UNIT 4: THE WORLD OF IDEAS 2.
Print encouraged the challenge of political and
The Global Media Cultures
-Globalization and media are partners and act as a unit.
-Global Village, a term coined by Marshall McLuhan in
the early 1960s, a Canadian media theorist, to express
the idea that people worldwide are interconnected
through new media technologies.
-According to scholars, the world is globalized in the
1900s upon the advancement of media and
transportation technology.
Globalization and Media
-Global institution like the media has an impact upon the
structures and processes of the nation‐state, including its
national culture.
-Media globalization is about how most national media
systems have become more internationalized, becoming
more open to outside influences, both in their content
and in their ownership and control.
Five Time Periods in the Study of Globalization and
Media
1. Oral Communication
-Of all forms of media, human speech is the oldest and
most enduring.
-Human ability to move from one place to another and to
adapt to a new and different environment are facilitated
by the sharing of information of other peoples.
-Without language there would be no globalization; and
vice versa, without globalization there would be no world
languages.
2. Script
-Writing is humankind’s principal technology for
collecting, manipulating, storing, retrieving,
communicating and dissemination information.
-Writing may have been invented independently three
times in different parts of the world: in the Near East,
China and Mesoamerica.
-Writing is a system of graphic marks representing the
units of a specific language.
-Cuneiform script created in Mesopotamia, present-day
Iraq, is the only writing system which can be traced to its
earliest prehistoric origin.
-Papyrus in Ancient Egypt.
-The great civilization from Egypt to Rome and China
were made possible through script.
3. Printing Press
-The printing press is a device that allows for the mass
production of uniform printed matter, mainly text in the
form of books, pamphlets and newspapers
-It revolutionized society in China where it was created.
-Johannes Gutenberg further developed this in the 15th
century with his invention of the Gutenberg press.
The following are the consequences of the printing press
1. The printing press changed the very nature of
knowledge. It preserved knowledge which had been
more malleable in oral cultures. It also standardized
knowledge.
religious authority because of its ability to circulate
competing views. Printing press encouraged the literacy
of the public and the growth of schools.
Lands and culture were learned by people through
travels. News around the world were brought through
inexpensive and easily obtained magazines and daily
newspapers. People learned about the world. Indeed,
printing press helped foster globalization and knowledge.
4. Electronic Media
-It refers to the broadcast or storage media that take
advantage of electronic technology. They may include
television, radio, internet, fax, CD-ROMs, DVD, and any
other medium that requires electricity or digital encoding
of information.
-On going globalization processes such as economic,
political, and cultural are revolutionized by a host of new
media in the beginning of the 19th century.
-The most powerful and pervasive mass media is
television as it brought the visual and aural power of film
with the accessibility of radio.
5. Digital Media
-Phones and television are now considered digital while
computer is considered the most important media
influencing globalization.
-Computers give access to global and market place and
transformed cultural life. The following are the companies
involved in globalization: Microsoft, Apple, Google and
Facebook.
Popular Music and Globalization
-Music participates in the reinforcing of boundaries of
culture and identity.
-Popular music explains the complex dynamics of
globalization not only because it is popular but music is
highly mediated, is deeply invested in meaning and has
proven to be an extremely mobile and resourceful capital.
-World music is defined as the umbrella category which
various types of traditional and non Western music are
produced for Western consumption.
-The change in popular music is not the outcome of
globalization but rather popular music industry is a part
of globalization phenomena.
THE GLOBALIZATION OF RELIGION
-Religions played important roles in bringing about and
characterizing globalization.
-Among the consequences of this implication for religion
is that globalization encourages religious pluralism.
-Globalization further provides fertile ground for a variety
of noninstitutionalized religious manifestations and for
the development of religion as a political and cultural
resource.
 Perspectives on the Role of Religion in the
Globalization Process
1. The Modernist Perspective
-It is the perspective of most intellectuals and academics.
Its view is that all secularizations would eventually look
alike and the different religions would all end up
as the same secular and “rational” philosophy.
-It sees religion revivals as sometimes being a reaction to
the Enlightenment and modernization.
2. Post-Modernist Perspective
-It rejects the Enlightenment, modernist values of
rationalism, empiricism, and science, along with the
Enlightenment, modernist structures of capitalism,
bureaucracy, and even liberalism.
-The core value of post-modernism is expressive
individualism.
-The post-modernist perspective can include “spiritual
experiences,” but only those without religious
constraints.
-Globalization, by breaking up and dissolving every
traditional, local, and national structure, will bring about
the universal triumph of expressive individualism.
3. Pre-Modernist Perspective
-There is an alternative perspective, one which is post-
modern in its occurrence but which is pre-modern in its
sensibility. It is best represented and articulated by the
Roman Catholic Church, especially by Pope John Paul II.
-The Pope’s understanding is drawn from his experiences
with Poland, but it encompasses events in other countries
as well. Each religion has secularized in its own
distinctive way, which has resulted in its
own distinctive secular outcome.
-This suggests that even if globalization brings about
more secularization, it will not soon bring about one
common, global worldview. Secularization is understood
as a shift in the overall frameworks of human condition;
it makes it possible for people to have a choice between
belief and non belief in a manner hitherto unknown.
Transnational Religion and Multiple Glocalization
-Throughout the 20th century migration of faiths across
the globe has been a major feature.
-One of these features is the deterritorialization of religion
– that is , the appearance and the efflorescence of
religious traditions in places where these previously had
been largely unknown or were at least in a minority
position.
-Transnational religion is a means of describing solutions
to new-found situations that people face as a result of
migration and it comes as two quite distinct blends of
religious universalism and local particularism.
1. It is possible for religious universalism to gain the
upper hand, whereby universalism becomes the central
reference for immigrant communities. In such instances,
religious transnationalism is often depicted as a religion
going global.
2. It is possible for local ethnic or national particularism
to gain or maintain the most important place for local
immigrant communities.
-Transnational religion is used to describe cases of
institutional transnationalism whereby communities
living outside the national territory of particular states
maintain religious attachments to their home churches or
institutional.
-Glocalization are processes that register the ability
of religion to mold into the fabric of different communities
in ways that connect it intimately with communal and
local relations.
-Global -local or glocal religion represents a genre of
expression, communication and individual identities.
Forms Of Glocalization
1. Indigenization- Indigenization is connected with the
specific faiths with ethnic groups whereby religion
and culture were often fused into a single unit. It is
also connected to the survival of particular ethnic
groups.
2. Venularization involved the rise of vernacular
language endowed with the symbolic ability to offer
privileged access to the sacred and often promoted by
empires.
3. Nationalization connected the consolidation of
specific nations with particular confessions and has
been a popular strategy both in Western and eastern
Europe
4. Trans nationalization complemented religious
nationalization by forcing groups to identify with
specific religious traditions of real or imagine national
homelands or to adopt a more universalist vision of
religion.
UNIT 5: GLOBAL POPULATION
AND MOBILITY
Global City: Its Definition and Concepts
• A global city is an urban center that enjoys
significant competitive advantages and that serves as
a hub within a globalized economic system.
• Linked with globalization was the idea of spatial
reorganization and the hypothesis that cities were
becoming key loci within global networks of
production, finance, and telecommunications. In some
formulations of global cities, such cities are seen as
the building blocks of globalization.
• As such, New York, London, and Tokyo can be
identified as global cities, all of which are hubs of
global finance and capitalism.
• These cities can be seen as important nodes in a
variety of global networks and are considered as
economic centers that exert control over the world’s
political economy.
Indicators Of A Global City
1. Seats of Economic Power
• New York has the largest stock market.
• Tokyo houses the most corporate headquarters.
• Shanghai plays a critical role in the global economic
supply chain and has become the manufacturing
center of the world.
2. Centers of Authority
• Washington DC is the seat of American state power.
Known for its landmarks: the White House, the
Capital Building, the Supreme Court, the Lincoln
Memorial, and the Washington Monument.
• Canberra (Australia) is a sleepy town but considered
Australia’s political capital, the home of the country’s
top politicians, bureaucrats, and policy advisors.
3. Center of Political Influence
• Cities that house major international organizations
may also be considered centers of political influence.
• New York, Headquarters of UN
• Brussels, Headquarters of the European Union
• Jakarta, Headquarters of ASEAN
• Powerful political hubs exert influence on their own
countries as well as on international affairs. The
European Central Bank which oversees the Euro (the
European Union’s currency), is based in Frankfurt. 4.
Centers of Higher Learning and Culture.
4. Centers of Higher Learning and Culture
• A city’s intellectual influence is seen through the
influence of its publishing industry.
• Many of the books that people read are published in
places like New York, London, or Paris.
• The New York Times carries the name of New York
City but it is far from being a local newspaper.
• Many tourists visit Boston because they want to see
Harvard University.
• Many Asian teenagers are moving to cities in Australia
because of the leading language universities there.
• In Southeast Asia, Singapore is slowly becoming a
cultural hub for the region. It now houses some of the
region’s top television stations and news organization
(MTV Southeast Asia and Channel News Asia). It is, in
fact, sometimes easier to watch the movie of a Filipino
indie filmmaker in Singapore than it is in Manila.
5. Economic Opportunities
• Economic opportunities in a global city make it
attractive to talents from across the world.
• Since the 1970’s, many of the top IT programmers and
engineers from Asia have moved to San Francisco Bay
Area to become some of the key figures in Silicon
Valley’s technology boom.
• London remains a preferred destination for many
Filipinos with nursing degrees.
6. Economic Competitiveness
• The Economist Intelligence Unit has added other
criteria like market size, purchasing power of citizens,
size of the middle class, and potential for growth.
Based on this criteria, tiny Singapore is considered
Asia’s most competitive city because of its strong
market, efficient and incorruptible government, and
livability. It also houses the regional offices of many
major global corporations.
Cities as Engines of Globalization
-Cities are the engines of globalization. They are social
magnets, growing faster and faster. In the current
generation, urban life has become the dominant form of
human life throughout the world.
-An increasing number of large cities, with populations of
over five million, are already identified as global cities,
cities that are nodes of global as much as national
networks.
-The social magnetism of these urban areas is generating
larger and denser metropolitan communities to the point
that they are joining together to become regional
conurbations.
-Movement into cities increases political voice and
participation, as previously isolated rural populations
become players on city streets, on the Internet, and in
migration.
-Now, institutional innovation is failing to keep up with
the rate of growth and change, and the problems
confronting urban populations depend more on size and
the rate of growth than on cultural expectations.
GLOBAL DEMOGRAPHY
• The term demography was derived from the Greek
words demos for “population” and graphia for
“description” or “writing,” thus the phrase, “writings
about population.”
• It was coined by Achille Guillard, a Belgian
statistician, in 1855. However, the origins of modern
demography can be traced back to the John Graunt’s
analysis of ‘Bills of Mortality’ which was published in
1662.
• Demography refers to the study of populations, with
reference to size and density, fertility, mortality,
growth, age distribution, migration, and vital statistics
and the interaction of all these with social and
economic conditions.
• Demographic transition started in mid- or late 1700’s
in Europe.
EFFECT OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
• A remarkable effect of the demographic transition is ‘the
enormous gap in life expectancy that emerged between Japan
and the West on the one hand and the rest of the world on
the other.” The gap between Japan and the West is 12, then
20, then 22.
• Europe and the West increased their share in the world
population during the 19th century, while Asia and Oceania's
contribution decreased due to economic stagnation and
decline in India and China.
• However, the 20th century saw a reversal of population
growth rates, with Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania
experiencing high levels of population growth.
• The United States predicts that population growth will shift
towards Africa, with the region's share of the world
population projected to reach almost 20% by 2150.
• Developing countries had higher dependency ratios than the
West in 1900.
• High fertility rates and infant/child mortality caused a
significant increase in dependency ratio, peaking around
1970.
• Global birth rates started to decline, leading to a decrease in
dependency ratios.
• The gap in fertility rates between the West and developing
countries narrowed by the 21st century.
• Over the next 50 years, there will be a reversal in dependency
ratios between the West and developing countries, with aging
populations causing a rise in dependency ratio in the West.

Theory of Demographic Transition
• Demographic transition theory suggests that future
population growth will develop along a predictable
four- or five-stage model.
Stage 1
• In stage one, pre-industrial society, death rates and
birth rates are high and roughly in balance.
• Population growth is typically very slow in this stage,
because the society is constrained by the available
food supply; therefore, unless the society develops new
• technologies to increase food production any
fluctuations in birth rates are soon matched by death
rates.
Stage 2
• In stage two, that of a developing country, death rates
drop rapidly due to improvements in food supply and
sanitation, which increase life spans and reduce
disease. Afghanistan is currently in this stage.
• Birth rates remain high, resulting in a rapid
population growth rate.
Stage 3
• Birth rates begin to decline due to increased access to
contraception, education, family planning, and
urbanization. Death rates continue to decline,
resulting in a slower population growth rate.
• It is important to note that birth rate decline is caused
also by a transition in values; not just because of the
availability of contraceptives.
Stage 4
• Low birth rates and low death rates result in a very
slow population growth rate or even a decline in
population, a threat to many industries that rely on
population growth.
• Death rates may remain consistently low or increase
slightly due to increases in lifestyle diseases due to low
exercise levels and high obesity and an aging
population in developed countries.
Stage 5 (Debated)
• In some countries, birth rates may fall below
replacement level, resulting in an aging population
and a decline in population.
• Other hypothesize it as an increase in fertility.
Global Migration: Meaning and Concept
• Global migration is a situation in which people go to
live in foreign countries especially to find a job.
• The term migration is often conceptualized as a move
from an origin to a destination, or from a place of birth
to another destination across administrative borders
within a country or international borders.
Types of Migration
• Internal Migration- This refers to people moving from
one area to another within one country
• International Migration- This refers to the movement
of people who cross the borders of one country to
another.
The latter can be broken down into five groups:
• Immigrants- those who move permanently to another
country.
• Worker- those who stay in another country for a fixed
period (at least 6 months in a year).
• Illegal immigrants- third group
• Migrants- those whose families have “petitioned” them
to move to the destination country.
• Refugees- The fifth group (also known as asylum-
seekers), i.e., those “unable or unwilling to return
because of a well-founded fear of persecution on
account.
Reason For Migration
A push factor induces people to move out of their present
location, whereas a pull factor induces people to move
into a new location.
1. Cultural Factor
• Cultural factor can be especially a compelling push
factor, forcing people to emigrate from a country.
• Forced international migration has historically
occurred for two main cultural reasons: slavery and
political instability.
• Large groups of people are no longer forced to migrate
as slaves, but forced international migration persists
because of political instability resulting from cultural
diversity.
2. Socio-political Factor
• Socio-political factors have become more prominent
force to initiate migration activities. Political
instability in some parts of the world is responsible
for migration.
• Situation of war, oppression and the lack of socio-
political rights are the major factors of migration in
contemporary time.
• Social conflict forces millions of human creature to
leave sometimes their homes which creates
humanitarian nightmare.
3. Environmental Factor
• According to IOM (International Organization of
Migration), sudden or progressive changes in the
environment such as natural disasters, affect the lives
of people and are obliged to leave their habitual
homes.
• According to The European Commission, “The
greatest single impact of climate change could be on
human migration with millions of people displaced by
shoreline erosion, coastal flooding, and agricultural
disruption—a crisis in the making.”
4. Economic Factor
• International migration has two way effects on
economic growth. Though it is still debatable about its
positive impact on GDP growth of a host country, it is
world widely recognized that migration expands the
skilled workforce.
• Remittances can be crucial for survival, sustenance,
rehabilitation, and reconstruction in conflict or post-
conflict situations.
• Remittances contribute to local economies by
supporting small businesses and improve sending
countries' creditworthiness and access to international
capital markets.

UNIT 6: TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE WORLD
Sustainable Development and Climate Change
• According to Brundtland Report, also known as Our
Common Future, a publication released by the World
Commission on Environment and Development in
1987, “sustainable development is development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.”
• sustainable development is often linked with climate
change, which is a major restriction in achieving
sustainability due to its hazardous environmental
effects.
The link between sustainable development and climate
change is considered strong. Undoubtedly, climate
change is often seen as a part of the broader challenge in
sustainable development thru a two-fold link:
1. Impacts of climate change can severely hamper
development efforts in key sector (e.g. increased
threat of natural disasters and growing water stress
will have to be factored into plans for public health
infrastructure)
2. Development choice will influence the capacity to
mitigate and adapt to climate change (e.g. policies for
forest conservation and sustainable energy will
improve communities’ resilience reducing thereby the
vulnerability of their sources of income to climate
change)
• In the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
Member States express their commitment to protect
the planet from degradation and take urgent action on
climate change. The Agenda also identifies, in its
paragraph 14, climate change as “one of the greatest
challenges of our time” and worries about “its adverse
impacts undermine the ability of all countries to
achieve sustainable development. Increases in global
temperature, sea level rise, ocean acidification and
other climate change impacts are seriously affecting
coastal areas and low-lying coastal countries,
including many least-developed countries and Small
Island Developing States. The survival of many
societies, and of the biological support systems of the
planet, is at risk”.
• There are significant challenges involved in
implementing various measures such as “carbon tax”
and ‘carbon neutrality” to deal with environmental
problems.
The World’s Leading Environmental Problems
The Conserve Energy Future website lists the following
environmental challenges that the world faces today:
1. Depredation caused by industrial and transportation
toxins and plastic in the ground.
2. Changes in global weather patterns, surge in the
ocean and land leading to rise in sealevels.
3. Overpopulation
4. Exhaustion of the world’s natural non-renewable
resources from oil reserves to minerals to potable
water.
5. Waste disposal catastrophe due to excessive amount
of waste.
6. Destruction of million-year-old ecosystems and the
loss of biodiversity which led to extinction.
7. Reduction of oxygen and increase in carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere due to deforestation, resulting in
ocean acidity.
8. Depletion of the ozone layer.
9. Deadly acid rain as a result of fossil fuel combustion,
toxic chemicals from erupting volcanoes, and the
massive rotting vegetables.
10. Water pollution arising from industrial and
community waste residues.
11. Urban sprawls that continue to expand as a city turn
into a megalopolis, destroying farmlands, increasing
traffic gridlock, and making smog cloud a permanent
urban fixture.
12. Pandemics and other threats to public health.
13. A radical alteration of food systems because of
genetic modifications in food production.
Global Food Security
• Food security exists when all people, at all times,
have access to adequate, safe, and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an
active and healthy life.
Four Dimensions of Food Security:
1. Food Access: access to adequate resources to
acquire a healthy and nutritious diet.
2. Food Use: use of food through adequate diet, clean
water and health care to reach the state of a healthy
well-being
3. Availability: availability of adequate supply of food,
produced either through domestic or foreign import,
including as well the food aid received from outside
the country
4. Stability: access to sufficient food at all times,
without losing access to food supply brought by
either economic or climatic crisis.
Global Food Security: Issues, Interventions, and
Public Policy Implications
• Global food security situation remains imbalanced
with surplus food production and prevalence of
hunger.
• Complex interplay of social, economic, and ecological
factors affects food security outcomes.
• Food production has outpaced demand due to
expansion in crop area, irrigation, and supportive
policies.
• Slow-down in agricultural productivity and food gap
predicted in Africa and Asia.
• Population growth, climate change, and rising biofuel
demand worsen food insecurity.
• Climate change increases variability and risk for food
producers, energy, and water sectors.
• Need to invest in affordable and suitable farm
technologies beyond agriculture.
• Revisit current approach of agricultural intervention
and reorient research institutions and policy
framework.
• Proactive interventions and policies include
agriculture for development, ecosystem services, and
gender mainstreaming.
• Incorporate cross-cutting issues like energy security,
resource reuse, social protection, and involve civil
society in food policy making.
• Promote food sovereignty.
Challenges in Food Security UNIT 7: GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP
• Global food demand is projected to be 60% greater by
• the term citizenship tends to suggest allegiance to
2050 to feed a population of 9 billion.
one’s own country or state.
• Food security is a priority for all countries, regardless
• According to Oxfam International, global citizenship is
of their development status.
the idea that, as people, we are all citizens of the globe
• India's agriculture accounts for 18% of its economy's
who have an equal responsibility for what happens on,
output and employs 47% of its workforce.
and to our world. This means to say that every global
• India is the second largest producer of fruits and
citizen has a duty to address issues affecting our being
vegetables, yet has the largest number of hungry
citizens.
people (194 million) and a high malnutrition rate
• Citizenship can thus be associated with rights and
(15.2% of the population) According to the Food and
obligations.
Agriculture Organization (FAO).
• Caecilia Johanna van Peski (as cited in Baraldi, 2012)
• Destruction of natural habitats, deforestation, and
defined global citizenship “as a moral and ethical
industrial fishing contribute to environmental
disposition that can guide the understanding of
challenges.
individuals or groups of local and global contexts, and
• Biodiversity, usable farmland, and freshwater
remind them of their relative responsibilities within
availability have declined rapidly.
various communities.”
• Water-related problems disproportionately affect the
• Global citizens are the glue which binds local
poorest areas. The problem is further intensified by
communities together in an increasingly globalized
the consumption of “virtual water”, wherein people
world. In van Peski’s words, “global citizens might be a
use up water from elsewhere to produce consumer
new type of people that can travel within these various
products.
boundaries and somehow still make sense of the
• Pollution through toxic chemicals and greenhouse gas
world”.
emissions contributes to environmental degradation
and global warming. The use of Persistent Organic
Salient Features of Global Citizenship
Pollutants (POPs) has led to significant industrial
1. Global citizenship as a choice and a way of
pollution.
thinking.
• Global warming poses a threat to food supply and
-People come to consider themselves as global citizens
human health.
through various formative life experiences and have
• Population growth and increased consumption
different interpretations of what it means to them.
intensify ecological problems.
-the practice of global citizenship is primarily exercised at
• Global flow of dangerous debris, including electronic
home through engagement in global issues or with
waste, is a major concern.
different cultures in a local setting.
• Sustainable agriculture is a key approach to
-For others, global citizenship means firsthand
addressing global food security. The United Nations'
experience with different countries, people and cultures.
Sustainable Development Goal 2 aims to end hunger,
2. Global citizenship as self-awareness and
achieve food security, and promote sustainable
awareness of others
agriculture by 2030.
-Self-awareness helps students identify with the
universalities of human experience, thus increasing their
SDGs:
identification with fellow human beings and their sense of
1. No Poverty
responsibility toward them.
2. No Poverty
3. Global citizenship as they practice cultural
3. Zero Hunger
empathy
4. Good Health and Well-Being
-Cultural empathy or intercultural competence is
5. Quality Education
commonly articulated as a goal of global education.
6. Gender Equality
-Intercultural competence occupies a central position in
7. Clean Water and Sanitation
higher education’s thinking about global citizenship and
8. Affordable and Clean Energy
is seen as an important skill in the workplace.
9. Decent Work and Economic Growth
4. Global citizenship as the cultivation of principled
10. Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
decision making
11. Reduced Inequalities
-Global citizenship entails an awareness of the
12. Sustainable Cities and Communities
interdependence of individuals and systems as well as a
13. Responsible Consumption and Production
sense of responsibility that follows from it.
14. Climate Action
-critical thinking, cultural empathy and ethical systems
15. Life Below Water
and choices are an essential foundation
16. Life on Land
to principled decision making. 5. Global citizenship as
17. Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
participation.
18. Partnerships for the Goals
5. Global citizenship as participation in the social
and political life of one’s community
-There are various types of communities that range from
local to global, from religious to political group. Global
citizens feel a sense of connection towards their
communities and translate this connection to
participation.
Global Citizenship and Globalization
-Global citizenship does not have a singular attitude or
value in relation to globalization.
-Globalization is a multifaceted phenomenon with various
forms.
-Some globalizations have resulted in the creation of
enemies due to unfulfilled promises.
-The "bottom billion" lacks infrastructure and has
experienced disenfranchisement.
-Opponents of globalization attribute blame to
Westernization or global capitalism.
-Enemies of globalization resist its effects, particularly in
the global economy and governance.
Global Citizenship and Global Economy
There are three approaches to global economic resistance:
1. Trade protectionism- involves the systematic
government intervention in foreign trade through
tariffs and non- tariff barriers in order to encourage
domestic producers and deter their foreign
competitors. trade protectionism is still popular since
it shields the domestic economy from systemic
shocks.
2. Fair trade: A counter to neoliberal "free trade"
principles, it aims for a moral and equitable global
economic system. Price negotiation between
producers and consumers is emphasized, but
concerns exist about its scalability and applicability
to manufacturing.
3. Helping the bottom billion: Involves addressing the
needs of the most marginalized through measures
like increasing aid, adapting international norms and
standards, and reducing trade barriers to alleviate
economic marginalization.
Global citizenship and Global Governance
-increased accountability and transparency are the key
issues. Political organizations should be more
accountable for their actions as they are surrounded by
an “ ocean of opacity.” Increased transparency has
been aided by various mechanism such as transnational
justice systems, international tribunals, civil society and
particularly the Transparency International.
-Resistance to globalization is complex, contradictory,
and ambiguous.
-It can be seen as a movement that upholds progressive
values such as autonomy, democracy, peace, ecological
sustainability, and social justice.
-Resistance to globalization is a result of individuals,
groups, and organizations feeling oppressed by
globalization from above (neoliberal economic systems,
expanding nations, and corporations).
-The resistance movement seeks a more democratic
process of globalization.
-Globalization from below includes both progressive and
right-wing elements.
-The World Social Forum (WSF) focuses on addressing
the lack of democracy in economic and political affairs
but faces challenges in developing concrete political
proposals due to its diverse elements.
-Cyberactivism, such as Global Huaren, has influenced
the WSF and is based on networking and virtual
movements.
Global citizenship requires the creation of rights and
obligations, but solving global problems relies on citizens,
communities, and different organizations rather than a
single entity or individual.