Chapter 5

*geographic feature has four major components: 1- Locations. 2- Non-spatial attributes. 3- Time. 4- Spatial
relationships among geographic features. * Raster Vs Vector Models : In both models , the spatial information is
represented using homogeneous units. • In the raster approach, the homogeneous units are the cells. • In the
vector approach, the homogeneous units are the points, lines, and polygons. these units are relatively few in
number.

Raster Model Vector Model

Advantage • It’s a simple data structure
• operation are easily and implemented
• high spatial variability is represented in it format
Disadvantage • raster data structure is less compact data
techniques can overcome Problem
• topological relationship is more difficult to
represent
• it provide more c data structure true than Raster
model
• it provides efficient encoding of topology
• is better suited to sup-porting graphics
• it’s more complex data structure than a simple
raster
•overlay operations are more difficult to
implement

Chapter 6

Classification of GIS Analysis Functions: 1- Maintenance and analysis of spatial data. 2-Maintenance and
analysis of attribute data. 3- Integrated analysis of spatial and attribute data. 4- Output formatting.

Maintenance and analysis of spatial data. • Format transformation: Transforming the data into a suitable format for
the GIS (raster or vector). • Geometric transformation: Used to assign coordinates to a map or a data layers so that it
can be correctly overlayed on another of the same area. This process is called Registration. • Transformation
between map projections: The data layers to be used together for analysis by GIS should be using the same map
projection. • Conflation: is the process of reconciling the position of the features in different data layers to overlay
precisely. • Edge matching: a procedure to adjust the position of features that extend across map sheet boundaries.

Maintenance and analysis of attribute data. • Attribute editing functions: allow the attributes to be retrieved,
examined and changed. • Attribute query functions: retrieve records from the database relevant to a query.

Integrated analysis of spatial and attribute data. 1- Retrieval operations. 2- Classification and generalization. 3-
Measurement

Output formatting (map annotation) • Map design principles 1- The names should be logical and close to the feature
they describe. 2- The association between name and object should be easily recognized. 3- Labels should not overlap.
4- The format and positioning of the name labels should reflect.
 Chapter 7

Raster Data: A data set composed of an array of numeric values, each of which represents a condition in a
square element of ground. it types: 1- Discrete raster(Land) 2- Continuous raster(DEM)

Why use raster? 1- Better at storing certain kinds of data. 2- Better at analyzing certain kinds of data. 3- Often faster
analysis than vectors. 4- Imagery desirable for certain maps.

Raster analysis techniques: • Reclassification • Surface functions • Distance functions • Interpolation

•Neighborhood functions • Zonal functions

Pixels or Cells • Each pixel contains one numeric value • Dimension of a pixel varies (resolution) • Value represents
some property of that pixel area, e.g. elevation or rainfall. • Values may be integers or floating point numbers. •
Unlike a polygon, each cell has only ONE attribute: its value.

Chapter 8

Variations of Buffering • Fixed vs. varying buffer distances. • Buffer rings. • Buffer zones on one side or
both sides of spatial features. • Separate vs. dissolved buffer zones.

Map Overlay • An overlay operation combines the geometries and attributes of two feature layers to
create the output. • The geometry of the output represents the geometric intersection of features from
the input layers. • Each feature on the output contains a combination of attributes from the input layers,
and this combination differs from its neighbors.

Feature Type Map Overlay: 1-Point-in-Polygon • The input is a point map • The output is also a point
map, which has attribute data from the overlay polygon map. 2- Line-in-Polygon • The input is a line
map. The output is also a line map. But the output differs from the input in two aspects the line is broken
into two segments. 3- Polygon-on-Polygon • The two maps to be overlaid have the same area extent.
• The output combines the geometry and attribute data from the two maps into a single polygon map.

Map Overlay Methods: 1- Intersect (AND) 2- Union (OR) 3- Identity (OR/AND) 4- Symmetric Difference (XOR)

Pattern Analysis: • Pattern analysis refers to the use of quantitative methods for describing and analyzing the
distribution pattern of spatial features. • At the general level, a pattern analysis can reveal if a distribution pattern is
random, dispersed, or clustered. • At the local level, a pattern analysis can detect if a distribution pattern contains
local clusters of high or low values.