Chapter 8 (Pile Foundation) by Shesh Raj Kafle

PILE FOUNDATION
CHAPTER 8.0
7/8/2021 SHESH RAJ KAFLE , FOUNDATION ENGINEERING , HCOE 1

INTRODUCTION
• A pile is a slender structure having very small area of
cross section relative to its length.
• It is a deep foundation having depth greater than its
width ( Df > B ).
• A pile is relatively small diameter shaft.
• It can be made of steel, concrete or wood.
• A pile is either driven into the soil or formed in-situ by
excavating a hole and filling it with concrete.

INTRODUCTION ( CONTINUE )
• They are often used when
shallow foundation cannot
support the structure.
• When the upper ground
stratum at site is weak or soft
or loose or of swelling type,
the load from the super
structure is to be transferred
to deeper firm strata. The
structural loads in such
condition may be transferred
to deeper firm strata by
means of pile.

PILE FOUNDATION
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PILE FOUNDATION
SHESH RAJ KAFLE , FOUNDATION ENGINEERING , HCOE 6
USES / APPLICABILITY OF PILE FOUNDATION
• When the strata at or just below the ground surface is highly
compressible and very weak to support the load transmitted by the
structure.
• Pile foundation is better at reducing differential settlements
compared to shallow foundation.
• They resist horizontal forces in addition to support the vertical loads
in tall structures, like from wind and earthquake.
• They are used in soil conditions where erosion, washout or scour of
soil may occur.
• Piles are used as foundations of structures that are subject to uplift
forces.

CLASSIFICATION OF PILES
Piles can be classified according to:
•The material used
•The mode of transfer of load
•The method of construction / installation
•The displacement of soil
•The use

BASED ON MATERIAL USED
STEEL PILES
• Generally in the form of thick pipes or rolled steel H-section.
• Another form of steel pile is a screw pile or helical pile.
• Epoxy coating are applied in the factory during manufacture to reduce corrosion.
• To take account of corrosion, additional thickness of steel section is usually
recommended.

7/8/2021 HELICAL PILES
SCREW PILES

BASED ON MATERIAL USED ( CONTINUE )
CONCRETE PILES
• Generally made of RCC and they are either pre-cast or in-situ piles.
• Precast concrete piles are prepared in factory and a cast in-situ pile is
constructed by making a hole in the ground and then filling it with
concrete.
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PRE – CAST PILE SHESH RAJ KAFLE , FOUNDATION ENGINEERING , HCOE
IN – SITU PILE 14
TIMBER PILES
• Made from tree trunks after proper trimming.
• Generally used at water logged area or below water table after
treating them chemically.
• The life of the timber piles can be increased by preservatives such as
creosote oils, above the water table.

7/8/2021 TIMBER PILES
 COMPOSITE PILES
• Made of two or more materials.
• They may be made of either concrete and timber or concrete and
steel.

BASED ON MODE OF LOAD TRANSFER
 END OR BASE OR POINT
BEARING PILE
• Transfers the load through the
pile tip to a suitable bearing
stratum.
• They are also known as point-
bearing piles, transmitting the
load through a weak material
to a firm stratum below.

BASED ON MODE OF LOAD TRANSFER ( CONTINUE )
 FRICTION OR FLOATING PILES
• Do not reach the hard stratum.
• They transfer the load through skin
friction between the embedded
surface of the pile and the
surrounding soil.
• They are also known as floating
piles, as they do not reach the hard
stratum.

BASED ON MODE OF LOAD TRANSFER ( CONTINUE )
 COMBINED BASE
BEARING AND FRICTION
PILE
• These piles transfer loads
by combination of end
bearing at the bottom of
the pile and friction along
the surface of the pile
shaft.

BASED ON METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION /
INSTALLATION
DRIVEN AND PRE – CAST PILES
• They are driven into the soil by applying blows of a heavy hammer on
their tops.

INSTALLATION ( CONTINUE )
 DRIVEN AND CAST- IN - SITU
PILES
• They are formed by driving a
casing with a closed bottom
end into the soil.
• The casing is later filled with
concrete, and later may or
may not be withdrawn.

INSTALLATION ( CONTINUE )
BORED AND CAST –
IN – SITU PIES
• They are formed by
excavating a hole
into the ground and
filling it with
concrete.
BASED ON USE
 LOAD BEARING PILE
• They are used to transfer the load of the structure to a suitable
stratum by end bearing, by friction or by both.
 COMPACTION PILE
• They are driven into loose granular soils to increase the relative
density.
• The compaction piles themselves don’t carry loads.
• Generally, the pile driven to compact the soil, is gradually taken out
and sand is filled in its place thus forming a “sand pile”.

COMPACTION PILE

BASED ON USE ( CONTINUE )
 TENSION OR UPLIFT
PILES
• They are used to resist
upward forces in
structures subjected to
uplift , such as
hydrostatic pressure or
overturning moment.

SHEET PILES
• form a continuous wall
which is used for
retaining earth or
water.
• They are also used as
impervious cutoff to
reduce seepage and
uplift under hydraulic
structures

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SHEET PILE WALLS
 FENDER PILES
• They are placed in
between the soil and
water ( near the
seashore).
• They are used for
protection against
water erosion.
• They are also used to
protect water front
structures against the
impact from ships or
other floating objects.
 BATTER PILES
• They are
inclined piles in
order to support
lateral loadings
(large horizontal
or inclined
forces).
 ANCHOR PILES
• They provide
anchorage
against
horizontal pull
from sheet piles
or other pulling
forces
BASED ON DISPLACEMENT OF SOIL
 DISPLACEMENT PILES
• All driven piles are displacement piles as the soil is displaced laterally
when the pile is installed. The soil gets densified. The installation may
cause heaving of the surrounding ground.
• Precast concrete pile and closed-ended piles are high displacement
piles. Steel H-piles are low displacement piles.
NON – DISPLACEMENT PILES
• Bored piles are non-displacement piles, as the soil is removed when
the hole is bored.
• This cause very little change in stresses in the surrounding soil.

SELECTION OF PILE TYPE
• The selection of the type, length and capacity is
usually made from estimation based on the soil
conditions and the magnitude of the load.
• In cities where the soil conditions are well known and
where a large number of pile foundations have been
constructed, the experience gained in the past is
extremely useful.

SELECTION OF PILE TYPE ( CONTINUE )
The factors that governs the selection of piles are as follows:
• Type of structure and the load it carries
For light loads, timber piles and for heavy loads, steel or reinforced concrete
piles can be used
• Location of the site
• Soil conditions and position of ground water table
 For loose soil, displacement piles and for dense soil, non-displacement piles
can be used
• Length of pile and structural capability of pile
 For short length of pile , timber pile of length 10 to 20 m and concrete pile of
length 40 m can be used
For long length of pile, steel pile can be used which gives excessive strength

SELECTION OF PILE TYPE ( CONTINUE )
• Durability and economy
 For temporary durability , timber piles can be used.
For more durability, RCC ( Steel ) piles can be used.
 The cost of pile load tests should to be added to the installation cost while
working out overall cost.
• Availability of fund
• Availability of construction materials
• Ease of maintenance
• Factors causing deterioration
• Estimated costs of types of piles, taking into account the initial cost, life
expectancy and cost of maintenance

TYPES OF FOUNDATION TO SUIT SUBSOIL
CONDITIONS
• A foundation has to transfer load of super – structure to
supporting soil without shear failure and excessive settlement.
• The subsoil conditions and properties of soil at site are essential
to know before the selection of proper type of foundation.
 Dense sand upto great depth
 Spread footings ( Deep foundation such as pile may be required
if uplift or other unusual forces are present ).
Hard layer encountered
 Piles or piers can be used to transfer load to deeper strata.

DETERMINATION OF PILE LOAD CAPACITY
• Ultimate Bearing load ( QU) :
It is the maximum load which can be applied on the pile without
shear failure or excessive settlement of the ground.
It has unit of force.
• Safe or Allowable Bearing Load ( QS or Qa) :
The maximum load which can be applied on the pile safely without
shear failure or excessive settlement.
 It has unit of force.
It is calculated as
𝑸𝑼
QS = , where FOS = Factor of Safety = 2.5 to 3
𝑭𝑶𝑺

DETERMINATION OF PILE LOAD CAPACITY BY STATIC
APPROACH
• The ultimate bearing load of a pile is considered to be the sum of the
end bearing resistance and the resistance due to skin friction.
• Qu = Q b + Qf
where,
QU = Ultimate bearing load of the pile
Qb = End bearing or point or tip resistance of the pile
Qf = Skin friction or shaft friction resistance of the pile
Note : Qf = Qs ( Skin or shaft resistance )

Qb = Qp ( Point resistance )
APPROACH ( CONTINUE )

• Qu= Qb + Qf
• Qu = qb * Ab + qf * As
Where,
Ab is the area of the pile tip or base
As is the effective surface area of pile in contact with the soil
qb is the unit point resistance, equal to the ultimate bearing capacity (qu)
of the soil.

For cohesive soil (i.e. clay)
𝑞𝑏 = 𝐶𝑁𝑐 + 𝜎𝑣 𝑁𝑞 − 1 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
• For pure cohesive soil, angle of internal friction is zero ( Φ = 00 ), Nq = 1 and
𝑁𝛾 = 0
Thus,
𝑞𝑏 = 𝐶𝑁𝑐 and 𝐐𝐛 = 𝐂𝐍𝐜𝐀𝐛
Where C is cohesion of clay at the pile tip or base
• Nc is the bearing capacity factor for deep foundation the value of which
depends upon the D/B ratio, varying from 6 to 9. For piles, a value of Nc = 9
is generally adopted.

Now for side friction,
• Shear strength of clay is S = C which is between the clay particles.
• Shear resistance between the pile material and clay is given as 𝛼. 𝐶 , where 𝜶 is the
adhesion factor.
𝑞𝑠𝑓 = 𝛼𝐶
Generally, 𝛼 = 0.2 to 0.4 (stiff soil); 0.4 to 0.6 (Medium dense sand); 0.6 to 0.9 (Soft soil).
For most part, the value of 𝛼 will be given in the question.
And
𝑸𝒇 = 𝜶𝑪𝑨𝒔
Where 𝐶 is the average cohesion along the length of pile.
𝒒
NOTE: 𝑪 = , where q is average unconfined compressive strength of the material
𝟐

• If we need to analyze layer wise ( Layered System ) and data is given
accordingly then,

• For cohesionless soil (C = 0)
𝑞𝑏 = 𝐶𝑁𝑐 + 𝜎𝑣 𝑁𝑞 − 1 + 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾
• For cohesionless soil c = 0 and also since the width of pile is small
compared to its length, the term 0.5𝛾𝐵𝑁𝛾 is neglected.
• 𝑞𝑏 = 𝜎𝑣 𝑁𝑞 − 1
• 𝑞𝑏 = 𝛾𝐷 𝑁𝑞 − 1
• 𝑞𝑏 = 𝛾𝐿 𝑁𝑞 − 1

Now, for side friction, we have to take concept from earth pressure as
follows :
• 𝑄𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁 (𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒)
1
• 𝑄𝑓 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿. 2 0 + 𝛾𝐿𝐾 . 𝐴𝑠
1
• 𝑄𝑓 = 𝐾𝛾𝐿. 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿. 𝐴𝑠
2
• 𝑸𝒇 = 𝑲. 𝝈𝒗 . 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜹. 𝑨𝒔

DETERMINATION OF PILE LOAD CAPACITY BY
STATIC APPROACH ( CONTINUE )
• Therefore, for cohesionless soil,
𝑸𝒖 = 𝑸𝒃 + 𝑸𝒇
𝑸𝒖 = 𝒒𝒃 𝑨𝒃 + 𝒒𝒇 𝑨𝒔
𝐐𝐮 = (𝐍𝐪 −𝟏)𝛔𝐯 𝐀𝐛 + 𝐊𝝈𝒗 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛅 𝐀𝐬
Where,
K = Coefficient of earth pressure
𝜶𝑽 = Average effective vertical pressure at required depth
𝝈𝒗 = Effective vertical stress at the tip of pile
and 𝜹 = Coefficient of friction between sand and pile material

STATIC APPROACH ( CONTINUE )
• Selection of suitable values of 𝛿 and K requires good engineering
judgment.
• Tomlinson (1975) gave the values of 𝛿 and K, as given below:

NUMERICALS
A concrete pile of 45 cm diameter and 15m long is
driven into a homogeneous mass of clay . The water
table is at ground surface. The unit cohesion of soil is
50 KN / m2 and adhesion factor is 0.75. Determine the
ultimate load and allowable load if factor of safety is
2.5.

A friction pile 300 mm in diameter is proposed to be
driven in a layer of uniform cohesive soil having
adhesion factor 0.7. Neglecting base resistance,
determine the length of pile required to carry a safe
load of 200 KN with factor of safety 2.5 . The average
cohesion of soil is 40 KN/m2 .

Calculate the safe load for pile of size 0.3 m * 0.3 m and depth 10 m at
following site condition. Take 𝛼 =0.5 and k = 1

ASSIGNMENTS

ASSIGNMENTS

DYNAMIC APPROACH OR PILE DRIVING FORMULA
• This method is based on the assumption
that the dynamic resistance to drive the
pile is equal to the ultimate load carrying
capacity of the pile using static method.
• In this method, the total energy supplied
by hammer in driving a pile into a soil
stratum is equated to the work done by
the pile when it penetrates through the
soil taking account of losses.

DYNAMIC APPROACH OR PILE DRIVING FORMULA
( CONTINUE )
• The energy balance equation is given by
𝑊ℎ ∗ 𝜂ℎ = 𝑅 ∗ 𝑆 + 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐿𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠
Where,
W = weight of the hammer (kN),
h = height of ram drop (cm),
𝜂ℎ is efficiency of pile hammer,
R = pile resistance (kN) equal to Qu
S = pile penetration per blow (cm)
and Energy losses = Friction, heat, hammer
rebound, vibration ,elastic compression of soil
and packing assembly of soil

DYNAMIC APPROACH ( CONTINUE )
 Engineering News Record Formula (ENR):
According to ENR formula (1888), the ultimate load is given by,
𝑊ℎ𝜂ℎ
𝑄𝑢 =
𝑆+𝐶
Where S = penetration of pile per hammer blow ( cm ). It is generally based on the average
penetration obtained from the last few blows (cm). Generally, for drop hammer, average of
5 penetration is taken, while for steam hammer average of 25 penetration is taken.
C = constant (For drop hammer, C = 2.54 cm) and (for steam hammer, C = 0.254 cm)
𝜂ℎ = Efficiency of hammer ( Generally 80 % )
• The product W * h can be replaced by the rated energy of the hammer (Eh) in kN – cm. Thus,
𝐸ℎ 𝜂ℎ
𝑄𝑢 =
𝑆+𝐶
• A factor of safety of 6 is usually recommended.
𝑊ℎ𝜂ℎ
𝑄𝑎 =
6(𝑆 + 𝐶)

 Hiley’s Formula:
Hiley gave a formula which takes into account of various losses.
𝑊ℎ𝜂𝑏 𝜂ℎ
𝑄𝑢 =
𝑆 + 𝐶/2
Where 𝜂ℎ is efficiency of hammer; h = height of free fall of the ram or
hammer (cm), S = final set or penetration per blow (cm), C = sum of
temporary elastic compression of the pile, dolly, and ground (C 1+C2+C3)
C1 = 1.77 R/A , when the driving is without dolly and 9.05 R/A when the
driving is with short dolly
C2 = temporary compression of pile = 0.657 RD/A where D is length of
pile in m,
C3 = temporary compression of ground = 3.55 R/A,
where, A is c/s area of pile, R is pile resistance ( tonnes )

 Hiley’s Formula:
• The efficiency of hammer blow (𝜂𝑏 ) depends upon the
weight of the hammer (W), weight of pile (P), and the
coefficient of restitution (e).
𝑊+𝑒 2 𝑃
a) For W > eP, 𝜂𝑏 =
𝑊+𝑃
𝑊+𝑒 2𝑃 𝑊−𝑒𝑃 2
b) For W < eP, 𝜂𝑏 = −
𝑊+𝑃 𝑊+𝑃

 Danish Formula:
According to Danish formula (1929),
𝑊ℎ𝜂ℎ
𝑄𝑢 =
1
𝑆 + 2 𝑆𝑜
1
2𝜂ℎ (𝑊ℎ𝐷) 2
𝑆𝑜 =
𝐴𝐸
Where, So = elastic compression of pile, D = length of pile, A = cross-
sectional area, E = modulus of elasticity of pile material.
The allowable load is found by taking a factor of safety of 3 to 4 .

• These methods give fairly good results only in the case of
free-draining sands in which high pore water pressure
doesn’t develop during the driving of piles.
• They are not applicable to the piles driven in cohesive
soils. This is because there may be apparent increase in
driving resistance due to development of pore pressure,
while there may be tendency for it to decrease later on
due to dissipation of pore pressure.

NUMERICALS
For a pile designed for an allowable load of 400 KN driven by a
steam hammer (single acting) with a rated energy of 207
ton-cm, what is the terminal set of the pile? Use Engineering
News formula.

A RCC pile weighing 41.2 kN (including weight of pile cap and dolly) is
driven by drop hammer weighing 49 kN and having an effective fall of
1m. The average settlement per blow is 14mm. The total elastic
compression is 12 mm. Assuming the coefficient of restitution as 0.2
and FOS as 2.5, calculate the ultimate load and allowable load for the
pile. Use Hiley’s formula.

ASSIGNMENT

PILE CAPACITY BASED ON STANDARD PENETRATION
TEST ( SPT ) VALUE

PILE CAPACITY BASED ON SPT VALUE ( CONTINUE )

NUMERICALS

PILE CAPACITY BASED ON STATIC CONE
PENETRATION TEST ( SCPT OR CPT )VALUE
• The method proposed by Vander Veen et al.,
(1957) considers average cone resistance over a
depth equal to three times the diameter of the
pile above the pile point level and one pile
diameter below point level.
• The equations for ultimate bearing capacity
and allowable load may be written as,
• Pile base resistance, qb= qp (cone) (qb is
restricted to 110 kg/cm2)
• Ultimate base capacity, Qb = Ab qp
Where, qp is the average cone resistance over a
depth 4d,

NUMERICALS

ASSIGNMENT

PILE CAPACITY BY IN –SITU TEST
• Bearing load capacity based on SPT Value
• Bearing load capacity based on CPT value
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST STATIC CONE PENETRATION TEST

PILE LOAD TEST ( PROGRESSIVE LOADING )
• The most reliable method for
determining the load carrying
capacity of a pile is the pile load
test.
• Preliminary pile design is first
carried out on the basis of site
investigations, laboratory soil
testing and analysis.
• Pile load tests are carried out to
refine and finalize the design. For
these conditions, the test piles
are generally tested to failure.

PILE LOAD TEST ( CONTINUE )
• The purpose of pile load test are as follows:
 To determine allowable load ( Qa ) for pile .
To determine load – settlement behavior of pile.
 To ascertain as a proof of acceptability .
• Equipments Required :
Anchor girder or reaction girder
Hydraulic Jack
Test pile
Anchor pile
Dial Gauge
Reaction beam


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PILE LOAD TEST
PROCEDURE
• The set-up consists of two anchor piles provided with an anchor girder
or reaction girder at their top.
• The test pile is installed between the anchor piles as like foundation pile
is installed. The test pile should be at least 3B or 2.5m clear from the
anchor pile.
• The test is conducted after a rest period of 3 days after the installation in
sandy soils and a period of one month in silts and soft clays.
• Three dial gauges are set at a fixed reference mark.
• The load is applied through a hydraulic jack resting on the reaction
beam. The load is applied in equal increment of about 20% of the
allowable load.
PROCEDURE ( CONTINUE )
• Settlement should be recorded with three dial gauges and average of the
gauge readings gives the settlement of the pile.
• Under each load increment, settlements are observed at 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 8, 12,
16, 20, 60 minutes, until the settlement rate is not more than 0.1 mm per
hour in sandy soils and 0.02 mm per hour in clayey soils or a maximum of
two hours.
• Another 20 % load is added and similar procedure as in above step. This
process is conducted until final test load is applied .
• The load is removed in the same decrements of 20 % of load at a time of 1
hour interval and the final rebound recorded 24 hours after the entire load
has been removed.
• Plot a graph of load-settlement and make a curve for loading as well as
unloading obtained fromSHESH
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a pile load test.
RAJ KAFLE , FOUNDATION ENGINEERING , HCOE 101
PROCEDURE ( CONTINUE )
• The figure shows a typical load-settlement curve for loading as well as
unloading obtained from a pile load test. For any given load, the net
pile settlement (Sn) is given by,
Sn = St – Se
Where St is the total ( Gross ) settlement, Se is the elastic ( rebound )
settlement.

ANALYSIS ( RESULT )
• The ultimate load, Qu can be determined as the point where the curved
part of the load-settlement curve changes to a falling straight line.
• The ultimate load, Qu is the abscissa of the intersection point of initial and
final tangents of load – settlement curve.
• The allowable load, Qa is 50% of the load ( Qu ) at which the total
settlement amount equals to (1/10)th of diameter of pile.
• Qa is taken as (2/3)rd of the load which causes a net settlement of 6mm.
• Qa is taken as (2/3)rd of the load which causes a total settlement of 12mm.
The least of above Qa is considered the allowable load for tested pile.



LIMITATIONS OF PILE LOAD TESTS
• It doesn’t account for long term settlement.
• It doesn’t take into account down drag from settling
soils.
• Pile test on single pile doesn’t take into account the
effect of group action of piles.

TYPES OF PILE LOAD TESTS
i) Maintained load test (Initial test): In this test load is increased in definite steps and is
sustained at each level of loading until all settlements has either stop or does not exceed a
specified amount of in a certain given period of time as explained earlier.
ii) Constant rate of penetration test: In this test, the load on pile is continuously increased to
maintain a constant rate of penetration (from 0.25 to 5 mm per minute). The force required to
achieve that rate of penetration is recorded and a load settlement curve is drawn.
iii) Routine load test: This test is carried out on a working pile with a view to determine the
settlement corresponding to the allowable load. As the working pile would ultimately form a
part of the foundation, the maximum load is limited to one and a half times the safe load or
upto the load which gives a total settlement of 12 mm.
iv) Cyclic load test: Here, an incremental load is repeatedly applied and removed and is carried
out to determine separately skin friction and point resistance of pile.
v) Lateral load test: This test is conducted to determine safe lateral load on pile. A hydraulic jack
is generally introduced between two piles to apply lateral load. The test may also be carried
out by applying a lateral pull by a suitable set-up.
vi) Pull out test: The test is carried out to determine the safe tension for a pile.

NUMERICALS

GROUP ACTION OF PILES
• Structures are rarely founded on a single pile. It is extremely difficult
to drive the pile absolutely vertical and to place the foundation
exactly over its center line. If eccentric loading results, the
connection between the pile and the column may break.
• In practice, structural loads are supported by several piles acting as a
group. For columns, generally a minimum of three piles in a triangular
pattern are used.
• The loads are transferred to the pile group through a reinforced
concrete slab, structurally tied to the pile tops such that pile acts as a
unit. The slab is known as pile cap.

GROUP ACTION OF PILES ( CONTINUE )
• The load carrying capacity of pile group is not necessarily
equal to the summation of individual pile capacity. This is
because of intersection of individual stress zones.
• The ultimate load carrying capacity of pile group is chosen as
the smaller of two values i.e. Ultimate load carrying capacity
of ‘ n ‘ piles ( n * QU ( S ) ) and that of pile group as a block
( QU ( g ) ) where n is the number of piles used.

• If number of piles are used and the piles are sufficiently close enough,
then stress field of each piles overlap due to which the soil between
the pile get compacted and entire wedge consisting of soil and pile
will resist the external load. This action is known as group action of
piles.

PILE GROUP IN COHESIONLESS SOIL
For driven piles embedded in cohesionless soil, the capacity of pile
group as a block will almost always be greater than the sum of
individual pile capacities. Hence,
QU ( g ) = n * QU ( S )
where,
QU ( g ) = Group capacity of piles
QU ( S ) = Individual pile capacity
and n = Number of piles used

PILE GROUP IN COHESIVE SOIL
• The mode of failure of pile groups in cohesive soil depends upon the spacing
of piles.
• For smaller spacing , block failure may occur while for large spacing,
individual failure may occur.
1. Individual Failure
QU ( g ) = n * QU ( S )
where ,
QU ( S ) = CNCAb + 𝜶𝑪𝑨𝒔
QU ( g )
and Qa(g) = 𝐅𝐎𝐒

PILE GROUP IN COHESIVE SOIL
2. Block Failure
QU ( g ) = CNC ( Ab )g+ 𝜶𝑪( 𝑨𝒔 )𝒈
QU ( g )
and Qa(g ) =
𝐅𝐎𝐒
The pile capacity is taken as the least of above two failure

conditions.

NUMERICALS
A square group of nine piles is driven into a soft clay extending to a
large depth. The diameter and length of piles are 30 cm and 9 m
respectively. If the undrained shear strength of clay is 90 KPa and pile
spacing is 90 cm, what is the capacity of pile group assuming FOS = 2.5
and adhesion( mobilization ) factor = 0.75 ?

A square pile group of 9 piles and of 25 cm diameter is arranged with a pile
spacing of 1m. The length of piles is 9m . The unit cohesion of soil is 75 KN /
m2 .Neglecting the bearing at the tip of piles , determine the group capacity
taking adhesion factor of 0.75.
Solution :
• Neglect Qb
• Considering individual pile failure method,
QU(g ) = 9 * 397.61 = 3578.49 KN ( Use 𝐂 = 75 KN / m2 )
• Consider block failure method,
QU(g ) = 4556.25 KN
• Taking minimum value,
QU(g ) = 3578.49 KN

ASSIGNMENTS
 A group of nine piles 300 mm in diameter is driven in a square grid
with spacing 900 mm /cc ( Center to center ). The piles are 10 m long.
The unconfined compression strength of clay is 70 kN / m2 . Calculate
the allowable load on the pile group on the basis of shear failure
criteria using FOS = 2.5 and adhesion factor 1.0.
70
( HINT : Use C = C = = 35 KN / m2 throughout the calculations )
2
( Answer = 1267.8 KN )
 A pile group consists of 9 friction piles of 30 cm diameter and 10 m
length driven in a clay (Su = 100 KN / m2 and ϒ = 20 KN/m3 ).The
piles are arranged in square pattern and center to center is kept 750
mm. Determine the safe load for pile group . Take factor of safety =
3.0 and α = 0.6 .
( HINT : Neglect base resistance ( Qb ) for friction pile )

EFFICIENCY OF PILE GROUP
• The efficiency of a group of pile is defined as the ratio of the ultimate load of pile group
to the sum of individual ultimate loads
𝑸𝒖(𝒈)
𝜼𝒈 = 𝒏∗𝑸 ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝒖(𝒔)
• A number of empirical formulas have been developed to assess the group efficiency of
piles.
1. Converse Labarre formula:
𝛉 𝐦−𝟏 𝐧+ 𝐧−𝟏 𝐦
𝛈𝐠 = 𝟏 −
𝟗𝟎 𝐦𝐧
Where, m = number of rows in a group ,
n = number of piles in each row,
d
θ = tan−1
s
d =diameter of pile (uniform for all piles)
s = spacing of piles (uniform for all piles )
EFFICIENCY OF PILE GROUP ( CONTINUE )
2. Feld’s rule:
• According to Feld’s rule, the capacity of each pile is reduced by
(1/16)th for each adjacent pile.
Computation of efficiency for various pile groups using Feld’s Rule

NUMERICALS
Estimate the group efficiency of rectangular group of piles with 4 rows
and 3 piles in each row. The uniform spacing between piles is three
times pile diameter. If the individual pile capacity is 100 KN, what is the
group capacity according to this concept ?

A group of 9 piles, 12 m long and 250 mm in diameter is to be arranged
in a square form in a clay soil with an average unconfined compressive
strength of 60 KN / m2 . Calculate center to center spacing of piles for a
group efficiency of 1. Neglect bearing at tip of the piles and take
mobilization factor to be 0.9.

In a pile group, 25 piles are arranged in a uniform pattern in a soft
clayey soil with equal spacing in all directions. Determine the optimum
value of the spacing. Neglect the end bearing effect and take the
adhesion factor 0.7. Assume that each pile is circular section, and take
average undrained cohesion of 18 kN/m2.

ASSIGNMENT
A group of 16 piles 300 mm by 300 mm size is driven in regular
pattern with 900 mm center to center spacing. The piles are cast in-
situ and are 10m long. The unconfined compressive strength of the
clay is 60 kN /m2. Compute the group efficiency by Feld’s method and
converse labarre’s formula and compare the results.
A group of 16 piles of 50cm diameter is arranged center to center
spacing of 1m. The piles are 90cm long and are embedded in soft clay
with cohesion of 30 KN / m2 . The end bearing capacity may be
neglected for piles. Adhesion factor is 0.6. Determine the ultimate
load capacity of pile group. Also check efficiency of pile group.

STEPS FOR PILE DESIGN
• Calculate the capacity of one pile using suitable FOS.
• Calculate the number of piles required for the given load as
Total Given Load
Number of piles = Capacity of one pile
• Take required number of piles to make rectangular or square pile
group which would be more than that calculated in above step.
• Assume appropriate pile spacing , S = ( 2 to 4.5 )d, where d is the
diameter of the pile.
• Calculate the group capacity of pile group treating as a block.
• The design is safe if allowable load from pile group > Total ( Given )
load.
DESIGN OF PILE
Design friction pile group to carry 400 KN in clay with an unconfined
compressive strength of 60 KN /m2 . The piles are 15 cm in radius and
6m long . The mobilization factor can be taken as 0.6.

Design a friction pile to carry a load of 3000 KN including the weight of
pile cap at a site where the soil is uniform clay to a depth of 20 m
underlain by rock. The average unconfined compressive strength of
clay is 70 KPa. Take factor of safety of 3 and adhesion factor 0.4.

SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUP
• In a group of piles, all piles will settle equally, because of
rigidity of the piles cap.
• The settlement of pile group is always found to be greater if
pile is closely spaced, mainly due to overlapping of influence
zone which is highly stressed.
• Group settlement ratio (GSR) = (Settlement of pile in a
group / Settlement of individual pile) (1 < GSR < 16)

SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUP
• The soil in the first group ( Figure a ) is a homogenous clay. Load Q g is
2
assumed to act on a fictious footing at a depth ( 3 )L from the surface
and distributed over the cross sectional area of the group.
• In the second group ( Figure b ), the pile passes through a very weak
layer of depth L1 and the lower portion of L2 is embedded in strong
layer. In this case, the load Q g is assumed to act at a depth equal to
2
( )L2 below the surface of the strong layer and spread at a 2:1 slope
3
as before.
• In the third case ( Figure C ), the piles are point bearing piles. The load
in this case is assumed to act at the level of the firm stratum and
spreads out at a 2:1 slope.

SETTLEMENT OF PILE GROUP ( CONTINUE )
𝐻 𝜎𝑜 +∆𝜎
𝑆𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑔
1+𝑒𝑜 𝜎𝑜
where,
Se = settlement of the layer
𝜎𝑜 = the effective overburden pressure at the middle of each layer
∆𝜎 = the increase in pressure at the middle of each layer
H = height of the layer

SHARING OF LOADS IN PILE GROUP / PILE GROUPS
SUBJECTED TO ECCENTRIC VERTICAL LOADS
• All the piles in a
group share equal
load if the load is
central.
Qg
•Q =
N

• If the load is eccentric or if the central load is accompanied by a moment,
the sharing of load is computed assuming the pile cap as rigid.
𝑸𝒈 𝑸𝒈 . 𝒆𝒙 𝒙
𝑸𝒎 = 𝑵
± 𝒙𝟐
where ex = eccentricity of load about Y-Y axis
• If the load is eccentric about both axis,
𝐐𝐠 𝐐𝐠 . 𝐞 𝐱 𝐱 𝐐𝐠 . 𝐞 𝐲 𝐲
𝐐𝐦 = ± ±
𝐍 𝐱𝟐 𝐲𝟐
where ey = eccentricity of load about X-X axis
• In the above equations, the positive sign is taken for the piles on the same
side as the eccentricity.

NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION ( NSF ) OR DOWN DRAG
• A phenomenon which occurs when a soil layer surrounding a portion
of pile shaft settles more than pile.
• It is a downward drag exerted on a pile by soil surrounding it.
• The fill above the original soil in which the pile group is established
will settle with time under its own weight.
• This will exert a drag on the pile on account of the friction existing at
the interface between the pile and the soil.
• Since this adds to the load on the pile, instead of resisting it, it is
called “negative skin friction”.
• NSF has an effect of reducing the allowable load of the pile.

NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION ( CONTINUE )
• When it is anticipated that negative
skin friction would impose
undesirable, large downward drag
on a pile, it can be eliminated by
providing a protective sleeve or a
coating for the section which is
surrounded by the settling soil.

NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION ( CONTINUE )
• Such a force can exist under the
following conditions:
If a fill of clay is placed over granular soil layer
into which a pile is driven, the fill will gradually
consolidate. The consolidation process will
exert a downward drag force on pile during the
period of consolidation.( Figure a )
If a fill of granular soil is placed over a layer of
soft clay.( Figure b )
Lowering of water table will increase the
effective vertical stress on the soil at any
depth, which will induce consolidation
settlement in clay. If pile is located in the clay
layer, it will be subjected to downward drag.
REMEDIAL MEASURES FOR NSF
• Treatment of soil before the installation of pile.
• Construct pile of small cross – section.
• NSF can be reduced by painting the pile surface with bitumen.
• Provide space between pile and casing while driving , filled with
viscous material and withdrawn the casing.

EFFECTS OF NSF
• NSF has an effect of reducing the allowable load of the pile
• ( Q’a = Qa – QNSF )
1. For individual piles :
 For cohesive soils (clay)
𝐐𝐍𝐒𝐅(𝐬) = 𝛂𝐂𝐀𝐬
Where, C is the average cohesion through Lc.
 For cohesionless soil ( Sand ):

𝐐𝐍𝐒𝐅(𝐬) = 𝐊 . 𝛔𝐯 . 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝛅. 𝐀𝐬
ϒ𝑳𝒄
Where, 𝝈𝒗 = and As = Surface area of single pile
𝟐

EFFECTS OF NSF ( CONTINUE )
LC = LENGTH OF LOOSE SOIL OR COMPRESSIBLE FILL OR UNCONSOLIDATED

SOIL OR SOFT SOIL LAYER SUBJECTED TO NSF
EFFECTS OF NSF ( CONTINUE )
2. For Pile Group:
𝐐𝐍𝐒𝐅(𝐠) = 𝐂 (𝐀𝐬 )𝐠 + 𝛄𝐋𝐜 ( 𝐀𝐛 )𝐠 …..(i)
𝐐𝐍𝐒𝐅(𝐠) = 𝐧 ∗ 𝐐𝐍𝐒𝐅 𝐬 ……(ii)
Where,
n = Number of piles in the group
𝛾 = Unit weight of soil within the pile group to a depth LC
• The maximum value obtained from (i) and (ii)
should be used in the design.

NUMERICALS
A circular pile group of 16 piles penetrates through a unconsolidated
soil of 3.5m depth. The diameter of circular pile is 60 cm and piles
spacing 80 cm. The average unconfined compressive strength of the
material is 60 KN / m2 and the unit weight of soil is 16 KN / m3 .
Compute the negative skin friction on the pile group. Take adhesion
factor to be 1.

ASSIGNMENT
A square pile group of 16 piles passes through a filled
up soil of 3m depth. The side of square pile is 250 mm
and pile spacing is 75 cm. If the unit cohesion of the
material is 18 kN /m2 and unit weight is 15 kN /m3.
Compute the negative skin friction on the group taking
α = 0.4.

CONSTRUCTION OF PILES

CONSTRUCTION OF PILES ( CONTINUE )

CONSTRUCTION OF PILES ( CONTINUE )

SOME OTHER PILES
Laterally loaded piles:
• Piles and pile groups may be subjected to vertical loads,
lateral loads or a combination of both.
• Potential sources of lateral loads include vehicle
acceleration & braking, wind loads, wave loading, debris
loading, ice forces, vessel impact, lateral earth
pressures, slope movements, and seismic events. These
loads can be of the same magnitude as axial
compression loads.
• As per conventional approach, piles are assumed to
resist load and moment in axial compression or tension
only, and vertical pile cannot resist lateral load. The
conventional approach is unrealistic.
• Some methods to determine lateral capacity includes
lateral load tests, analytical methods ( Brom’s method,
Resse’s method) and LPILE Programe 9-100.
SOME OTHER PILES ( CONTINUE )
Tension piles (Piles subjected to uplift loads):
• Structures such as tall towers, silos, chimneys,
transmission towers, water towers are usually
provided with pile foundation to resist the
large uplift forces and overturning moments.
• Piles used for such a purpose are called
tension piles or uplift piles.
• Resistance to uplift is provided by the friction
between the pile and the surrounding soil.
The uplift resistance of a straight shaft pile
can be computed in the same manner as
frictional resistance in friction piles.
• However, the skin friction and adhesion for
the uplift resistance are considerably less than
those for compressive loads.

SOME OTHER PILES ( CONTINUE )
Under-reamed piles or belled piles:
• Point bearing capacity is increased by the use of enlarged
base ( Bulb or under – ream )
• The ultimate bearing capacity of under-reamed piles can
be obtained using equation:


Chapter 8 (Pile Foundation) by Shesh Raj Kafle

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PILE FOUNDATION

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Note : Qf = Qs ( Skin or shaft resistance )

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STANDARD PENETRATION TEST STATIC CONE PENETRATION TEST

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