Lesson III

UNIT III Evolution and the

EVOLUTION Origin of Biodiversity
Learning Competency
At the end of the lesson, the learners can:

a. explain the mechanisms that

produce change in populations from
generation to generation (eg; artificial
selection, natural selection, genetic
drift, mutation, recombination);
STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g11
 LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION
 Requirements of Natural
Selection
Natural Selection

Must survive
1.

Must reach maturity

2.

3. Must be able to reproduce

 What are the importance of Genetic
Variation?
1. Adaptation: Genetic variance allows
Is it Important?

populations to adapt to
changing environmental
conditions.
2. Species Diversity: The greater the
genetic variation within a
population, the more
likely it is that new species
will emerge through
natural selection.
 What are the importance of Genetic
Variation?
3. Health: Populations with low
Is it Important?

genetic variation are more

susceptible to genetic
disorders, inbreeding
depression, and reduced
ability to respond to
environmental changes.
Artificial
Selection
Artificial Selection
q Definition
q This process is also known as selective
breeding and involves screening a
population for certain quantitative traits.
q Humans select preferred visible traits in
plants and animals and then create a
breeding program to ensure those traits
are passed on to future generations.
Artificial Selection 2 TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

1. DIRECTIONAL SELECTION
q Extreme phenotype is favored over other

phenotypes, resulting in a shift in the

population's genetic variance.
q This causes an extreme phenotype to

become more common in the population.

Artificial Selection Example
q The breeding of racehorses for increased

speed.
q The breeding of crop plants for higher

yields or resistance to pests.

q The breeding of dogs for specific physical

or behavioral traits, such as larger size or

greater trainability.
Artificial Selection 2 TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL SELECTION

2. DISRUPTIVE SELECTION
q In disruptive selection, individuals with

extreme forms of a trait at both ends of

the spectrum are selected for breeding,
while those with average forms are
eliminated.
q This type of selection can lead to the

population splitting up into two or more

subpopulations with different phenotypes
Artificial Selection Example
q The selection of larger and smaller seeds

from a population of plants, leading to the

development of two distinct groups with
different seed sizes.
q The breeding of hummingbirds for longer

or shorter beak length, leading to the

development of distinct groups with
different average beak lengths.
q The selection of fish with extreme

swimming abilities, resulting in two

distinct groups with different swimming
styles.
 Natural
Selection
Natural Selection
q Definition
q Natural selection is the process through
which populations of living organisms
adapt and change
q It is a key mechanism of evolution,
resulting in the adaptation of an organism
to its environment by means of selectively
reproducing changes in its genetic
makeup
q Natural selection is driven by the forces of
nature, such as predators, competition for
resources, and environmental factors, and
is not influenced by human intervention.
Natural Selection 3 types of Natural Selection
1. DIRECTIONAL SELECTION
q Directional selection is a type of natural

selection in which the phenotype (the

observable characteristics) of the species
tends toward one extreme
q It occurs when individuals with traits on

one side of the mean in their population

survive better or reproduce more than
those with traits on the other side
 Example
q Giraffe Necks
Natural Selection
q Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria

q Bill length in hummingbirds

Natural Selection 3 types of Natural Selection
2. STABILIZING SELECTION
q An evolution that favors the average

individuals in a population and reduces

extremes.
q It results in a decrease in a population's

genetic variance when natural selection

favors an average phenotype and selects
against extreme variations.
 Example
q Human Birth Weight
Natural Selection
q Enzyme Activity

q Clutch size in birds

Natural Selection 3 types of Natural Selection
3. DISRUPTIVE SELECTION
q This occurs when individuals with

extreme phenotypes are favored over

individuals with intermediate phenotypes.
q This type of selection usually occurs when

the environment has two or more distinct

and contrasting habitats
q Example

q Bill size in black-bellied seed crackers

Natural Selection Bill size in black-bellied seed crackers
Genetic
Drift
Genetic Drift
q Definition
q Genetic drift is a random evolutionary
process that occurs when certain alleles
(variants of genes) become more or less
common in a population due to chance
events rather than natural selection.
q It occurs when the occurrence of variant
forms of a gene, fluctuates randomly from
one generation to the next.
q Genetic drift can lead to significant
changes in allele frequencies over time.
 2 TYPES OF GENETIC DRIFT
1. BOTTLENECK EFFECT
Genetic Drift
q It occurs when the size of a population is

severely reduced
q This can lead to a loss of genetic variation

and an increase in the effect of genetic

drift
q The bottleneck effect amplifies the effects

of genetic drift, leaving populations

susceptible to changes in their
environment
 Example
q Cheetah population underwent a

bottleneck about 10,000 years ago

Genetic Drift
 Example
q Northern elephant seals population
Genetic Drift
 2 TYPES OF GENETIC DRIFT
2. FOUNDER EFFECT
q This occurs when a small group of
Genetic Drift

individuals breaks off from a larger

population to establish a new population.
q Because the founding group represents

only a small fraction of the original

population, they may not carry the full
range of genetic diversity present in the
parent population.
Genetic Drift q Founder Effect
 2 TYPES OF GENETIC DRIFT
q Example
q Elephant Birds.
Genetic Drift

q New Zealand Kiwis

Mutations
Mutation
q Definition
q It is a changes in the DNA

sequence that can occur

spontaneously or due to exposure
to mutagens such as radiation,
chemicals, or viruses.
q Mutations can have a wide range of

effects, from no discernible effect

to severe changes in an organism's
phenotype.
 3 TYPES OF MUTATION
1. POINT MUTATION
q A point mutation is a genetic mutation
Mutation

where a single nucleotide base is

changed, inserted or deleted from a DNA
or RNA sequence of an organism's
genome.
q Point mutations can have various

functional consequences, including

changes in gene expression or alterations
in encoded proteins
Mutation
 3 types of Point Mutation
1.1 Silent Mutations
q Silent mutations do not affect the amino acid
Mutation

sequence of the resulting protein because

they occur in a region of the DNA sequence
that does not code for protein.
q For example , changing the third

nucleotide in the codon of the amino acid

glycine from GGG to GGA would still
produce glycine.
 3 types of Point Mutation
1.2 Missense Mutations
q Missense mutations change one nucleotide
Mutation

in the codon of the DNA sequence, resulting

in a different amino acid being incorporated
into the protein.
q For example, the sickle cell anemia is

caused by a missense mutation in the

hemoglobin gene that changes the
amino acid glutamic acid to valine.
Mutation
 3 types of Point Mutation
1.3 Nonsense Mutations
q Nonsense mutations introduce a premature
Mutation

stop codon into the DNA sequence, resulting

in a truncated and typically non-functional
protein.
q A nonsense mutation in the gene

encoding the BRCA1 protein can cause an

increased risk of breast and ovarian
cancer.
 3 TYPES OF MUTATION
2. FRAMESHIFT MUTATION (INSERTIONS AND
DELETIONS)
Mutation

q Insertions and deletions involve the

addition or removal of one or more

nucleotides from the DNA sequence,
respectively.
q These types of mutations can cause

frameshift mutations, which alter the

reading frame of the DNA sequence and
can lead to a completely different amino
acid sequence than what was originally
intended.
 Example
q Duchenne muscular dystrophy is caused by

a deletion of multiple nucleotides in the

dystrophin gene that alters the reading
Mutation

frame and results in a non-functional

protein.
 3 TYPES OF MUTATION
3. CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION
q Chromosomal mutations involve changes
Mutation

in the structure or number of

chromosomes. Chromosomal mutations
can include translocations, inversions,
duplications, and deletions.
 4 types of Chromosomal Mutation
3.1 Translocations
q Occur when part of one chromosome breaks
Mutation

off and attaches to another chromosome,

leading to changes in the genes that are
expressed.
q Example, chronic myeloid leukemia is

caused by a translocation between

chromosomes 9 and 22.
 4 types of Chromosomal Mutation
3.2 Inversions
q Inversions occur when a segment of a
Mutation

chromosome breaks off, rotates 180 degrees,

and reattaches to the same chromosome.
This can lead to changes in gene expression
and may have no effect on the phenotype or
can cause genetic disorders.
q For example, hemophilia A is caused by

an inversion of part of the X chromosome.

 4 types of Chromosomal Mutation
3.3 Duplications:
q Duplications occur when a segment of a
Mutation

chromosome is copied and inserted

elsewhere in the genome (homologous),
leading to extra copies of the genes
contained in that segment.
q Example, Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease is

caused by a duplication of a segment of

chromosome 17.
 4 types of Chromosomal Mutation
3.4 Deletions
q Deletions occur when a segment of a
Mutation

chromosome is lost during cell division,

leading to the loss of genes contained in that
segment.
q For example, Williams syndrome is caused

by a deletion of a segment of
chromosome 7.
Recombination
Recombination
q Definition
q Recombination is the process by which
genetic material is exchanged between
two or more DNA molecules, resulting in
the creation of new combinations of
genes.
q Recombination can occur naturally
through the process of meiosis or can be
induced artificially through genetic
engineering techniques.
 2 TYPES OF RECOMBINATION
Recombination
1. Homologous Recombination
q Homologous recombination involves the

exchange of genetic material between two

DNA molecules that have similar or identical
sequences. Homologous recombination is
essential for proper chromosome
segregation during meiosis and is also
important for DNA repair.
q Examples: Meiosis
Recombination
Recombination
 2 types of Recombination
Recombination
2. Transposition
q Transposition involves the movement of

genetic elements, such as transposons or

retrotransposons, from one location to
another within the genome.
q Transposition can occur through a cut-and-

paste mechanism or a copy-and-paste

mechanism.
q Transposition can create new mutations and

contribute to genetic diversity.

Recombination
Recombination
 2 types of Recombination
Recombination
q Transposition
q Example

q The P element in Drosophila

melanogaster uses transposition to move

from one location to another within the
genome, resulting in the creation of new
mutations that can affect the fly's
phenotype
Pre-Darwinian
Theories
George Louis
Leclerc, Comte
de Buffon
q Wealthy French
mathematician and naturalist
q He said that living things do
change through time. He
speculated that this was
somehow a result of influences
from the environment
q He speculated that the earth
must be at least 75,000 years
old
q He also suggested that humans
and apes are related
q Histoire Naturelle (Natural
History Book)
q He publicly rejected the idea
that species could evolve into
other species.
In Europe, horses Move the horses to Over many
are brown and Africa, and the generations, the
horse-shaped environment particles reshape
because of the rearranges particles horses into zebras.
environment. in embryos when
the horses are bred.
Erasmus Darwin
q First evolutionist who
confidently and very publicly
stated his ideas about the
processes leading to biological
change
q Zoonomia; or the Laws of
Organic Life (1794-1796)
Erasmus Darwin
q He believed that evolution has
occurred in living things,
including humans
Erasmus Darwin
q He also suggested that the earth
and life on it must have been
evolving for "millions of ages
before the commencement of
the history of mankind.“
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
q He proposed, in the early
years of the 19th century,
the first broad theory of
evolution.
q He argued that organisms
evolve through eons of
time from lower to higher
forms, a process still going
on, always culminating in
human beings.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
q Theory of Use and Disuse.
This assumption, later called
the inheritance of acquired
characteristics (or
Lamarckism).

q Was thoroughly
disapproved in the 20th
century
 Lamarck’s Organic Theory of Development

üOrganisms are shaped by their environment.

üChange is goal-directed - organisms have an

internal drive to become more and more
complex.

üUse and disuse of parts causes change that is

passed on from generation to generation.
George Cuvier
q Advocated the Theory of
catastrophism (great floods
and the rapid formation of
major mountain chains).

q He was a French scientist who

was known for his work in
zoology, comparative anatomy,
and paleontology.
George Cuvier
q The theory of catastrophism
states that the history of the
Earth has been defined by
many severe and
catastrophic events instead
of the commonly held belief
that the Earth's processes
slowly change the
environment over time.
 Mercury

Charles Lyell James Hutton

• Charles Lyell, to conclude that Cuvier's catastrophism

theory was wrong.
• Lyell is the one responsible for the acceptance of
uniformitarianism and plutonism by the general
scientific community.
 Mercury

Charles Lyell James Hutton

• Plutonism is the theory that processes that create and

arrange rocks into the current landscape are driven
by heat concealed within Earth's interior
 Mercury

Charles Lyell James Hutton

• Lyell documented the fact that the earth must be very

old and that it has been subject to the same sort of
natural processes in the past that operate today in
shaping the land. These forces include erosion,
earthquakes, glacial movements, volcanoes, and even
the decomposition of plants and animals.
 Catastrophism Vs. Uniformitarianism
Catastrophism Catastrophism is the belief that
Earth's features were created suddenly as a
result of great catastrophes
Uniformitarianism is the theory that the Earth's
processes slowly change the environment over
time through uniform and continuous
processes.
Darwinian
Times
 The naturalists, Charles Darwin and
Alfred Russel Wallace were able to make
detailed observations in various parts of
the world.

Darwin became an avid proponent of

Lyell’s idea that natural selection is a
slow and steady process and that Earth
may have been millions or hundreds of
years older than the previously held
belief.
Both (a) Charles Darwin and (b) Alfred
Wallace wrote scientific papers on natural
selection
that were presented together before the
Linnean Society in 1858
 This is a group of 16 small
volcanic island off the west
coast of Ecuador, South
America.
Individual Galápagos islands
differ from one another in
important ways. Darwin
noticed that the plants and
animals on the different
islands also differed
 Two essential concept of Darwin and Wallace:
“Descent with modification”
q The idea that organisms
descended from the
ancestors
q Today, we call it evolution
Natural Selection
q The mechanism that ensures the
survival and reproductive success
of individuals who better adapted
to their environment.
q More prolific reproduction of
individuals with favorable traits
that survive environmental change
because of those traits
 Modern
Understanding
The modern synthesis describes how
evolutionary processes, such as natural
selection, can affect a population’s genetic
makeup, and, in turn, how this can result in
the gradual evolution of populations and
species.
The theory also connects this change
of a population over time, called
microevolution, with the processes that
gave rise to new species and higher
taxonomic groups with widely divergent
characters, called macroevolution.
Gregor Johann Mendel
Father of Genetics
Evidences of
Evolution
FOSSILS
Paleontologists were the first group of scientists
to support Darwin's concept of evolution.

Paleontologists determine the age of fossils and

categorize them to determine the relative time
when organisms lived.
FOSSILS
• Fossils provide evidence that
organisms from the past are
different from those found today.
• Fossils show a progression of
evolution and tell the story of the
past.
FOSSILS
• The fossil record shows the evolution
of form over millions of years.
• Scientists have recovered highly
detailed records showing the
evolution of humans and horses.
 Fossils evidence has supported Darwin’s findings
as follows:
1. Different organisms thrived and
lived at different periods;
2. Organisms of the past were
different from the living ones
today;
 Fossils evidence has supported Darwin’s findings
as follows:
3. Fossils embedded in adjacent rock
layers are more similar in appearance
to each other than fossils from distant
layers;
4. Intermediate forms of organisms are
found in between rocks, which
revealed transitional species.
 Biogeography
q The study of where species
live now and where species
and their ancestors lived in
the past
q When organisms are related,
they evolved in one region
and spread to other
accessible regions.
 Biogeography
Shows common ancestry two
ways:
1. Provide evidence as to how

closely related species

change in different
environments/selection
pressures
2. How distantly related groups

have evolved similar traits

under similar selection
pressures (Convergent Evolution).
EVIDENCE
FROM
STRUCTURE
 A. Homologous
Structure
These are structures with the
same set of bones that
presumably evolved from a
common ancestor. They
appear different and may have
varied functions.
Figure 3. 15 Similar structures found in different organisms
 B. Analogous
Structures
These are structures that perform

the same function but have very

different embryological

development or set of structures

like bones
Figure 3.16 Comparison of Analogous Structures
 C. Vestigial
Structure These are structures or attributes
that have lost most of its ancestral
function in more recent species

The coccyx or the tailbone:

Figure 3.17 Coccyx (Tailbone)
Obviously, humans no longer have
visible external tails, because the
current version of humans do not
need tails to live in trees as earlier
human ancestors did.
Embryology

Embryology is the study of the development of an

organism from an embryo to its adult form.
Common structures are shared in the embryo stage
and disappear by the time the embryo reaches the
juvenile or adult form.
An embryo of an organism is the fertilized egg as it
goes through the processes of development that is
specific to that species
Embryology
Embryology
MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
q Similarities and differences between the “same”
gene in different organisms (that is, a pair of
homologous genes) can help us determine
q Many organisms have similar molecules of life
(RNA, DNA, proteins) that suggest descent from
a common ancestor with modifications.
MOLECULAR
BIOLOGY
q Like the structural homologies, similarities
between biological molecules can reflect
shared evolutionary ancestry. At the most basic
level, all living organisms share:
1. The same genetic material (DNA)

2. The same, or highly similar, genetic codes

3. The same basic process of gene expression

(Transcription and Translation)

 All these pieces of evidence are indirect proof
that evolution can occur. Is it possible to see it
happening in the nature?

Yes, we can observe evolution in field studies of organisms with short life
cycles such as fish, lizards, insects, and microorganisms. With bacteria
able to reproduce every hour in laboratory, you can witness how the
changing environmental conditions, such as introducing an antibacterial
agent in a population, can permanently alter the genetic makeup of
succeeding populations in a few days.