Recommended Reading

 George Stephanopoulos «Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to Theory

and Practice»
D. Seborg, T. Edgar, D. Mellichamp, F.J. Doyle, Process Dynamics and Control,
JohnWiley & Sons, Inc., 2016.
 Bode diagrams constitute a convenient way to represent the frequency response characteristics
of a system.
 Bode Diagrams show the variation of amplitude ratio and phase lag as a function of frequency.

 The bode diagrams consists of a pair of plots showing;

How the logarithm of the amplitude ratio varies with frequency
How the phase shift varies with frequency.
• The Bode diagram consists of: (1) a log–log plot of AR versus ω and (2) a semilog plot of ϕ
versus ω.
• These plots are particularly useful for rapid analysis of the response characteristics and stability
of closed-loop systems.
 𝑲𝒑
𝑮 𝒔 =
𝝉𝒑 𝒔 + 𝟏

𝑲𝒑
𝑨𝑹 =
𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐𝒑 𝒘𝟐

𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (−𝝉𝒑 𝒘)

 log (AR) vs log (𝝉𝒑 𝒘) and 𝝋 vs log (𝝉𝒑 𝒘)

 As w→ 0, then 𝜏𝑝 𝑤→0

logAR→0, AR→1
Low frequency asymptote
It is a horizontal line passing through the point AR = 1

𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝜏𝑝 𝑤)
 As w→ ∞, then 𝜏𝑝 𝑤→∞

logAR→-log 𝜏𝑝 𝑤
High frequency asymptote
It is a line with a slope of -1 passing through the point
AR=1 for 𝜏𝑝 𝑤=1

𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝜏𝑝 𝑤)
 The frequency w = 1/𝜏𝑝 is known as the corner
frequency.

 As w→0, then 𝜑→0

 As w→∞, then 𝜑→-90°

 w = 1/𝜏𝑝 , 𝜑=-45°

𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (−𝜏𝑝 𝑤)
 𝑲𝒑
𝑨𝑹 =
𝒘

𝝋 = −𝟗𝟎°
 𝑲𝒑
𝑨𝑹 =
(𝟏 − 𝝉𝟐 𝒘𝟐 )𝟐 + 𝟐𝝉𝝃𝒘 𝟐

−𝟏
−𝟐𝝃𝝉𝒘
𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏 ( )
𝟏 − 𝝉𝟐 𝒘𝟐
• Plots were obtained for different damping
factors when Kp=1
• The two asymptotes for the plot AR versus 𝜏𝑤
are determined as follows;
• As w→0 then logAR→0 or AR →1 (low frequency
asymptote)
• As w →∞ then log AR →-2log 𝜏𝑤 (high frequency
asymptote)
• High frequency asymptote is a straight line with
a slope of -2 passing through the point AR=1
𝜏𝑤=1.
• We notice that for underdamped systems the
amplitude ratio can exceed significantly the
value of 1.
𝑨𝑹 = 𝟏

𝝋 = −𝝉𝑫 𝒘
  Consider N systems in series with individual transfer functions
G1(s), G2(s),……..GN(s).
 The overall transfer function s
G(s)= G1(s) G2(s)……GN(s).
 Put s=jw
G(jw)= G1(jw) G2(jw)……GN(jw).
𝐺(𝑗𝑤) = 𝐺1 (𝑗𝑤) 𝐺2 (𝑗𝑤) 𝐺3 (𝑗𝑤) …… 𝐺𝑁 (𝑗𝑤)

𝜑 = 𝜑1 + 𝜑2 + 𝜑3 … … … … 𝜑𝑁

𝐴𝑅 = (𝐴𝑅1 )(𝐴𝑅2 ) (𝐴𝑅3 )……………… (𝐴𝑅𝑁 )

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐴𝑅 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐴𝑅1 ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐴𝑅2 ) + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝐴𝑅3 )……………… lo𝑔(𝐴𝑅𝑁 )

where (AR)1, (AR)2, (AR)3 …..(AR)N are the ampltiude ratios for the individual systems in
series.
 The logarithm of the overall amplitude ratio is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the
amplitude ratios of the individual systems.
 The overall phase shift is equal to the sum of the phase shifts of the individual systems.
 The presence of a constant in the overall transfer function will move the entire AR curve
vertically by a constant amount. It has no effect on the phase shift.
 𝟏 𝟔
𝑮𝟏 𝒔 = 𝑮𝟐 𝒔 =
𝟐𝒔 + 𝟏 𝟓𝒔 + 𝟏

 Obtain overall transfer function

𝟏 𝟔
G 𝒔 = (𝟐𝒔+𝟏)(𝟓𝒔+𝟏)

 Find AR
AR=AR1.AR2
𝟐𝒘
𝟏 𝟏 − 𝟐𝒊𝒘 𝟏 𝟐𝒘 𝟏 𝟏+𝟒𝒘𝟐
𝑮𝟏 𝒊𝒘 = = = − 𝒊 𝑨𝑹𝟏 = 𝝋𝟏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 − 𝟏 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (−𝟐𝒘)
𝟐𝒊𝒘 + 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒘𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒘𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒘𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒘𝟐 𝟏+𝟒𝒘𝟐

𝟔 𝟏 − 𝟓𝒊𝒘 𝟏 𝟓𝒘 𝟔 𝟓𝒘
𝑮𝟐 𝒊𝒘 = = = −𝒊 𝑨𝑹𝟐 = 𝝋𝟐 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 − 𝟏+𝟐𝟓𝒘𝟐
= 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (−𝟓𝒘)
𝟓𝒊𝒘 + 𝟏 𝟏 + 𝟐𝟓𝒘𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟐𝟓𝒘𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟐𝟓𝒘𝟐 𝟏+ 𝟐𝟓𝒘𝟐 𝟏
𝟏+𝟐𝟓𝒘𝟐

𝟔 𝟏
𝑨𝑹 = 𝑨𝑹𝟏𝑨𝑹𝟐 𝑨𝑹 = 𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 −𝟐𝒘 + 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (−𝟓𝒘)
𝟏 + 𝟐𝟓𝒘𝟐 𝟏 + 𝟒𝒘𝟐
 w arctan(-2w) arctan(-5w) arctan(-2w+arctan(-5w) arctan(-2w) arctan(-5w) arctan(-2w+arctan(-5w)
0.10 -0.20 -0.46 -0.66 -11.3 -26.6 -37.9
0.20 -0.38 -0.79 -1.17 -21.8 -45.0 -66.8
0.40 -0.67 -1.11 -1.78 -38.7 -63.5 -102.1
0.50 -0.79 -1.19 -1.98 -45.0 -68.2 -113.3
1.00 -1.11 -1.37 -2.48 -63.5 -78.7 -142.2
1.50 -1.25 -1.44 -2.69 -71.6 -82.4 -154.0
2.00 -1.33 -1.47 -2.80 -76.0 -84.3 -160.3
5.00 -1.47 -1.53 -3.00 -84.3 -87.8 -172.1
10.00 -1.52 -1.55 -3.07 -87.2 -88.9 -176.1
100.00 -1.57 -1.57 -3.13 -89.8 -89.9 -179.7
150.00 -1.57 -1.57 -3.14 -89.9 -90.0 -179.8
As w→0, then 𝜑1→0° 𝜑2→0°

As w→∞, then 𝜑1→-90° 𝜑2→-90° 𝜑→-180°

 Region I: From w=0 to w=1/5. Slope of the
overall asymptote=0 going through the point
AR=6
 Region 2: from w=1/5 to w=1/2. Slope of the
overall asymptote=0+(-1)=-1 going through the
point AR=6, w=1/5.
 Region 3: w>1/2. Slope of the overall
asymptote=(-1)+(-1)=-2.
 Proportional Controller
The AR and 𝜑 stay constant at the values Kc and 0°, respectively, for all frequencies.

 Proportional-Integral Controller

𝟏
𝑨𝑹 = 𝑲𝒄 𝟏 +
(𝒘𝝉𝑰 )𝟐

𝟏
𝝋= 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (− )
𝝉𝑰 𝒘
 Proportional-Derivative Controller

𝑨𝑹 = 𝑲𝒄 𝟏 + 𝝉𝟐𝑫 𝒘𝟐 𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝝉𝑫 𝒘)

 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller

𝟏 𝟐 𝟏
𝑨𝑹 = 𝑲𝒄 (𝝉𝑫 𝒘 − ) +𝟏 𝝋 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝝉𝑫 𝒘 − )
𝝉𝑰 𝒘 𝝉𝑰 𝒘