Ethics in Bullets

Bulaong Jr., O. G., Calano, M. J. T., Lagliva, A. M., Mariano, M. N. E., & Principe, J. D. Z. (2018).
Ethics: Foundations of Moral Valuation (1st ed.). REX Book Store.

1. The Ethical Dimension of Human Existence

- Aesthetics: The domain of personal judgments about what is considered good or bad,
pleasing or displeasing, in matters of sensory experiences like art, music, and taste.

- Etiquette: Concerned with right and wrong actions that are relatively trivial in nature,
focusing on social norms and manners.

- Ethics: Deals with the evaluation of what is good and bad, right and wrong, and acceptable
and unacceptable in human behavior. It encompasses moral judgments, obligations,
prohibitions, and ideals that hold significance in human life.

- Aesthetic and technical valuations are not part of ethics; they involve personal judgments
about sensory experiences and proper ways of doing things.

- Ethics deals with valuations in the sphere of human actions that have gravity and concern
human well-being or life itself.

- Matters related to life and death, human well-being, poverty, inequality, and sexual identity
are often included in discussions of ethics.

- The distinction between ethics and other domains is not always clear, and debates can arise
regarding what is considered grave or trivial.

- The terms “ethics” and “morals” are used interchangeably in this context, although some
thinkers propose distinctions between them.

- Philosophy, rooted in the love of wisdom, seeks to better understand reality and human life
in a systematic manner.

- Ethics is a branch of philosophy that focuses on the value of human actions and serves as a
foundation for moral valuation.

- Descriptive ethics: Reports how people make moral valuations without judging them, often
studied by social scientists.

- Normative ethics: Seeks to determine the right way of acting and prescribes standards for
moral valuation, studied in philosophy and moral theology.

- Philosophical discussion of ethics critically considers the strengths and weaknesses of

descriptive and normative theories.

- Moral issue: A situation that calls for moral valuation, such as a debate-worthy topic or a
situation involving moral choices.

- Moral decision: Choosing a specific action in a given situation based on moral

considerations.
- Moral judgment: Assessing the actions or behavior of others from a moral standpoint.

- Moral dilemma: A situation where one must choose between two goods or the lesser of
two evils.

- Ethics is interested in understanding the reasons behind considering certain actions right or
wrong and providing justifications for moral decisions and judgments.

- Fear of punishment or desire for reward can be motivations for actions but may not
provide sufficient reasons for determining rightness or wrongness.

- Moral reasoning involves going beyond superficial motivations and finding principled
justifications for moral decisions and judgments.

- Maintaining a particular moral principle requires understanding the reasons behind it.

- Moral theories are systematic attempts to establish the validity of maintaining certain moral
principles.

- Moral theories provide frameworks for evaluating and strengthening our principles,
informing our moral judgments and decisions.

- Studying different ethical frameworks allows us to reflect on and potentially modify our
principles.

- The book will explore ethical frameworks from the history of philosophy to contribute to
ethical discernment.

- Plato, a Greek thinker, is considered a pioneer of philosophy and raised questions about
virtue, beauty, and love.

- Plato believed that spending time thinking and discussing these questions is the greatest
good.

- Plato’s ideas will be further discussed later in the chapter.

- Some notions of ethics rely on the authority of a higher power or a specific understanding
of the self.

- Three common sources of authority in ethics are the law, religion, and culture.

- The law is often seen as a guide to ethical behavior, with rules enforced through sanctions.

- However, relying solely on the law as the basis of ethics has some problems.

- The law primarily focuses on prohibitions and constraints, not providing guidance on what
we should pursue.

- Some actions may be ethically questionable even if they are not prohibited by the law.

- Ethical judgments can go beyond legal obligations and consider additional factors.

- The story of passers-by neglecting to help a child in need highlights the limitations of
relying solely on the law for ethical guidance.
- Ethics should be considered in a broader sense, not solely based on obedience to the law.

- The divine command theory is a foundation for ethical values that states one is obliged to
obey their God’s commands.

- Religion often provides a clear code of prohibitions and ideals to pursue, aligning with our
intuitive sense of ethics.

- Religion offers a Supreme Authority that can inspire and compel obedience in a unique
way.

- However, there are problems with this approach.

- Different religions have conflicting ethical standards, leading to potential moral judgments
and the question of converting others.

- Not everyone is religious, so relying solely on religion as the basis of morality would leave
some without a moral code.

- Even within the same faith, differences in interpretation and understanding can create
ethical dilemmas.

- The Euthyphro dilemma, posed by Plato, questions the connection between ethics and the
Divine.

- The dilemma asks whether something is holy because the gods love it or if the gods love it
because it is holy, challenging the understanding of ethics based on religious authority.

- In the exchange between Socrates and Euthyphro, the question arises about how to define
“holiness.”

- The dilemma is whether something is holy because the gods love it or if it is inherently holy
and therefore loved by the gods.

- Applying this to ethics, it raises the question of whether something is right only because
God commands it or if it is inherently right and that is why God commands it.

- If we accept that something is wrong only because God commanded it, it implies that there
is nothing inherently wrong with it and God’s will is arbitrary.

- If we accept that something is inherently wrong, then there are objective standards of right
and wrong that exist independently of God.

- The divine command theory requires us to equate the entire sense of right and wrong with
what religion dictates, which poses conceptual and practical difficulties.

- Questioning the divine command theory does not challenge one’s belief in God but invites
consideration of more creative ways to connect faith and ethics.

- The Natural Law theory of Thomas Aquinas will be explored as a potential alternative in
understanding the connection between faith and ethics.

- Exposure to different cultures reveals diverse ways of thinking and valuing.

- Cultural differences exist in aesthetics, religion, and etiquette, as well as in ethical beliefs
and practices.

- Cultural relativism suggests that ethical acceptability is relative to one’s culture.

- Cultural relativism is appealing as it aligns with the reality of cultural differences and
promotes tolerance.

- Filipino values, such as respect for the elderly and close family ties, are often praised, but
their identification with ethics is questioned.

- Criticisms of cultural relativism include difficulties in determining a universal standard,

potential moral contradictions, and the risk of cultural bias.

- Additional criticism based on contextualized observations can further challenge cultural

relativism.

- Cultural relativism argues that different cultures have different moral codes, suggesting
there is no single right or wrong answer.

- Disagreement doesn’t necessarily mean there is no correct resolution; it may require further
clarification.

- Cultural relativism prevents rendering judgment on practices of other cultures, but

problematic practices may arise.

- It also prevents judgment on practices within one’s own culture, hindering critical
examination and improvement.

- Defining one’s culture becomes challenging in an increasingly globalized world with diverse
influences.

- Cultural relativism limits critical thought and discernment, inhibiting exploration and
comparison of values.

- It is important to consider how one’s cultural belonging can enhance ethical discernment.

- Fraternities may claim their own “culture,” which deserves respect, but the strengths and
weaknesses of this claim should be analyzed.

- Subjectivism emphasizes the individual as the central authority in moral valuations.

- It claims that individuals alone determine what is morally good or bad, right or wrong.

- Statements like “No one can tell me what is right and wrong” and “I am entitled to my own
opinion” reflect this perspective.

- However, subjectivism has its problems:

- While individuals have the right to their own opinions, they can be mistaken and
corrected by others, including in matters of ethics.
 - Personal knowledge of a situation doesn’t necessarily mean others cannot provide
meaningful advice or insights.

- The right to have an opinion doesn’t grant immunity from criticism or correction,
especially when opinions promote bigotry or discrimination.

- Insisting on the right to hold any opinion without critical examination is closed-minded and
invites censure.

- Subjectivism claims that personal consideration determines what is good.

- The problem with subjectivism is that it lacks a basis for determining why something is
considered good.

- Psychological egoism states that all actions are motivated by self-interest.

- While it may seem reasonable for many everyday actions, it raises questions about
behaviors that appear to be directed towards others.

- Psychological egoists argue that even seemingly other-directed actions have underlying
self-serving desires.

- Psychological egoism has simplicity and plausibility as strengths.

- Psychological egoism is an irrefutable theory because it claims that self-serving motives

underlie all actions.

- Accepting an irrefutable theory is not necessary, as there may be alternative perspectives.

- The problematic consequence of psychological egoism is that it challenges our moral

intuitions about generosity and selfishness.

- It leads to a cynical view of humanity and undermines the possibility of normative ethics.

- Ethical egoism differs from psychological egoism and suggests that we should prioritize
our own interests while potentially benefiting others.

- Ethical egoism can lead to abuses of power and disregard for the well-being of others.

- The study of ethics explores finding a balance between self-interest and the well-being of
others.

- The chapter established the scope and rationale for discussing ethics and explored different
domains of valuation.

- Terms related to ethics were clarified.

- Problematic ways of thinking about ethics were examined.

- The following chapters will delve into various moral theories from the history of philosophy.

- Utilitarianism will be explored, which emphasizes the best consequences for everyone as
the measure of what is right.
- The Natural Law Theory suggests that good and bad can be based on human nature itself.

- Deontology argues that ethics should not be based on consequences or intrinsic nature,
but on moral duty determined through reason.

- Virtue Ethics considers moral character and the development of reason within a larger
context.

- The final chapter will show how these theories, despite apparent contradictions, can
contribute to our understanding of moral value.

2. Utilitarianism

- Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that considers the consequences of actions and seeks the
greatest happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people.

- Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are prominent utilitarian thinkers.

- Jeremy Bentham’s system of ethics focuses on the consequences of actions.

- Utilitarianism, a consequentialist theory, emphasizes the usefulness of actions’

consequences in determining their moral value.

- Bentham and Mill define utility as the promotion of happiness and pleasure for the greatest
number of people.

- Bentham was born in 1748 in London and was influential in various areas such as penal
management, economic freedom, women’s rights, and animal rights.

- He rejected individual legal rights and natural law.

- Bentham’s principle of utility states that our actions are guided by pleasure and pain, which
serve as sovereign masters in determining what is good or bad and what should be done.

- The principle of utility recognizes that pain and pleasure are the sovereign masters that
govern our actions.

- It acknowledges that our actions are motivated by the desire for pleasure and the
avoidance of pain.

- The principle states that actions are considered right if they promote happiness and
produce more pleasure than pain.

- Happiness is equated with pleasure, and unhappiness is associated with pain and the
absence of pleasure.

- John Stuart Mill supports Bentham’s principle of utility and emphasizes that moral good is
happiness, which is achieved through pleasure.

- Mill explains that desirable things are either inherently pleasurable or serve as means to
promote pleasure and prevent pain.
- The criterion for distinguishing pleasures and calculating their resultant effects becomes
important in understanding moral value.

- A distinction arises between Bentham and Mill regarding the nature of pleasure and the
calculation of utility.

- John Stuart Mill was a philosopher born on May 20, 1806 in London, UK.

- He was homeschooled and showed exceptional intellectual abilities from a young age.

- Mill’s ethical theory and defense of utilitarian views are presented in his essay
“Utilitarianism” published in 1861.

- He married Harriet Taylor after a long friendship.

- Mill believed that the pursuit of happiness and avoidance of pain are the fundamental
principles in assessing the morality of actions.

- According to Mill, the principle of utility, which aims to increase happiness and reduce pain,
justifies actions like wiretapping in cases of treason, rebellion, espionage, and sedition.

- The moral value of pleasure is a subject of debate between Bentham and Mill. They have
different views on what kinds of pleasures are morally preferable and valuable.

- While utilitarianism does not condone excessive pleasures while others suffer, it does not
provide a justification for indulging in extravagant pleasures at the expense of others.

- If nobody is suffering, it is still not morally permissible on utilitarian grounds to maximize

pleasure through wanton intemperance.

- Bentham and Mill share the belief in the moral value of pleasure but differ in their
perspectives on certain ethical questions.

- Bentham introduces the concept of felicific calculus to evaluate pleasure and pain in
actions.

- Felicific calculus considers intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and
extent of pleasure and pain.

- Mill disagrees with Bentham’s single scale of pleasure and argues for qualitative
distinctions.

- Mill believes there are higher intellectual pleasures and lower base pleasures.

- Humans, as moral agents, are capable of desiring and pursuing higher intellectual
pleasures.

- Mill emphasizes the importance of quality over quantity of pleasure.

- Excessive quantity of pleasure may lead to pain, as seen in examples like overeating or
excessive exercise.
- Mill suggests comparing actual preferences and experiences to determine the preference
between two pleasures.

- He uses a thought experiment to show that humans would not choose to be a satisfied pig
over a dissatisfied human.

- Mill believes it is better to be a dissatisfied human with higher reasoning than a satisfied
fool or pig.

- Comparing pleasures deeply integrated in our way of life is more complex than comparing
extreme types of pleasures.

- Utilitarianism considers the happiness and pleasure of the greatest number of people.

- It is not solely about individual pleasures but about the overall happiness of all affected by
our actions.

- Utilitarianism emphasizes the cultivation of nobleness and the benefit it brings to others.

- Selfish acts are not aligned with utilitarianism, as it focuses on the happiness of all, not just
ourselves.

- Utilitarianism is concerned with improving the quality of life for everyone and maximizing
total pleasure.

- Consequences of actions are more important than the motive behind them in utilitarianism.

- Good actions are often intended for the benefit of individuals, which collectively contribute
to the well-being of society.

- Utilitarianism prioritizes the best consequence for the highest number of people, rather
than the intention of the agent.

- Moral value is determined by the impact on the overall pleasure and pain in the world.

- The question arises regarding the justification of sacrificing some rights for the benefit of
the majority in utilitarianism.

- Rights are valid claims on society justified by utility and aimed at promoting the greatest
happiness of the greatest number.

- They involve a hurt to a person and a demand for punishment, with the injured party
having a valid claim for protection.

- Rights serve the general good and contribute to society’s happiness, such as the right to
due process, free speech, and religion.

- Animals can also have rights as their interests impact overall happiness.

- Utilitarians strongly defend rights because they are tied to individuals’ vital interests.

- The right to life is fundamental, and society should defend individuals in its possession.
- The obligation to defend rights is based on general utility and includes an emotional
element of retaliation.

- Our participation in government and social interactions align with the principle of utility
and consequentialism.

- Utilitarianism is associated with the possession of legal and moral rights.

- Legal rights are respected in just treatment, but there are exceptions.

- When legal rights are morally unjustified, they need not be observed or respected.

- Unjust laws can be morally permissible to disobey or protest against.

- Moral rights take precedence over legal rights in cases of conflict.

- Moral rights can be overridden for the greater general happiness but should be justified by
considerations of overall happiness.

- Social inequalities that are no longer considered expedient are seen as unjust.

- The principle of utility can theoretically justify actions like stealing or killing for the sake of
the greatest happiness.

- In extreme cases, actions that would normally be considered unjust may be justified for the
greater good.

- Justice is understood in utilitarian terms as acts justified by the greatest happiness

principle.

- Violating rights is not praiseworthy unless it is judged to produce more happiness than
unhappiness.

- Mill’s moral rights and considerations of justice are justified by their consequences for the
greatest good.

- Justice is based on a rule of conduct and a sentiment that sanctions the rule.

- Justice involves the desire for punishment and the recognition of violated rights.

- The sentiment of justice is the desire to repel or retaliate harm to oneself or others,
extended to include all individuals through sympathy and self-interest.

- Bentham and Mill both view moral good as pleasure and promote the greatest happiness
for the greatest number.

- Bentham introduces the felicific calculus to quantify moral valuation.

- Mill emphasizes higher intellectual pleasures over base sensual ones.

- Mill argues that rights are socially protected interests justified by their contribution to the
greatest happiness principle.
- In extreme circumstances, individual rights may be overridden for the better welfare,
considering conflicts in valuation.

3. Natural Law

- People often justify or condemn actions based on their perception of what is natural or
unnatural.

- The word “natural” can have different meanings depending on the context.

- It can refer to personal aversions or preferences.

- It can be used to justify behavior based on observations in the natural world.

- It can appeal to instinct without rationality.

- It can also reflect what is common in a specific environment.

- Thomas Aquinas offers a more solid and nuanced understanding of the term “natural”
based on human capacity for reason.

- This understanding forms the basis of natural law theory, which helps determine the moral
status of actions.

- Thomas Aquinas is a medieval thinker known for his natural law theory.

- His natural law theory is part of his larger moral theory, which is in turn part of his vision of
the Christian faith.

- Aquinas’s magnum opus, Summa Theologiae, follows the trajectory of the Christian story,
emphasizing the promise of returning to God.

- The work is divided into three parts: discussing God, human life, and Jesus as the Savior.

- Aquinas’s ethics focuses on human life and its striving toward God.

- His ethics goes beyond simple obedience to rules or commandments.

- It explores the complexity and coherence of ethical principles.

- Aquinas also discusses emotions, actions, habits, and dispositions in relation to a good life.

- He emphasizes the development of moral virtue and the inclination toward the good in the
Christian life.

- Aquinas believes that conscience directs our moral thinking, but it must be informed and
grounded in an objective basis for morality.

- He emphasizes the importance of developing a life of virtue based on a clear guidepost.

- Aquinas proposes the natural law as a basis for ethics, which provides a concrete direction
for determining right and wrong.

- The divine command theory emphasizes blind obedience to religious precepts, while
Aquinas’s moral theory requires the judicious use of reason.
- Aquinas draws upon Greek philosophy, particularly Plato, who introduced the idea of a
supreme and transcendent good.

- Plato’s concept of the good as an objective basis for morality influenced Aquinas and later
thinkers.

- Scholars who elaborated on Plato’s ideas are known as Neoplatonists.

- Aquinas builds upon this Greek heritage and incorporates it into his moral theory.

- Neoplatonists identified Plato’s idea of the good as the One and the Beautiful, representing
ultimate reality.

- The One is the source of all beings and gives rise to the multiplicity in the cosmos.

- All beings have the goal of returning to the unity of the One.

- Plotinus, a Neoplatonist philosopher, emphasizes that the good is to be grasped in itself,

independent of other things.

- Attaining the fullness of the good is impossible, but partial understanding is within reach.

- The good is the cause of intelligent and intellective life, essence, and existence.

- The good is the origin of movement and rest, without needing a place for them.

- It is unlimited in being and power, unchanging and eternal.

- The Neoplatonic understanding of the good influenced Christian thought in the Middle
Ages, leading to the perception of a creative and loving God.

- According to Aristotle, any being can be understood through four causes.

- The material cause refers to the physical “stuff” or matter that constitutes a being.

- The formal cause represents the specific shape or form that distinguishes a being as a
particular kind.

- The efficient cause is the preceding being or action that brings about the existence of
another being.

- The final cause refers to the apparent goal or purpose of a being.

- These four causes (material, formal, efficient, and final) help in understanding any being.

- Aristotle emphasizes the importance of grasping the causes to truly know and understand
something.

- Aristotle introduces the concepts of potency and act to explain the process of becoming or
change in a being.

- Potency represents the latent potentials within a being, while act refers to the actualization
of those potentials.
- Understanding both the being and its potential for change is a significant contribution of
Aristotle’s philosophy, which will be built upon by Aquinas.

- Aquinas sees God as the transcendent good and loving God, the fullness of being and
goodness.

- All beings participate in God and exist because of His creation.

- God is the first efficient cause, from which all beings come, and the final cause toward
which all beings seek to return.

- This synthesis combines the Neoplatonic notion of the transcendent and Aristotelian
understanding of causes.

- Creation is the outpouring of God’s goodness, and each being participates in His goodness
to some extent.

- Beings are imperfect in their participation and strive for perfection by aligning with God’s
will.

- Divine providence guides beings toward their proper end, which is returning to divine
goodness.

- God communicates His perfection and goodness to each being, and all things come from
Him and return to Him.

- Beings, including humans, are created as specific combinations of form and matter, with
their nature determining their kind of being.

- Human beings, with their capacity for reason, reach God by knowing and loving Him.

- Humanity as a whole and the entire universe are directed toward their return to God under
the governance of divine reason.

- This dynamic can be understood in terms of law, where beings are directed by divine
reason and their acts lead them to their end.

- - As rational beings with free will, we pursue goods or desirable ends through our actions.

- Reason helps us judge what is truly good for us and consider the common good, not just
our own individual good.

- The common good is the well-being of the community as a whole, and we must act in ways
that promote it.

- Law establishes the proper measure or limits for our actions, allowing us to pursue ends
together with consideration for others.

- Traffic rules are an example of laws that place limits for the common good, such as speed
limits to prevent accidents.

- Laws are concerned with the common good and can be made by the whole community or
by individuals responsible for the community’s well-being.
- Examples of laws range from rules within a student organization to ordinances in a city, all
aiming to promote what is best for the community.

- Promulgation is the communication of rules or laws to enforce them and ensure

compliance.

- Law is seen as an ordinance of reason for the common good, made by those caring for the
community and promulgated to guide human actions.

- When considering the grandest community, the entire universe and all beings within it, the
question arises whether there is a guiding force or entity directing all toward the common
good.

- Divine wisdom directs all beings toward their proper end and can be called the eternal law.

- All beings participate in the eternal law through their inclinations and instincts, including
irrational creatures.

- Human beings participate more fully in the law due to their rational nature and capacity for
reason.

- The natural law is the participation of the rational creature in the eternal law, guiding
human acts toward their proper ends.

- Human law is constructed by human beings in their communities and should conform to
the natural law for it to be just and direct towards the common good.

- Divine law refers to precepts or instructions from divine revelation, guiding us towards
supernatural happiness, but it is not necessary for moral behavior.

- Aquinas’s natural law theory is rooted in human nature rather than a specific religious faith,
allowing anyone to determine ethical principles based on shared human nature.

- Good and evil are perceived by reason based on natural inclinations.

- The precepts of the natural law follow the order of these natural inclinations.

- Natural law includes the preservation of human life and the pursuit of what is good for
human beings.

- Human beings share inclinations with other beings, such as the desire for sexual
intercourse and the care of offspring.

- Actions that violate natural inclinations, such as taking a life or preventing the emergence
of new life, are considered unethical.

- Reason plays a unique role in human nature and inclines us to seek truth and live in society.

- Acts that promote knowledge, avoid ignorance, and respect others are in line with this
inclination.

- Aquinas does not provide a comprehensive list of specific ethical or unethical acts, leaving
it to reason to determine their moral value.
- Reason should guide the consideration of when and how to fulfill natural inclinations in a
manner consistent with the common good.

- Human laws can be extensions of the natural law if they contribute to the common good.

- The natural law theory provides an objective basis for ethics rooted in natural inclinations
and synthesized concepts from ancient Greek philosophy.

4. Deontology

- Deontology is the moral theory that evaluates actions based on duty and obligation.

- Immanuel Kant is a key proponent of deontology, emphasizing rational will and the
capacity for moral action.

- Humans have rational will, allowing us to think, reflect, and act based on principles.

- Animals, driven by instincts, do not possess rational will or conceive of duties.

- Acting according to duty is a uniquely human experience, involving a tension between base
impulses and rational will.

- Kant’s concept of autonomy is the opposite of heteronomy.

- Autonomy means self-law, while heteronomy means other law.

- Autonomy is when a person legislates and imposes a principle on themselves.

- Heteronomy is when an external authority legislates and imposes a principle on a person.

- Autonomy is exemplified by grown-up individuals who brush their teeth without being
prompted by their parents.

- The locus of authorship of the law determines whether the will is autonomous or
heteronomous.

- Trivial actions like brushing teeth may not be considered moral dilemmas, but they
illustrate the difference between autonomy and heteronomy.

- Real moral issues involve actions that directly harm or benefit individuals’ well-being.

- Reggie’s case of returning the suitcase or keeping its valuable contents can be viewed as a
moral issue.

- Reggie could have rationalized keeping the valuables as an act of autonomous agency, but
this reasoning would be mistaken according to Kantian understanding.

- Simply self-legislating a principle does not necessarily mean acting autonomously in the
moral sense.

- Kant distinguishes between rational will and animal impulse.

- Free choice is determined by pure reason, while animal choice is determined by inclination
or sensible impulse.
- Sensible impulses are bodily, emotional, and immediate reactions.

- Human choice, influenced but not determined by impulses, can be directed by pure reason.

- Reason allows for deliberation and the construction of rational responses.

- Human freedom lies in the capacity of reason to intervene in animal impulses.

- Human actions can be affected but not determined by sensible impulses.

- Autonomy is when actions are determined by pure reason, while heteronomy is when
actions are determined by sensible impulses.

- Autonomy is the property of the will when it acts according to pure reason.

- Heteronomy occurs when actions are compelled by external or sensible impulses.

- Heteronomy of the will arises when a foreign impulse, external or sensible, imposes its will
on the agent.

- Autonomy is the property of the will when pure reason is the cause of the action.

- There are two kinds of moral theories: substantive and formal.

- Substantive moral theories provide specific actions and duties to follow.

- Formal moral theories provide a framework or procedure for determining moral rules and
commands.

- Kant endorses a formal moral theory called the categorical imperative.

- The categorical imperative requires formulating actions as maxims.

- A maxim is a subjective principle of action or a rule we live by.

- Maxims depict patterns of behavior and are like standard operating procedures in our lives.

- We have many maxims that we act according to in our daily lives.

- Kant’s categorical imperative requires acting according to a maxim that can be willed as a
universal law.

- Universalizing a maxim means imagining a world where everyone is obligated to follow it.

- Kant gives an example of the maxim of borrowing money without intending to pay it back.

- Universalizing this maxim leads to a logical contradiction and impossibility.

- Kant rejects maxims that are self-contradictory or make the intended action impossible.

- Actions that pass the universalizability test are rationally permissible and objectively
rational.

- Borrowing money without intending to pay it back is objectively and necessarily wrong
based on the universalizability test.
- Kant’s categorical imperative is a formal moral philosophy that tests the permissibility of
actions.

- It allows individuals to use their own rational faculty to determine moral duties.

- The procedure involves universalizing maxims and assessing if they encounter self-
contradiction.

- The categorical imperative helps individuals make their own moral judgments instead of
relying on authority figures.

- It promotes autonomy and self-legislation of the rational will.

- Deontology contributes to enlightenment morality by moving away from paternalism and

promoting mature decision-making based on reason.

- Deontology encourages individuals to think for themselves and reject irrational and self-
contradictory rules and laws.

5. Virtue Ethics

- Virtue ethics focuses on developing a virtuous character in individuals.

- Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics is a major work in moral philosophy.

- Virtue ethics emphasizes the formation of character through virtuous acts.

- Plato and Aristotle have different perspectives on reality and the good.

- Plato believes the good exists in the realm of forms, while Aristotle sees it in everyday
experiences.

- Aristotle’s ethics engage with the good in daily life.

- Aristotle believes that every action has a purpose or telos.

- Actions are aimed at achieving a good, and individuals pursue different goods with
hierarchy.

- The ultimate purpose or highest good of a human being is happiness (eudaimonia).

- Happiness is both final and self-sufficient.

- Happiness is not merely wealth, power, or pleasure, but the condition of a fulfilled and
satisfying life.

- Happiness is achieved through performing one’s function well, and for human beings, that
function is the activity of reason.

- The function of a human being is not simply to take in food or perceive things like plants or
animals.

- What sets humans apart is their function or activity of reason.

- A person’s function is to act in accordance with reason and to perform it well.

- Performing the function of reason excellently distinguishes a good person.

- Human good is the activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, particularly the best and
most complete virtue.

- Being human is achievable by anyone, but being a good human requires effort and striving
for excellence.

- Virtue, or excellence, is the ability to function according to reason and perform activities
well.

- Virtue is something one strives for over time, and it cannot be achieved overnight.

- Aristotle divides the human soul into the irrational element and the rational faculty.

- The irrational element consists of the vegetative and appetitive aspects, which are not
governed by reason.

- The rational faculty, divided into moral and intellectual aspects, is where excellence is
exercised.

- Intellectual excellence is attained through teaching and learning, including philosophic and
practical wisdom.

- Practical wisdom guides one in making right choices and actions.

- Having practical wisdom does not automatically make someone morally virtuous.

- Moral virtue is acquired through habit, and being morally good is a process of getting used
to doing the right actions.

- Aristotle believes that a person is not initially good by nature.

- Virtues are acquired by first exercising them, similar to learning through doing in crafts or
arts.

- Moral virtue is developed through habitual choices and actions.

- A person’s character is formed through constant acts of choosing and doing the good.

- Character becomes the identifying mark of a person.

- Continuous exposure to violence on television can influence the development of a child’s

character, potentially leading to tolerance of hostile behaviors.

- Developing practical wisdom involves learning from experiences and exercising practical
reason.

- Elders and experienced individuals can provide guidance in moral deliberation.

- Television violence can negatively impact the values instilled in children.

- Moral virtue aims for the middle ground or mesotes, which is neither excessive nor
deficient.
- Virtue involves choosing the proper amount of feelings, passions, and abilities for a
particular act.

- The mesotes is determined by reason and varies depending on the situation.

- The government should act in accordance with the middle measure when addressing issues
related to the well-being of children.

- Moral virtue is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in the mean determined by
practical wisdom.

- Virtue is developed through habitual actions and the rational application of reason.

- Not all actions and passions have a middle point; some are inherently bad.

- Violence is inherently bad and cannot be justified as a mean or middle measure in moral
virtue.

- Aristotle provides examples of virtues and their corresponding excesses and deficiencies.

- Courage is identified as a virtue, with cowardice as the deficiency and recklessness as the
excess.

- Cowardice is a lack of bravery, while recklessness is acting rashly without deliberation.

- Virtue lies in the middle, where one acts daringly but with caution and consideration.

- Going beyond the middle is no longer virtuous; excessive actions do not increase virtue.

- The Filipino tendency to use superlative words to describe virtuous acts may not align with
Aristotle’s understanding of virtue.

- Aristotle’s virtue ethics centers around the pursuit of happiness as the ultimate purpose in
life.

- Happiness is achieved by performing one’s function in accordance with reason.

- The soul is divided into irrational and rational faculties, with reason managing impulses.

- Excellence is attained in the rational faculty through learning and gaining wisdom.

- Intellectual excellence alone does not make a person morally good; practical wisdom and
habitual performance of good deeds are necessary.

- Developing a good character is the primary focus of virtue ethics.

- Practical wisdom guides the moral faculty to perform appropriate actions.

- The middle measure, known as the mesotes, is the virtuous balance between excess and
deficiency.

- Moral virtue is a habitual state of character that acts according to the moral choice
identified by practical wisdom.

- Virtue ethics aims to promote the maturity and development of a person’s character.
6. Synthesis: Making Informed Decisions

- The chapter focuses on making informed moral decisions.

- It introduces four ethical theories: utilitarianism, natural law ethics, Kantian deontology, and
virtue ethics.

- The value of studying these theories lies in the ongoing quest to answer moral questions.

- Reason plays a crucial role in addressing moral dilemmas.

- Ethics distinguishes between moral, aesthetic, and etiquette considerations.

- Personal, societal, and environmental dimensions are involved in moral valuation.

- Ethics guides decision-making in relation to oneself, society, and the natural world.

- The chapter explores the complexity of ethical decision-making and the factors that shape
individuals.

- It emphasizes the need for mature rational thinking and courageous decision-making.

- Ramon Castillo Reyes was a Filipino philosopher who taught Ethics at the Ateneo de Manila
University.

- The moral agent is the individual responsible for ethical thought and decision-making.

- The identity of the moral agent is shaped by cross-points including physical, interpersonal,
societal, and historical factors.

- Physical factors include being a member of the human species and the specific biological
and environmental conditions one is born into.

- Interpersonal factors refer to the influence of parents, relatives, and relationships on one’s
character and way of thinking.

- Societal factors encompass the influence of culture and society on shaping an individual’s
values, beliefs, and notions of right and wrong.

- Historical factors consider the events and history of one’s people or society, which
influence the individual’s identity.

- The moral agent exists in the tension between external conditioning and free will,
constantly being shaped by various factors.

- The moral agent is not a purely rational entity but a complex being with embodiment and
historicity.

- Ethics and culture are closely related, and one’s culture plays a significant role in shaping
ethical perspectives and values.

- Some people believe that one’s culture determines what is right or wrong.

- Generalizations about cultural traits can be empty stereotypes.

- James Rachels argues against cultural relativism in ethics.

- Cultural relativism confuses descriptive statements with normative statements.

- Rachels presents three absurd consequences of accepting cultural relativism.

- Recognizing and respecting cultural differences does not mean there is no objective truth
in morality.

- Cultural differences are part of one’s identity and cannot be ignored.

- Ethics involves exploring universal human questions within the context of one’s own
culture.

- Ethics should not be reduced to cultural standards or blindly follow traditions.

- Moral development is important for clear ethical decision-making.

- Religion often determines what is considered right or wrong for religious followers.

- Different religions exist in the world, such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism.

- The ultimate meaning of existence for religious followers is found in their religious beliefs.

- Moral questions for religious followers often revolve around following the teachings of
their religion.

- Interpreting sacred scriptures and religious teachings is a critical aspect of ethics.

- Religious teachings can have multiple interpretations, influenced by historical and

individual factors.

- The moral agent must understand and interpret religious teachings using rationality and
recognition of their own situatedness.

- The justification for religious teachings and commands is a philosophical question.

- The relationship between morality and religion raises questions about the nature of moral
goodness.

- Blindly following religious teachings without critical thinking can lead to harmful actions.

- Maturity and growth in morality require critical examination of one’s beliefs and informed
moral decision-making.

- Developing a well-developed “feel” for morality is important for responsible moral

decision-making.

- Moral development involves progressing from a child’s reasoning to a morally mature

individual’s ethical decision-making.

- Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a theory of moral development consisting of six stages

divided into three levels.
- The pre-conventional level is characterized by a focus on the consequences of one’s
actions, with stages centered around obedience and self-interest.

- The conventional level involves conforming to societal expectations, with stages focused on
approval from immediate groups and adherence to external standards.

- Merely following rules and regulations does not represent the highest level of moral
development according to Kohlberg.

- The post-conventional level represents the highest level of moral development, where
ethical principles take precedence over societal rules.

- Moral maturity is demonstrated by acting according to well-thought-out rational principles,

independent of personal pleasure or societal laws.

- The fifth stage emphasizes the value of the social contract and the common good as
determined by rational agents.

- The sixth stage involves choosing actions based on universal ethical principles determined
by the individual.

- Kohlberg highlights the importance of independent reasoning and moral agency for moral
maturity.

- Moral maturity involves moving beyond the logic of reward and punishment and blind
obedience to group norms.

- Understanding ethical theories and frameworks becomes significant for individuals on the
path to moral maturity.

- Moral deliberation also involves emotions and feelings in addition to rational thinking.

- Emotions have an important role in moral decision-making.

- Emotions cannot be completely eliminated from moral deliberation.

- Aristotle emphasizes the need to manage and cultivate emotions for virtuous decision-
making.

- The ability to manage emotions is part of character formation.

- Moral decision-making involves both intellectual knowledge and the proper management
of emotions.

- A morally responsible agent recognizes the influence of various factors on their decision-
making.

- Steps in making informed moral decisions:

1. Determine the level of involvement in the moral situation.

2. Establish the facts relevant to the situation, filtering out irrelevant details.
 3. Identify the stakeholders who may be affected by the situation and consider their
interests.

4. Recognize the ethical issue at hand and apply ethical frameworks to analyze it.

5. Address ethical dilemmas by identifying competing values and finding a balance.

6. Consider the probable consequences of different choices for the stakeholders.

7. Make a moral conclusion or decision, taking into account the complexity and challenges
of ethical decision-making.

- The responsible moral individual recognizes that cultivating mature moral choice is an
ongoing journey in life.

- Aristotle emphasizes the importance of continuous habituation in shaping one’s character

and becoming accustomed to choosing the right thing.

- Moral decisions are not automatic like mathematical calculations performed by a computer.

- A moral individual is a human being with finite intellect and dynamic passions, facing
unique situations that require ongoing management of reason and passions.

- Ethical theories or frameworks serve as guideposts in the development of moral choice

capacity.

- Ethical theories shed light on important considerations but are not final or complete.

- Utilitarianism values impartiality and the greatest good for the greatest number, treating all
stakeholders equally.

- Natural law theory emphasizes objective, universal morality based on the existence of
“human nature” and intuitive understanding of what feels right.

- Kantian deontology focuses on rational will as the determinant of moral duty, disregarding
other considerations and emphasizing autonomy.

- Aristotle’s virtue ethics emphasizes the need for character habituation to enable the
application of ethical considerations.

- The study of ethical theories should not end in choosing theories arbitrarily for specific
situations.

- Ethical theories should be continuously tested for cogency and coherence against the
complexity of concrete experiences.

- Ethical theories can be compared, weaknesses identified, and strengths from different
theories combined in application to different realms of human action: the personal, social
(local and global), and environmental.

- In the realm of the self, ethical theories guide how one should interact with oneself and
others.
- Utilitarianism (Mill) emphasizes maximizing happiness for the greatest number, considering
both quantity and quality of pleasure. Self-responsibility involves promoting the greatest
happiness for all affected by one’s actions.

- Natural law theory (Aquinas) highlights the duty to sustain one’s existence and promote
truth and harmonious social life. Taking care of oneself and nurturing relationships are moral
responsibilities.

- Kantian deontology emphasizes rationality and universalizability. Self-responsibility involves

treating oneself and others as ends in themselves, not merely as means, and acting
autonomously according to moral law.

- Aristotle’s virtue ethics focuses on self-cultivation and learning from experiences to become
a better person. Self-responsibility lies in practicing temperance and balancing emotions in
personal relationships.

- Ethical theories guide interpersonal relationships by emphasizing the happiness of all

affected individuals (utilitarianism), valuing human life and promoting truth and peaceful
social life (natural law theory), and treating others as ends in themselves (Kantian
deontology).

- Aristotle’s virtue ethics emphasizes finding the mean (mesotes) in treating oneself and
others, practicing temperance to manage emotions and foster constructive relationships.

- Membership in society entails following group rules and regulations, which may conflict
with personal values.

- Mill’s utilitarianism emphasizes the greatest happiness principle, questioning whether

actions benefit the greatest number of people.

- Aquinas’ natural law theory emphasizes valuing human life, truth, and peaceful coexistence
for harmonious social living.

- Kant’s ethics prioritize universalizability and treating humanity as an end in itself, allowing
individuals to form autonomous moral judgments.

- Aristotle’s virtue ethics advocate for virtues like justice, liberality, and friendliness,
emphasizing the importance of context and moderation.

- These ethical frameworks can guide individuals’ moral responsibilities within their
communities and the global society.

- Environmental ethics emerged in the 20th century, focusing on human responsibilities

toward the non-human world.

- Utilitarianism can extend its focus on pleasure and pain to include animals, considering
their well-being in moral decision-making.

- Kantian deontology questions the universalizability of maxims that prioritize economic

wealth over environmental destruction.
- Aquinas’ philosophy implies that neglecting the physical environment can disrupt societal
harmony and lead to negative consequences.

- Aristotle’s virtue ethics emphasizes the vice of myopia and the need for foresight in
understanding the implications of actions on the environment.

- Classical ethical theories provide starting points for addressing 21 st-century ethical
challenges, but further exploration and openness to new theories are important.

- The four frameworks are not exhaustive and should serve as guides for moral exploration,
understanding their strengths and weaknesses.

- Making informed moral decisions is an ongoing process, recognizing the limits of human
understanding and striving to do what is right.

- Making informed moral decisions involves understanding oneself and the factors that
shape one’s choices.

- The mature moral agent recognizes the influence of society, history, culture, and religion,
but also realizes the importance of freedom in decision-making.

- Kohlberg’s theory emphasizes the development of moral principles through a process of

maturity, which includes recognizing the role of both rational thought and emotions.

- Cultivating both reason and feelings is essential for making sound moral decisions.

- The use of ethical theories or frameworks helps the morally mature agent understand their
responsibilities towards themselves, society, and the environment.