rail
system.”
With Ellipsis
The mayor said, “Our city . . . deserves a high-tech light-rail system.”
15. comma (,) to signal pauses and shifts in sentences, used with and, or, so, but, yet to join independent
clauses “Chinatown is a popular tourist attraction, and it serves as an important cultural center.”
Grammar

Proper grammar rules should be observed. Example: Subject-verb agreement

LESSON 5: USING CRITICAL READING FOR THINKING AND REASONING

Deborah Knott 2012 of New College Writing Centre expressed in writing that as a reader, you are not a passive
participant, but an active constructor of meaning. Exhibiting an inquisitive, critical attitude towards what you read
will make anything you read richer and more useful to you in your classes and in your life

The act and the art of reasoning brought about by critical thinking is a noteworthy accomplishment that any reader can
claim. It is in this context that although reading the lines of a text is important, the heart of reading goes beyond it.

Baraceros (2005) expressed that critical reading is necessary for the students to know how to examine
critically what they see, feel and read to be able to make good judgement or decisions for the welfare of their
countrymen.

In addition, Anthony Shadid, journalist, 2012 articulated that to non-critical readers, many texts offer the truth,
the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. To the critical reader, any single text provides but one portrayal of the
facts, one individual's "take" on the subject. Likewise Kurland 2010 noted that to non -critical readers, texts provide
facts.

Readers gain knowledge by memorizing the statements within a text.

Critical readers thus recognize not only what a text says, but also how that text portrays the subject matter.
They recognize the various ways in which each and every text is the unique creation of a unique author. According to
him, there are three steps or modes of analysis which are reflected in three types of reading and discussion:

1. What a text says - restatement (talks about the same topic as the original text)
2. What a text does - description (discusses aspects of discussion itself
3. What a text means - interpretation (analyzes the text and asserts a meaning for the text as a whole)

This essential skill in reading leads to the development of critical thinking by reasoning and vice-versa. As a
matter of fact it is how one progresses his/her thinking from simple to complex in order for him/her to eventually realize
that a text is always connected to human experiences. In effect, one is guided on how to see things both in the micro
and macro levels. To attain this, the reader needs to be equipped with ways for thinking.

To become a critical reader, here are tips/techniques of becoming a critical thinker:

SOME TECHNIQUES TO DEVELOP

A. THINKING
It is the act of constructing and deconstructing ideas in both spoken and written form based on a given context.
1. Check and analyze the title. Read further how it is developed and/or argued in the succeeding statement.
2. Identify the aim of the text. Make initial arguments about its context.
3. Skim the reading material and give focus on the entire body. Identify what might have caused certain
issues/situations and offer feasible solutions.
4. Make some relevant associations of the text to your life. In the course of making connections, the reader may
either be sympathetic or apathetic depending on the experiences he/she may have had which are relevant to
the text.
5. Evaluate the reading material. Ascertain if the entire text calls for a debate and eventually come up with a
sound decision/judgement.

B. REASONING
It is the process of expressing ideas and opinions as well as justifying a stand based on prior and existing knowledge
and experiences needed to arrive at a decision.
1. Dare to read every day. Citing relevant ideas of experts and authorities in reading materials definitely help
strengthen one's stance of an issue.
2. Learn to focus to the main ideas (explicit or implied and supporting details mentioned in the argument.
3. Examine the pros and cons of your argument / resolution. This will help you weave the flow of your thoughts
presented.
4. Organize your thoughts, Arrange ideas either in chronological order or by emphasis (general to specific or
vice versa.) Once organized, oral or written expression becomes meaningful.
5. Note points for improvement. After having justified an issue, recheck your stand based on your power to
convince the reader/audience. Moreover, practice, practice so that you become conscious of becoming better
every time you reason out.

Below is an evaluation guide to help develop your critical reading ability. As you peruse any reading material, you need
to check its content, objectivity and relevance in order for you to be able to connect and find its significance to your life.
 Evaluation Guide for Critical Reading
Elements for Evaluation Explanation Guide
This is the substance of the text. Are the input/ideas present comprehensive-
Content covering the breadth and depth of the text? Is it comprehensible? As a whole,
is it appealing to the readers?
This is the stand of the author about an issue/article. Are facts presented?
Objectivity Does it present both sides of the argument? Does the author possess ethical
and moral consideration in his/her article?
This is the intention, the entire meaning and the value of the issue/article to
Significance the reader's life. Can the reader readily connect the issues to his/her life? Is it
open for interaction? How is it valuable to the reader?

Module 5: Critical Reading as Reasoning

Explain critical reading as reasoning Interaction with the text is very important to the reader because it will make you
evaluate and formulate judgment on how the text works.
In this lesson, it will focus on explaining critical reading as reasoning.
Critical reading is engaging in analytic activity which involves the reader by asking questions about the text and the
author’s claim.
Critical readers are doing the process of evaluating, analyzing, and interpreting the assertion of the hidden meaning of
the whole text.
While reasoning as defined by Merriam Webster dictionary is an act of giving statements for justification and
explanation.
It is the ability of someone to defend something by giving out reasons.
Therefore, when reading critically, it is necessary to question the different arguments used by the author, as any
problem can weaken the authenticity of the conclusion.
Remember that Critical reading is not meant to criticize but to assess the validity of textual evidence.

Steps Used in Critical Reading As Reasoning

by Maxine Rafaella C. Rodriguez and Marella Therese A. Tiongson

1. Identifying assertions- Identify by a common type of assertion such as fact, convention, opinion and preference
2. Formulating counterclaim- Counterclaims are made to rebut a previous claim
3. Determining evidence- Evidence is the details given by the authors to support his/her claims

Example You are asking your father for an android cellphone, that is your claim. Then your father answers you. “No,
you can’t!” this is his counterclaim. He might say that you already have a cellphone.
Therefore, when you are going to formulate reason for the counterclaim, you should state the reason why you are
asking for an android cellphone. You might say that you could use it in your online classes because Android cellphone
would be very useful in this new normal classroom set-up.
When you write your counterclaim, you are expressing unfavorable statements.
Therefore, it is needed to use hedges words or phrases to be able to give a courteous tone.
Hedging in any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a
particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different
ways.
Different forms of hedges
Modals: may, could, would, should, might, certain, must, etc.
Frequency adverbs: usually, generally, commonly Probability adverbs: probably, possibly, presumably Example: The
common colds caused by a virus. With hedges: The common colds must be caused by a virus. The common virus is
certain to be caused by a virus.

LESSON 6: IDENTIFYING EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT CLAIM IN A TEXT

It is in this context that the reader be made conscious that in order to engender fruitful reading engagement, one has to
take note that one's opinion about the text covers certain claim:
1. claim of fact,
2. claim of value
3. claim of policy.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
WHAT IS CLAIM!
 A claim is what the writer tries to prove in the text by providing details, explanations, and other types of evidence.
As such, it is usually found in the introduction or in the first few paragraphs of texts.
 A claim persuades, argues, convinces, proves, or provocatively suggests something to a reader who may or
may not initially agree with you.
 A claim is the main argument of an essay. It is probably the single most important part of an academic paper.
 A claim defines an academic paper’s goal, direction, scope, and exigence and is supported by evidence,
quotation, argumentation, expert opinion, statistics and telling details.
 A claim must be argumentative. When you make a claim, you are arguing for a certain interpretation or
understanding of your subject.
 A claim is also known as the central argument or thesis statement of the text. It is a sentence that summarizes
the most important thing that the writer wants to say as a result of his/her thinking, reading or writing.

Del Gandio J. 2008, said that a claim is an arguable statement--an idea that a rhetor (that is, a speaker or writer) asks
an audience to accept. A claim is an opinion, idea, or assertion. Here are three different claims: *I think we should have
universal health care.' I believe the government is corrupt.' "We need a revolution.' These claims make sense, but they
need to be teased out and backed up with evidence and reasoning."

Campbell and Huxman define a claim as an assertion. They stress how it is an inference beyond the facts. In strategic
discourse, a claim is a statement we make to an audience with an anticipation that they should agree with it.
 It is a statement. A claim is discourse.
 It involves a speaker's awareness of an audience. The very idea of a claim involves a wish about an audience.
 It deals with a search for agreement. The wish is that the audience will agree with the statement.
 It involves anticipation. To anticipate the audience's agreement means we look hopefully to it, but we are
anxious that they may not give it.
 A claim thus forwards a statement that we worry the audience will not agree to, but wish them to agree to. But
wish them to agree to.
If we are certain that an audience will agree, it is not really a claim. If we are certain they will not, it also is
not a claim. A claim works with contingency a question of whether the audience will agree or not.

TYPES OF CLAIMS:

a. CLAIM OF FACT: A claim asserts some empirical truth.

 Something that can be determined by careful observation of past, present, or future.
 Generally, the truth of the assertion will be determined by events. But the speaker will offer information or
explanation that predicts or characterizes the events.
 Claims of fact are those we think about rightly as being true or false. Of course, sometimes we cannot prove
something true or false, but we have to say "How likely is it that it is true?" But the reasons we give are the
reasons we believe the statement is true or false.
 Argument usually turns on strength of evidence presented as reason for arguer's belief in the claim.

b. CLAIM OF JUDGMENT OR VALUE: A claim asserts a judgment of some sort.

 Look for key words that are a matter of judgment rather than fact: good, well, kind, useful, desirable, etc.
 Speakers provide the reasoning for their judgment, but ultimately, it is assent to the reasons rather than
comparison to fact that determines the agreement to the claim.
 A claim is based on things we like or dislike. Thus it deals with goals, with things we find attractive.
 Your feel for the argument by judgment or value has to be different than that of fact. Disagreements over values
are not "wrong" in the sense that they are inaccurate. Rather, they turn on what is important to us and how the
things that are important to us come to bear on a situation.
 Argument usually turns on whether the underlying value of the claim is accepted as a public good.
c. ACTION OR POLICY: A claim asserts that an action should be taken.
 Be sensitive to calls that some action be taken.
 Look for key words "should" or "ought." These words may not always be present, but if they are, actions are
usually called for.
 Decisions about whether we should take an action or not are the most complex of arguments. They turn on
many claims about what happens if we do take an action or what happens if we fail to act.
 Argument usually turns on whether the reasons for taking the action outweigh the possible costs of taking the
action. Campbell and Human discuss these as types of claims. But the best way to isolate claims is simply to
ask whether the claim asserts fact, judgement, or action.

Claim of Fact:

Examples:
1. Research studies are conducted to improve human condition.
2. Climate Change has already become an issue in the country.
3. Success of teaching depends upon the creativity of the teacher.
Claim of Value:

Examples:
1. Musical comedy is the best form of entertainment.
2. Staying with the family with a limited income is more valuable than being away earning a lot.
3. Communication is better than computation.

Claim of Policy:

Examples:
1. Fetal tissue should be banned in any research undertaking.
2. The government should continue to offer scholarship programs especially to the poor but bright students.
3. Gender equality needs to be strengthened in the academe.

DISTINGUISH EXPLICIT FROM IMPLICIT STATEMENTS OF CLAIM

1. Explicit – obvious and apparent; directly stated
2. Implicit – not expressed clearly; only suggested; indirectly stated
3. Implied – expressed something in an indirect way; suggested something without saying or
 showing it plainly.
Have you ever had anyone tell you to “read between the lines”? It is an idiom: an expression meant to encourage you
to think critically and figure out what’s going on when things are not obvious, it’s being implicit. When something is
obvious, or stated directly in a text, it’s being explicit.

EXPLICIT VS. IMPLICIT

When something is stated explicitly, this means the exact meaning of something is clearly stated.
The meaning should be clear and obvious to anyone reading the statement. Stating things explicitly is often
important in professional settings, such as in the workplace, a hospital, or in the classroom.
EXAMPLE:
If at the end of a meeting, your boss says “someone take care of this,” she’s not being very explicit.
Depending on the nature of the meeting, you may not be sure exactly what she means. However, if your
boss states her wishes explicitly, saying “make sure your team finishes the report and pass it to me by close
of business” then you know exactly what she wants. Stating things explicitly can help clear up confusion.

The opposite of this, of course, is when something is stated implicitly, meaning the actual, explicit
meaning isn’t directly stated, it’s implied. To help us illustrate just what we mean, let’s look at a real life
example. Well, sort of a real-life example: a movie.

Do you remember the last time you’ve been to a movie that included romance? There’s a good chance that
during that movie there was a scene where the two actors went out on a date, perhaps o dinner at a nice restaurant
followed by a walk or another activity. The movie showed them having a good time, laughing, enjoying themselves,
and even sharing a few kisses. After the date scene, the movie cuts to the two lovers waking up in bed together the
next morning.

In this movie, whatever amorous activity happened in between that time period is implied. If that activity
had been shown explicitly in the movie, well, it would have been a completely different type of movie
altogether.
Things get stated both explicit and implicitly in text all the time. When the meaning is obvious and
stated clearly, it is explicit.

If you’re not exactly sure what the text is saying, or have to think a bit about it before realizing
what it means, it is implicit.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:

1. Allegorical - having an implicit real-life representation or meaning.

2. Dehumanizing - depriving somebody of humanity

3. Eradicate - remove
4. Euthanasia - act of ending a person’s suffering (severe disease) by killing
5. Oligarchy - a power structure in which only few people take control of a country such as
in an economic situation.
6. Quarrying - the process of extracting the useable materials from huge rock formation
deposited on the ground surfaces.

CLAIMS OF FACT are statements about how things were in the past, how they are in the present, or
how they will be in the future. A fact claim is not a question, it is not a fact; it only claims to be a fact and must
be arguable.
Let us examine the next sentences. The words we have collected from the tunnel which fall under
politics are all found here. They must be sharing something in common.
1. Our senators should make themselves busy in crafting bills that aim for the welfare of the people.
2. The government must take brave decision to eradicate oligarchy in the country.
3. Our parameter on choosing our country's leaders during election must rely on the heart and the capacity
of the candidate, not on his/her wealth.
4. We ought to be law-abiding citizens not because we commit to the government but because we are
actually a part of the government.

All the sentences from numbers one (1) to four (4) suggest or propose an action to be taken to create
change from the present or an existing situation (which maybe implied) in which we may accept or not.
Notice the italicized words in the sentences: should, must and ought to. These are indicating words
which suggest a change in action. Such condition of the given statements qualifies them to be CLAIMS
OF POLICY or POLICY CLAIMS.

CLAIMS OF POLICY argue that something should/should not be done, believed or banned. A policy
claim includes the indicating words should/should not, ought to/ought not to, or must/must not. These must be
arguable.

Now examine the last four sample sentences. Of course, we were able to group them though the help
of the tunnel, through the words we put under literature.
1. A written poem is the sweetest gift you can give to someone.
2. A mother's lullaby is but an amazing sound to a child.
 3. Using harsh words in printed novels to humiliate an allegorical character is immoral.
4. Performances in theaters are more entertaining than those in films

First observation is that all the given sentences posit judgement. Sentence number one (1) is a
judgement about the poem. How do you quantify the sweetness of the poem? Do you think we have
the same standards when it comes to liking a poem? Definitely not. Same with lullaby in the next
sentence. In sentence number three (3), morality is based on the norms of a certain society. Thus,
what seems immoral to a group could be moral to a certain group, depending on their moral standards.
In the last sentence, it is a judgement on how entertaining theaters are, over those in films. You may
agree with it or you would say film is more entertaining and that would be based on your own
preference.
Therefore, the judgements presented are all subjective in nature wherein it varies from person
to person. Such condition of a statement is what completes the three types of claims. We call it
CLAIMS OF VALUE or VALUE CLAIMS.

CLAIMS OF VALUE are making personal judgements over something and therefore are subjective.
These could either be an approval or disapproval. These give assessments as to desirable or undesirable,
good or bad, right or wrong, just or unjust, moral or immoral, etc. This type of claim is generally focused, but
not limited to:

1. Aesthetic Value - the concept of beauty and arts and how it uniquely appeals to someone.
Examples:

1. A written poem is the sweetest gift you can give to someone.

2. A mother's lullaby is but an amazing sound to a child.
Performances in theaters are more entertaining than those in films

2. Moral Value - the concept of what is right and wrong according to acertain norms of morality.
Example:

1. Using harsh words in printed novels to humiliate an allegorical character is

immoral.

CLAIM vs. COUNTERCLAIM

Claim:

A claim is the central argument of the text. It can also be called a thesis, a proposition, or -- if there is only one --
simply "the argument." Assess the claim of the following brief excerpt.

One of the ways in which ordinary people can prevent gingivitis is by gargling twice daily with a dentist-
approved mouthwash.

Broadly stated, the claim of this "passage" is that mouthwash will prevent gingivitis. Presumably, the rest of the
passage will go on to explain why mouthwash works, in an effort to back up its central claim.

Unfortunately, because the nature of claims is so variable - all texts will look different, and all texts will make different
types of claims - there is no immediately obvious signal word that will help you to ascertain the nature of a claim. In
order to figure out what a claim is, you must simply read carefully. Does the writer provide lots of supporting details?
Are the paragraphs organized effectively, with topic sentences that introduce the central focus of each paragraph?

If so, the claim is often found in the last sentence of the first paragraph. If you're in a pinch and can't find the claim,
skimming the first and second paragraphs of an expository text may help. However, it is not enough to simply
identify the claim, as a sophisticated argument will also include what is called a "counterclaim.

Counterclaim:

Counterclaims provide an opposing viewpoint to the central claim. Including a counterclaim in your writing
helps you to prove that yes, your opinion is the best-substantiated / most widely-supported one.

By giving the opposition a voice and then knocking it down, the writer demonstrates a deep competence and familiarity
with the topic - provided that she can effectively address the counterclaim.

Look at the way this author structured his counterclaim:

One of the ways in which ordinary people can prevent gingivitis is by gargling twice daily with a dentist-
approved mouthwash. However, in a recent survey of American dentists, some questioned the use of
mouthwash as a tactic to prevent gingivitis.

As you can see, the second sentence indicates that the author is presenting a "counterclaim" - a refutation to the
central claim that using mouthwash is an effective tactic for preventing gingivitis. One easy way to spot a counterclaim
is to look for signal words like "however," "but," "on the other hand," "yet,» "in contrast," "otherwise," "notwithstanding,"
"nevertheless," "on the contrary" any words that signal a contrast will help you find the counterclaim.
 In fact, if you're having a hard time finding the actual argument in the essay, work backwards. Look for the transitional
words that may signal a counterclaim, and assess what the counterclaim says. Then figure out the claim it is attempting
to refute.

LESSON 7: USING CONTEXT IN TEXT DEVELOPMENT

A.Intertextuality, as defined by Michael Riffaterre, (2010) "depends on [a system of limitations in our freedom of choice,
of exclusions, since it is by renouncing incompatible associations within the text that we come to identify in the
intertext their compatible counterparts." He further states that this intertextuality is the complete opposite of
hypertextuality because the former builds a "structured network" of limits that will keep the reader on track
(towards the "correct" interpretation), the latter is a "loose web of free association.
(Bloome & Egan-Robertson, 1993) - Intertextuality may also involve connections built on social meanings in which
participants make intertextual links in order to build social relationships or connections.
For example, participants in conversation may allude to shared experiences to foster a social bond or an insider
reference to exclude others.

(Beach & Lundell, 1997; Lewis & Fabos, 2000) - Participation in on-line chat exchanges engages early-adolescents
in using intertextual links to foster social interaction.

("Intertextuality", 2015) - Intertextuality is a literary device that creates an interrelationship between texts and
generates related understanding in separate works.These references are made to influence that reader and add
layers of depth to a fext, based on the readers' prior knowledge and understanding.

(Gadavanij, n.d.) - Intertextuality is a literary discourse strategy utilized by writers in novels, poetry, theater and
even in non-written texts (such as performances and digital media). Examples of intertextuality are an author's
borrowing and transformation of a prior text, and a reader's referencing of one text in reading another.

(Ivanic, 1998) - Intertextuality does not require citing or referencing punctuation (such as quotation marks) and
is often mistaken for plagiarism.

B.Hypertextuality according to K. Amaral, 2010 is simply a nonlinear way of presenting information. Rather than
reading or learning about things in the order that an author, or editor, or publisher sets out for us, readers of hypertext
may follow their own path, create their own order-- their own meaning out the material.

This is accomplished by creating "links" between information. These links are provided so that readers may "jump" to
further information about a specific topic being discussed (which may have more links, leading each reader off into a
different direction). For instance, if you are reading an article about marine mammal bioacoustics, you may be
interested in seeing a picture of a dolphin. Or you may want to hear the sound it makes(~80K. thus leading you on a
completely different, detailed path. As you can see by these examples, this medium is not limited simply to text. It can
incorporate pictures, sound, even video. So it presents a multimedia approach to gaining information--
hypermedia.

Moreover hypertext is used because in general, humans learn better associatively. That is, we are better able to
figure out material if we are allowed to move at our own pace, investigating that which interests us, and stimulating
more senses through multimedia.

According to Berthoff 1990, hypertext in the computer-facilitated writing class which proceeds in a linear fashion is
entirely appropriate when plowing field or performing a ceremony or doing the wash or carrying out any other task in
which some things must come before others, in which sequences are regulated or, as we say nowadays, "rule-
governed." But when we move from any such process to learning something new, to any act of making meaning, to
symbol making of any kind, these linear models will not serve.

Hypertext is particularly useful as a way to introduce computer-mediated dialogic interaction in any writing
class because it can be applied in much the same way in non-networked classes and networked classes alike
(both with and without access to the web).

Three main pedagogical benefits provided by the incorporation of hypertext in the composition class:
1. Hypertext promotes dialogue.
2. Hypertext can be constructed as a collaborative medium, and it makes possible forms of collaboration
that emphasize the social construction of meaning.
3. Hypertext can be used in nearly any computer-facilitated classroom.

Hypertext and Intertext

Hypertext Reading and writing does not only mean perceiving the world around us. The process of perceiving embodies
the relationship of a text and another text.
Likewise, it deals with reading from the viewpoint of a research question and actively using what you read to develop
your own analysis and argumentation and eventually collect materials that you can use in your own writing. Reading
and writing go beyond finding the linkage of the evidence and corresponding texts and identifying and interpreting
possible uncertainties and flaws in the reasoning of the author. It also means understanding that texts are always
developed with a certain context, thus its meaning and interpretation are affected by a given set of circumstances.
Moreover, reading now involves a relatively new way of reading a text online as brought by the advent of the internet
and technology. Reading online is a dynamic visual thrill that draws learners’ attention and engages them in various
creative or vivid ways to learn, apart from the usual physical white pages.

Hypertext is a non-linear way to present information and is usually accomplished using “links”. Such links help the
readers navigate further information about the topic being discussed and may also lead to other links that can direct the
readers to various options. Hypertext also allows the readers to create their meaning out of the material given to them
and learn better associatively.
Hypertext is text displayed on a computer display or other electronic devices with references to other text that the
reader can immediately access. Hypertext documents are interconnected by hyperlinks, which are typically activated by
a mouse click, keypress set or by touching the screen. Rather than remaining static like traditional text, hypertext
makes possible a dynamic organization of information through links and connections (called hyperlink).

The World Wide Web (www) is a global hypertext system of information residing on servers linked across the internet.
Hypertext is the foundation of the World Wide Web enabling users to click on the link to obtain more information on a
subsequent page on the same site or from a website anywhere in the world.
The term hypertext was coined by Ted Nelson in 1963.
Hypertext allows readers to access information particularly suited to their needs. For example, if a reader still needs
more background on a particular item that a text is discussing, such as when a reader does not know a particular term
being used, the reader can choose to highlight that term and access a page that defines the term and describes it.
Conversely, a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a web address, is a reference to a web resource
that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. URLs occur most commonly to
reference web pages (http), but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many
other applications.
Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL has this form:
http://www.example.com/index.html Today, links are not just limited to text or documents but may also incorporate other
forms of multimedia such as pictures, sounds and videos that stimulate more senses. This is called hypermedia.
Why hypertexts?
• In a hypertext system, the reader is free to navigate information by exploring the connections provided.
• Hypertext is a very different way of presenting information than the usual linear form.
• Text no longer flows in a straight line through a book. Instead, it is broken down into many smaller units (lexias, to
borrow a term from literary criticism), each addressing a few issues. It acts as a bridge between two basic, opposite,
and complementing elements that may be called gender of knowledge representation: free and shortcut

Lesson 2 Intertext Intertextuality or intertext is one method of text development that enables the author to make another
text based on another text. It happens when some properties of an original text are incorporated in the text that is
created by another author. One good reason why it occurs is perhaps the second writer is greatly affected or influenced
by the first writer leading to a combination of imitation and creation.

Intertext Defined
Intertext or intertextuality is technically defined as a process of text development that merges two more processes such
as imitation and creation in doing a text. It involves imitation because the author, as highly influenced by another author
comes up with his version of the text consciously or unconsciously incorporating the style and other characteristics of
the text done by that author.

Elaboration on Intertextuality
Intertextuality has its roots in the work of a Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913). Meanwhile, the term
itself was first used by Bulgarian-French philosopher and psychoanalyst Julia Kristeva in the 1960s. Intertextuality is
said to take place using four specific methods namely: retelling, pastiche, quotation, and allusion.

METHOD- DEFINITION
Retelling- It is the restatement of a story or re-expression of a narrative
Quotation It is the method of directly lifting the exact statements or set of words from a text another author has made.
Allusion In this method, a writer or speaker explicitly or implicitly pertains to an idea or passage found in another text
without the use of quotation.
Pastiche It is a text developed in a way that it copies the style or other properties of another text without making fun of it
unlike in a parody.
Table 1. Elaborating Intertextuality
Questions Used to Validate Intertext
1. Are there two or more stories involved?
2. Does the text show direct or indirect connection to another piece of work?
Note: If the reader has affirmation towards these questions, the texts he/she is dealing with contains intertext.

LESSON 8: FORMULATING EVALUATIVE STATEMENTS

What is an Evaluative Statement?

Evaluation refers to the making of a value judgment. The taking of a position in a controversy involves value
judgments. To support the position, we have to make value judgments as well. Making value judgment involves
the use of certain criteria against which we determine whether something is good or bad, strong or weak,
beautiful or ugly etc.
Bunnin and Yu (2004) disclosed that in philosophy of language and ethics, some philosophers suggest that we
distinguish between two kinds of meaning of expressions.
Descriptive meaning contributes to a bare presentation of facts, as in the claim "This strawberry is sweet."

Evaluative meaning functions in a different way by offering an assessment, as in the claim "This strawberry is
good."

The descriptive meaning of a statement can be determined by its truth conditions, while the evaluative meaning
cannot.

This is because the descriptive meaning is constant while the evaluative meaning varies with the reactions of
those using the expression.

For instance, "war" has a fixed and translatable descriptive meaning, but its emotive associations can give it different
evaluative meanings. For some, "war" evokes a feeling of terror, and for others it evokes a feeling of heroic courage.

Rama Rao (2010) further expressed that evaluative statements cover three components of the attitudes:Likewise he
noted that these concern object, people, or events

Cognitive components of an attitude

 The beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information held by a person Affective component of an attitude
 The emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude
 Behavioral component of an attitude
 An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

According to him, attitudes are evaluative statements either favorable or unfavorable concerning objects, people
or events.

They reflect how an individual feels about something. When a person says 'I like my job' he or she is expressing an
attitude about work.

To better understand attitude, we will look at its THREE COMPONENTS of ATTITUDE:

1. COGNITION
 The cognitive component of an attitude is made up of the beliefs, opinions, knowledge, and information
held by a person.
2. AFFECT
 The affective component of an attitude is the emotional, or feeling, segment of an attitude.
3. BEHAVIOR
 The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in a certain way toward
someone or something.

Cognition and affect can lead to behavioral outcomes. The aforementioned theories and ideas lead the reader to be
equipped with knowledge and skills on the way one evaluates statements of the written text.

Below are some guidelines:

Using Evaluative Statements to Define Strengths and Weaknesses

1. Statements should be evaluative, not descriptive. Wherever possible, include specific information which
enables strengths and weaknesses to be quantified. Show why something is a strength or shortcoming, rather
than just stating the facts.
2. Use data and benchmarks wherever possible compare performance to benchmarking data or show
trends over previous years. Compare outcomes to targets set previously by the provider. This helps to put
raw data into context, and to show that standards are improving and the provider is moving on
3. Be clear about where there are genuine strengths, rather than normal features which would be
expected in any provider. Compliance with statutory or contractual obligations is a norm, not a strength.
4. Show the impact of both strengths and weaknesses - if surveys and reviews are undertaken to assess
effectiveness, how are the results acted on? If there is a shortcoming, how does it impact on learners and other
stakeholders?
5. Make statements clearer and more robust by showing how judgements have been reached.

Examples of strengths and weaknesses of Evaluative Statements

 STRENGTHS

Unclear Statements Clear Statements

Learner attainment is consistently high (which
learners? How high is the attainment rate? How
does it compare to sector benchmarks or the
provider's own targets?
The effectiveness of support services is regularly
reviewed (how often? What happens to the results
of the reviews?).
Full- time learner attainment is well above national
comparators (65% against a sector average of 54%).
The effectiveness of support services is reviewed on a
termly basis and the outcomes are reported to the
governing body.
 An unusual survey of learner satisfaction is
undertaken and reported to the Senior Management
Team. This shows a consistent upward trend in
learner satisfaction (what proportions of learner are
surveyed? By how much has the satisfaction rate.
Targets for all areas of provision are set and
monitored annually (this would be expected in any
organization - it is not a strength in itself. What
targets are set? At what level? How are they
monitore? How do managers review targets to
ensure that they are realistic and appropriate? How
are targets used to effect improvements?
An unusual survey of learner satisfaction is undertaken,
based on a 10% sample of learners in each subject area.
The resuis are. reported to the Senior Management Team
and follow up actions are agreed. There has been a
consistent upward trend for the last five years. The
2005/06 survey showed a learner satisfaction rate of
82%, up 4% on 2004/05.
Targets for recruitment, social inclusion, retention,
attainment, income and expenditure are set at course
and programme/occupational level. Analysis of
previous performance and benchmarking
data is used to inform the targets. These are moderated by
senior managers to ensure that they are consistent and
realistic. Achievements against targets are monitored
quarterly by the Senior Management Team.

 WEAKNESS

Unclear Statements Clear Statements

Learer complestion has fallen over thye last year
(by how much? Was tthere a qualified targer?)
Facilities for learners on some sites could be
improved (which facilities? Which sites? How
serious is the problem? What is the impact?)
Some trainers need to update their industrial
knowledge (how many trainers? In which areas?)
Arrangements for reporting on performance are
underdeveloped (which areas of performance?
What arrangements need to be developed? What is
the impact?)
Learner completion for 2005/06 was 68%, how below our
target of 70%.
There is no on-site resource centre for learners at High
Street site; this makes it difficult for these learners to
access books, periodicals and computers, and therefore
to complete their coursework on time.
Training needs analysis shows that nearly a quarter of
trainers in the Engineering, Construction and Catering areas
need staff develooment to ensure that their industrial
knowledge reflects current practices.
Standardized management information on learner
recruitment, retention and attainment are produced at
programme level, but not for individual courses.

LESSON 9: DETERMINING TEXTUAL EVIDENCE

Assertion about the content is helpful in order ASSERT to get to the central thought of the text and be
consistent with the claim. These assertions are usually based on his/ her knowledge, experiences as well as
values.

What is Assertion?

What is an assertion?
When someone makes a statement expressing his strong belief in it, as if it is true, though it may not be, he is making
an assertion.
Assertion is a stylistic approach or technique involving a strong declaration, a forceful or confident and
positive statement regarding a belief or a fact.

Often, it is without a proof or any support. Its purpose is to express ideas or feelings directly, for instance. “I have put
my every effort to complete this task today”.

The function of assertion is to let readers sense that they should not disagree or dispute what they read or hear; rather,
they should accept the idea or notion as an indisputable fact. It has proved to be one of the best approaches for writers
to express their personal feelings, beliefs, and ideas in a direct way. By using this technique, writers can
defend others’ feelings and rights if violated. This rhetorical style also expresses self-affirmation and rational thinking of
personal respect or worth. It is very common in various fields of life, like literature, politics, advertisements, and legal
affairs.
Source: https://literarydevices.net/assertion/

TYPES OF ASSERTION

1. Basic Assertion
It is a simple and straightforward statement for expressing feelings, opinions and beliefs such as:
 I wish I could have expressed this idea earlier because now, someone else has taken the credit.?
 "Excuse me, first I want to finish my work then shall go with you."
2. Emphatic Assertion
It conveys sympathy to someone and usually has two parts first, encompasses the recognition of the
feelings or situations of the other person, and the second, follows a statement that shows support for
other person's rights such as:
  "I understand you are busy, and me too, but it is difficult for me to finish this project on my own. So, I
want you to help me in completing this project."
 “I know this is making you angry and frustrated because you could not get response yet. But, I can help
you by giving you an estimate of how long it might take.”
3. Escalating Assertion
It occurs when someone is not able to give response to basic assertions of a person and, therefore, that
person becomes firm about him or her such as:
 "If you do not finish this work at 6:00 tonight, I would better take the services of another worker."
 "I really want to finish this point before you start yours."
4. Language Assertion
It involves "I” language and is useful for expressing negative feelings. Nevertheless, it constructively lays
emphasis on a person's feelings of anger such as:
 "When you speak harshly, I cannot work with you because I feel annoyed. Therefore, I want you to
speak gently and then assign me task”
 "When I cannot take proper sleep, it affects my nerves and I feel irritation. Therefore, I like to go to bed
earlier.

Types of Assertion
3. Positive Assertion. This expresses positive feelings or emotions. To make this assertion,
one gives a reason or an explanation for feeling good.
https://www.mvorganizing.org/what-is-an-example-of-an-assertion/
4. Preference. Preference relies on personal choice. These are completely subjective
assertions that cannot be objectively proven.

You can write a simple paragraph of assertion by following these steps.

1. Read and understand the text thoroughly
2. State your assertions regarding the text or the author’s ideas.
3. You can cite the actual statements in the text that led you to make such
assertions.
4. Explain your assertions and provide support.
In addition, you must also take note of the following tips to be able to produce a
believable assertion, most applicably in writing assertions for persuasive and argumentative
texts.
❖ Be knowledgeable. In order to make the reader believe in what you are trying to stand up for, examine the
topic thoroughly. You cannot write about it, if you don’t really understand what the text is all about.
❖ Back it all up. Research and gather useful information as much as you can to support your own assertions and
make it stable and solid. Be careful and leave out irrelevant evidence to avoid confusion for the readers.

❖ Be clear and concise. Get straight to the facts. Let the readers know what you want them to know at once
and present them complete with supporting details.

ASSERTION AND ITS TYPES:

A good critical reader does not only understand the meaning of a reading material but also logically evaluates whether
the claims of the writer are true or false.
Assertions serve as a primary way for the readers to consider and possibly agree with the claims presented by the
writer in an expository writing.
Assertions are declarative sentences that give one’s belief about something else as if it is true though it may not be. It is
expressed as an argument. Usually, these assertions contain languages that expresses evaluation such as useful,
significant, important, insightful, detailed, up-to-date, comprehensive, practical, impressive, etc.
For example, you were asked to answer the question, “Do you believe education should continue regardless of the
situation we are facing right now?” and you would give your opinion or argument about it. Afterwards you would make
an assertion whether you agree or disagree with the issue, thus, take a stand and support it with your reason/s.

There are four types of assertions which are classified according to the degree of certainty they can be judged as true
or false.

1. FACT- is a statement that can be proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies of witnesses, verified
observations, or the results of research.
Example: According to experts, seawater contains high amounts of minerals such as sodium, chloride, sulphate,
magnesium and calcium. (The first sample sentence is classified as a fact since the mineral contents of seawater can
be tested and proven through experiments and researches.)

2. CONVENTION- is a way in which something is done similar to traditions and norms. Its truthfulness can be verified
only by reference to historical precedents, laws, rules, usage, and customs. Something to note about conventions is
that they may sound factual due to their being derived from customs, but because they are socially accepted ways of
doing things, they cannot be verified objectively by measurements.
Example: Seawater is classified as a heterogenous and homogenous mixture. (The second sample sentence is a
convention because the classification of seawater is based on the classification system made by scientists and is
acceptable to the scientific community.)
3. OPINION- is a statement based on facts but is difficult to objectively verify because of the uncertainty of producing
satisfactory proofs of soundness. Opinions result from ambiguities; the more ambiguous a statement, the more difficult
it is to verify. Thus, they are open to disputes.
Example: Swimming in seawater is the best activity to refresh and relax your mind, body, and soul. (The third sample
sentence is an opinion since the claim is difficult to prove. The truthfulness of the claim may be true to some but not to
others.)

4. PREFERENCE- states a personal choice in which the writer is under no obligation to support or prove the
truthfulness of the statement. They are subjective and cannot be objectively proven or logically attacked. Example: I
love to make frequent trips to places with seawater rather than those without it. (The last sample sentence is a
preference because it expresses the personal choice of the writer to places with seawater over those places without it.)

TEXTUAL EVIDENCE

In this lesson, you will be led to determine what is textual evidence to validate assertions and counterclaims made
about a text you read. But first, you will have to be familiar with textual evidence.
Textual evidence uses information from an originating source or other texts to support an argument. Think of textual
evidence as the driving force behind debates.
Debates take a position and then use facts as supporting evidence.
Textual evidence deals with facts in writing and the strategies used to figure out whether the information is factual or
not. Textual evidence comes into play when an author presents a position or thesis and uses evidence to support the
claims. That evidence can come in different forms. (Source: mometrix.com)
Types of Evidence
1. Statistical Evidence- The strongest type of evidence in formal writing is statistical evidence. This
ranges from true, hard data presented as a percentage or number, to survey-type data. Statistical evidence can be
proven as fact. You can actually go out and find hard information to prove your particular claim.

The number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFW) who worked abroad at any time during the period April to September
2017 was estimated at 2.3 million. (18 May 2018)
2. Testimonial Evidence
Testimonial evidence can also be collected from experts and authorities on a given field. Doctors, dentists, lawyers
often provide expert testimonials. Their authority is not often questioned. They are expected to "know their stuff."
An EU leader, Federica Mogherini, has gone as far as to say, “We are rich. We are in peace. We have the duty to save
and protect people that are fleeing from war” (qtd. In Pearson 42)
3. Anecdotal Evidence
Storytelling, although based on fact, can include quite a bit of opinion, thus making it less objective. Usually,
eyewitnesses are used as providers of anecdotal evidence. They saw or experienced the phenomenon at hand and are
telling their version or side of the story.
“I know John loved Judy because he told me so just before he died.”
“I know black swans exist because I saw one flying away today.”
4. Analogical Evidence
Analogies are mainly useful when dealing with a topic that is under-researched. If you are on the cutting edge of an
issue, you’re the person breaking new ground. When you don’t have statistics to refer to or other authorities on the
matter to quote, you have to get your evidence from somewhere. Analogical evidence steps in to save
the day.

While no one can predict the future impacts of the mass migration into the EU, studies of the past can shed light on the
matter at hand. A study conducted in Denmark during the 1990’s showed that an influx of refugees actually pushed
native workers into more skilled jobs and increased their standards of living (NY Times 3).
Determining Textual Evidence
To better evaluate the author’s argument, one should be able to determine the evidence from the text. This will allow
him/her to validate the assertions of the author and his/her own counterclaims as a response to reading. Evidence is
defined as the details given by the text author to support his/her claim. The evidence provided by the
writer substantiates the text. It reveals and builds on the position of the writer and makes the reading more interesting.
Evidence is crucial in swaying the reader to the author’s side. A jury or judge, for example, relies on evidence presented
by a lawyer before making a decision regarding a case.
Evidence can include the following:
● Facts and statistics (objectively validated information on your subject);
● Opinion from experts (leading authorities on a topic, such as researchers or
academics); and
● Personal anecdotes (generalizable, relevant, and objectively considered).
The following are some questions to help you determine evidence from
the text:
● What questions can you ask about the claims? of support could they be provided with?
● Which details in the text answer your questions? ● What are some details that you find questionable?
● What are the most important details in the Why do you think so?
paragraph? ● Are some details outdated, inaccurate, exaggerated,
● What is each one’s relationship to the claim? or taken out of
● How does the given detail reinforce the claim? context?
● What details do you find interesting? Why? ● Are the sources reliable?
● What are some claims that do not seem to have A good evidence, on the other hand, should:
support? What kinds ● Unified;
● Relevant to the central point ● Accurate; and
● Specific and, concrete ● Representative or typical

Textual evidence is defined as the details given by the author in order to support his/her claims. It reveals the position
of the writer and makes the reading more interesting.
Evidence are details that strengthen, add variety or weight to any argument.

Let’s take this paragraph as a sample essay about the poem:

“Harlem” by Langston Hughes gives me the feeling, or mood of anger and depression. It feels like the idea of deferring
dreams is hurtful and maybe even causes one to become resentful before eventually being overcome by anger. I know
this because the poem uses the words “foster likea sore,”which gives me a feeling of pain. Further, describing deferred
dreams as if they “stink like rotten meat” is an unpleasant image, giving me the feeling of resentment. Finally, when the
poem end with “Or does it explode?” makes me think of a person who boils over in anger. Here, the author claimed that
the poem gives him the feeling of anger and depression. He uses exact words from the poem like foster like a sore,
stink like rotten meat or does it explode which are directly relevant to his idea of anger and depression. Thus, we can
say that the writer’s claim in this essay is valid and relevant.

In addition, finding textual evidence on a read text helps you make inferences using concrete evidence on your claim.
To support one’s claim, you should explicitly cite the ideas that support your claim in your writings.
There are different ways on how you can present textual evidence in your writings. It can be through paraphrasing or
restating the text in your own words, through summarizing or stating in a shorter way the text and other relevant details
to support the idea, through referencing or mentioning a specific section in the text and through quoting or directly
restating a part of the text.

WAYS OF PRESENTATION EXAMPLES of CLAIM with TEXTUAL EVIDENCE

Paraphrasing In the poem “Harlem”, the author claimed that a person may feel disappointed when dream deferred for,
he questioned the reader’s feeling about withholding dreams. (What happens to a dream deferred?)
Summarizing The movie “Seven Sundays” in 2017 is a heart-warming story and shows the importance of family in our
lives. The movie talks about the reunited Bonifacio siblings because their father was mistakenly diagnosed with cancer.
It presented the different struggles of their lives and how they were able to overcome them.
Referencing The Department of Education ensures the delivery of quality education and safety of the learners in the
opening of classes for this school year amidst COVID 19 as stated in the DepEd Order no.7 s. 2020 on DepEd School
Calendar and Activities for S.Y. 2020- 2021 paragraph 2 and 3.
Quoting Langston Hughes described deferred dreamsasifthey“stinklikerottenmeat” in his poem which suggest an
unpleasant image, giving me the feeling of resentment. He also ended the poem with the line “Or does it explode?” that
made me think of a person who boils over in anger.

o Remember that textual evidence validates and strengthens your writings, showing that you read and
understand a text.

LESSON 10:
A book review describes and evaluates a work of fiction or nonfiction and offers the book’s overall purpose, structure,
and style of narration to the unknown readers. It tells not only what a book is about, but also how successful it is at what
it is trying to do. It is a sneak peek at a book, not a summary.
As a reviewer, you bring together the two strands of accurate, analytical reading and strong, personal response when
you indicate what the book is about and what it meant to readers.
Hence, in writing a book review, you combine your skills of describing the content of the pages, analyzing how the book
achieved its purpose, and expressing your most personal comments, reactions, and suggestions.
But before you start writing a book review, you have to read the book first and ask yourself these questions:
 What are the author’s viewpoint and purpose?
 What are the author’s main points?
 What kind of evidence does the author use to prove his or her points? How does this book relate to other books
on the same topic?
 Does the author have the necessary expertise to write the book? What are the most appropriate criteria by
which to judge the book?

Take this general guideline:

o the length of the review depends upon the length of the book itself, and a review should not be less
than 100 words. Longer books usually ask for more than 500 words.
o A book review title should be based on your total impression of a book. Like creating passwords,
strong titles might be “Drew girl power to new height”, “A night owl that seldom sleeps even during
daytime,” “Beautiful illustrations with a story to match,” “Perfect for a weekend getaway” while weak
titles are: “State of the art book,” “Five stars,” “A breath of fresh air,” “Fast and furious.”

How do you START writing a book review?

1. Identify the book by author, title, and sometimes publishing information.
2. Specify the type of book (for example: fiction, nonfiction, biography, and autobiography). Help your readers to review
with perspective.
3. Mention the book’s theme.
4. Include background, if necessary, to enable reader/s to place the book into a specific context.
5. You may also use an interesting quote, an interesting fact, or an explanation of a concept or term. What do you DO
with the content?
 1. For nonfiction books like biography, history, and the like: pay primary attention to the major points (the argument) the
author is putting forth and to the sources the author has drawn upon to back up his/her point of view.
2. For fictional works such as novels, chick lit, graphic novels, manga: Pay attention primarily to the novel or book’s
setting, plot, style, characters, theme/s, use of language and voice. Caution: Do not give away the story for no one
appreciates a spoiler!
3. Provide your reactions to the book.
4. Describe the book.
5. Respond to the author’s opinions and analyze it.
6. Explore issues the book raises.
How do you CONCLUDE?
1. Relate your argument to other books or authors.
2. Relate the book to larger issues.
3. Tie together issues raised in the review.
4. Briefly restate your main points and your thesis statement.
5. Indicate how well the book has achieved its goal, what possibilities are suggested by the book, what the book has left
out, how the book compares to others on the subject, what specific points are not convincing, and what personal
experiences you’ve had related to the subject.
How do you REVISE the draft?
1. Allow time to elapse, at least a day, before starting your revision.
2. Correct grammatical mistakes and punctuation as you find them.
3. Read your paper through again looking for unity, organization, and logical development.
4. If necessary, do not hesitate to make major revisions in your draft.
5. Verify quotations for accuracy and check the format and content of references.

LESSON 11
A literature review (LR) is a type of academic essay that examines what has already been written about a topic. As a
collection of published research about your topic by recognized scholars and researchers, it is a way for you to examine
also what has already been done regarding your research question or problem. Likewise, it summarizes and
synthesizes the conducted research driven by guiding principles.

Although it is not a research paper, it provides background for your problem and a rationale for your research
(Abadiano 2016, 51-52).
Literature reviews consist of the following components and purposes:
• Introduction
 defines the topic and the scope being considered o notes intentional exclusions
 states the general findings of the review and the availability of the sources
• Main Body
 Organizes the evaluation of the sources whether chronologically or thematically
 showcases the critical summary and evaluation of the research premise, methodology, and conclusion
 uses grammatical connectors, relational words or phrases, and transitional devices
• Conclusion
 summarizes the key findings of the review
 offers the reviewer’s justification of the conducted research
• References
 reflects the in-text citations
 contains complete and correct citations
Here are four literature review strategies:
Summary-State briefly the argument and main points of relevant research
Synthesis-Combine ideas to form an integrated theory or system through critical evaluation, compare/contrast, etc.
Analysis- Examine closely the elements or structure of the research
Evaluation-Assess the research based on the criteria or rubric that you choose, state, and explain. Support it with
another similar research.

LESSON 12:
Research Report- Research has always been gradually explained to you by your subject teachers. You most likely
received activities or homework at school in which you are asked to surf online on concepts related to the topics that
you discussed and learned in class. In this lesson, you will be instructed on how to write a research report.

Research Report is a long, formal essay, usually five to fifteen pages in length, which presents the writer’s views and
findings on a chosen subject. However, it is not just a long composition which follows the principles of good writing. It is
a scholarly work and not just a collection of notes lifted from many different sources and strung together, one after the
other.
The components of a research report are as follows:
Title It reflects the content and emphasis of the project described in the report. Similarly, it should be as short as
possible, including essential key words.
Abstract It is an overview of the research study and is typically two to four paragraphs in length containing 200-300
words. Think of it as an executive and technical summary that gathers the key elements of the remaining sections into a
few sentences.
Introduction It provides the key question that the researcher is attempting to answer and a review of any literature that
is relevant. In addition, the researcher will provide a rationale of why the research is important and will present a
hypothesis that attempts to answer the key question. Lastly, it should contain a summary of the key question following
the completion of the research.
Methodology This is arguably the most important section for two reasons: (1) it allows readers to evaluate the quality of
the research, and (2) it provides the details by which another researcher may replicate and validate the findings.
Typically, the information in the methodology section is arranged in chronological order with the most important
information on top of each section.
Results- In longer research papers, the results section contains the data and perhaps a short introduction. Ideally, the
interpretation of the data and the analysis is reserved for the discussion section.
Discussion This section is where the results of the study are interpreted and evaluated against the existing body or
literature. In addition, should there be any anomalies found in the results, this is where the authors point them out.
Finally, it is an attempt to connect the results to the bigger picture and show how the results might be applied.
References This section provides a list of each author and paper cited in the research report. Any fact, idea, or direct
quotation used in the report should be cited and referenced.
How do you format a research report? There is no one best format for all reports for a format depends on several
relevant variables. You must employ a suitable format to create a desirable impression with clarity. Report must be
attractive. While you should write systematically, you must use the format (or often called structure) that best fits the
needs and wants of its readers.

LESSON 13: Composing a Resume

Resumes, application letters, and other professional correspondence are some of your weapons to start up and sustain
your career.
Most of the time, your resume is the first written document that your employers will be looking at while reviewing your
application. Having a well-written resume is very important in helping you secure an interview which could open your
doors to job vacancies and opportunities.
Resume originated from the French word résumé which means, “summary”. It is a concise document that highlights
your education, work experiences, and other qualifications such as your skills and strengths. These are information or
qualifications that your future employer might look for in the job that you are applying for. A resume is usually an
enclosure to an application or cover letter so it is recommended that you prepare the resume first since the information
that you include there will be the basis of your letter. Below is the structure and organization of a sample resume:

Résumé comes from the French word resume which means “summary” or “summarized”. It is a marketing document
that captures your skills and capability in a written compilation of your education, work experience, credentials, and
accomplishments. Most professional positions require applicants to submit a resume and cover letter as part of the
application process.
Senior High School graduates are expected to have the ability of writing their resume
as a prerequisite in applying for college admission or a job.

Basic Types of Résumé

1. Chronological Résumé
Description: List of work history in reverse order, starting with the current or most recent job and working backwards
Advantage: Easy to write; emphasizes steady employment record
Disadvantage: Calls attention to employment gaps; Skills can be difficult to spot unless they are listed in the most
recent job
Best to use when: emphasizing past career growth and development; the name of a former employer may be significant
to prospective employers.
Don’t use if…: there are gaps in work history; calling attention to your age could be a problem; you have changed jobs
often;
entering the job market for first time or after a long absence

2. Functional Résumé
Description: Focuses on skills and strengths; omits specific dates, names, and places; de-emphasizes a spotty work
history
Advantage: No detailed work history; content may appear to lack depth; disliked by many employers
Disadvantage: De-emphasizes a spotty work history; allows to highlight specific strengths and transferable skills that
might not be obvious when outlined in purely chronological order
Best to use when: emphasizing transferable skills used in volunteer work, paid work, or coursework; using this or a
combination resume when you are a new graduate; with limited work experience; you are changing careers or doing
freelance work; you do not want to call attention to your age.
Don’t use if…: you want to emphasize growth or development; your duties and responsibilities in recent jobs were
limited.
3. Combination Résumé
Description: Blends the flexibility and strength of the other two types of resumes
Advantage: Shows off a strong employment record with upward mobility; shows how the skills in the past apply to the
job being sought; emphasizes transferable skill
Disadvantage: Work history is often on the second page, and employer may not read that far
Best to use when: showing off your skills developed throughout the work history instead of the specific positions you
held; making a career change
Don’t use if…: experience is limited; there are wide gaps in the work history.
4. Targeted Résumé
Description: Highly focused resume intended for specific job; a “capsule” of work experience
Advantage: Concise, direct, and easy to read
Disadvantage: Focuses too firmly on one specific job or work; content appears limited
Best to use when: tailoring qualifications and employment history to better align with the demands of any open position;
selectively presenting achievements that demonstrate one’s value; customizing efforts ensuring that the resume has the
right tone and detail to present one as the right candidate for the job.

LESSON 14: Writing Application Letters

College Admission Letter is also known as the "letter of intent"- It is a brief discussion of your intention to be admitted
in a specific course in college.
Employment Application Letter is widely known as a "cover letter"- It is used to introduce yourself to a prospective
employer.
You write this to demonstrate your interest in the company, sell your services and qualifications in written form, and
show that you are fit for a job position.
It is usually submitted with a resume.
Using any of the three letter formats (Block, Modified Block, and Semi-Block) depends on your preference as an
applicant, but the most common layout for business letter is the block format which means that all parts of the letter are
aligned to the left.
In a modified block format, the heading, date, complimentary close, and signature are placed slightly to the right of the
center of the paper.
The least used format is the semi-block which is similar with modified block except that the paragraphs of the body are
indented.
Below are the parts of an application letter:

Letter of Application for College Admission and Employment

An application letter serves as an introduction of yourself. It contains your background, summarizes your knowledge
and experiences and includes a few more details why you qualify for college admission or for a job.
In writing an application letter, remember that:
1. It should be formal.
2. It should be short, precise and simple.
3. The language used should be easy to understand.
4. It should convey the purpose for application.
5. It should be able to market the applicant.
6. It should observe correct grammatical structure.
Writing Your Application Letter
1. Write an engaging first paragraph. Employers read a lot of cover letters, and most of the
time a hiring manager will scan them quickly deciding if your letter goes in the trash or the “keep” pile. Don’t bury the
lead, treat your application letter like a news article.
✔ Open with a strong, declarative statement that informs your reader that you are excited to be applying for [the
position] at the [company].
✔ Be short and specific with what attracted you to the job. What is it about the company that you like? Give an
example, and don’t be afraid to be a little conversational depending on how casual the company is.
✔ Show the manager that you are not only familiar with the company’s work, but that you are a good fit by writing in a
similar tone to the company.
2. State where you found the position to which you are applying. Before applying, do some research and see if you
know anyone at the company. It’s always better to have an inside reference, and don’t be afraid to name drop if you
have the employee’s permission.
3. Explain why hiring you will benefit the employer. You don’t want to tell them why getting hired will benefit you.
There’s a reason this position is open, there’s a problem that needs solving. You’re here to solve it.
4. Briefly summarize your strengths, qualifications, and experience. In your second paragraph, you want to mirror
the job qualifications to two or three of your abilities and experiences that show why you’re perfect for the role.
5. Paint a picture of yourself that’s not on your resume. A hiring manager can read your CV or resume and see
what you have done in your previous jobs. You want to show the hiring manager the person behind the
accomplishments.
Finishing Up Your Application Letter
1. Briefly summarize why you’re the perfect candidate for the job in one
sentence. Ending your letter of application on the right note is a very important part of your letter as it can help you land
the interview.
2. Invite the hiring manager to contact you. Inform your reader that you would love the opportunity to speak further
about the position and provide your contact information again.
3. Sign off. Signing off can seem like an afterthought or become frustrating if you don’t know what is appropriate. Use,
Yours sincerely or simply Very truly yours.
4. Write your name underneath. After you sign off, write your full name on the last line, and affix your signature.

Lesson 15 Various Forms of Office Correspondence

Office Correspondence, or business correspondence, is a written interchange of internal (communication between
company departments) and external communication (communication between a company to another firm) to assist the
flow of business processes. Business letter is the traditional way of communicating information from one company to
another or used in external correspondence. The format can either be full block, modified block, and semi-block.
Various types of letters are sales letter, order letter complaint letter, inquiry letter, adjustment letter, acknowledgement
letter, follow-up letter, cover letter, letter of recommendation, and letter of resignation. Here is an example where you
can identify the different parts of a letter.

Additionally, Business memorandum or memo is a written communication strictly between the company’s offices to
another or used in internal correspondence. A memo has its title line and series number. Employees tend to read the
memorandum if the title line is related to their job description. Memos are also used to implement internal guidelines or
procedures that the employees must follow.

Lastly, Business e-mail is an office correspondence that can either be internal or external. There is no required format
in writing e-mail correspondence, but it is expected that the writer maintains a professional tone. Note that the header of
the letter is written on the blank fields including the ‘from’ and ‘to’ fields. ‘From’ contains e-mail from the sender while
the field ‘to’ contains the email of the recipient.
Here are some reminders in completing the parts of a memorandum:
Heading – This segment follows this general format:
TO: (Identify the recipient/s)
FROM: (Your name)
DATE: (Complete and current date) SUBJECT: (What the memo is about) Body – Basically, the body of the memo has
two parts: the purpose statement and the explanation. It is usually presented in single-spaced paragraphs with a line
skipped between each paragraph.
Special Notations – Notations at the bottom of the memo are used to indicate specific things to the reader. • If you have
an attachment on enclosure notation, type “Enclosure” or “Attachment”. An Enclosure is something included with the
memo while an Attachment is a supporting document attached by a paper clip, staple, etc.
• If copies are being sent to others, add notation cc (carbon copies or courtesy copies) line and list of names at the
bottom of the memo.

What is a project proposal?

A written presentation of a project, program, or innovation that an individual or organization plan to implement and
submitted for funding and implementation. (Dayagbil, et.al,2016)
A detailed description of a series of activities aimed at solving a problem (Sandagan, 2016)
A document that outlines everything the stakeholders need to know to initiate a project. ( Rivera, 2021)
It is a bid or offer to initiate a project for an individual or a group. It ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 words depending on the
complexity of the project being proposed

What are the parts of a project proposal?

1. Cover Letter
➢ Introduces the proposal to the reader
➢ States the project proposal title, date the proposal was requested, general purpose and scope of the proposal, and
acknowledgment of people who have contributed to the completion of the proposal.
2. Title Page
➢ Includes the project title that is concise and informative
➢ Includes the lead organization, place and date of project, client’s or donor’s name, proponent’s name and the
department or organization he/she represents and date of submission.
3. Abstract or Executive Summary
➢ Includes the objectives, implementing organization, major project activities, and total project cost
➢ Usually composed of 200 to 250 words and highlights only the major points; some abstract may be longer depending
on the culture of the funding agency
➢ Uses a paragraph format
4. Context of the Proposal
➢ Describes the socio-economic, cultural and political background in which the proposal is situated
➢ Presents data collected from other sources that are relevant to the planning stage
5. Project Justification
➢ Provides a rationale for the project
➢ Includes a problem statement that specified the problem addressed by the project
➢ Points out why the problem is an issue that requires immediate attention
➢ Specifies the target group’s needs that arise from the adverse effect of the described problem
➢ Presents the approach or strategy that will be used to address the problem
➢ Describes the capability of the implementing organization or group by stating its track record
6. Persons Involved
➢ Lists the people involved in the project, their corresponding roles, and their summary of qualifications
7. Project Implementation
➢ Is divided into two: activity plan-schedule of activities and resource plan specifies the items needed to implement
the project
➢ Describes the activities and resource allocation in detail, as well as the person in charge of executing the activities
➢ Indicates the time and place of activities
8. Budget
➢ Presents the expected income and expenses over a specified time period
➢ Itemizes the budget
9. Monitoring and Evaluation
➢ Specifies when and how the team will monitor the progress of the project
➢ Specifies the method for monitoring and evaluation
➢ Specifies the personnel in charge of monitoring and evaluation
10. Reporting Scheme
➢ Specifies the schedule for reporting the finances and progress of the project
11. Conclusion
➢ Briefly describes the project, the problem it addresses, and its benefits to all stakeholders through a summary
➢ Directs the readers back to the good features of the project
➢ Urges the readers to contact the proponent to work out the details of the project proposal
12. Reference
➢ Lists all the references used in drafting the project proposal using the format required by the funding agency
What are the guidelines in writing a project proposal?
1. Decide on the problem to be addressed. 6. Talk about the plans for the project.
2. Arrange ideas systematically. 7. Have sufficient time for planning.
3. Identify your specific activities, outputs, resources 8. Orient team members on their tasks and
and methodologies. responsibilities.
4. Create a team for the project and its duties and 9. Ensure that objectives and activities are within the
responsibilities. given time and resources.
5. Identify the fund sources of the project. 10. Study the project proposal.

PARTS OF PROJECT PROPOSAL

1. Introduction
✧ Use a lead that grabs the attention of readers.
✧ Define the issue and provide a thorough background.
✧ Provide a general statement of the position through a thesis statement.
2. Body
✧ State the main arguments and provide sufficient evidence (e.g.,statistics,
interviews with experts, and testimonies) for each argument.
✧ Provide counterarguments against possible weaknesses of the arguments.
3. Conclusion
✧ Restate the position and main arguments.
✧ Suggest a course of action.
✧ Explain why the position is better than any other positions.
✧ End with a powerful closing statement (e.g. a quotation, a challenge, or a
question).
Ten Tips for Writing a Strong Position Paper
1. Select a timely, relevant topic with two clear 6. Include supporting data and evidence to back up
opposing sides. your argument.
2. Conduct thorough preliminary research, collecting 7. Properly attribute your sources using correct citation.
evidence supporting arguments for and against your 8. Keep it simple! Position papers don’t need to go into
position. excessive detail. Present your points clearly and briefly.
3. Identify your intended audience. You should tailor 9. Each paragraph in the paper should discuss a single
your tone depending on who the paper is written for idea.
(the public, other scientists, policymakers, etc.). 10. Have someone proofread your paper to ensure it
4. Clearly state your position on the topic. reads well and looks professional.
5. List and refute the counter-arguments to your
position.

Project Proposal
- Knowing how to convince people of your perspective is a valuable skill. More so if you are equipped with the
strategies suitable for a particular audience.
A project proposal is a tool which you can use to influence people to achieve what you want.
What’s In A research report is a form of communication that describes, analyzes, summarizes, criticizes/praises, or
makes predictions about a subject. It is based on an analysis of current or past events.
In order to achieve its objective, it should be properly formatted with the following parts:
• Title • Abstract • Introduction • Methodology • Results and Discussion • Conclusion • References

A project proposal is a document that is written for problem solving, service provision, event planning, or equipment
selling. Generally, proposals are used to convince the reader to do what the proposal suggests, such as buying goods
or services, funding a project, or implementing a program.
Proposals in the professional world are used for internal (within an organization) and external (from one organization to
another) purposes. They are ways of generating income for companies or seeking funding for projects. This is provided
to the sponsor of the project for approval.
A proposal stands out depending on its ability to clearly answer questions about what is being proposed, how the plan
will be carried out, when it will be implemented, and how much money will be needed or spent.
In other words, they are persuasive documents that need to do the following: highlight reader benefits, prove your
credibility in carrying out the project, and allow the reader to respond easily.

As a student, you have been familiarized with writing proposals - maybe even without you knowing it. Whenever you
envision, plan, and complete a project for your science class or your club outreach, you are thinking about fulfilling a
need for something. This process may involve writing a paper or doing a presentation in front of an audience to get their
approval. While proposal writing may seem like an intimidating task, they can be made easier by following the
guidelines in writing and familiarizing yourself with the parts of a project proposal.
Guidelines in Writing the Proposal
1. Gathering the Data. One of the characteristics of an effective proposal is being well researched. It needs concrete
data to back up its claims so it can become more credible. You can gather data from primary and secondary sources
and apply the strategies that you learned in writing a research paper in the previous lessons.
2. Organizing the Data. A proposal becomes more effective if the information on it is clearly organized. You can use the parts
of the proposal to guide you in your organization or use an outline to structure your discussion more effectively.
3. Writing the Proposal. Fill out the parts of the proposal with the relevant data.
4. Revising the Proposal. Make sure to review your proposal for accuracy and organization before you send it out. A good
proposal will be comprehensive and will put your organization in the best light. (Tiongson and Rodriguez 2016)
Formatting the Project Proposal
Proposals are primarily categorized according to their length. An informal proposal is about 2-4 pages long. Meanwhile, a
formal proposal has 5 or more pages. Regardless of their purpose and audience, they have standard parts such as the
following:
1. Introduction. This part provides the background necessary for understanding the project, which is done by telling your
reader the following:
o Rationale - this identifies the problem to be addressed and shows the need to solve it.
o Objectives - these reveal what the project intends to achieve in terms of results. It also gives the reader an idea of the
intended solution. Good objectives are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results-oriented, and bound within
a realistic Time frame).
o Benefits - these show what the reader or the target audience can gain from the proposal, which may be
improvements in processes or systems, an increase in revenue, or a change in behavior of the beneficiaries of the
proposal.
2. Project Description. This section gives specific information about the project itself. It indicates how the project will address
the identified problem through the following parts:
o Methodology – this entails the different activities; the project will take on, including the manpower (i.e., the people
involved and their duties), resources to be utilized and the expanded output.
o Schedule - this discusses the task duration and expected start and end dates of each activity in the project.
o Budget - this presents an analysis of all the costs anticipated in the project, which can be itemized or shown as a
whole, depending on the needs of the project.
Note: Organizations usually provide interested parties with a required format for project proposals, so make sure that you
follow the prescribed format. (Brighthubpm 2009)

The position paper is a composition that highlights an opinion of an author or specified entity about an issue. As a debate, it
presents one side of an arguable opinion and persuades the readers or audience that the author has a well-founded
knowledge about the issue.
In writing the Position Paper, your goal as a writer is not only to state and defend your position on the issue but also to show
how your stance relates to other position. Do remember that arguments should be supported with reasons and evidence?
Writing Center of the University of Hawaii, stated that in choosing the issue or problem to be discussed, you may ask yourself
the following questions as issue criteria to ensure that you will be able to present a strong argument:
1. Is it the actual and real issue?
2. Can you clearly identify two positions?
3. Are you an advocate of one of these positions?
4.Is the issue narrow enough to be manageable?

After choosing the argument to take, you must present relevant supporting evidence like:
1. Factual knowledge, which are valid and verifiable information
2. Statistical inferences, which are conclusions drawn from data gathered
3. Informed opinions, which are based on knowledge of the facts and carefully considered principle, and rely on evidence
instead of limited personal experience
4. Personal testimony, which are personal or first-hand experience of the writer or knowledgeable party (Rutgers 1998)
Now, here are the components of a position paper.
I. The Introduction – identifies the issue that will be discussed and states the author’s position on that issue.
A. Introduce your topic with background information B. Build up your thesis statement which asserts your position
• Fast food restaurants are bad for our health.
• Fast food packages should contain warning labels. II.
The Body – contains the central argument and can be further broken up into sections:
A. Possible objections to your position (counter argument)
• Whose job is it to determine which restaurants are bad?
• Such labels would affect the profits of major corporations.
B. A discussion of both sides of the issue, which addresses and refutes arguments that contradict the author’s position (your
argument)
• It would be difficult and expensive for any entity to determine which restaurants should adhere to the policy.
• Nobody wants to see the government overstepping its boundaries.
C. Explain that your position is still the best one, despite the strength of counterarguments. This is where you can work to
discredit some of the counterarguments and support your own.
• Restaurants might improve the standards of food if warning labels were put into place.
• The role of the government is to keep citizens safe.
III. Conclusion – restating the key points and when applicable, suggest resolution to the issue (Thoughtco 2020).
A. restate your position
B. provide Plan of Action

manifesto as a document or letter publicly declaring the position or program of its issuer.
The main objective of writing a position paper is to take part in a larger debate by stating your arguments and proposed
course of action.
Writing a Position Paper and Defending a Stance on an Issue
• Your goal as the writer is to convince the audience that your opinion or stand or claim is valid and worth listening to. It is
important to support your argument or reason with evidence to ensure the validity of your claims.
• Factual Knowledge – information that is verifiable and agreed upon by almost everyone
• Statistical Inferences – interpretation and examples of an accumulation of facts
• Informed Opinion – opinion developed through research and/or expertise of the claim
• Personal Testimony – personal experience related by a knowledgeable party.