A Paper by
C. S. Mackintosh, B.Sc.(S.A.), B.Sc.Eng.(Rand), A.M.I.C.E., M.I.Struct.E., M.I.H.E., (Member)
RATES OF SPREAD AN D SPRAY IN
BITUMINOUS SURFACE-DRESSING OF ROADS
SYNOPSIS
simple apparatus, measuring the volume of chips required to cover a standard area, gives
A the spread ratio directly on a dipstick reading and allows automatically for the shape of
the chips. The spray rate for bitumen is determined jointly from the measured voids between
chips, the nature and intensity of traffic and the texture of the existing road surface. A nomogram
obviates calculations. To allow for contraction and evaporation, a table of application factors is
given
Introduction
SURFACE-DR ESSTNG of roads offers the following
advantages over premix carpets :--
I. Economy in capital outlay of plant.
2. Economy in bitumen, stone, labour and time.
3. A waterproof protection to the basecourse.
4. A non-skid, non-g lare surface.
To secure all these advantages, many factors must
be studied and allowed for. Uncontrollable factors
including the weather, the mineral origin and quality
of the stone from which the chips are made, the nature
and volume of traffic, and the existing surface texture,
are all important, but only the last two are discussed
in this paper.
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)
The controllable factors include the quality of
the binder, the quality of work done in producing the
chips, the preparation of the existing surface and the
working technique of the surface-dressing operation.
Only one pa rt of the technique, viz., the rates of appli-
cation of binder and chips, is discussed in this paper.
A verage least dirn.ension
Although the process of surface-dressing has been
used for many years, it emerged from the hit-and-miss
stage to that of scientific control only with the publica-
tion of Hanson's ALD method in 1935 1 •
Hanson's main findings were:- Eac h chip in a
surface-dressing settles finally with its least dimension
vertical. The least dimension is defined as the minimum
distance between two parallel planes just touching the
chip. The average of these, called the average least
dimension or ALD, gives the thickness of the compacted
stone mat and governs the rates of application of both
binder and chips. To measure the ALD, the least
dimension of 200 to 300 chips from a representative
sample should be measured, and the average of these
calculated. Hanson showed that if
S = Spread ratio in square yards of road per cu. yd. of chips,
K ~ 1.6 when no chips are lost,
1.7 if6 per cent of chips arc lost in handling,
I. fl.'; if 6 per cent of chips arc lost in hanrlling and 10 pCI'
cent arc whipped off hy traffic,
DIE SIVIELE INGENIEUR in Suirl-Afrikil - Oktohr>r 19fi1
ALD of the chips in inches,
rate of application of bituminous binder in Imperial gallons
per sq. yd., and
proportion of final voids in [he compacted layer that are
to be filled by the binder (it ranges from 50 per cent for
heavy industrial traffic to 80 per cen t for light traffic -
lor average conditiom, Hanson [()Ok P 2/3),
" 0-
36
then S = .......... . ................... (I)
KD
G = 0.938 PD ........................ (2)
and when P = 2/3 G = 0.625 D .. .... ..................... (3)
These formulae have stood the test of time. Engin-
eers who use them prod uce surface-d ressings of con-
sistently good quality. Those who follow such standard
specifications as : - five sq.yd . of road per gallon of
bitumen and eighty sq .yd . of road per ton of chips,
irrespective of the variation in shape and grading
of the chips, procuce some good results but inevitably
some fa:1ures.
The modern instrument for measuring ALD is a
thickness gauge, which registers the distance between
two parallel plates in thousandths of an inch on a dial.
This instrument is more accurate than the vernier
calipers used formerly. It is less fatiguing and much
quicker to use too. Several manufacturers of dial gauges
can now offer these instruments.
Other rn.ethods
Other writers, apparently unaware of Hanson's
work, have also concluded that the thickness of the
stone mat is of paramount importance in determining
the rates of application, and have given various methods
of calculating tha t thickness. 2 , 3 , 4, 7.
Because these methods consume much time, they
cannot be carried out with the desired frequency for
proper control. Furthermore, a knowledge of the mat
thickness, whether 100se 2 or compacted I , 4, 7 is only a
means to an end. What is really required is to know
at what spread ratio the chips should be applied. The author
wishes to emphasise that the spread ratio can be
rn.easured directly, with certain obvious advantages.
In ;)(Iclition, other variahles also inAuellce the recJllired
183
 rates of application, the most important of these being
the nature and intensity of traffic and the surface texture
of the existing road. In this paper the study is taken a
step further by making quantitative allowance for these
two factors.
Direct Measurement
In the Transvaal Roads Department, two alterna-
tive methods are Hsed for direct measurement of the
spread ratio. . This is made from an 18 in. length of 5 in. dia.
The 'box-and-tray' m.ethod
This apparatus, first introduced by Mr. C. D. Roux
when Regional Roads Engineer at Benoni, has been
modified to a portable form by Mr. M. Simonovitch
of that office.
A standard volume of chips, 0·1 cu.ft, is spread
on a hardboard tray, 24 in. wide and from 36 in. to
42 in. long, which has three fixed walls and one end
wall movable.
The area covered by the chips is adjusted by placing
the two locating pins of the movable wall first into one
pair of locating holes, then another, until the layer
is one-chip-thick, with no bare patches. Each shift
of one inch of the movable wall corresponds to a change
of 5 sq.yd per cu.' yd in the spread ratio. The locating
holes are marked accordingly, and the spread ratio
is read directly.
The 'pan-and-cylinder' m.ethod
This apparatus" developed by the Author, consists
of a sted pan,' a steel cylinder, a dipstick and a glass
measuring cylinder (Fig. 1) together with a nomo-
gram (Fig. 2.).
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)
Fig. 1 'Pan-and-cylinder' apparatus
1. Steel pan, 22 in. internal diameter. 2. Steel cylinder, :1 in. internal
diameter. 3. Dipstick. 4. Glass mea~uring cylinder.
The pan
A single layer of chips is spread on a standard
area, which is a steel pan of 22 in. internal diameter,
having a wall which varies from I t in. high to about
lOin. The 10-in. portion is designed to facilitate pour-
ing the chips into the cylinder.
184
On the road, when each bare patch is covered by
throwing on a few more chips before rolling, there are
unavoidably a few spots where the stone lies two-chips-
thick. This condition should be imitated as closely as
possible on the pan. The shape of the chips, either
cubical, flaky, or rounded, is automatically allowed for
in this process.
The cylinder
water pipe with one end closed and two handles near
the open end. The stone mat, one-chip-thick on the
pan, is poured into the cylinder which is then dropped
ten times from a height of about three inches to shake
the chips into a stable position.
The dipstick
This is made ofaluminium angle, 1in. k in. x} in.
It is placed in the cylinder with its foot resting on the
surface of the chips. It is graduated so that the spread
ratio in square yards of road per cubic yard of ci1il)S
is read off directly at the brim of the cylinder.
Measured voids
When the spread ratio has been recorded, water
is poured into the cylinder until the voids between the
chips are just filled. The volume of water required,
is measured in cubic centimeters and this volume
represents the amount of binder required to completely
embed the loose chips on a circle of road surface, 22 in.
in diameter. The nomogram enables the percentage
embedment to be chosen according to traffic intensity,
and the consequent rate of application of binder is
read off directly.
Percentage em.bedm.ent of loose chips
This is the depth of binder expressed as a percentage
of the thickness of the stone mat before compaction.
The working range is from 14 for very heavy industrial
traffic to 50 for very light traffic, corresponding to
binder filling from 60 to 80 per cent of the voids in the
rolled and traffic-compacted layer. The required
depth of binder expressed as a percentage is determined
from the traffic count and modified by other variables.
Rate of application of binder
The rate of application of binder req4ired consists
of two portions, the amount required to fill the cracks
and surface voids of the existing road surface, and the
amount required to embed the chips so that they are
held securely. The former amount is determined by
the sand-patch test, and the latter from the measured
voids and the traffic count.
The existing surface-texture
Even with years of experience, it is not always possi-
ble to estimate accurately the amount of binder needed
to allow for the existing surface-texture. It can vary from
adding as much as 0·23 gal. per sq. yd. for coarse,
open, hungry surfaces to subtracting as much as O· 10
gal. per sq. yd for slick or slippery surfaces. Small
DIE SIVIELE INGENIEUR in Suid.Afrikil - Oktober 19tH
 !;aT/atlOlls in the total application oj binder can vastly ,
differing results, so the sand patch test is used to measure
accurately this amount of binder.
The 'sand-patch' test
The standard volume of sand used is about 534 c.c.,
measured by filling a one pint 'Consol' canned-fruit
jar to the brim and scraping it level. Two parallel
lines, 18 in. apart and about 12 ft long are chalked on
a portion of the road which is carefully chosen as being
truly representative of the surface to be sealed. The
sand is then spread over the full width of this strip
to as great a length as possible with a rubber-bladed
rake or squeegee and the length of the patch is recorded.
The sand represents the amount of bitumen required
to fill the voids in the old surface under the lower limit
of the new dressing. Where there are no surface voids,
no sand should be left. The sand is sifted to pass a
No. 60 sieve (opening 0·0097 in.) and to be retained
on a No. 200 sieve (opening 0·0029 in.). Thus it is
fine enough to enter cracks and surface voids but too
coarse to blow away as dust.

30 500

-:27 550
0::
ld
-25 >
<t 600
..J
>
~ 100. 50 lLJ
II)
450 650
ci a::
a:: lLJ
;! Q.. 40 9
lI... 700
: 20 (f)
5 0
lLJ
W a:: I-
cr. a:: Z
18---...~ 0 30 ~
11 a~..J 0
(f) ~ 600 W

16 a: I.!:)
25 10
::E
ILl
15 ~ 3--
lLJ
o 20,~
Z
....
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)

<t
Z
(f) lLJ
0:: U
<t a::
U 15 lLJ
Q..

o EACH HEAVY LORRY (10 TONS OR MORE)

J: Z
'u <t COUNTS AS 10U CARS.
.... II)
<t
Q..

oZ I.LI ,
<t :L 8-0
II) ::J
..J
o
lI... >
o

, 1t-6
12-
OR MORE
Fig. 2 Nomogram for determining the rate of application of bituminous binder in surface dressing of roads

DIE SIVIELE INGENIEUR in Suid-Afrika Oktober 1961

 Bitumen tends to bridge rather than penetrate
cracks less than about i in. wide. In this test, therefore,
the sand should be allowed to behave similarly, and
not be "worried" into the cracks. Where existing
surface voids are too big to be bridged by the chips
of the new seal, the test is likely to be misleading. As a
rough guide, when the sand-patch is less than 4 ft
long the old surface needs cial attention, possibly
slurry sealing, before the 0 ary resealing.
The binder nOIIlogram
The left-hand scale of the nomogram, Fig. 2, is
double-sided. On the left are graduations for the
length of the sand-patch, and on the right the corres-
ponding rate of application of binder required to fill
the existing surface voids.
Example:-
Length of sand-patch = 7' 9"
Bitumen required to fill surface voids .091 g.s.y.
Measured voids = 1180 c.c.
Equivalent traffic count = 1600 v.p.d.
From nomogram, bitumen required to hold chips .185 g.s.y.
Total bitumen required .276 g.s.y.
Application factor from Table I I . 103
bitumen is to be sprayed at. .. ~32~ g.s.y.
An index line is placed across the three scales of
the nomogram, linking the measured voids and the
percentage embedment. Where this line cuts the left-
hand scale the rate of application of binder is read off
again. This is added to the figure found in the sand
patch te~t to give t~e total rate of application desired.
Other variables
The percentage embedment of chips, related on
Reproduced by Sabinet Gateway under licence granted by the Publisher (dated 2011)
the nomogram to an arbitrary scale of traffic intensity,
can be modified to allow for other variables, such as
adhesiveness of binder, dustiness and absorptive power
of chips, and even the weather.
Time saved, accuracy increased
It is essential for surface dressings of roads carrying
modern traffic that the rates of spread and spray be
accurate. The above method gives results of great
accuracy in these rates and, compared with earlier
methods, takes only a traction of the time. Rates for
both chips and binder can be determined in six minutes.
Quality of chips
\Vhen the sizes of chips in a surface-dressing cover
a wide range, it is too much to hope that the smaller
chips will occupy the voids between the bigger ones.
They stay where they fall, forming a mat of varying
thickness, resulting in a bumpy and patchy road.
Experience all over the world has proved that the best
results in surfice-dressing are obtained when single
sized chips are used. I, 2, 3, 4.
It is also important that the chips should be near-
cubical in shape and free from dust. Many crusher
firms today can offer washed chips. In the i-in. +
i-in. size, it is possible to bring the flakiness index 6
186
below 15, though difficulty is experienced in producing
- i-in. chips with an index less than 30.
These properties of the chips are even more im-
portant than resistance to abrasion, because surface-
dressings usually fail from other causes long before
the chips have been worn down to smoothness by
traffic.
Whip-off and handling losses
Surplus chips are not only whipped off by traffic,
but actually cause the loosening of some chips already
held by the binder. 1, 2, 4. This can be verified by
marking off two test sections, each five yards long,
on a resealing job. The one section is over-chipped and
the other under-chipped. An inspection after three
weeks of traffic will show invariably that the over-
chipped section will be leaner than the under-chipped
one. Therefore, excess chips should not be applied as an
allowance for whip-off. The aim should be such accurate
rates of spread and spray that there is practically no whip-off.
The only allowance to be made should be a
maximum of six per cent, though four per cent is
usually enough, for handling losses and imperfect
workmanship. If Hanson's equation No. 1 is used, K
should never exceed l· 7.
Prevention of whip-off
The principal means of preventing whip-off are
the use of single-sized, near-cubical chips free from
dust, accurate control of the rates of spread and spray,
immediate and thorough rolling, and keeping fast traffic
off the road until the bitumen has set. Other successful
precautions are:-
I. Covering the dressing with a light application
of sand premix.
2. Splitting the applications of bitumen and chips
into two or more partial applications.
3. .il1ultiple dressings, using chips of progressively
smaller sizes, possibly finishing off with a light
application of emulsion.
4. Persuading heavy vehicles to travel slowly
over the new dressing, covering the whole
surface instead of a beaten track. This is heavy
pneumatic rolling and is very effective.
Application Factors
To allow for contraction of straight-run bitumens
and tars applied hot, and for evaporation of solvent
oils from cutbacks and water from emulsions, the
actual rate .of application must always be higher than
the final rate of distribution desired. Table I gives
the multiplying factors.
General principles
This quick and easy method makes it practicable
to determine the correct rates of spread and spray
to suit each particular road and the chips and binder available.
It is not, however, the whole story. It is only one of
DIE SIVIELE INGENIEUR in Suid-Afrika ~ Oktober 1961
 Table I

APPLICATION FACTORS

The desired rate of application of binder, as determined by ,the foregoing methods, must be multiplied by the factor in the last column to obtain the actual rate rif
application required in order to allow for reduction in Dolume due to cooling of bitumen and evaporation of solvenL; or water.

Bitumen Spraying
Type of binder and Examples content: temperature: Application
coefficien t of expansion Per cent OF factor

1. Straight bitumen, Caltex 195 road asphalt 100 350 1.103

0.00035 per 1°F. 96 paving cement
" 65 paving cement
"
Satmar 1501200 Petroleum bitumen JOO 3.')0 I. J03
80/100
" "
torbanite "
" 180/200 "
" "
petroleum "
" " " ...........-

Shell 180/200 Spramex 100 350 I. J03

80/100 Mexphalte
" 60/70
" "
Standard Oil 180/200 Sosa 100 350 1.103
80/100
" " 60/70 "
" " "
Wm Penn 150/200 Tampimex 100 350 1.103

2. Cutback bitumens: R.C.O .10 120 2.043

(a) Rapid curing,
o.000355 per I°F
All cut-backs
manufactured by
Caltex, Shell,
1 R.C.I
R.C.2
R.C.3
60
67
73
150
175
200
1.719
1.554
1,438
Satmar, Sosa.
J R.C.4
R.C.5
78
, 82·
250
275
I. 369
1.313

(b) Intermediate curing, All cut-backs ")

J 300/400 83 3S0 1.329
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0.000355 per 1°F manufactured by Caltex, 400/500 83 350 1.329

Shell, Satmar, Sosa 500/700 83 350 1.329

(c) Medium curing, M.C.O 50 120 2.043

}
0.000355 per 1"1'. All cut-backs M.C.I 60 150 1,719
manufactured by M.G.2 67 200 1.567
Caltex, Shell, Satmar, M.C.3 73 250 1.462
Standard Oil (Sasa) M.C.4 78 275 1.379
M.C.5 82 275 1. 313

(d) Slow curing S.C.O 40 120 2.553

0.00035,1) per 1°F

I
All cutbacks
manufactured by
Caltex, Sheli, Satmar
Standard Oil (Sosa)
1r S.C.I
S.G.2
S.C.3
S.G.4
50
60
70
75
200
200
250
250
2.099
1.749
1.525
1.423
J S.C.5 80 275 1.345

3. Emulsions, 55 50 1.82
0.00025 per 1°F (Atmospheric)
5.~ 120 1.84

4. Tars, Prime Tar 150 1.021

0.00030 per 1°F 30/35 E.V.T. content 22:) 1.040
35/40 E.V.T. ]00 per cent 225 1,040
No. 1 road tar 250 1.046
No.2 road tar 2:')0 l. 046
No. 3 road tar '1.7:) 1.0:i2
The above grades are produced by
Iscor and the Dundee Coal Co.

DIE SIVIELE INGENIEUR in Suid-Afrika - Oktober 1961 187

 a dozen fundamental principles which must be followed
to ensure good results. These have been ably dealt
with elsewhere l , 2, 3, 4, 5, and need not be repeated
here. Neglect of any of these principles may cause
a surface-dressing to fail.
Co-operation for i:mprove:ment
Patent rights are not reserved. , .... The apparatus
can be made from the description given. The internal
diameter of a 5-in. water pipe is not exactly 5 in. so
each dipstick must be calibrated according to the
actual diameter of the pan and cylinder with which
it is teamed. A working copy of the nomogram, and
one for spacing !-cu.yd dumps of chips along shoulders,
are available on request.
Engineer,s, using the apparatus and nomograms
are requested to pass on any new knowledge gained, so
that the techn,igue may be further improved.
Conclusion
The advantages of the simple pancand-cylinder
method for determining the rates of spread and spray in ,
bituminous surface-dressings of roads are:
1. It allows automatically for the shape of the chips.
2. By assigning numerical values to the existing
surface texture and the traffic volume enables
the rates of application to be determined more
accurately, as required by modern traffic.
3. As all the measurements are volumetric, the
specific gravities of stone and binder are not
necessary.
4. Being quick and easy, it is more likely to be done
conscientiously than a time-consuming method.
Acknowledge:ment
The Author wishes to thank the Director of the
Transvaal Roads Department for permission to publish
the technique worked out in the course of normal duties
in the Department, and acknowledges gratefully the
co-operation of Mr. K. J. Harpur, now Assistant Chief
Engineer of the O.F.S. Provincial Roads Department,
and Mr. F. T. Evans and the laboratory staff of the
Transvaal Roads Department.
REFERENCES
I. HANSON, F. M. Bituminous surface treatmen t of rural high-
ways. Trans. N.;::. Soc. Civ. Eng. 1935. (Out of print).
2. KEARBY, JEROME P. Thoughts and theories on bituminous
surface treatments. World Construction (May-June, 1953)
and Roads and Streets (August ,1952).
3. LEE and FUIDGE. The technique of surface-dressing with
tar. Pub. by Brit. Rd. Tar. Assoc.
4. BELGIAN SPECIFICATIONS. Improved practice in surface-
dressing of roads. Translated by N.l.R.R. in Afr. Rds. and
Trnspt, March-April 1958.
5. HANSON, F. M. H. The road structure. N.;::. Inst. Eng.
February, 1957, quoted under the title 'Why- do our roads
fail?' in Afr. Rds. and Trnspt, March-April 1958.
6. BRIT. STDS. INST. Single-sized roadstone and chippings.
Brit. Std. Spec. No. 63 of 1951.
7. SOSA. Requirements for Surface Treatments. (Australian
method). Std. Oil Co. of S.A. 1959.

"
DISCUSSION
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Written discussion on the above paper will be accepted until December 27,1961. This, together with the Author's Re-
ply, will be published in the April, 1962, issue of The Civil Engineer in South Africa, or later. '
Such written discussion, which must be submitted in duplicate, should be in the third person present tense, and should,,'
be typed in double spacing. It should be as short as possible and should not normally exceed 600 words in length. It '
should also conform to the requirements laid down in the 'Notes for the Guidance of Authors and Contributors'
as published in the March, 1959, issue of The Civil Engineer in South Africa.

REFERENCE
Whenever reference is made to the above paper this publication should be referred to as the Transactions of the 8buth
African Institution of Civil Engineers, and the volume and date given thus: Trans. S.Afr.lnstn. Civ. Engrs. 3 (Oct.,1961)

188 DIE SIVIELE INGENIEUR In Suid-Afrika - Olitober 1961