Catedra Integradora Parcial 1 Contenidos Sexto Semestre

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1. Assessment terminology
This document provides information that will help to

clarify commonly used terms related to assessment and
testing.
The practice of assessing learners has traditionally
brought feelings of excitement and nervousness.
Students’ attitudes towards the tests are unquestionably
negative and that is due to the idea of failure. On the
other hand, for teachers, giving tests to students is the
usual form to determine if they are learning or not.
Traditional methods of measurement have ruled in some
way countries’ educational systems.
Imagine you are taking a course and immediately after
you arrive to the classroom the teacher enters the room
and starts handing-in a surprise test which will
determine if passing your course or not. Apart from that https://www.lifeeducation.org.au/teachers/anxiety-in-the-classroom
it includes contents and vocabulary that you definitely
don’t know. How would you feel? Well, that would be
frustrating for anyone.
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1. Assessment terminology
This is just to exemplify the terrible feeling that a

student may experience when test-time is coming.
For this reason, it is relevant to understand that tests
shouldn’t be a kind of punishment on the contrary.
they can definitely be part of another learning
experience that contributes to their knowledge.
We will contribute to help you build knowledge on

how to prepare authentic and meaningful
assessment according to the learner’s context and
needs. Let’s understand some concepts and their
differences which will be relevant to develop your
teaching and learning process. https://blog.schoolspecialty.com/real-teacher-tips-for-an-anxiety-free-classroom/
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1.1 Assessment and Testing
Assessment is “appraising or estimating the level of magnitude of some attribute of a person” (Mousavi, 2009, p.36). This
term refers to the wide and diverse process to value students’ development. During the learning process students ask and
answer questions, provide their ideas, interact with others, write or read information. At the same time, teachers appraise and
judge their performance. It may be a subconscious process that is a tool to assess students. In other words, assessment is a
series of actions taken by the teacher to measure students’ responses, actions, performance and behavior.
By contrast, tests are a type of assessment method that tell the teachers about students’ abilities and knowledge. Tests provide
information about students’ performance in certain area.
The test is a method: it is a useful tool for teachers who have to consider that being the test a method, it includes a set of
techniques, procedures or items managed by the teacher in an appropriate way. Additionally, the method must be explicit and
well structured. For instance: multiple-choice questions must include appropriate and correct options, a writing prompt with its
clear rubric, an oral production activity with a question script or a checklist.
The test must measure: valuable information about the test-taker’s performance can be taken after the application of a test.
Tests can provide results of students’ progress about a general ability or about specific skills or competences. Using multiskill
proficiency tests teachers can measure a general ability level but, with a test on recognizing the use of demonstratives they can
analyze the progress on a specific part of the knowledge.
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1.1 Assessment and Testing
Tests must include a clear form of reporting measurement. It means that a test which evaluates the writing skill for example
should have comments or feedback about the mistakes. Other standardized tests should include numerical scores or maybe
subscores. When instruments specify the form of giving clear results to the learners, they can be called tests. Tests let the
testers understand who the test-takers are, what their experiences and background is, if the test matches their abilities and if
they can interpret their scores correctly.
Tests measure performance and the results provide evidence of the development of abilities or, linguistically called,
competences.
Tests measure the ability to speak, write, read, listen or the ability to use the language in terms of vocabulary or grammar.
Performance-based tests verify how an individual uses the language, in other words testers can appraise general competence.
For instance, a test of listening comprehension may include a few comprehension questions, the results of that test can provide
certain level of general reading ability.
Tests measure a specific domain. Proficiency in a language is an example of domain so people can take proficiency tests to
determine general competences in all skills of a language. There are other tests which determine a more specific area of the
language, for example, a pronunciation test may include the phonemic recognition of specific words learned during a unit.
A test which is well-constructed is a useful instrument that provides accurate measurement of the test-taker’s ability within a
particular domain.
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1.2 Measurement and Evaluation
Measurement and evaluation are usually confused or

considered as synonyms. However, these processes are
different.
Measurement is referred as the process to quantify
individual´s achievement. It is relevant to understand two
terms: quantitative and qualitative descriptions. The former
is used to assign numbers or symbols to observable
phenomena, whereas the latter provides descriptive data, it
is giving written descriptions or spoken feedback.
Quantitative description of the learners’ performance helps
teachers understand “how many” or “how much” the
students is reaching the learning. This type of
measurement contributes to compare one learner with the https://www.uv.uio.no/cemo/english/research/projects/educational-
other in terms of scores or ranges by being more objective. measurement-in-the-norwegian-context/
On the other hand, qualitative descriptions can answer the
questions “why” and “how” students performed during a
test. This type of measurement can generate some type of
vague interpretation even using rubrics that teachers may
prepare.
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1.2 Measurement and Evaluation
Verbal or qualitative descriptions give teachers

opportunities to provide individual feedback or comments
on learners’ work.
Evaluation is sometimes confused with testing but, they

are not the same, they have different connotations and
uses. If the results of a test (or another type of
assessment procedure) are essential to make a decision
about the learners’ future, it is called evaluation.
(Bachman,1990, pp. 22-23).
When a teacher evaluates, he makes an interpretation of

information. Teachers give value to the results of a test
and those results may be good or bad projecting https://blogs.worldbank.org/education/are-students-still-learning-during-
consequences. For instance, if the results of a student’s covid-19-formative-assessment-can-provide-answer
test is 70 percent (measurement),on a final examination,
this number might represent that the students passed or
failed a language course, it is evaluation.
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1.3 Formal and Informal Assessment
Informal assessment refers to an individual and

spontaneous form to measure students’ progress
without any grading criteria. The purpose of informal
assessment is to identify the difficulties and challenges
that learner may face. Some examples of informal
assessment are observations, surveys or oral
presentations. Informal assessment enhances students’
confidence since teachers focus their attention on
students’ needs.
Informal assessment motivates students and provide

constructive feedback to help them develop or improve
their performance and build confidence. For example, https://www.timetoast.com/timelines/evolucion-historica-
saying: “good job”, “well done”, Do you mean see or de-la-evaluacion-854a7c67-98cc-
sees? definitely help the learners. 42ad-8389-596828907d7c
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1.3 Formal and Informal Assessment
Formal assessment checks out learners’ performance

objectively. It gives teachers specific and clear
information about how much individuals have learned
during a period or cycle. The assessment in this case
should be well-constructed and organized because the
purpose is to measure learners’ performance based on
specific standards or criteria.
Some examples of formal assessment are tests,

quizzes and questionnaires, but it is important to notice
that not all formal assessment is testing. Portfolios and https://www.theflippedclassroom.es/la-importancia-de-
journals could be used as a way to assess formally alinear-los-objetivos-de-aprendizaje-y-la-evaluacion/
because they might fit the learning objectives.
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1.4 Formative and Summative Assessment
Formative assessment helps teachers to identify

weaknesses and strengths. It enables students to
manage their self-regulatory skills by forming their own
learning. This assessment let teachers monitor
progress so that the learners achieve their objectives.
Formative assessment can include tutor led, peer or
self-assessment. Virtually all kinds of informal
assessment can be formative.
This kind of assessment helps identify misconceptions,

struggles and learning gaps to determine the
appropriate steps and close those gaps during the
teaching and learning process. Some examples of
formative assessment are: in-class discussions, weekly
quizzes, surveys and homework assignments. These
strategies should be engaging and involve students in
their learning process. https://www.commonsense.org/education/articles/7-ways-to-make-distance-
learning-more-equitable
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1.4 Formative and Summative Assessment
Summative assessment evaluates formally student’s

learning, knowledge, proficiency or success at the end of
a period such as a unit, course, or program. Sometimes
students prioritize this type of assessment because it
provides a grade or score to pass a course, but feedback
from summative assessment could be used formatively to
guide their efforts in subsequent courses.
In contrast to the formative assessment, summative

includes complete chapters or content areas and
therefore it is considered to be more of a “product”. This
type of assessment can result on students’ demotivation,
but teachers can explain the rationale behind the
formative assessment clearly and engage to work on the
formative tasks to get better results on summative
assessments.
https://humansofdata.atlan.com/2017/04/7-types-of-evaluation/
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2. Types and purposes of assessment
Depending on the purpose of the assessment and

evaluation instrument, educators, and administrators
design tests. For example, tests to measure proficiency,
tests to place students on the right level in a course, tests
to diagnose the level of proficiency learners have.
There are also tests called teacher-made. These tests

measure the level of proficiency students have in a
didactic unit. Brown and Douglas state that the purpose
and the objective of an assessment instrument are the
first steps to choose, design, revise or adapt the
procedure educators will finally use. https://www.eslbase.com/teaching/guide-to-testing-in-english-language-teaching
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2.1 Achievement tests
Teachers use mostly a test to measure their students´ ability

within a lesson, unit or a complete program. An achievement
test is intended to measure just a specific part of a program.
These tests are administered at the end of a lesson, unit, or
course. Achievement tests also help teachers to diagnose
their students. After having administered the test, teachers
may design a program for specific group of students, those
who need improvement. Additionally, achievement tests help
administrators know if the objectives were met or not. By
doing so, administrators can make decisions on the complete
program. When the needed skills were acquired, then the
program may go on.
An achievement test can be formative or summative. It is
https://sourceessay.com/formative-vs-summative-assessments-whats-
formative when it provides information to teacher on the need the-difference/
feedback and decision taking. It is summative when
administered at the end of a unit, or a term. According to
Brown and Douglas an achievement test can last from five
minutes to three hours.
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2.2 Diagnostic tests
A diagnostic test is administered at the beginning of a

program to determine what skills need to be developed
and included. Diagnostic tests give the teacher or
administrator a clear picture on what aspects of the
language need to be covered in a course.
A diagnostic test can be confused with an achievement

test. An achievement test is administered at the end of
a course, or unit, after been taught. On the other hand,
a diagnostic test shows the content students need to be
working on. Diagnostic tests offer information on skills
like speaking, reading, writing, listening and use of
language. A diagnostic test is similar to a placement
test.
https://wcedeportal.co.za/diagnostic-tests
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2.3 Placement test
The principal purpose of a placement test is to place a

learner on the right level of the program or curriculum. A
placement test is composed by sample materials which
will be covered in a particular area. Students will find
questions both difficult and easy. The purpose is to get to
know the starting point of a course or level. The questions
should be challenging enough for students to show their
real understanding of language. A placement test can be
used as to determine what aspects of the language need
to be emphasized more during the program.
These tests assess productive and receptive skills, have

open-ended or limited response questions (gap filling,
multiple choice, etc). Some institutions make use of
standardized proficiency tests to place students into the
https://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/teaching-receptive-skills/
right level due to advantages like price, scoring system,
and reporting of results.
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2.4 Proficiency tests
English Basic User (A1, A2)

A1 (Beginner)
Proficiency tests evaluate students` general A2 (Elementary English)
competence. They do not focus on one specific skill, but
on the overall. The Test of English as a Foreign English Independent User (B1, B2)
Language (TOEFL) is one example of a commercialized B1 (Intermediate English)
proficiency test. B2 (Upper-Intermediate English)
Proficiency tests are composed by various sections Proficient English User (C1, C2)
where skills are assessed. Also, they provide the C1 (Advanced English)
administrator a single score or sub scores C2 (Proficiency English)
corresponding to each section of the test.
According to the CEFR standard (Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages) there are
six level widely accepted as the standard to score
proficiency. They present their English language levels
descriptions as follows:
http://eleternoestudiante.com/simulador-toefl-online-gratis/
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2.5 Aptitude tests
An aptitude test measures the ability a person has to

learn a language, specially a foreign or second
language before taking a course. These tests can
predict the success a learner may have during the
taking of a course.
The Modern Language Aptitude test (MLAT) and the
Pimsleur Language Aptitude battery (PLAB) are two
examples of standardized aptitude tests taken in the
USA.
These days educative institutions use aptitude tests to

identify language learning disability (Standsfield and
Reed, 2004). These tests may give information on the
students´ leaning styles and preferences to learn. By
using the aptitude tests results educators have
information on student`s strengths and weaknesses.
https://ldaamerica.org/info/symptoms-of-learning-disabilities/
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3. Principles of language assessment
During this section we will be discussing about the main

principles of language assessment in formal contexts.
However, the concepts may be applied to all type of
assessment. By using these principles correctly
educators will recognize when a test is good.
Practicality, Reliability, Validity, Authenticity, and
Washback effect are the principles we will addressing.
There is no a right order of importance, all of them are
considerably important.
https://ldaamerica.org/info/symptoms-of-learning-disabilities/
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3.1 Practicality
According to Brown and Douglas practicality deals with

the administrative process involved in assessing an
instrument. It includes making, giving, and scoring a
test. Some other detains like cost, time scores, and
Brown and Douglas remind us of the main qualities of a practical
results are also addresses.
test:
The term impractical is also discussed and defined as
- It does not surpass the budget limits
the quality not to accomplish the test objectives. For
- It is taken within the given time
example, a very long test which consumes a lot of time
- It has clear instructions
is impractical. When a learner takes an almost no time
- It used human and material resources appropriately
to take a test and a teacher several hours to evaluate is
another example of test impractical. If a test is graded
by a computer program, but there is no computer
around is also impractical. When teachers plan a test
containing audio exercises, but the audio and the test
items do not match is also an example of impractical.
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3.2 Reliability
Reliability is a term that deals with the consistency of test results. For instance, same test, same students on two different dates,
the results should be the same. There is consistency. Among Reliability terminology we need to address out attention to the
following:
Learner-Related reliability
It occurs when the test-taker suffers from physical or psychological factors like illness or anxiety. These factors interfere on the
final test results.
Inter-rater reliability
It happens when two or more scorers agree on the test results. In other words, the scores provided by the examiners do not
change.
Test administration reliability

It deals with the conditions of test administration. For example, the quality of the exam photocopy, the light in the classroom,
the noise outside the classroom, the temperature inside the classroom, the quality of desks and chairs.
Test reliability
Brown and Douglas say that test reliability occurs when the test cause measurement errors. Subjective tests tend to be less
reliable than objective tests due to its nature. It also happens when the test items are badly written, and consequently
ambiguous. Finally, when tests have more than correct answer can also cause measurements errors.
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3.3 Validity
Validity tests what is proposed to be measured. In other words, validity involves measure what is supposed to be measured. For
example, a writing test must evaluate the process of writing sentences and words. A reading test must involve understanding of
a text.
In a class students might be working on prepositions, but their evaluation includes prepositions and non-countable nouns, this is
an example of evaluation which is not valid.
Content-related validity
Content validity refers to the measurement of all important sections of the subject or content. A test must evaluate most of the
content covered in the course.
Criterion-related validity
It is the relationship between a measure and a standard (an external criterion). The measure must agree with the standard, if
there is relationship with the standard we may say that the test is valid.
Construct-related validity
Construct validity determines if a test assesses what it is supposed to. The test has to be constructed to measure the content of
a course. A construct can be defined as a theme, an idea, subject, a skill that educators measure.
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3.4 Autheticity
A test or assignment is said to have authenticity when

it is designed to apply knowledge in new situations.
Evaluations are authentic when they focus on real
world events of life. Grant Wiggins (1998) states that
an assignment is authentic if it is realistic, replicates
situations of real workplaces and personal life.
Problem solving exercises are examples of authentic

evaluation. In these exercises students need to justify
their responses.
Authentic assessment is different from traditional

assessment due to the fact that they are linked to the
real world. Authentic tasks require time and effort to be
elaborated. Teachers spend long hours planning these
assignments and spend long hours assessing as well. https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/online-education/online-assessment-
For example, in an oral production lesson a teacher grading-and-feedback/assessments-in-a-virtual-environment-you-wont-
need-that-lockdown-browser/
demands students to role play a situation.
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3.5 Washback effect
The washback effect exists when a test has great

influence on the way a professor teaches. Teachers
may find their teaching practices very similar to the
summative evaluation since they want their students to
pass examinations.
Washback has great effect of tests on teaching and

learning. Washback offers learners the chance to know
the test format in advance, consequently, students
prepare themselves sufficiently. Washback is helpful for
students because they get feedback before exam date https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-sequence-of-teaching-writing-to-students.html
and that promotes language improvement.
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Self appraisal
1. These tests are administered at the end of a lesson, unit, or course.

This sentence, best describes?
Achievement test
Diagnostic tests
Aptitude test
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Self appraisal
2. This test is administered at the beginning of a program to determine what skills need to be developed and included.
Achievement test.
Diagnostic test
Aptitude test
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Self appraisal
3. The principal purpose of this test is to place a learner on the right level of the program or curriculum. This sentence, best
describes?
Placement test.
Diagnostic test
Aptitude test
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Self appraisal
4. These tests evaluate students` general competence.

Placement test.
Proficiency test
Aptitude test
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Self appraisal
5. This test measures the ability a person has to learn a language, specially a foreign or second language before taking a
course. This sentence, best describes?
Aptitude test.
Proficiency test
Aptitude test
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Self appraisal
6. It refers to an individual and spontaneous form to measure students’ progress without any grading criteria. This sentence,
best describes?
Formal assessment
Informal assessment
Formative assessment
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Self appraisal
7. Some examples of this assessment are: in-class discussions, weekly quizzes, surveys and homework assignments. This
sentence, best describes?
Formal assessment
Informal assessment
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Self appraisal
8. It deals with the administrative process involved in assessing an instrument. This sentence, best describes?
Reliability
Practicality
Validity
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Self appraisal
9. It is a term that deals with the consistency of test results. This sentence, best describes?
Reliability
Practicality
Validity
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Self appraisal
10. It involves measure what is supposed to be measured. This sentence, best describes?
Reliability
Practicality
Validity
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2.1. Marco legal
According to La Constitución de la República del Ecuador art. 26

establishes that: “Education is a right of people throughout their
lives and a duty inescapable and inexcusable of the country. It is
a priority area of the public policy and country investment,
guarantee of equality and social inclusion and essential condition
for good living.
People, families and society have the right and responsibility to

participate in the educational process”.
Ley Orgánica de Educación Intercutural (LOEI) establishes
evaluation as a principle of education, which must be
“comprehensive” and must be developed “as a permanent and
participatory process of the National Educational System”. Art. 2
https://www.educatorimpact.com/articles/classroom-observation
“Evaluation of learning is a continuous process of observation,
assessment and record of information that evidences the
achievement of objectives of student learning and that includes
system of feedback, aimed at improving the teaching
methodology and the learning outcomes” Art. 184 (RLOEI)
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2.1. Marco legal
In addition, “the processes of students evaluation in

Ecuadorian secondary schools should not always
include an score. The evaluation is to provide you
feedback to the students so that he can improve and
achieve the minimum establisher for the approval of the
subjects of the curriculum national standards”. The
assessment should have as a main purpose orient the
students to help them achieve the learning objectives”.
(Instructivo para la Evaluación Estudiantil 2020-2021).
Nowadays, the new needs in the education system and

curriculum, evaluation is crucial in order to develop
significant learning and guarantee a quality education in
Ecuador. For this reason, evaluation must be
constructive, relevant, flexible and realistic to verify the https://www.viewsonic.com/library/es/educacion/como-generar-feedback-
eficaz-con-la-tecnologia-educativa/
achievement of skills and knowledge. These new
demands have influenced in the teachers roles and
forced them look for new strategies and tools to innovate
the teaching learning process.
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2.1.1. Teacher roles in education
1. The Controller: The teacher is in complete charge of the class, what students do, what they say and how they say it.
The teacher assumes this role when a new language is being introduced and accurate reproduction and drilling
techniques are needed.
2. The Prompter: The teacher encourages students to participate and makes suggestions about how students may
proceed in an activity. The teacher should be helping students only when necessary. When learners are literally ‘lost for
words’, the prompter can encourage by discreetly nudging students. Students can sometimes lose the thread or become
unsure how to proceed; the prompter in this regard can prompt but always in a supportive way.
3. The Resource: The teacher is a kind of walking resource center ready to offer help if needed, or provide learners with
whatever language they lack when performing communicative activities. The teacher must make her/himself available so
that learners can consult her/him when (and only when) it is absolutely necessary. As a resource the teacher can guide
learners to use available resources such as the internet, for themselves, it certainly isn’t necessary to spoon-feed
learners, as this might have the downside of making learners reliant on the teacher.
4. The Assessor: The teacher assumes this role to see how well students are performing or how well they performed.
Feedback and correction are organized and carried out. There are a variety of ways we can grade learners, the role of an
assessor gives teachers an opportunity to correct learners. However, if it is not communicated with sensitivity and support
it could prove counter-productive to a student’s self-esteem and confidence in learning the target language.
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2.1.1. Teacher roles in education
5. The Organizer: Perhaps the most difficult and important role the teacher has to play. The success of many activities
depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do next. Giving instructions is vital in
this role as well as setting up activities. The organizer can also serve as a demonstrator, this role also allows a teacher to
get involved and engaged with learners. The teacher also serves to open and neatly close activities and also give content
feedback.
6. The Participant: This role improves the atmosphere in the class when the teacher takes part in an activity. However,
the teacher takes a risk of dominating the activity when performing it. Here the teacher can enliven a class; if a teacher is
able to stand back and not become the center of attention, it can be a great way to interact with learners without being
too overpowering.
7. The Tutor: The teacher acts as a coach when students are involved in project work or self-study. The teacher provides
advice and guidance and helps students clarify ideas and limit tasks. This role can be a great way to pay individual
attention to a student. It can also allow a teacher to tailor make a course to fit specific student needs. However, it can also
lead to a student becoming too dependent or even too comfortable with one teacher and one method or style of teaching.
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2.1.3 Principles of teaching
❖ Encourage contact between students and faculty

Building rapport with students is very important. The
contact between students and teachers are vital to
the students' success. One of the main reasons
students leave school is the feeling of isolation that
they experience. The concern shown will help
students get through difficult times and keep working.
Faculty has many avenues to follow to open up the
lines of communication.
❖ Develop reciprocity and cooperation among students
When students are encouraged to work as a team,
more learning takes place. Characteristics of good
learning are collaborative and social, not competitive https://evolllution.com/programming/teaching-and-learning/changing-with-
the-times-facultys-role-in-delivering-a-great-student-experience/
and isolated. Working together improves thinking and
understanding.
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❖ Encourage active learning Learning is an active

process. Students are not able to learn much by only
sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing
pre-packaged assignments, and churning out
answers. They must be able to talk about what they
are learning, write about it, relate it to past
experiences, and apply it to their daily lives. Students
need to make learning a part of them.
❖ Give prompt feedback By knowing what you know
and do not know gives a focus to learning. In order
for students to benefit from courses, they need
appropriate feedback on their performance. When
starting out, students need help in evaluating their
current knowledge and capabilities. Within the
classroom, students need frequent opportunities to
perform and receive suggestions for improvement.
Throughout their time in college and especially at the https://blog.duolingo.com/subscores-improving-how-we-report-duolingo-
end of their college career, students need chances to english-test-results-2/
reflect on what they have learned, what they still need
to know, and how to assess themselves.
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❖ Respect diverse talents and ways of learning. There

are many different ways to learn and no two people
❖ Emphasize time on task Learning needs time and learn the same way. Students bring different talents
energy. Efficient time-management skills are critical and learning styles to the classroom. Students that
for students. By allowing realistic amounts of time, excel in the seminar room may be all thumbs in the
effective learning for students and effective teaching lab or art studio and vice versa. Students need the
for faculty are able to occur. The way the institution opportunity to show their talents and learn in ways
defines time expectations for students, faculty, that work for them. (International Journal of Business
administrators, and other staff, can create the basis and Management Invention December 2019).
for high performance from everyone.
❖ Communicate high expectations Expect more and
you will get it. The poorly prepared, those unwilling to
exert themselves, and the bright and motivated all
need high expectations. Expecting students to
perform well becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy when
teachers and institutions hold high standards and
make extra efforts.
https://www.pinterest.com/pin/74802043798353697/
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2.1.4. Roles and strategies of teacher evaluation
⇨ Update and develop the competences in the field of

specialization corresponding to the teaching functions
obtained through the initial teacher training.
⇨ Develop competences necessary to advancement in
the teaching career, by means of specific exams; -
Acquire or develop competences of leadership,
guiding, monitoring, assessment in the structures and
organizations specific to the education system; -
Acquire new competences, through postgraduate
conversion/readjustment programmes for new
qualifications or new teaching functions, other than the
ones obtained through initial teacher training.
⇨ Acquire complementary or extension competencies
which broaden the range of activities and functions
that can be fulfilled by teachers, such as E-learning,
teaching in a foreign language, education counseling https://www.schooleducationgateway.eu/downloads/files
and career orientation, adult education etc. /Shaping%20career-long%20perspectives%20on%20teaching.pdf
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2.1.4. Roles and strategies of teacher evaluation
⇨ Develop and extend transversal competences regarding

social roles and personal and professional development,
interaction and communication with the social and
pedagogical environment, taking on responsibilities in
organizing, managing and improving the strategic
performance of the professional group one belongs to.
(Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 180 - 2015)
Taking account, the roles of a teacher in classroom

management, principles of teaching and roles and strategies
of teacher evaluation the labor of the teacher must be
characterized by empathy with the students and their
families.
According to (Nazaret Global Education, 2016). La
evaluación valora lo que el estudiante sabe hacer, aplicando
lo comprendido y adecuándolo a diversos contextos.
So, the evaluation is continuous and contribute to make https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-insights
decisions on time about educational action to get and /reimagining-a-more-equitable-and-resilient-k-12-education-system
improve the teaching learning processes system.
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2.2. Evaluation in Secondary Schools
Education has an unprecedented scenario in the history

because of COVID 19. So, the new challenges, and
changes in the educational Ecuadorian system become
so important, and necessary. For this reason, the
evaluation must be flexible and contextualized. It must
be adapted to the realities of each one of the students to
development their learning process. This new philosophy
requires that the authorities and educational community
promote empathy to understand the various situations
that students and their families are facing.
https://exceptionalchildren.org/blog/department-education-issues-
covid-19-handbook-volume-2
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2.2. Evaluation in Secondary Schools
Some important considerations for educational evaluation:

• Teacher must focus on design new processes of
student´s feedback to achieve the goal of learning.
• “Evaluation must be raised for the improvement of the
student learning. It is a double effect, since teaching
practice can also be improved” (Del Pozo, 2017).
• Evaluation must be realistic, relevant, constructive,
communicative and flexible. This process verifies the
achievement of skills and knowledge.
• “Evaluation is a systemic and systematic resource of
processes educational” (Castillo & Cabrerizo, 2010). It is
systemic because the evaluation it is present throughout
the teaching learning process. It means: https://irlamandcadishead.org.uk/news/academy-
▪ At the beginning diagnostic evaluation, confirmed-as-host-venue-for-train-to-teach-event-1
▪ During the course of the process formative evaluation,

▪ At the end of the period summative evaluation.
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2.2.1 Diagnostic Evaluation
Diagnostic evaluation, being the starting point of a process

educational, "allows to know the current state of the school
situation and student staff, and determine an appropriate
approach to curriculum development" (Castillo & Cabrerizo, p.
345).
This first stage allows to teachers establish the beginning for
the development of educational processes and let teachers to
meet the students, who will be working with. This process
collect data and information about the student´s academic
evolution, intellectual abilities, educational needs, among
others; likewise, it determines the degree of development of
cognitive, procedural and attitudinal skills of them, according
to the stage of the educational process in which they are.
It is very important to know that diagnostic evaluation does
not have a score, it is not necessary to apply a test or quiz
and it could be evaluated in groups or individually in order to
https://www.the-learning-agency-lab.com/the-learning-curve/six-
make appropriate decisions to improve the process of key-steps-to-learn-better/
learning throughout the use efficient techniques and
instruments during the evaluation.
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2.2.2 Formative Evaluation
According to RGLOEI formative assessment is a

process that is "developed during the learning process
to allow the teacher make adjustments to teaching
methodology, and maintain informed to the actors of
the educational process about the results partial
achievements and progress in the integral
development of the student" (Art. 186).
It refers to the type of assessment that allows the
teacher adapt their pedagogical action according to
processes and learning disabilities that can be
observed or detected in students. It may be done in a
different way and tools, depending on Educational
Institution decisions.
In secondary schools use “portafolio del estudiante” it
is the way to collect the evidence of work carried out
by students during the school year. These activities
can be: essays, articles, consultations, reports, https://smileandlearn.com/en/summative-assessment-vs-formative-
workshops and other products. This information allows assessment/
teachers realized the academic, human and emotional
student´s performance.
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2.2.3 Summative Evaluation
Summative assessment has been adjusted by changes

in the education system for this reason, the
methodologies and evaluation instruments must
consider the following criteria: comprehensiveness of
the evaluation, student reality (context) and, relevance
of the evaluation to the developed learning. It means
that they must be totally different from that of a
traditional assessment instrument cumulative (exams,
questionnaires, among others). So, the Ministerio de
Educación proposes the following evaluation matrix or
rubric taking into a count the evaluation criteria
Curriculo 2016.
Fuente: Instructivo para la evaluación estudiantil. 2020 -21
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2.2.4 Organization of school year.
The school year is organized by 2 quimestres, each one contains 20 weeks and there are 2 partials of 10 weeks.
For example:
The insumos of first and second parcial can be individual or group activities depending on learning objectives and the
activities derived from the pedagogical teacher´s actions. The addition of both of them correspond the 80% of the score and
the exam (project) is 20% to obtain the final score of the first quimestre. The average will be done with two decimals.
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2.2.5 Academic Reinforcement
According to the Art 208 of LOEI the academic

reinforcement is a set of planned strategies, designed
by the teacher and aimed at those students who
present, low learning processes or certain needs
educational that require more individualized attention in
order to promote the achievement of the contents of
each year. These actions must be performed within the
regular class and the teacher's weekly schedule.
Moreover, these tasks must be graded and averaged
with the grades obtained in other academic works. For
example:
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Self appraisal
1. “Education is a right of people throughout their lives and a duty inescapable and inexcusable of the country.”
Art. 26 LOEI
Art. 26 RLOEI
Art. 26 Constitución de la República del Ecuador.
Pregunta 1 de 10
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Self appraisal
2. When it comes to the process of instruction, we use:
Art. 2 LOEI
Art. 2 Constitución de la República del Ecuador.
Art. 2 RLOEI
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Self appraisal
3. “Evaluation of learning is a continuous process of observation, assessment and record of information that evidences the
achievement of objectives of student learning…”
Art. 184 Constitución de la República del Ecuador
Art. 184 RLOEI
Art. 184 LOEI
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Self appraisal
4. “The assessment should have as a main purpose orient the students to help them achieve the learning
objectives…”
Art. 184 LOEI
Art. 184 Constitución de la República del Ecuador
Instructivo para la Evaluación Estudiantil 2020-2021
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Self appraisal
5. “The teacher assumes this role to see how well students are performing or how well they performed. Feedback and
correction are organized and carried out”.
The assessor
The participant
The controller
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Self appraisal
6. This role can be a great way to pay individual attention to a student.
The participant
The tutor
The organizer
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Self appraisal
7. Respect diverse talents and ways of learning. There are many different ways to learn and no two people learn the same way.
Roles and strategies of teacher evaluation
Principles of teaching
Roles of a teacher in classroom management.
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Self appraisal
8. Allows to teachers establish the beginning for the development of educational processes.
Diagnostic Evaluation
Formative Evaluation
Summative Evaluation
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Self appraisal
9. Evaluation, must be according student reality (context) to developed learning.
Diagnostic Evaluation
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Self appraisal
10. “… a set of planned strategies, designed by the teacher and aimed at those students who present low learning processes..”
Academic Reinforcement
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3.1. Traditional assessment tools
Assessment is one of the crucial components of the

instruction. People within the educational
community, such as policymakers, educators,
students, parents, administrators, have different
ideas regarding the implementation of assessment
strategies (Dietel, Herman, and Knuth, 1991).
Choosing the right type of assessment requires
matching the purpose and type of the assessment to
the decisions that are being made with it and the
curriculum.
Talking about traditional assessment often means

referring to formal tests that check students’ ability
to recollect and reproduce the content studied
during a course (Coombe, 2012). It is applied to
develop productive citizens that process a body of https://www.aihr.com/blog/learning-and-development/
knowledge and skills.
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3.1. Traditional assessment tools
Traditional assessment generally refers to common variety

written exam question types, such as multiple choice,
short answer, matching, true/false, fill in the blank, etc.,
with a limited number of answer choices to be responded.
Traditional assessments are usually standardized timed
and are applied to all learners in the same conditions.
This type of assessment assumes that all students should
learn the same thing, and relies on rote memorization of
facts. Responses are one-way scored, and offer little
opportunity for a demonstration of the thought processes
characteristic of critical thinking skills. The feedback given
to the final results, of this old paradigm of assessment, is
based on a grade in an unclear context. Despite its nature https://www.ecoleglobale.com/blog/traditional-assessment-vs-alternative-
at measuring learners’ performance and informing the assessment/
learning process, traditional assessment is still used not
only in education but also in other contexts Bachman, L. F.
(1995).
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3.1.1. Traditional assessment tools
An assessment tool is a technique or method of

evaluating information to determine how much a person
knows and whether this knowledge aligns with the
bigger picture of a theory or framework. This
conventional method of assessment, that has been
followed since a long time, emphasizes memory over
more complex skills with a focus on grades and ranking.
It is the most widely used traditional assessment way

which constitutes multiple-choice tests, true/false tests,
short answers, and essays. The formats of these items
tend to be very similar and the conditions under they are
given are standardized (timing, not talking). Figura 1
http://web.mst.edu/~rhall/ed_psych/assessment.gif
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3.1.2. Multiple choice tests
Multiple-choice questions are versatile due to they can be

used in any subject-matter and different levels of learning.
They have a question or an incomplete statement (stem)
with some alternatives, such as right answer or answers,
incorrect answers, close alternatives, and distractors from
which one is the correct option and the others act as
distractors (Hipkins, 2006)
This questions are grouped together to form tests and are

used to measure from simple learner’s knowledge to
complex such as comprehension, application, interpretation
and others.
Although well-constructed multiple-choice tests are easy to

administer and mark objectively, they are time consuming
because they must be written down in a clear and concise https://writeness-training.blogspot.com/2020/02/how-do-you-write-study-
way with a vast number of distractors to avoid learners objective.html
guess the answer.
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3.1.3. True/false tests
It is a binomial-choice test considered as the most basic format in which a statement is presented and the learner indicates in
some manner whether each of several statements is true or false.
This selection-type items, with two possible responses for each item, require learners to recognize correct or incorrect
information presented to them. Another term applied to this type of items is forced choice. The limited number of alternatives
are susceptible to influence by guessing, considering that learners have 50 percent probability of choosing the right answer.
True and false statements (stems) should be short and simple and have the same length (short). The statements should not
suggest an obvious answer.
Ambiguity have to be avoided, for example, at the moment of comparing two coins of different denomination, both their size and
monetary value can be considered to choose an answer, as we can see in the following statement: A nickel is larger than a
dime.
True-false items are mostly used to test receptive skills (reading and listening comprehension) and a large amount of topics
that are easy and fast to mark and their results are objective.
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3.1.3. True/false tests
https://lib24.vn/listening-bai-2-listen-to-a-teacher-giving-instructions-on-how-to-use-online-english-language-materials-decide-if-the-statements-are-true-t-or-false-f.btx
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3.1.4. Short answers
As the name suggests, short-answer or brief-answer tests

consist of a series of questions that require concise
answers so that each point stands out of the others. They
often appear from concepts and facts from the course, so
that they do not provide opportunities for learners to
express their own ideas, and do not provide information
about strengths and weakness of learners.
To prepare for a short-answer exam, learners should

review their notes and primary texts, to create a list of
important theories, terms, and concepts related to the
relevant content covered in the course.
The mark allocated for each question is usually indicated

on the exam paper. The number of marks indicates the
weighting. If the question requires three key points, the
number of marks might be 3 or 6 depending on the
weighting of that question.
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3.1.4. Short answers
Examples:
• Define radial and bilateral symmetry as found in
To cope with short-answer exams, it is necessary to
identify what the learner is being asked by highlighting or the body plans of certain invertebrates.
underlying the key words in the directions to focus on • Define the following terms: (a) assessment; and
appropriate details an support the answer. Words like (b) evaluation.
describe, define, illustrate, explain, compare, and
examine, allow learner to know what type of answer must • Identify the three major reasons for salination of
give. Answers are mostly organized to give the Murray River.
characteristics, use examples to demonstrate a topic, use • List two characteristics that distinguish fungi from
details to show how items are the same or different, and
plants.
give a limited number of words on a list. ng on the
weighting of that question. • Describe the structure and functions of the ‘water
vascular system’ as found in a long-armed sea
star.
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3.1.5. Essays
An essay assessment question requires an answer in a

sentence, paragraph, or short composition. This is a
type of evaluation system which permits the learner
(examinee) to write in his own words, a free and
extended response to a problem presented and thus
reveals information regarding the learners’ metal
process.
It refers to the classification of different objectives
that educators set for pupils’ learning, in cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domain. Here the purpose is
to move from the level of comprehension to the level of
evaluation and Justify a course of action by judging,
hypothesizing, critiquing, experimenting and judging the
value of the given information or ideas. (see the
diagram below).
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3.1.5. Essays
Essay-questions must be clear and specific because this

way of assessing is a subjective type as there are a
variety of responses, that is why grading is inconsistent,
difficult and time consuming. The questions usually have
words such as enlist, compare and contrast, state your
reasons, describe and define, and set and exact limit of
words and time.
There is no rigid format of an essay. It is a creative

process so it should not be confined withing boundaries.
Depending on the type, an essay is usually expected to
consist of an:
• Introduction / Aims / Objectives
• Mayor points and ideas explained and summarized
• Results / related points / Issues /depending on the
topi.
• Conclusion
https://www.examenglish.com/FCE/Cambridge_First_writing_part1.htm
Example:
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3.1.5. Essays
https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/images/231794-cambridge-english-assessing-writing-
performance-at-level-b1.pdf
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3.2. Traditional assessment: concepts
As Coombe (2012) explain, alternative assessment –

also known as authentic assessment can be used to
build a more effective panorama of learners’
development. More than that, it can result in more helpful
feedback and contribute to generating intrinsic motivation
rather than extrinsic (Brown, 2004). Unfortunately,
changing the paradigm of assessment is not an easy
task. In the first place, teachers’ and learners’ views of
assessment tend to be rather conservative. As a result,
they are usually resistant to changing assessment
procedures (Nobre & Villas Boas, 2020).
https://www.gettingsmart.com/2017/05/27/6-tips-for-creating-powerful-
assessments-for-your-students/
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3.2. Traditional assessment: concepts
Student’s assessment in schools and classrooms have

always been a topic of speculation. Educators are
continually working towards building an excellent
assessment method that considers all the skills of a
student and also recognizes their capabilities and
potential. The traditional or conventional approach of
assessments may not benefit the students in the best
way, so a new method has emerged known as alternative
or authentic assessments. This method is more inclusive
and practical in its approach and has yielded some
excellent results that measures learners’ performance
through real-life tasks that ask learner to produce and
https://illinoisearlylearning.org/blogs/perspectives/universal-design/
develop.
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3.2.1. Alternative assessment tools
To address the problems of the traditional assessment,

alternative assessment approaches have emerged. In
most cases, students will only focus on learning the
skills that will permit them to do well in the class. If the
only forms of assessment tools used in the class are
tests or exams, the student will memorize the factual
information that they need to know in order to get a
good grade, forgetting much of the factual information a
week later (Mazur, 2015).
https://k12.designprinciples.org/rich-learning-experiences-and-
knowledge-development
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3.2.1. Alternative assessment tools
Alternative assessment, meaning an alternative to

traditional assessment including standard tests and
exams, provide a different focus of what learners have
learnt through their active participation in the assessment
process going beyond acquired knowledge to focus on
what they have actually learnt by looking at their
application of this knowledge. Alternative forms of
assessment can allow teachers to see what student can
and cannot do, versus what they do and do not know.
They tend to evaluate applied proficiency rather than
measuring knowledge allowing for problem solving and
reflection, rather than merely providing facts as answers to
specific questions.
https://www.momjunction.com/articles/trivia-questions-and-answers-
for-kids_00418437/
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3.2.2. Portfolios
A portfolio is a purposeful collection of various forms of evidence of performance, progress and growth of learners in relation to
the expected learning outcomes. A learner portfolio for assessment purposes is a compendium of reports, papers and other
material that documents learning experiences, together with the learner’s reflection on his learning and on strengths and
weaknesses.
The greatest value of portfolios is that in building them, together with their teachers guidance, students become active
participants in the learning process including the planning, execution and evaluation of contents of the portfolio and its
assessment, allowing learners to file even reports of grades evaluations and examinations.
This form of assessing is an alternative to the classic classroom test. It develops social skills by allowing learners to interact
with others in the development of their portfolios. They may be assessed on work done in groups or in pairs so that they
necessarily have to interact and collaborate to complete the tasks.
Portfolios focus on learners’ performance-based learning experiences as well as their acquisition of key knowledge, skills and
attitudes. This can improve motivation for learning and thus achievement. When learners are empowered to prove their own
achievement, and find a range of skills and understandings, they become highly motivated to pursue the learning tasks.
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3.2.2. Portfolios
Types of Portfolios
• Documentary Portfolio: as the name implies this

approach involves a collection of work over time
showing growth and improvement, and reflecting
learners’ learning of identified outcomes.
• Process Portfolio: demonstrates all facets or phases
of the learning process.
• Showcase Portfolio: only shows the best of learners
outputs and products.
Portfolio Assessment tools
• Self/peer assessment with rating scales

• Checklist with criteria
• Teacher peer observation
• Guided reflection on the task
https://www.roberthalf.com/blog/writing-a-resume/best-practices-for-
building-your-portfolio
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3.2.2. Portfolios
Example:
https://www.scribd.com/document
/412826867/rubrics-on-portfolio-xls
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3.2.3. Journals
This formative assessment is a self-reflection tool where learners collect their thoughts, feelings, reactions, ideas or progress
towards goals about a topic given by their teacher. This is used to keep an open communication between learners and teachers
in a written form, with little attention to its structure, form or correctness.
A Journal is the “recording of daily events, personal reflections, questions about the environment, and reactions to experiences”
(Dyment & O’Connell, 2003). This encouraging way of assessing allows learners to be actively engaged to the learning process
and course materials, and responsible of their own learning (Boud, 2001; Hettich, 1990).
Journals can become one of the most important components of the assessment process because it has the potential to promote
critical thinking. It also reinforces the importance of writing across the curriculum with an emphasis on process rather than
product, allows for personal expression, and serves as a record of thought. Journal writing helps students understand how they
learn and it gives a voice to those who are not good at expressing themselves orally. (Boud, 2001; Hettich, 1990).
Guidelines:
• State the topics of the journal and their objectives
• Designate appropriate time frames and schedule for review
• Respond learners’ journals to carry on the conversation
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3.2.3. Journals
https://www.otterbein.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/williams.pdf
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3.2.4. Conferences
Conferences are used by teachers in order to assess learners performance and give feedback in a very personalized way. A
personal conference is a conversation that offers one to one interaction between students and teacher since both have an active
interaction by asking and answering questions. Another important advantage that conferences offer to students is intrinsic
motivation. Brown (2004) has claimed that conferences can serve as a very good intrinsically atmosphere in which students see the
teacher as a guide and as a facilitator that encourage and help them to make improvements on their pieces of work.
A conference is not something that has to be graded or scored, the main purpose of this assessment is to offer positive feedback.
On other hand, Brown (2004) has stated that there are some important types of questions that teachers have to take into
consideration in a conference such as “what did you like about this work? What do you think you did well? Did you have any
difficult with this piece of work? What did you do when you did not know a word that you wanted to write?”. Evidently these types of
questions are very important since they let learners to express their opinion about the activities they have carried out and in that
way the teacher can think about what kind of feedback students need to improve their performance and become one of the most
important components of the assessment process because it has the potential to promote critical thinking.
Conferences play a very important role within the teaching process since they help teachers to provide the suitable feedback that
students really need in order to improve the next version of an activity. The main objective of a conference is that students feel
comfortable and they can understand that the teacher acts as facilitator or as guide that is going to help them to make
improvements and not as a controller that delivers final grades. In my case, when I was in the composition class, I had the
opportunity to go to many conferences in which my teacher evaluated my work and then she gave me feedback about how I could
enhance my work for the next time. Thus, conferences should be used more frequently by the teacher in order to help learners to
develop better piece of work..
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3.2.4. Conferences
http://www.scielo.org.co/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1657-07902012000200009
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3.2.5. Interviews
Interview interaction patterns, conducted in a way that

allows the student to feel comfortable talking to the
Many times learners have trouble writing down what they teacher (Berenson & Carter, 1995).
know on a topic, as alternative assessment, Interviews • Teacher and learner
allow a direct interaction between the teacher and • Teacher interviews several learners (group activity)
learners for assessment purpose (oral production). • Brief interviews during class
Interviews are used to get a clearer picture about what • Informal interviews between classes, before or after
learners know and what needs they have. school. (unstructured interview)
In the formal interview interaction, the teacher presents Interview questions guidelines:
learners some planned sequence of questions, listen to • Define the purpose of the interview
learners’ responses, ask further questions, and record • Do not deviate from standard classroom vocabulary
data. In practice, during this moment teachers can probe
• Learners must know that interview-questions are free
learners’ understanding of a topic in ways that cannot be
to ask for clarification
used effectively with other forms of assessment.
• Use open-ended questions so learner can respond in
their own words
• Avoid yes/no questions
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3.2.5. Interviews
https://southcentral.edu/Individual-Assessments/individual-assessment-interview-or-demonstration.html
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3.2.5. Interviews - Observations
Nowadays Observations log has become in a very important component within the teaching process since with this tool teachers can
have a specific diagnosis about how students behave during the class. One of the most important aspects that an effective teacher
has to take into consideration is about how to observe students as they perform in the classroom, so that teachers intuitively can
assessing and use those observations to give feedback.
According to Brown (2004), observation is a systematic and real time planned procedure which is based on evaluating students with
verbal and nonverbal behavior. One important objective in observations log is to assess students without they are aware of it.
When teachers do this they have a very good knowledge about their students for instance they can tell if a student has any kind of
weaknesses or strengths to learn without administering an exam. Thus, this means that a teacher knows a lot about their students.
Another important point that teachers have to take into consideration is about what they want to observe. That is, teachers have to
be aware about what they will evaluate when they are observing their students. Brown (2007) has pointed out that that checklist
and grids are two great techniques to captures the observed behavior of the students. A grid is very useful to catch the behavior of
either an entire class or individual one in which it involves at least one of the four skills. For instance grid should be prepare with
simple options in which the teacher can write about students occurrences and grammar or pronunciation errors so that it can be
more realistic and in that way authenticity can be high since if an observation is unnoticed by the students, the teacher can have
more opportunities to prepare and give the needed feedback for the students’ performance.
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Checklists can also be simple as grids. A checklist is very good option for focusing on few aspects within real time for instance
teacher can make a list in which they can write down common mistakes such as the “S” in third person and the “ing” in the
progressive tense during a period of time. The authors have argued that to a certain extend this task might be seen very easy and
simple. However, they have declared that this task is not like that since it requires a lot of attention by the teacher, besides noticing
errors is a very difficult task. Moreover, Brown (2007) has suggested that there are some important aspects that teachers have to
consider before making an observation log. It is important to determine how many students you want to observe during a specific
period of time, design very good and specific objective for the observation, think about how you will use the result and if it is possible
design a system for recording observed performance.
Finally, observations log is a very important component in language assessment since it allows teachers to capture a specific
diagnosis about students’ behavior and in that way teachers can provide the appropriate feedback that students’ need. Brown (2004)
has suggested that teachers have to be careful and give a lot of attention when they are observing their student since it will give
them a better benchmark to give feedback to their students.
Once the teachers have compiled the observation log, they will begin to see if there are common problems among the students. If
so, the teacher can address these problems in a different way. Through these observations, teachers will also begin to notice
students who have few or no comments next to their names. Teachers need to start concentrating more on those students. By
keeping a running log of the learners performance throughout the year, the teachers can and see if the students are making
progress. The teachers can also share their observations with the student or parents.
Having a written log of these observations, gives both the students and teachers a better understanding of the students' progress
(Clark & Wilson, 1994). Once they can see how progress is being made, the students and teachers can work together to reach an
understanding of what is meant by quality performance in the classroom (Clarke, 1995).
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3.3. Distinction between traditional and alternative assessment
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Self appraisal
1. It is an example of portfolio work.
Learners are typically asked to compile their best/most representative work and write a critical introduction and brief
introduction to each piece.
Learners are asked to develop a coherent written narrative or statement for the audience.
Learners prepare one or two page briefing about a topic that is being covered in class.
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Self appraisal
2. This type of assessment tend to be more creative.
Traditional
Conventional
Authentic
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Self appraisal
3. With this type of assessment teachers mark objectively.
Multiple choice test
Portfolio
Interview
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Self appraisal
5. What type of assessment requires from student a piece of writing where its structure is not so relevant.
Portfolio
Journal
Essay
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Self appraisal
4. This type of assessment is relatively the most easy to grade.
True/False
Observations
Journals
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Self appraisal
6. A personal conference is:
A conversation with a student to assess where they are and where they need to be.
An informal chat with a small group of students on the challenges they are having in the classroom.
A critical meeting between parents, teachers, and students to develop an action plan when a child is performing poorly.
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Self appraisal
7. Authentic Assessment encourages the integration of:
Measurement and marking
Multiple choice, fill in the blank and true/false questions
Teaching, learning and assessment
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Self appraisal
8. It assesses the process as well as the product
Limitation of Authentic assessment
Advantage of Traditional assessment
Advantage of Authentic assessment
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Self appraisal
9. This type of assessment is held while learners work on a task.
Interview
Observation
Journal
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Self appraisal
10. This type of assessment is not graded.
Conference
Multiple choice test
Essay
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4.1. Classroom assessment
An exploration of contemporary education and

learning must involve student’s results, testing,
grading, skills, evidence of knowledge, standardized
tests, authentic evaluation and feedback. All of these
words are effectively related to assessment, but what
is the perspective or the fundamental features that
guide before, during and after the learning process?
Understanding assessment as a continuous

observation process that allows teachers to measure
goals or achievements in terms of student’s skills
development. It can be also defined as the process of
effective decision making based on its use for
shaping, improving and supporting present and future
learning. As long as the gathered results with the
different assessments tools show up, the instruction https://www.viewsonic.com/library/es/educacion/como-generar-feedback-eficaz-con-
takes specific direction. Methodology, resources, la-tecnologia-educativa/
timing, contents and even the techniques and tools for
assessing address to current student’s knowledge and
curricular progress.
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4.1. Classroom assessment
The perspective of an effective and appropriate way of

assessing established on a communicative approach
emphasizes the next questions:
- What are the purposes of assessment?
An effective assessment process can lead students - Who is the center of assessment?
to be motivated about permanent evaluation. - What kind of assessment is the more suitable?
Assessment must not always seem as a quantity - Does it encourage student self-evaluation?
grading, when students are part of efficient
- Does it consider individual needs?
assessment processes, they understand how
important feedback for their meaningful learning is. - When will the assessment take part?
The effectiveness of the instruction is based on - How it will be graded?
students’ needs, strengths and weaknesses but also - How will the results be used?
in adaptations or accommodations; that’s why
assessment is one of the most important
components of learning and a way of solving It means that new and multiple forms of assessment are needed
inefficient instructional methods. to demonstrate the progress beside the failed final paper-pen
evaluations. The challenge for teachers is to perceive
assessment as procedures to gather information about what
students are able to demonstrate by using different techniques
and provide feedback that sets the learning goals.
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4.1.1 Classroom assessment concepts
1. Quantitative assessment: Numerical scores that estimates

characteristics or behaviors. In terms of education, we refer
to formal or paper-based assessment. The data gathered
give teachers a numerical perception about learners’
development and performance.
2. Qualitative assessment: Results in verbal descriptions
based on the experience of the assessment team. It could be
an informal assessment that looks for specific behaviors or
skills development. It goes throughout the learning process.
3. Measurement: Is the process of getting numerical
description about the attributes of dimensions of an individual
skill or knowledge.
4. Reliability: Refers to consistency of assessment results.
How consistently an assessment tool product measure
features of students’ performance. https://www.gallup.com/education/267521/focus-student-
5. Validity: Whether or not and assessment measures. How engagement-better-academic-outcomes.aspx
well a test measures and address the entailed proposed use
of the test.
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4.1.2 Pre assessment
Based on the regulation stated in RLOEI (Reglamento a la Ley Orgánica de Educación Intercultural) assessment process has to
start with pre assessment or a diagnostic test. Consequently, teachers have to arrange formal and informal assessment
techniques and tools.
This kind of assessment occurs before starting with the formal instruction. It helps identify prior knowledge on the subject and
curriculum that will be taught in the scholar year. In addition, it’s an effective tool for a careful planning and implementation in
order to achieve course objectives. The application of pre assessment answer to the questions: What can students actually do?
What do students know or don’t know? How developed are the language skills? How students apply their knowledge in real-
life contexts?
Bear in mind that pre assessment doesn’t focus only in contents or skills, it implicates also behaviors, learning styles, interests
and personal backgrounds which are vital areas for adapting a suitable environment. The broad range of information gathered
by class discussions, questionnaires, interviews and observation release teachers to accommodate, motivate and challenge
students to demonstrate the target skills.
In fact, the results of a practical pre assessment over the time offer a better understanding about curricular vocabulary,
concepts, linguistic knowledge, use of language. As a product, teachers are capable to provide more feedback to some
students than others based on specific student’s problems or needs. Even though this task seems overwhelming; it leads to
plan, action, apply and improve our monitor teaching. It moves beyond information to instruction.
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4.1.3 Formative assessment
Students have to demonstrate their knowledge

throughout different creative activities that provides a
clearer picture of their skills and academic progress
than any single test score. It means teachers have to
Formative assessments are tools and strategies employed change course to improve instructional outcomes
by grade- level and other teachers to determine what and when the goals aren’t being addressed by providing
how students are learning so that instruction can be feedback. In each stage students and teachers must
modified accordingly while it is still in progress. Black and be involved for enhancing the learning.
Wiliam (1998).
According with the definition it’s possible to add that

formative assessment motivates and challenges to higher
levels of curricular achievement; keeps the instruction focus
on incremental but ongoing progress. It’s imperative to
grasp that formative assessment is a process that allows to
check the direction of instruction every few steps, rather
than waiting until reaching the end of the lesson.
https://www.bsvalencia.com/blog/5-reglas-de-oro-para-que-los-
alumnos-se-sientan-involucrados-en-el-aula/
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Although formative assessment is not the newest

contribution to learning, we list steps for taking action to
move closer to the goal.
a. Explain and clarify learning intentions, goals and

achievement criteria (expected students’
performance)
b. Design tasks and activities that elicit evidence of
learning
c. Provide positive feedback to individuals, go forward
the grade
d. Encourage students to be resources for one another
(collaborative and cooperative learning)
e. Develop students’ accountability about their own
learning progress. (self-assessment, self-direction). https://www.gotlearning.com/the-collaborative-learning-system-telling-
the-story-of-learning/
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No matter how we plan our lesson we don’t predict what are

they going to learn because each group is different. But with the
results of formative assessment, we find a tool for assisting
teachers in the planning of subsequent lessons. The
implications of formative assessment beside the good results in
terms of students’ learning are based on teachers’ commitment.
It implies more time planning, more resources, more
investigation and major responsibility.
An effective process moves students from passive actors into

independent learners because gradually they internalize the
goals and are able to use metacognitive skills. It suggests that
not all formative assessment is graded because the most
important feature is they can demonstrate what they know. https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/tyc/oct2019/practical-
Some of the common activities as formative assessment are in strategies-teachers
the group of performance-based assessment in which the
checklists, rubrics, anecdotal records, informational questioning
and rating scales are the best tools for collecting data.
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4.1.4 Summative assessment
Blending National Law Education there are stablished procedures for summative assessment. One of the regulations consists in
a paper pencil test at the end of a term which has to be administrated by authorities and graded by teachers.
This kind of assessment is the most commonly one, it’s the one that parents and students’ picture when they listen to the word
assessment. The most common paper based includes multiple choice, response items, matching items, fill in the blank items,
true or false questions, essays, etc. That kind of testing increase anxiety in students because they have to take skills and
concepts to apply them in higher levels as part of an outcome program.
However, it’s mandatory to understand that not only paper-based test is summative assessment. There are some different ways
for evaluating the achievement level like portfolios, projects, journals, oral and media presentations, etc. The aim is to get
information about what students have mastered and also have a whole understanding about the group learning.
The results of summative assessment have purposes of grading, promotion or certification because they are based on students’
judgement in terms of scores or level of performance. It means any level of competence a student has reached after completing
a phase of education or the summary about student’s learning at the end of the unit, term or course. In that way, the purpose of
summative assessment is completely different than formative; even when they are part of a bigger process.
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4.1.5 Norm-referenced evaluation
This kind of assessment is a standardized test that

compares the individual student’s performance with a
sample population. The relation to one another. It’s used
mostly for evaluating basic skills, identify specific learning
disabilities, making eligibility decision and determining
young learner’s readiness. It means how well someone
development in reference to a specific group.
https://granite.pressbooks.pub/teachingdiverselearners/chapter
/standardized-and-other-formal-assessments-2/
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4.1.6 Criterion-referenced evaluation
Another standardized test that is based on the number

of correct answers provided by students. They
determine if someone has reached the target skill,
competence or knowledge against a predetermined
standard, goal, level or criteria.
Scores might be expressed on percentage of the total

possible number of correct answers. Individual students
score is not affected by the performance of their peers.
https://granite.pressbooks.pub/teachingdiverselearners/chapter
/standardized-and-other-formal-assessments-2/
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4.2. Performance-based assessment
One of the main concerns of English teachers is to enhance their assessment competences in order to improve their daily
practice in classroom. How to make the appropriate decisions and go further the student’s promotion and truly endeavor achieve
curricular goals? How to design, build, score, analyze and interpret results? What are the more suitable techniques? How to
engage students within the process? How to create convenient testing environment without negative emotions? How to improve
students’ performance?
Some of these questions are the result of traditional techniques that are organized around types, practices and protocols that are
associated with numerical format tests. This non reflective practice fails in the function of measure current student achievement
and avoid a critical understanding about learning progress toward the goal.
In 2010, the Project Appleseed website, coined a definition for performance assessment as “…testing that requires a student to
create an answer or a product that demonstrates his or her knowledge or skills”.
Results may be evident by an effective process of preparation which focuses in the ability to integrate a series of skills, not only in
the summative assessment at the end of a chapter or unit.
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4.2.1 Product assessment
A good assessment product requires effective methods,

techniques, and resources which lead us to make right
and appropriate decisions in the teaching-learning
process.
Sometimes the suggested methods or resources to

assess learners may not be very useful and the final
results can be different from the ones we set at the
beginning of the process. Let us take into account that
every institution, group of learners and environment are
not always the same which influence in the learning
process.
Taking into consideration the different kinds of

https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/types-of-assessment/
environment teachers in their professional career must
face, here is a list of suggested resources with their
respective rubric file to be applied during the
assessment process.
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4.2.1.1 Project or report
Projects are considered as systematic investigations related to a given topic. They are focused in getting specific and predefined
goals. A possible rubric file which can be used as an assessment tool is provided
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4.2.1.2 Research paper
A research paper can be considered as a piece of academic writing that provides analysis, interpretation, and argument based on
in-depth independent research.
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4.1.3 Log or journal
This activity incorporates supportive structures than focus on what students can do. This valuable tool requires from students to
use written language about specific and meaningful context.
Use of language, modeling grammar, punctuation, vocabulary, sentence structure, cohesion, coherence and accuracy are the most
common criteria for assessing using log or journals.
Students are able to organize their thoughts and their feelings on a reflection activity that helps them to prepare responses,
question themselves at the time they are getting confidence.
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4.2.1.4 Media product
TThis appropriated tool includes digital management and language literacy skills. Young learners and teenagers have gotten and
developed enormous quantity of technological abilities. Teachers should take advantage of that fact and include as a formal tool of
assessment, some of media products are: videos, podcasts, streams, audio recordings and digital presentations.
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4.2.2 Performance assessment
Monitor student learning involves much more than paper tasks

or traditional ways of assessing. Showing what students can or
produce include teacher’s effort by creating opportunities for
extended language use.
When learning occurs in meaningful context, students have the

chance to use it and display it. Thus, the instruction meets the
goals.
Performance assessment is considered one of the most

suitable tools for formative assessment because those
activities let students’ storage long term learning by applying
the skills and knowledge gained.
https://www.unomaha.edu/college-of-arts-and-sciences/psychology
/academics/undergraduate/knowledge-skills-gained.php
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4.2.2.1 Oral presentations
Good presentations skills are vital for success in almost every field or career you can imagine. Most part of one’s successful
depends on how goo speaking skills are. Carrying out a successful presentation must not be difficult as you think. A guide rubric to
be applied in oral presentations is also provided.
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4.2.2.2 Play-based
This kind of assessment is often used as a source of

valuable information about children and young learners. The
assessment is coherent with the methodology, when
students are not aware about the learning process because
they are playing. The benefits of this kind of assessment are
multiple from social interaction until literacy activities.
Dramatize events and play act roles provide the opportunity

to watch, listen to, talk and work with realia. The result is the
enjoyment in the process. Planning these activities develop
great potential in young students by procedural and
conceptual knowledge.
https://www.kindpng.com/imgv/oJxmhx_teacher-clip-early-childhood-
kids-learning-cartoon-hd/
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4.2.3 Debate
Debate is a process and an activity that has a long history in democratic countries. People can express what their point of view
related to a specific topic is.
Debate demands critical thinking and in terms of education, debate requires that learners not only understand and know
information, but they do something with that information.
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Self appraisal
1. Tools and strategies employed by grade- level and other teachers to determine what and how students are learning
is a definition for…
Pre-assessment
Summative assessment
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Self appraisal
2. Assessment must be considered as:
A continuous observation process
A temporary observation process
A previous observation process
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Self appraisal
3. Choose the correct option: a benefit of an effective assessment is…
Students are motivated about permanent evaluation
students do not need any evaluation
None
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Self appraisal
4. This kind of evaluation occurs before starting the formal instruction
Oral presentation
Pre assessment
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Self appraisal
5. What are two good samples of assessment tools?
Debate and brainstorm
Oral presentations and projects
Tests and quizzes
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Self appraisal
6. Some samples of classroom assessment are
Pre-assessment
Formative
Pre-assessment and Formative
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Self appraisal
7. What does a good assessment result require?
Effective methods and resources
Effective techniques
Effective methods and resources and effective techniques
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8. … are systematic investigations about a given topic.
Journals
Debates
Projects
Pregunta 8 de 10
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Self appraisal
9. Enthusiasm can be considered as part of a rubric for…
A debate
A project
an oral presentation
Pregunta 9 de 10
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Self appraisal
10. Some samples of product assessment are:…
Project or report
Media product
Project or report and media product
Pregunta 10 de 10
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CATEDRA INTEGRADORA_DISEÑO Y GESTIÓN DE AMBIENT... https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22395&id_...
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5.1. Standardized Tests
Standardized testing finds its very inception in China (1880) as a

feasible alternative for the government to assess expertise of
government job applicants in terms of Confucian philosophy and
poetry (Fletcher, 2009). Later during the American recruitment to
the First World War, Robert Yerkes (APA’s head) in conjunction
with his colleagues “proposed and developed two tests designed
to measure the mental ages of recruits and volunteers. The Army
Alpha test was developed for examinees who could read and the
Army Beta test was developed for those who could not” (Kennedy,
2003, p. 2). By means of these standardized tests it was
achievable the weighing of apt and non-apt human capital to serve
either war or hiring purposes.
Such was the success accomplished by dint of standardized

testing that, in the current state of affairs, their utility ranges from
attesting driver’s licenses, job upgrading to academic admission or https://www.phillymag.com/citified/2015/01/08/inside-take-te
standardized-testing-toll-great/
placement, to name but a few. Nowadays, standardized tests are
seen as procedurally fitting benchmarks or as per it is stated in
(Herman & Golan, 1991)“an appropriate measure of student’s,
teacher’s and school’s performance”.
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5.1.1. Advantages and Disadvantages
Regarding the prominent discussion revolving around

standardized testing, it happens to be strictly
prevailing to outline the guidelines through which, the
standardized tests meet their goals, be it regarded as
advantage or disadvantage, if such words are required
to precise per se.
https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/Global
1.1.1 Advantages
In order to homogenize the students mass population On the other hand, by means of standardized testing differences
in terms of scoring or marking, standardized tests among tested individuals may be mapped, in that, tendencies
empower that objectivity does not fall into whether emerging from the statistics can be sorted in terms of
pondering an A in one class could likely depict a C in
differentiable social factors (Lazarus, 2020). The data collected
another (Churchill, 2015).That is to say, that
standardized tests establish a whole and compact from standardized tests lead to address varying course of
outlook with regards to students when assessing their actions depending on the breadth of such inconsistencies
knowledge. This enables educators to articulate a presented in the scores which results in concentrating attention
reliable appreciation in tandem with the comparability
on primordial irregularities such as students with disabilities and
and accountability of the scores so that opportunities
for curricular enhancement may take place thereafter. economic marginalized groups or in turn, instructional education
gaps.
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5.1.1.2 Disadvantages
The student-related reliability it is known to be a decisive aspect when

taking standardized tests, since inner factors in the form of anxiety,
dexterity at taking tests and fatigue are being steadily managed
throughout the curriculum practice within classrooms (Berwick, 2019).
The washback effect bears on academic programs and in turn,
undermines both the teaching practice and the skill students
achievement, given that the latter considerations are solely weighed in
terms of test success, while overlooking the work conducted in the
academic year (Jiménez, Rodríguez, & Paba, 2017)
Another matter of concern with standardized tests weaves into the
approach these are usually conducted. Overarching assumptions that
are held in designing a standardized test match with background
knowledge that privileged groups (middle-class students) possess to
its credit (Bergland, 2015).This undoubtedly showcases the intentions
of discrimination which are depicted through statistical scales, whether
a student belongs to the 85th percentile and other is at 35th percentile
Note: The figure states the salient pros and cons about standardized
(Rosales, 2018). Before this reality, the more obvious justification lies
tests
in the biased that questions possess in such a way the perception of
designing a wide range subject test is being accomplished.
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5.1.2. Purpose of objective of standardized tests
The primal pursuit that the standardized-testing movement has been after over time refers to the ease by which comparison
between the competences and aptitudes from an assorted population of individuals with disparate backgrounds in terms of
education may be brought to fruition. (Sefcik, Bice, & Prerost, 2013). According to the information provided by the standardized
tests, being this reliable and valid, several benchmarks are prone to be discussed regardless of the place the test was taken
which gives rise to the possibility of comparison among institutions and more importantly(Unit 13) the likely comparison among
students in terms of the achievement in various areas of knowledge as well as the potential achievement wherein teachers are
meant to painstakingly work on it by implementing data-based strategies.
Along the lines of standardized test purposes, they may direct at concrete foundations based on to which type it is being
referred, be it norm-referenced tests (NRTs) or criterion-referenced tests (CRTs). On the one hand, NRTs are, as Stiggins states
(cited by Bond, 1996), “designed to highlight achievement differences between and among students to produce a dependable
rank order of students across a continuum of achievement from high achievers to low achievers” (p. 1). The chief benefit
obtained from NRTs is to outline a performance curve to make possible the comparison between the group of students who
already took the test and those who are about to, with the aim of establishing a percentile rank overview of the group with
whom the teacher is working.
Criterion-referenced test, on their part, has the purpose of gauging the level of mastery dexterity achieved by students on a
particular body of knowledge (Blodgett, 2014). This sort of standardized tests are the ones which are employed by local
districts to weigh passing scores of an average of students. All too often, teachers make use of CRTs to track the performance
of students or, if not, to at least reshape the materials employed throughout teaching in order to get on track the instruction.
“Scores on criterion-referenced tests indicate what individuals can do - not how they have scored in relation to the scores of
particular groups of persons, as in norm-referenced tests” (Corporation, 2009).
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5.1.3. Test specifications
It is truly worth explaining what the conditions of a standardized test should be since based on these, in a manner of speaking,
regular guidelines with which standardized tests comply, the develop of the test caters to the milestones devised prior to its
design. In this sense, three overall bases are outlined. Firstly, every standardized test must be subjected to a
representativeness across a specific knowledge domain; secondly, the format along with the scoring are the benchmarks on
which standardized test are reliant; and thirdly, the conditions in which the test is conducted are to be consistent (Sefcik, Bice, &
Prerost, 2013)
In keeping with the aforementioned, a test specification (“spec”) could be said of iterative nature like a generative blueprint of
test creation (Davidson & Lynch, 2002). The specifications are closely related to both the purposes and objectives of the
standardized test, by virtue of its iterative nature they are variable insofar as they fulfill the aim of devising multiple version for
different test-takers.
The analogy employed of test specifications of being a blueprint refers to each individual spec that constitutes the overall test,
in that, as a whole the test encompasses the conception of the test-developers represented in each item (Owen, 2018).
Therefore the common denominator of a basic test specification is to provide a background about the content tested on par with
other salient points such as the number of items, the assortment of the items’ nature, the way in which the test is delivered or
the presentation of extra input material to the test takers in the event that they exist. All these parameters are considered as
“content-based-specifications (Raymond & Neustel, 2006, p. 201-3) , however, there might be included others of the sort of
“process-based test specifications” (Raymond & Neustel, 2006, p. 202)so long as the test requires it.
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5.1.3. Test specifications
Table 2
Test Specification
Note: Adapted from Davidson and Lynch (2002, p.14).
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5.1.4. Design, select and arrange test items
As the bulk of the overhauled literature states, the undertaking

of arranging, designing and selecting test items has been
framed as a valuable stage at the moment of devising
classroom examinations (Marso, 1970). In this sense, it
happens to be prevailing the way in which this phase is
conducted as it entails that an appropriate draft of the test
items layout empower students with the capacity to have a
closer look at how the test has been designed and in turn
enables them to contrive a course of action to manage with
the overall test.
Among the diverse variants of items that can be taken into

account when devising a test, the most commonplace item- https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/educational-assessment
based tests are the multiple choice exams and essay /advantages-and-disadvantages-of-different-types-of-test-questions/
questions.
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5.1.4.1 Multiple choice exams
This sort of item-based tests might be perceived a bit

shallow and as though they lacked sufficient depth to
assess students mastery of the content. On the other
hand, the ease this sort of test provides in terms of
grading, though not that much in devising, must be born
in mind as it enables teachers to hasten this process
(Center for Teaching and Learning, s.f).
In the cases when multiple-choice exams are required
there must be much-needed reasons to use it, since they
are more suitable to assess recall of information or facts
when they are the core of the content studied.
https://testinnovators.com/blog/ISEE-Tip-How-to-Tackle-Multiple-Choice
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5.1.4.2 Essay Questions
Unlike multiple choice exams, the essay questions with

which students might encounter have been meant to
display an overarching domain of a particular topic or in
turn to assess the critical thinking capacity of students in
terms of organization, creativeness and information
management.
Among the benefits these test possess are the nearly no

complexity when designing them along with the time
efficiency. However, essay questions are barely reliable in
grading as they are high likelihoods for these tests to
suffer from bias which differs from reader to reader.
Hence it renders this sort of tests to be reduced to a https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jeht_P2GBwI
short-answer items rather than essay questions per se.
(Davis, 1993)
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5.1.5 Reporting formats
Reporting can be defined as “the process of

communicating results of assessment and evaluation to
various audiences who require it – students,
parents/guardians, other teachers and administrators,
other learning institutions and/or others as appropriate
(Board, 2013, p.7). Therefore reporting consists of the
last stage of assessment or testing standardizely and this
accounts for the prominence it is normally given since the
results obtained from a test must display formality,
clearness and objectivity for all intents and purposes.
The type of report format is highly dependable on the

type of assessment it will be based on. Likewise the way https://www.readingrockets.org/article/school-based-identification-
in which the scores are organized and presented will rely characteristics-dyslexia-parent-overview
on what is aimed to convey by means of the report.
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5.1.5 Reporting formats
1. Percentiles
The report format of percentiles aggroup students’ performance in such a way they can be compared with others tested. For
instance, if student scored at the 50th percentile, it entails a performance tantamount to the 50 percent of students with the same
age (Logsdon, 2020).
2. Z-Scores
When reporting Z-scores it is considered a scale ranging from -4 to 4. The more-closed scores to 4 entails above average and
the more-closed scores to -4 represent below average. Zero plays as the core average (Logsdon, 2020).
3. T-Scores
This sort of scores are ranged within intervals. The scale for each intervals goes from 10 up to 90 points wherein the average of
the scale is placed on fifty and the average scores are found usually between 40 and 60 (Logsdon, 2020).
4. Stanine Score
This is also known as the standard nine scale. Most of the Norm-referenced test results are reported in stanines. The score scale
employed ranges from 1 to 9, 5 is the average (Logsdon, 2020).
5. Scaled Scores
The type of scores reported in this scale are rather extensive given that they stem from a specific number of subtests taken. As
varying skills and areas are being assessed, the general composite score is reached by means of combining all the scores
obtained from the subtests (Logsdon, 2020).
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5.2 Design Classroom language tests
Among the varying language tests, they fall into five

The foundation stone for designing a classroom language widespread types:
tests is disaggregated into five aspects that the test-developer
should pay attention when devising a test (Brown, 2004). The • Language aptitude tests
first one refers to the purpose of the test which has to be as • Language proficiency test
much narrowed as the test-developer requires to cater to the • Placement tests
students’ needs or else the achievements on which they are
to be assessed. Along the lines of the purposes of the test, the • Diagnostic tests and
objectives must follow a close relation with what the test- • Achievement tests
developer expects to evaluate in each section whether forms
and functions, complex issues about constructs and language
abilities.
Stemming from the two latter, the specifications of the test
have to be in keeping with them both in such a way the
components that will be assessed may be weighed
appropriately. Lastly the items organization along with the
scoring must display a consonance that students may
understand prior to taking the test as these two ultimate
aspects play a vital role as the test-takers advance solving the
test items (Koç, 2020). Quintessentially the arrange of items is
to be of practical nature while the process of scoring must
cater to providing a minimum feedback to the students.
https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB9994.html
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5.2.1 Reading Test
The comprehension of reading comprises the addition of varying subskills and in turn linguistic knowledge bases (Grabe, 2009).
By measuring comprehension of reading does not entail the core of reading assessment (Brown, 2004), as a matter of fact a
reading test is to be gradable regarding the level of the test-taker as well as what competences are expected to be developed by
learners.
There are different language reading tests, though what they all share in common is, firstly, the tasks are designed to be a
restrictive purpose for reading during assessment; and secondly, the assessment of reading must consider the proficiency level
of students in tandem with their age. These parameters have been included into various approaches to assessing reading such
as classroom assessment, informal assessment, alternative assessment and standardized assessments (Grabe, 2009).
Among the indicators that a reading test encompasses are: word recognition efficiency; vocabulary knowledge; morphology,
syntax and discourse knowledge; and strategic processing. All together are distributed along the items of the reading test. Thus,
by way of example let’s have a closer look at some reading tasks founded on standardized tests.
Figure 1 Cambridge test reading part Note: Reading part gapped text section from an English Cambridge test
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5.2.1 Reading Test
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5.2.2 Use of Language Test
One of the concerns with which the development of language

test has encountered has been how may be attainable to get
information that enables examiners to come to inferences
regarding test-takers language ability in terms of a reliable and
highly evaluated grammatical frame (Bachman & Palmer,
1996). In this sense the language use, over the past century,
has gained traction as being helpful to behold matters that
include the interpretation as well as the creation of intended
meanings in discourse by individuals interacting in pairs.
The breadth reached by means of standardized tests like

TOEFL or IELTS hardly manages to assess the use of
language but for the speaking part (somewhat). That is to say,
use of language test are required to be concentrated on more
sociocultural factors like those encountered in sociopragmatics
https://www.linguistikid.com/2016/12/types-and-uses-of-language-
testing or pragmalingüistics testing, where the acts of speech tests.html
are far more targeted (assertives, directives, commissive,
expressive and declarations) (Hudson, Detmer, & Brown,
1995).
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5.2.2 Use of Language Test
Nevertheless, what has found to be a handicap when

conducting use of language test is the issue of context
given that the applicability of judgment is far more limited
to multiple-choice items (Grabe, 2009). Before this
reality, Cambridge examinations have reduced their
assessment of use of language to strictly measure
context-related completing exercises quite aligned with
language use in written contexts.
Figure 2 Cambridge test use of English part

Note: Use of English word formation section from an English
Cambridge test
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5.2.3 Listening Test
The outline of a listening test, for the most part, happens to be controversial as some regard that the listening competence
involves an extended repertoire of aspects such as cognitive process, knowledge of the sources used and the unique feature of
interactive listening. (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). This expresses a concern on whether listening tests are shaped to cover all
these benchmarks so that the reliability and validity are not overlooked.
In this sense, there are two of the most acknowledged types of listening tests that have gained traction at the time of assessing
listening. Proficiency tests aim to evaluate an exhaustive listening competence that provides information to place learners on a
particular courses matching their level. Large-scale standardized tests such as TOEFL or IELTS seek to establish a common
scale so that the results can be compared regardless of the place they were taken since the conditions under which they are
assessed pursue to be as uniform as they do not affect the test-takers performance.
The bulk of the challenges for testing listening lies in questions related to construct validity, task type, item type and input mode
(Vandergrift & Goh, 2009). This entails that when either the purpose of listening or the context in which the language is use are
not clearly defined it is required to define what is expected to evaluate into the listening competence construct in learners “the
ability to 1) process extended samples of realistic spoken language, automatically and in real time; 2) understand the linguistic
information that is unequivocally included in the text; and, 3) make whatever inferences are unambiguously implicated by the
content of the passage”. (Buck, 2001, p.114)
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5.2.3 Listening Test
Figure 3 Cambridge test listening part

Note: Listening part section 4 from an English Cambridge test
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5.2.4 Speaking Test
Speaking is often perceived as the aspect most difficult to master given that the level of interaction required demands strenuous
control of the language (Brown & Yule, 1997). Unlike others skills, testing the speaking skill must be conducted through wide-
ranging benchmarks as the test-takers are evaluated in different aspects such as the coherence and suitability of the vocabulary
employed to reply to questions and according to the type of task, the time management in tandem with the fluency achieved to
complete them.
Over the last century, particular prominence has been placed on speaking testing which has led the focus of how speaking is
assessed to a more precisely outlook in terms of the construct of speaking, the construct of the task, the criteria of performance,
and the construct of oral development (Bygate, 2009)
Within standardized tests, the speaking section as it is in Cambridge examinations consists of 4 parts. Each part is upgraded in
terms of difficulty and has its own approach and its fundamental purpose as to what is being assessed on test-takers. In part one,
questions related to personal information are addressed; in the second part, candidates are called upon comparing random
pictures while answering image-related questions; in part three, a collaborative discussion with their partner candidate is taken
place, so that they have to talk through a range of related topics over a subject; lastly in the fourth part more intricate questions
based on the latter task are tackled so that candidates have to elaborate further on their arguments.
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5.2.4 Speaking Test
Figure 4 Cambridge test speaking part

Note: Speaking part section 3 from an English Cambridge test
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5.2.5 Writing test
A writing test or rather the writing part of a either proficiency or standardized test mostly pursuit the assessment of a cognitive
problem-solving process without neglecting for the sociocultural context in most cases. (Pogner, 2013). This entails that writing
varies from culture to culture in a wide assortment of features such as: level of formality (submission letters), type of politeness
(apology letters), point of view (academic essays), and use of meta-text (academic reports).
The process of writing finds its very roots at two primordial guidelines, as an exploratory and recursive undertaking in which the
structure of pre-set texts are overtly accepted and rhetorical devices can be put together randomly while fulfilling standards
conventions in terms of coherence and cohesion. (Polio & Williams, 2009)
Narrowly referring to L2 writing testing or rather large-scale standardized testing, the descriptors comprise a wide range of
topics variety as well as, though not that much ample, fixed formats or types of writing such as essays, reports, letters, emails,
reviews and proposals. Within the benchmarks of scoring the submission of each piece of writing a thorough scale, at least for
Cambridge examinations, is considered which goes up to twenty points for each one, giving rise a total of forty points assessed
during the whole writing part.
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5.2.5 Writing test
Figure 5 Cambridge test writing part

Note: Speaking part section 3 from an English Cambridge test
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Self appraisal
1. Historically speaking standardized tests have spread across the globe to cater to different social phenomena
¿Where do the standardized test origins trace back?
Two sides: the allies and triple entente
America including its three fragmentations
Firstly China and further on the USA
Pregunta 1 de 10
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Self appraisal
2. Among the benefits of working with standardized test the reliability of the scores obtained enables teachers to
enhance their practice if needed ¿What other parameters are considered apart from reliability?
Validity and Authenticity
Comparability and Accountability
Reliability and Objectivity of the results
Pregunta 2 de 10
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Self appraisal
3. The purpose of a standardized test is to make up a consistent appreciation of the students based on homogenous results by
making the most of these data ¿What are the main types that a standardized test fall into?
Multiple choice exams and Essay questions
Short-answers questions and Multiple choice exams
Norm-referenced test and Criterion-referenced test
Pregunta 3 de 10
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Self appraisal
4. Test specifications are established once the test items have been outlined so that test-developers may depict what
they want to get from the test. Select the types of nature-based items which make up a standardized test
Objectivity-based items and Logical-based items
Content-based items and process-based items
Multiple choice and short-answers questions
Pregunta 4 de 10
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Self appraisal
5. Reporting formats may differ regarding the score-like scale that teachers employ to get to know more about the
student population they work with. What other name are the Norm-referenced test (NRTs) results reported with?
Stanine scores
T-scores
Z-scores
Pregunta 5 de 10
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Self appraisal
6. At the moment of devising a standardized test the test-developers outline an array of principles from which they expect to
assess what they have taught. What must the test specifications of a standardized test be in keeping with?
Objectives and Items nature
Content and Achievements
Purpose and Objectives
Pregunta 6 de 10
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Self appraisal
7. Within a reading test the wider assortment of ways to assess this skill enables teacher to opt for a flexible testing. Select two
types of approaches to assessing reading.
Extracurricular and Intracurricular assessment
Standardized and Classroom assessment
Extensive and Intensive assessment
Pregunta 7 de 10
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Self appraisal
8. Listening test-developers face up to diverse obstacles when defining the parameters to assess this skill. What are two out of
the four challenges that a test-developer has to deal with?
Clarity and Pronunciation
Quality and Duration
Construct validity and Input mode
Pregunta 8 de 10
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Self appraisal
9. In a writing test test-takers are expected to make use of their critical thinking acquired based on the conditions of the context
they live. Select the aspects from which sociocultural factors range
Cognitive and Background influence
Predilections and Preferences
Use of meta-text and Point of View
Pregunta 9 de 10
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Self appraisal
10. Nowadays speaking has been seen as the main goal when learning a language in such a way new insights are constantly
developed in this pursue. What bases has the speaking assessment outlook changed into?
Suitability of the vocabulary and Grammar
Fluency and Vocabulary retrieval
Oral development and Criteria of the performance
Pregunta 10 de 10
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6.1. Design multiple-choice items
Being a type of objective test item, multiple-choice items

are acknowledged as the most widely used in
achievement testing. It can measure a variety of complex
outcomes in the knowledge, understanding, and
application areas (Miller, Linn, & Gronlund, 2009)
Multiple-choice items consist of a question or an
incomplete statement, stem, and a list of suggested
responses, alternatives.
https://tspschool.in/download-application/
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6.1.2 Design alternatives
The alternatives, options, answer choices are the

potential answers from which the student chooses. Then,
some consideration should be taken when writing them
(Gronlund, 1998).
⇨ three or four well-constructed options is enough.

⇨ distractors should be comparable in length,
complexity, and grammatical form.
⇨ avoid the options “none of the above”, “both a. and b.
above” “all of the above” as one recognized distractor
eliminates it.
⇨ vary the location of the answer. https://theelearningcoach.com/elearning_design/tests/the-
importance-of-writing-effective-distractors/
⇨ have an expert in the content area to review the exam.
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6.1.3 Key
The key is the correct alternative for a multiple-choice

item. It means, the key should be the only correct or
clearly best option from the question. When stating the
key make sure not to make it look so different from the
distractors by neither providing grammatical clues of it,
making it longer or shorter, nor writing it in different
style.
https://www.istockphoto.com/es/ilustraciones/multiple-choice-
answer-sheet-survey-with-pencil
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6.1.4 Distractor
The distractor refers to the series of plausible incorrect

answers, three or four, intended to distract the students
who are uncertain of the correct alternative, key. As a
result, each distractor should fit equally well into the
stem.There are two common ways to choose distractors.
First, experienced teachers could create their own
distractors based on their knowledge of the language
which is appropriate for their learners. In which case,
some considerations should be taken:
• Make sure the distractors are the same form of word
as the correct answer.
• Do not give the right answer through grammatical
cues.
• The distractors should not be difficult to read, meaning,
they should have the same level of difficulty as the key.
• Make sure more than one correct answer is included.
• Another good way to design distractors is by using https://www.istockphoto.com/es/ilustraciones/multiple-choice-
students’ errors as distractors. answer-sheet-survey-with-pencil
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6.1.5 Advantages of multiple-choice questions
Multiple-choice question items can measure various

types of knowledge and complex learning outcomes.
Among its advantages we can mention the following:
• Learning outcomes from simple to complex can be
measured.
• Highly structured and clear tasks are provided.
• A broad sample of achievement can be measured.
• Incorrect alternatives provide diagnostic information.
• Scores are less influenced by guessing than true-
false statements.
• Scoring is easy, objective, and reliable.
https://www.slideshare.net/pitchacharoenmitmongkol/multiple-
choicequestions
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6.1.6 Disadvantages of multiple-choice questions
Apart from the advantages of multiple-choice items, we

should be aware of its disadvantages. Among the most
important we can cite:
⇨ Constructing good items is time consuming.

⇨ It is frequently difficult to find plausible distractors.
⇨ Ineffective for measuring some types of problem
solving and the ability to organize and express
ideas.
⇨ Score can be influenced by reading ability.
⇨ Some knowledge of test construction and item
analysis techniques becomes necessary.
⇨ Cheating is straightforward as learners could copy
https://www.weareteachers.com/stop-students-from-cheating/
what others have selected.
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6.2. Grading and student evaluation
Grading is not only a matter of assigning a letter or a

number. It is influenced by several aspects as the context
of the classroom, institutional and student
expectations based on previous tests and quizzes.
https://www.chalk.com/resources/teaching-to-the-test-vs-testing-what-
you-teach-mastery-based-evaluations/
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6.2.1 Guidelines for grading criteria
Some aspects for grading should be considered. (Brown,

2004)
• All grading components should be consistent with an
institutional philosophy and/or regulations. That is,
every institution has its expectations in relation of
what learners should comply, say, number of
attendances, a minimum grade to pass, etc. Those
aspects should also be included in each subject
grading.
• The final grade and its components should be
explicitly stated in written form through percentages at
the beginning of the term.
• If the grading system includes subjective components
as behavior, motivation, etc., they should be
transformed into measurable results.
• Subjective components should be allocated a small
percentage in order make the grade reflect
achievement mainly. https://issuu.com/frse/docs/tepe_tom_2_online
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6.2.2 Methods for calculating grades
There are two main ways for calculation grades,

absolute and relative grading. Absolute grading
involves allocating pre-specific standards of
performance on a numerical point system. That is,
allocating a certain number of points to the different
components of the final grade, which are
accumulated for the term.
Unlike absolute grading, relative grading is dynamic; it

does not have fixed grades. Thus, relative grading
takes the highest score obtained by students’
performance as the baseline and then establishes the
other grades in base of it. It allows the interpretation
on the part of the instructor by making minor
adjustments as needed.
https://educationalresearchtechniques.com/2017/10/04/absolute-vs-relative-
grading/
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6.2.3 Letter Grades What do they mean?
Letter grading involves assigning a letter grade (A, B, C,

D, F) for each subject. This concise and convenient
method is useful in predicting future achievement.
Institution manuals for teachers and students will list the
following descriptors for the letters. (Brown, 2004)
A excellent
B good
C adequate
D inadequate/unsatisfactory
F failing/unacceptable
Since letter allocation can vary from teacher to teacher, it

makes it difficult to interpret and use because the letter
grade is a combination of achievement, effort, work habits
https://superiorstudents.wordpress.com/
and good behavior; then, learners’ specific strengths and
weaknesses are not clearly identified.
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Sexto Nivel
6.2.4 Alternatives to letter grading
As mentioned in the previous section, letter grading

offers a vague idea about learners’ performance.
Then, to have a clear picture of students’ ability, it
becomes necessary to provide as many forms of
formative feedback, and summative alternatives as
possible. Teachers may perform the following (Brown,
2004)
⇨ include comments, or reactions to students’ self-

assessment,
⇨ review of the test in the next class period,
⇨ peer-assessment of performance,
⇨ self-assessment of performance,
⇨ conference with the student.
The author also suggests self-assessment, narrative

evaluations, checklists, and conferences, as
summative alternatives to grading.
https://soeonline.american.edu/blog/alternative-grading-systems
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6.2.4 Alternatives to letter grading

Self-assessment involves learners reflecting on their own performance in relation the learning objectives in the whole term. This
practice strengthens their motivation and helps them to set goals for further learning and development. Self-assessment can be
conducted by using one or more of the following:
• checklists
• guided journal entry that directs the student to reflect on the content and linguistic objectives
• an essay that self-assesses
• a teacher-student conference
Narrative evaluations may be used as alternatives to replace a letter grading or complement it. Narrative evaluations are intended to
be read by admission personnel; then, they are written in third person, and letter grades are assigned. Apart from showing a clear
individualized description of the learner’s improvement in relation to the course objectives, they have washback potential, positive
effect on teaching and learning. Having said that, as it proves to be time consuming, teachers may have prefabricated templates in
which some minor changes as phrases and modifiers are included. Additionally, quantification is difficult, and due to it includes a letter
grading, they can be ignored by learners.
Unlike narrative evaluations, checklist evaluations prove being more practical in terms of teacher time as well as quantification.
Additionally, they provide uniform measures to all students which are accompanied by teacher’s comments and students’ response
with his or her own goals based on those comments. Learners are more prone to consider the feedback provided by checked boxes
than read a long paragraph.
Conferences involve providing direct feedback to students’ specific needs through one-on-one interaction. Since the teacher is seen
as facilitator, empathy plays a pivotal role to encourage self-reflection and improvement from the part of the student. Then,
conferences must have concise objectives which minimizes time consumption and maximizes feedback potential. Finally,
conferences are by nature formative; they do not necessarily are conducted to be graded or scored.
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6.2.5 Principles and guidelines for grading and evaluation
Grading includes a plethora of aspects which go

beyond allocating a number. Grading reflects the
philosophy of the teacher and the institution it is
conducted. Therefore, a grade can be subjective and
context-dependent which makes its meaning vary
among people. The guidelines below are intended to be
a help to become an effective grader and evaluator
(Brown, 2004)
• Develop an informed, comprehensive personal
philosophy of grading which matches your
philosophy of teaching and evaluation.
• Embrace an institution’s philosophy and conform to
that philosophy.
• Design tests which fit institutional and cultural
expectations in relation to the difficulty students
should experience.
• Communicate criteria for grading to students at the
beginning, middle, and end of the course or term. https://www.marketing91.com/assessment-and-evaluation/
• Apply more formative alternatives to letter grading
and provide more washback.
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GUIDE
THE DESIGN OF MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS FOR

ASSESSMENT
WORKBOOK
The aim of this workbook is to provide a series of resources in considering the design and
implementation of multiple choice questions for assessment.
The workbook is not exhaustive, but attempts to focus on a number of core issues and needs.
Key areas covered include:

• An Introduction to Assessment
• The Design of MCQs
• Developing MCQs in the Cognitive Domain
You are free to edit, adapt and copy this workbook and present it to your students and colleagues,
however attribution must be given to the original author/s (this work is licenced under the Creative
Commons Attribution Only Licence, see http://creativecommons.org/)
1
Table of Contents
AN INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................................................... 3

DESIGNING ASSESSMENTS ......................................................................................................................................... 4
THE DESIGN OF AN MCQ.......................................................................................................................................... 5
Deconstructing an MCQ:................................................................................................................................. 5
DECIDING WHEN TO USE AN MCQ ............................................................................................................................. 6

Advantages of MCQs:...................................................................................................................................... 6
Issues with MCQs:........................................................................................................................................... 6
Assessment Comparison / Equivalence .......................................................................................................... 6
THE KEY TO DESIGNING MCQS .................................................................................................................................. 7

Preparing MCQs:............................................................................................................................................. 7
Developing MCQs: .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Writing MCQs:................................................................................................................................................. 7
Tips for MCQs.................................................................................................................................................. 7
THE EDITING OF MCQS ............................................................................................................................................ 8

EXAMPLE MCQS ..................................................................................................................................................... 9
BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES .............................................................................................. 9
EXAMPLE OF MCQS IN THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN........................................................................................................ 10
Level 1 Knowledge Carneson et al (1996)..................................................................................................... 10
Level 2 Comprehension Carneson et al (1996) ............................................................................................. 11
Level 3 Application Carneson et al (1996) .................................................................................................... 11
Level 4 Analysis Carneson et al (1996).......................................................................................................... 11
Level 5 Evaluation Carneson et al (1996)...................................................................................................... 12
Level 5 Synthesis Bull and Danson (2002) .................................................................................................... 13
END OF WORKBOOK............................................................................................................................................... 13
2
AN INTRODUCTION TO ASSESSMENT
Some of the key purposes of assessment are; to demonstrate achievement of student learning; to
give feedback on learning and teaching; and to assist students to self-regulate and critically evaluate
their work (National Forum 2017)
Figure 1: Three Purposes of Assessment (National Forum, 20171)
Formative Assessment Assessment for learning
Is the assessment that provides feedback to learners in order to help them learn, and feedback to
teachers to enable them to decide how a student’s learning should be taken forward
Assessment as learning
Are the activities that support students to self-regulate and critically evaluate. Provides students with
a way to critically evaluate their own and their peers’ performance. It assists in planning for change in
their learning (self-regulate)
Summative Assessment Assessment of learning
Is the assessment which provides overall and finite evidence of the achievement of students and of
what they know, understand and can do, by assigning a value (often quantitative) to what the student
achieve
1 https://www.teachingandlearning.ie/resource-hub/student-success/assessment-of-for-as-learning/
3
DESIGNING ASSESSMENTS2
Seven questions that lecturers might ask when designing an assignment are:
1. What are the outcomes to be assessed?

2. What are the capabilities/skills (implicit or explicit) in the outcomes?
3. Is the method of assessment chosen consonant with the outcomes and skills?
4. Is the method relatively efficient in terms of student time and staff time?
5. What alternatives are there? What are their advantages and disadvantages?
6. Does the specific assessment task match the outcomes and skills?
7. Are the marking schemes or criteria appropriate?
Common weaknesses to avoid

The tasks do not match the stated outcomes;
The criteria do not match the tasks or outcomes;
The criteria are not known to students;
Students do not understand the criteria;
Overuse of one mode of assessment e.g. written examinations, essays, or closed problems;
Overload of students and staff;
Insufficient time for students to do the assignments;
Too many assignments with the same deadline;
Insufficient time for staff to mark the assignments or examinations;
Absence of well-defined criteria so consistency is difficult to achieve;
Unduly specific criteria which create a straitjacket for students and make marking burdensome for
lecturers;
Inadequate or superficial feedback provided to students;
Wide variations in marking between modules and assessors and within assessors (self-consistency);
Variations in assessment demands of different modules
2
Brown G., Bull J., Pendlebury M (1997) Assessing Student Learning in Higher Education. London: Routledge.
4
THE DESIGN OF AN MCQ
Deconstructing an MCQ:
A multiple choice question (MCQ) is one in which the learner is invited to select one alternative (the
correct one being the ‘key’) from a list of options (including the former and the ‘distractors’ –
incorrect answers) in response to the question (‘stem’).
Thus a standard MCQ will consist of three core elements, the stem, the distractors and the key.
How many economists does it take to change a lightbulb? 3 

1. They can't tell you unless you give them a lightbulb approximation to work on.
2. They're projecting three for next year, but that's a conservative estimate.
3. Nine. One to change the bulb, and eight to hold a seminar on how Nietzche would have done it.
4. One, but they'll spend three hours checking it for alignment and leaks.
5. How many did it take this time last year?
*See footnote for identification of other distractors.
Query:
Is an MCQ the most appropriate means to test the desired outcome?
Are there viable alternatives… Short Answer Questions, Assertion-Reason questions, Multiple
Response Questions, Essay, Portfolio, Performance etc
What are the benefits of the MCQ?
3 1 = Physicists, 2= Economists, 3 = Philosophers, 4 = Engineers, 5= Statisticians
5
DECIDING WHEN TO USE AN MCQ
The use of MCQs is an attractive solution to the ever burgeoning assessment requirements, in that
they may offer a fast and effective means to assess student learning… but what kind of learning…?
Advantages of MCQs:
• Easily marked, objective and reliable

• May measure different cognitive levels
• May offer diagnostic, formative or summative assessments
• May offer opportunity for feed forward (assessment for learning) and feedback
• The development of question banks may offer mid to long-term benefits to learners and faculty
Issues with MCQs:
• Developing good distractors is hard work

• Often difficult to determine why certain distractors are chosen i.e. no ability to garner feedback
from student input/thought processes
• Often tend to test lower cognitive abilities (as these are easier to construct)
• They are difficult to write well and thus time consuming!
Assessment Comparison / Equivalence
Assessment Learner Effort Faculty Effort

Descriptive Questions c.9 hours preparation Writing the Q’s Easy
- 1 hour exam Grading Task Difficult
Grading time Long(!)
Validity Med-High
MCQs c.9 hours preparation Writing the Q’s Difficult
- 1 hour exam Grading Task Easy
Grading time Short!
Validity High
6
THE KEY TO DESIGNING MCQS
Preparing MCQs:
• Write them as you prepare your session plans

• Relate them to the intended outcomes (one per question)
• Make use of common misconceptions and frequent questions
• Invert the approach and invite students to design MCQs
• Invite a colleague to evaluate the MCQs and eradicate any issues
Developing MCQs:
• Present practical or real-world scenarios e.g. journal articles that require interpretation, case
studies that require analysis
• Make use of visuals that require a learner to analyse, evaluate or describe the application of ‘x’
• Use data (charts, graphs figures etc) that require the learner to appraise or formulate an answer
Writing MCQs:
• Be concise and clear (always maintain the prime body of text in the question stem, not in the key
and distractors)
• Ensure appropriate use of grammar i.e. do not unintentionally provide the answer via the stem
• Construct questions independently, avoid question series whereby information in one may
provide context or even the answer to another
• Make sure each of the distractors is ‘viable’, provide uniformity in the proposed answers, and
ensure no overlapping
• Avoid negative question constructs where possible, and the use of terms such as ‘None of the
above’
Tips for MCQs
• Where possible group together similarly formatted question types

• Provide a progression from simple (easy) to complex (hard)
• Remember to mix up the order of the answers
• Statistically provide a minimum of 5 answers, thereby pushing out the ‘guess’ factor! [assuming
you are competent to provide four distractors for each question]
7
THE EDITING OF MCQS
This series of questions is a guide to enable one to review and amend your MCQs, and as such should
be addressed post creation and ideally with a peer to hand…
Are the item/s addressed within the specified learning outcomes for the module / programme?
Only materials covered and identified should be assessed…
Are they written at the appropriate level?

Questions should not appear trivial, however they must not also seek knowledge beyond the scope
required.
Are they written to assess the appropriate cognitive level?

Consider the design of questions to assess particular abilities and/or in differing situations.
Are the key and stem correct?

Indisputably?!
Does the stem state the question?

The stem should ordinarily contain a complete statement of the question… leading to a
knowledgeable learner anticipating the answer. If not, the question often requires revision and the
presence of further distractors.
Is all the information in the stem necessary?

Edit and edit again, less is best, any additional information may be leading.
Are all of the distractors plausible?

Each distractor must appear possible to less knowledgeable learners. Post statistical analysis will
determine less worthy distractors.
Are all of the distractors incorrect?

Indisputably?!?
Do any of the options overlap?

If the options are numerically based, it may be possible that a number of options are ‘un-intentionally
correct. It is less common in text based options, but none the less a probability – best avoided.
Do any of the options provide clues?

A common occurance (unconsciously) is to provide a term in the key that appears in the stem, but not
the other distractors. Alternatively a key is often written in a more precise form than its fellow
distractors.
Are diagrams/graphics used where appropriate and are they clear?

The use of a diagram may be a more effective way of visualising the question / hypothesis. They need
to be clear and pertinent to the question – no room for excess imagery!
8
EXAMPLE MCQS
The following examples and comments are taken from Bull and Danson (2002)4 and Carneson et al
(1996)5.
Example 1: Carneson et al (1996)

Philosophy of Education (First year B.Ed. course)
If we understand learning a school subject on the model of learning a language we can explain
a) why teachers do not articulate clearly.
b) why it is not possible to explain the point of the subject to someone who does not understand the subject.
c) why truth is important.
d) why subjective experiences are important.
e) why school subjects are so important.
f) why school subjects are taught verbally.
Lecturer's approach: The lecturer's intention was that in arriving at the correct answer (b), the
students must have compared each of the statements with their essential understanding of the part
of the course dealing with a model of "learning a language"; and they need to be able to understand
and relate:
• the concept of a "model of learning a language";

• the general concept of understanding being a process, which in the course was linked to a
particular philosophical stance;
• the argument presented in option (b) "why it is not possible to explain the point of the subject to
someone who does not understand the subject".
Query:
Can you identify any issues with this question? (Don’t read ahead just yet!)
The correct option (b) is much longer than the distractors.

The use of the double negative (not...not") in option (b) is confusing.
One should not repeat the word "why" in front of each response, but include it as part of the stem.
BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY OF COGNITIVE PROCESSES
4 Bull, J and Danson, M. (2002) An Introduction to Computer Assisted Assessment and Objective Tests. Computer
Assisted Assessment Centre.
5
Carneson J, Delpierre G and Masters, K (1996). Designing and Managing MCQs. Centre for Educational Technology
(CET), University of Capetown,
9
Competence Indicative Skills Demostrable
Creation / Synthesis: the ability to put facts Question words: integrate, modify,
together into a coherent whole, or, creatively invent, design, modify, compose,
achieve a new understanding by linking facts construct, create, reorganise,
together formulate etc.
Evaluation: the ability to make judgements Question words: appraise, judge,

using criteria and standards evaluate, defend, rank, conclude,
discriminate, assess, contrast,
recommend etc
Analysis: ability to determine internal Question words: analyse, arrange,
relationships orde, explain, connect, infer,
compare, catergorise etc
Application: the ability to apply what is Question words: apply, compute,
learned to a new situation demonstrate, show, relate, prepare,
use etc
Comprehension: the ability to interpret Question words: interpret, discuss,
information in one’s own words predict, summarise, classify,
extend, describe, etc
Knowledge: the ability to recall facts, opinions Question words: list, define, label,
and concepts describe, name, cite, match,
reproduce etc
Based on Anderson et al (2001)6
EXAMPLE OF MCQS IN THE COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Level 1 Knowledge Carneson et al (1996)7
Which one of the following persons is the author of "Das Kapital"?

1. Mannheim
2. Marx
3. Weber
4. Engels
5. Michels
Note that the responses are internally consistent - they are all the names of Germans whose written
work have been major contributions on social issues.
6 Anderson et al (2001) A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. Longman, London
7 Carneson J, Delpierre G and Masters, K (1996). Designing and Managing MCQs. Centre for Educational Technology
(CET), University of Capetown
10
Level 2 Comprehension Carneson et al (1996)
At this level, knowledge of facts, theories, procedures etc. is assumed, and one tests for
understanding of this knowledge.
Which one of the following describes what takes place in the so-called preparation stage of the creative
process, as applied to the solution of a particular problem?
1. The problem is identified and defined.

2. All available information about the
problem is collected.
3. An attempt is made to see if the proposed
solution to the problem is acceptable.
4. The person goes through some experience
leading to a general idea of how the problem
can be solved.
5. The person sets the problem aside, and gets
involved with some other unrelated activity.
In this question, the knowledge of the five stages of the creative process must be recalled
(knowledge), and one is tested for an understanding (comprehension) of the meaning of each term, in
this case, "preparation". Note that this question violates the rule that the answer and distractors
should all be of about the same length. It is difficult to get around this one here, so the text is edited
so that each line is about the same length.
Level 3 Application Carneson et al (1996)
In order to classify a question into this group, ask yourself if prior knowledge of the background to the
question is assumed to be both known and understood, and whether one is merely expected to apply
this knowledge and understanding. Calculations based on known formulae are good examples of this,
as shown in the example below:
Which one of the following values approximates best to the volume of a sphere with radius 5m?
a. 2000m³
b 1000m³
c. 500m³
d 250m³
e. 125m³
In order to answer this question, the formula 4[pi]r³> /3 must be known (recall of knowledge) and the
meaning of the various symbols in the formula understood (comprehension) in order to answer this
question. The correct answer is #c.
Level 4 Analysis Carneson et al (1996)
11
Look at the following table and indicate which countries' statistics are being reported in rows A, B and C.
Structures of total employment 1980-85

GNP per capita 1991 Growth rate of GNP per capita Population growth rate
(percentages)
($ USA) p.a. 1980-91 1980-91
Agriculture Industry Services
A 500 2,5% 1,5% 51 20 29
B 1570 5,8% 1,6% 74 8 8
S.A. 2560 0,7% 2,5% 17 36 36
C 25110 1,7% 0,3% 6 32 32
Choose your answer from the following list of possible answers:

1. A is South Korea; B is Kenya; C is Canada.
2. A is Sri Lanka; B is Germany; C is Thailand.
3. A is Sri Lanka; B is Thailand; C is Sweden.
4. A is Namibia; B is Portugal; C is Botswana.
In order to answer this question, students must be able to recall the relative economic rankings of
various countries (knowledge) and understand the basis for such a ranking (comprehension). They
must be able to apply these concepts when information is supplied to them (application), and they
must be able to analyze the given information in order to answer the question. The correct answer is
3.
Level 5 Evaluation Carneson et al (1996)
At this level, one is asked to pass judgement on, for example, the logical consistency of written
material, the validity of experimental procedures or interpretation of data.
A student was asked the following question: "Briefly lis and explain the various stages of the creative process".
As an answer, this student wrote the following:

"The creative process is believed to take place in five stages, in the following order: ORIENTATION, when the
problem must be identified and defined, PREPARATION, when all the possible information about the problem is
collected, INCUBATION, when there is a period where no solution seems in sight and the person is often busy
with other tasks, ILLUMINATION, when the person experiences a general idea of how to arrive at a solution to
the problem, and finally VERIFICATION, when the person determines whether the solution is the right one for
the problem."
How would you judge this student' s answer?

1. EXCELLENT (all stages correct in the right order with clear and correct explanations)
2. GOOD (all stages correct in the right order, but the explanations are not as clear as they should be).
3. MEDIOCRE (one or two stages are missing OR the stages are in the wrong order, OR the explanations are not
clear OR the explanations are irrelevant)
4. UNACCEPTABLE (more than two stages are missing AND the order is incorrect AND the explanations are not
clear AND/OR they are irrelevant)
In the above question, one is expected to make value judgment on the content of the given text
(knowledge of the subject is required), the meaning of the terminology used (comprehension of the
subject matter), and its structure (analysis of the answer for the right order of events. The correct
answer here is #1, but suitable modification of the putative student answer could provide a small
bank of questions with other correct answers.
12
Level 5 Synthesis Bull and Danson (2002)8
Aim: to organise and arrange appropriate critical terms in order to construct a geological analysis of
the following photographic image.
Question:
Move the appropriate descriptive terms from the list to the 'form’ and 'attitude' boxes below
End of Workbook
8Bull, J and Danson, M. (2002) An Introduction to Computer Assisted Assessment and Objective Tests. Computer
Assisted Assessment Centre.
13
The Academy for Teaching and Learning Excellence (ATLE)
“Office hours for faculty.”
(813) 974-1841 | atle.usf.edu| atle@usf.edu
Multiple Choice Questions:

Best Practices
Introduction to Multiple Choice Questions

Advantages
1. Easy and quick to grade
2. Reduce some of the burden of large classes
3. Can assess all levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy – knowledge, understanding, application,
analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
4. Useful as a diagnostic tool because wrong choices can indicate weaknesses and
misconceptions
5. Familiar to students
Disadvantages
6. Difficult and time-consuming to construct quality questions
7. Can be ambiguous to students
8. Encourages students to find the correct answer by process of elimination
9. Limited creativity
10. Good test takers can guess
11. Not applicable for all course objectives
Anatomy of a Multiple Choice Question

12. Stem = the sentence-like portion of the question
13. Alternatives = all the possible choices in the question
14. Distractor = the wrong answers
Purpose of Guidelines
15. Use of the guidelines will help you write quality questions
16. Quality questions…
• foil good test takers
• don’t hinder poor test takers
• discriminate those who know from those who don’t
Developing Multiple Choice Questions

Guidelines
17. Stem Specific Guidelines
• The stem should be clear, brief (but comprehensive), and easy to read.
• Do not include irrelevant information in the stem.
• The stem should pose a problem
• Include repeated or redundant phrases in the stem instead of the alternatives.
• State the stem in positive form avoiding words like except, but, and not.
• Write the stem in a complete sentence
USF 2013 | Sommer Mitchell |atle@usf.edu 1

18. Alternative Specific Guidelines

• Make sure the grammar and syntax in the stem and alternatives is the same.
• Your alternatives should be worded in a similar way avoiding clues and key words.
• Whether a question asks for the correct alternative or best response, there should
be only one clear answer. If you are looking for the best responses, you should
explain that clearly in the directions.
• All alternative should be plausible.
• Keep alternatives parallel in form and length so that the answer does not stand out
from the distractors.
• Avoid the use of specific determiners like always, never, and only in the alternatives.
• Alternatives “all of the above” and “none of the above” should be avoided because
they reduce the effectiveness of a question.
• The alternatives should be presented in a logical order like alphabetically or
numerically.
19. Distractor Specific Guidelines

• Use as many functional distractors as possible – functional distractors are those
chosen by students that have not achieved the objective or concept.
• Use plausible distractors.
• Use familiar, yet incorrect phrases as distractors.
• Avoid the use of humor when developing distractors.
20. General Guidelines

• You should avoid using textbook, verbatim phrasing.
• The position of each correct answer in the list of alternatives should be as random
as possible. If possible, have each position be the correct answer and equal number
of times.
• The layout of the multiple choice questions should be done in a clear and consistent
manner.
• Use proper grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
• Avoid using unnecessarily difficult vocabulary.
• Analyze the effectiveness of each question after each administration of a test. A
well-constructed test contains only a few questions that more than90 percent or
less than 30 percent of students answer correctly. Difficult items are those that
about 50-75 percent answer correctly and moderately difficult questions fall
between 70-85 percent (Davis 1993, 269).
• You should expect each question to take approximately 1 minute to answer.
• Have a colleague review your test before you give it to students.
• In order to produce a well-constructed test, you should begin writing questions in
advance of the day before the test.
• Directions should be stated clearly at the beginning of each section of the test.
21. Resources
• Davis, B. Tools for Teaching, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1993.
• The Virginia Commonwealth University Center for Teaching Excellence has several
resources on their website found at:
http://www.vcu.edu/cte/resources/nfrg/12_03_writing_MCQs.htm.
• Burton, S., Merrill, P., Sudweeks, R., Wood, B. How to Prepare Better Multiple Choice
Test Items: Guidelines for University Faculty, Provo: Brigham Young University
Testing Services and The Department of Instructional Science, 1991. A PDF can be
found at: http://testing.byu.edu/info/handbooks/betteritems.pdf.
• Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching “Writing Good Multiple Choice Test
Questions” found at: http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/teaching-
guides/assessment/writing-good-multiple-choice-test-questions/.
Critical Thinking & Multiple Choice Questions

Though writing higher-order thinking multiple choice questions is difficult, it is possible
when using Bloom’s taxonomy.
22. Knowledge – questions written at this level ask students to remember factual
knowledge. The outcome is for students to identify the meaning of a term or the order
of events. Examples questions are:
• What is…?
• Who were the main…? Can you list three?
• Which one…?
• Why did…?
• Can you select…?
23. Understanding (Comprehension) – question written at this level require students to

do more than memorize information to answer correctly. This level asks for basic
knowledge and its use in context. The outcome is for students to identify an example of
a term, concept, and principles or to interpret the meaning of an idea. Example
questions are:
• Which of the following is an example of…?
• What is the main idea of…?
• How can you summarize…?
• If A happens, then ______ happens.
• Which is the best answer?
24. Application - questions written at this level require students to recognize a problem or
discrepancy. The outcome is for students to distinguish between two items or identify
how concepts and principles are related. Example questions are:
• What can result if…?
• How can you organize ___ to show ___?
• How can you use…?
• What is the best approach to…?

25. Analysis – questions written at this level requires students to break down material into
its component parts including identifying the parts, relationships between them, and
the principles involved. The outcome is for students to recognize unstated assumptions
or determine whether a word fits with an accepted definition or principle. Example
questions are:
• How is ___ related to ___?
• What conclusions can be drawn from…?
• What is the distinction between ___ and ___?
• What ideas justify…?
• What is the function of…?
26. Synthesis – questions written at this level require students to create new connections,
generalizations, patterns, or perspectives. The outcome is for students to originate,
integrate, or combine ideas into a product, plan, or proposal. Example questions are:
• What can be done to minimize/maximize…?
• How can you test…?
• How can you adapt ___ to create a different…?
• Which of the following can you combine to improve/change…?
27. Evaluation – questions written at this level require students to appraise, assess, or
critique on the basis of specific standards. The outcome is for students to judge the
value of material for a given purpose. Example questions are:
• How can you prove/disprove…?
• What data was used to make the conclusion…?
• Which of the following support the view…?
• How can you asses the value or importance of…?
• Which of the following can you cite to defend the actions of…?
28. Resources
• The University of Arizona has a handout with example multiple choice questions at
each level found at:
http://omse.medicine.arizona.edu/sites/omse.medicine.arizona.edu/files/images/
Blooms.pdf.
• University of Texas Instructional Assessment Resources has example questions at:
http://omse.medicine.arizona.edu/sites/omse.medicine.arizona.edu/files/images/
Blooms.pdf

Centre for Research in English Language Learning and Assessment
Defining and Assessing

Listening Ability
Dr Lynda Taylor
CRELLA
Session 2:
Designing and developing
listening (test) tasks
CRELLA
The type of listening input we
select for a task – the
(external) contextual features
of the input text and
response
CRELLA
Context validity
• How can we be sure that a listening task
matches the contextual features of listening
tasks done in the world beyond the test?
• This is the issue of ‘context validity’ or
‘situational authenticity’
• The contextual features or task characteristics
(i.e. both text and task) need to be controlled
according to intended level and purpose
Context validity – external features of
listening input texts and tasks
• Setting: task • Linguistic demands: task input
and output
– Purpose
• Text purpose and
– Response method discourse mode
– Weighting • Functional resources
– Knowledge of criteria • Grammatical resources
• Lexical resources
– Order of items
• Nature of information
– Modality • Content knowledge
– Text length – Speaker
– Time constraints • Speech rate
• Setting: administration • Variety of accent
• Sociolinguistic
– Physical conditions considerations
– Uniformity of administration • Number and gender
– Security
Task setting
• Purpose
• Response method
• Weighting
• Knowledge of criteria
• Order of items
• Modality
• Text length
• Time constraints
Linguistic demands of the task
Task input and task output
• Text purpose and discourse mode
• Functional resources
• Grammatical/structural resources
• Lexical/vocabulary resources
• Content knowledge/topic familiarity
Speaker(s)
• Speech rate
• Variety of accent
• Sociolinguistic considerations
• Number and gender
Task administration or setting
• Physical conditions
• Uniformity of administration
• Security
Main listening task response formats
• Selected response formats
– Multiple-choice
– Matching
– True/false
• Constructed response formats

– Gap-filling (word, number, phrase)
– Short answer responses (clause, sentence)
– Short paragraphs
– Summary writing
Let’s take a closer look
at some listening test
tasks
CRELLA
Some key issues for listening test
developers
1. The nature of the listening input
2. Aspects of the testing method and format
3. The opportunities offered by technology
4. Washback on teaching and learning

1. Listening input
• risk of a mismatch between listening test input
and the listening experience beyond the test
• scripted vs unscripted material?
– ‘written’ vs ‘spoken’, transcript conventions
• balancing monologue + dialogue
• text-item relationship and information density
– what’s easy/convenient to test vs what’s
relevant/important in the recording
• linguistic variation, accentedness, etc
2. Testing method and format
• response format
– how much reading/writing? memory load?
• single or double-play?
• positioning of test items
– pre-set or post-set? or between recordings?
• scoring validity issues
– requirement for correct spelling?
• eliciting higher-level processing at the discourse
level, esp. at the advanced / ‘C’ levels
3. Technology
• greater use of visual input to accompany
acoustic speech signal
– still photos, video clips, multi-modal approaches
incl. podcasts
• more options for integrated tests
– listening-into-writing, listening-into-speaking
• enhanced test delivery
– Internet / web-based administration
4. Washback on pedagogy
• unhelpful influence of listening tests on the
classroom traditionally
• positive (rather than negative) effects of listening
tests on teaching and learning
– less focus on standardised testing formats (e.g. MCQ)
in teaching materials – artificial elicitation techniques
– less time spent on intensive test-taking practice
– reduced focus on test-wise strategies
– good design of classroom listening tasks
End of Session 2
and of this workshop
Thank you very much for your
interest and attention!
See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318076104
Assessment and Evaluation Techniques
Article · June 2017

DOI: 10.17323/2411-7390-2017-3-2-30-38
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National Research University Higher School of Economics Baranovskaya, T., & Shaforostova, V. (2017). Assessment and Evaluation
Journal of Language & Education Volume 3, Issue 2, 2017 Techniques. Journal of Language and Education, 3(2), 30-38. doi:10.17323/2411-
7390-2017-3-2-30-38
Assessment and Evaluation

Techniques
Tatiana Baranovskaya
Higher School of Economics Research University
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tatiana Baranovskaya, National Research
University Higher School of Economics, Malaya Pionerskaya, 12, Moscow, Russian Federation, 115054.
E-mail: tbaranovskaya@hse.ru
Valentina Shaforostova
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Valentina Shaforostova, National Research
E-mail: shafo@hse.ru
Assessment and evaluation have always been important; they are linked to language teaching
methodology, program outcomes, language teacher competencies, language standards and
second language acquisition training. They can serve many different policies and can come
in different forms. Assessment and evaluation have always been seen as the responsibility of
the specialists, but they have rarely been included as a component in English language teacher
(ELT) training. However, the ELT field has been experiencing a major shift in assessment and
evaluation with effects on teachers, and learners around the world. It has also been influenced
by a major questioning of traditional forms of testing and the underlying psychometric
principles of measurement in ELT. Recent studies reveal that the reconceptualization of English
language assessment and evaluation provides systematic information about student learning
in relation to their performance and contributes to better understanding of their strengths and
weaknesses. In many ways ELT has lagged behind the rest of education in the exploration of new
theories and assessment and evaluation tools, including self-assessment. This research gap was
generated partly because of the lack of integration with mainstream educational theory and
practice in many areas of ELT, and partly because of powerful positions of traditional English
language tests. The attempt to bridge this gap has lead to the research carried out. The aim of
this article is to elaborate different assessment techniques that may better address student
learning needs, improve student learning and engage students in self-assessment, including
the sequence of steps that could lead to self-assessment. The study shows that the techniques
implemented to develop self-assessment enable students to perform well.
Keywords: evaluation, assessment, important, English language
This article examines the importance of assessment teachers useful information on how to improve their
and evaluation A major concern of English language teaching methods.
teaching has been assessing and evaluating students’ Assessment and evaluation are very important
progress during the course of study as well as their parts of the constructive alignment process. Well-
achievements at the end of it. The methodology of designed assessments can allow students to use the
this paper is a qualitative approach using classroom knowledge and skills they have learnt and indicate
activities and library sources as well as other related their level of mastery. The feedback on the assessment
research in an attempt to improve students’ knowledge will also provide students with clear information on
and learning. Assessment and evaluation also give the criteria they need to succeed at assigned tasks,
This article is published under the Creative

30 Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION TECHNIQUES
can give the lecturer a clearer sense of how the task is making.
assessing mastery and what aspects are being assessed. In classroom assessment, since teachers themselves
Evaluation of the course or module, by students and develop, administer and analyse the questions, they
lecturers should feed back into the whole process of are more likely to apply the results of the assessment
curriculum alignment, as well as reflect critically and to their own teaching. Therefore, it provides feedback
constructively on the outcomes, the teaching and on the effectiveness of instruction and gives students
learning activities, the assessment and the experience a measure of their progress. As Biggs (1999) maintains,
of the course or module. Reflexivity, continuous two major functions can be pointed out for classroom
learning and development are key aims of successful assessment: one is to show whether or not learning
evaluation. has been successful, and the other one is to clarify the
Through the use of appropriate classroom expectations teachers have of the students (Dunn et
assessment strategies and techniques, teachers can al., 2004).
increase their students’ motivation and show them Assessment plays a number of roles in the life of
how well they have learned the language. Evaluation a student, some of which they may be more aware
goes beyond learners’ achievements and language of than others. It is widely accepted that students’
assessment to consider all aspects of teaching and learning patterns, educational focus, and allocation of
learning. Although the terms ‘assessment’ and time will be directly influenced by assessment. It does
‘evaluation’ are often used interchangeably, they more than allocate a grade or degree classification
can be considered two parts of the same process. to students – assessment plays an important role in
Assessment is the process of gathering evidence of focusing their attention and, as Sainsbury & Walker
what the child can do. Evaluation is the process that (2007) observe, actually drives their learning. Gibbs
follows this collection of data, including analysis and (2003) states that assessment has 6 main functions:
reflection, as well as decisions based on the data. 1. Capturing student time and attention;
This paper will present some useful assessment 2. Generating appropriate student learning
and evaluation techniques that can assist language activity;
teachers to create a dynamic classroom situation 3. Providing timely feedback which students pay
for evaluation. It will show that the quality of the attention to;
assessment and evaluation in the educational process 4. Helping students to internalise the discipline’s
has a profound link to students’ performance and standards and notions of equality;
can engage them in self-assessment which is most 5. Generating marks or grades which distinguish
important in English language teaching. among students or enable pass/fail decisions to
be made;
6. Providing evidence enables them to judge the
Materials and Methods appropriateness of course standards.
He states that, with the exception of the last two
Theoretical Background points, these functions should occur as frequently as
possible to support effective learning.
The present study focuses upon the qualitative The purpose of classroom assessment and
approach of English language learning assessment evaluation is to give students the opportunity to show
and evaluation process in the educational system. what they have learned rather than catching them out
Evaluation in teaching the English language is a or to show what they have not learned. Needless to
process of collecting, analysing and interpreting say, evaluation and assessment can focus on different
information about teaching and learning in order aspects of teaching and learning: respectively,
to make informed decisions that enhance student textbooks and instructional materials, student
achievement and the success of educational programs achievement, and whole programs of instruction.
(Rea-Dickens & Germanie, 1993; Genesee & Upshur, It is important to clarify the distinction between
1996; O’Mally & Valdez-Pierce, 1996). Evaluation is a evaluation and assessment. These terms are often
process that includes five basic components: used interchangeably and are, in fact, related, but they
• Articulating the purpose of the educational are technically different. Assessment of an individual
system; student’s progress or achievement is an important
• Identifying and collecting relevant information; component of evaluation: it is that part of evaluation
• Having ideas that are valuable and useful to that includes the measurement and analysis of
learners in their lives and professions; information about student learning. The primary focus
• Analysing and interpreting information for of assessment in English Language Teaching has been
learners; language assessment and the role of tests in assessing
• Classroom management or classroom decision students’ language skills. Evaluation goes beyond
31
TATIANA BARANOVSKAYA, VALENTINA SHAFOROSTOVA
student achievement and language assessment to of tests and theses or dissertations are examples of
consider all aspects of teaching and learning and to summative assessments.
look at how educational decisions can be made on Feedback is a very important part of the assessment
the basis of alternative forms of assessment. Gensee process, both formative and summative. Through
(cited in Carter & Nunan, 2001) believes that another receiving focused, relevant and guiding feedback,
purpose of evaluation is to guide classroom instruction students are able to understand where their strengths
and enhance student learning on a day-to-day basis. and weaknesses are, and where they still need to
Classroom assessment and evaluation concerns: concentrate their efforts in terms of their own learning.
• Suitability of general instructional goals and Through giving feedback, lecturers and tutors are
objectives associated with an individual lesson better able to make similar assessments of strengths
or unit plans; and weaknesses for students. This can enable more
• Effectiveness of instructional methods, responsive teaching and tutoring to address gaps and
materials and activities used to attain weaknesses where necessary. It can also provide a
instructional objectives; better understanding of how students are responding
• Adequacy of professional resources required to to the methods and styles of teaching and tutoring.
deliver instruction. It can further show how deeply and accurately the
Classroom assessment and evaluation under students grasp and understand the relevant knowledge
the active management of teachers can also serve and employ the related skills and practices to explore
important professional development purposes since and demonstrate their knowledge.
the information resulting from such evaluations Evaluation is an important part of an aligned
provides teachers with valuable feedback about curriculum and an overall teaching and learning
their instructional effectiveness that they can use strategy because it is a part of the feedback and
to develop and improve their professional skills. development cycle. It should be a part of any responsive
As part of reflective teaching movement, teachers and up-to-date teaching and learning strategy or
are encouraged to conduct research in their own plan. Evaluation gives students opportunities to
classrooms (Nunan, 1989b; Allwright & Baily, 1991; speak to the lecturer about their experiences and
Richards & Lockhart, 1994); classroom assessment impressions of the course content and the pedagogical
and evaluation is an important part of such research. approaches that have been used. It, therefore, gives
Assessment is perhaps one of the most important lecturers valuable insights into how they teach and
elements of curriculum design and alignment, how effectively instruction has been taken up by the
because this is where it is possible to see if students students.
can demonstrate mastery in terms of the knowledge One of the most important issues in evaluation is
and skills they need to have learnt. Assessment, in a timing. Teachers can use quick exercises to check in
constructively aligned curriculum, must speak to the with students during the course, at the end of a topic
outcomes listed for the course. It must draw in both or after an assignment has been completed. Longer and
the knowledge and the practical and intellectual skills more detailed evaluation for the end of a course can
and competencies that students have been taught also be created. Students who did the course last year
and that they have practiced in lectures and tutorials. can be asked to complete a retrospective evaluation.
Assessment activities must test what has been learnt The important thing to consider when thinking about
and taught, and should not be constructed so as to be the timing is the purpose of the evaluation (what do
ambiguous or inexplicit. students need to know and why), and what teachers
Assessment tasks can be formative and summative. plan to do with the information students give them.
The former give students opportunities to make errors Gensee and Upshur (1996) state that classroom
and get constructive, guiding feedback used to develop assessment and evaluation is concerned primarily
competency and understanding in further assessments with improving instruction in order to help enhance
and teaching and learning. Formative quizzes, essays students’ learning. Teachers in any educational system
that can be drafted and revised, and short written or are actively and continuously involved in assessment
verbal tasks that receive detailed feedback are examples and evaluation. Students can also be active participants
of formative assessments. They are opportunities for in assessing their own achievements and in planning
the students to demonstrate mastery or competence how they will study and learn a second language, i.e.
in a particular area or across several areas that have they can be engaged in the early stages of the process of
been studied. The feedback is usually less detailed and self-assessment. The context of classroom assessment
aimed more at providing a summary of what they have and evaluation is summarized by Gensee and Upshur
and have not yet mastered. Examinations, some kinds (1996) in the following figure:
32
1 learners’ attitudes or social behaviour that result from

Input Factors classroom instruction (e.g. changes in attitudes toward
↓ the target language, the target language group, or the
2 3 10 learner’s first language group). However, in most cases
Student needs →→→ Instructional Assessment these objectives are secondary to language learning
and abilities purposes Evaluation
objectives. Gensee (1996) deals with philosophical
↓ ↓ ↑ objectives as changes in attitudes, values, or beliefs of a
4 5 9 more general nature than those associated with socio-
Time, Instructional Redesigned affective objectives. And, finally, method or process
Attitudes, →→→ Plans Restaffed
Resources,
objectives refer to methods, processes, experiences,
Facilities, materials, activities, or other aspects of instruction.
Support Nevertheless, Gensee and Upshur (1996) state that
↓ ↓ ↑ the influence of these objectives is not equally useful
6 7 8 for classroom instruction. They believe philosophical
Teacher →→→ Instructional →→→ Output objectives, for example, are minimally useful.
Abilities practices Result Strategic objectives help in understanding students’
Figure 1. The context of classroom assessment and performances in class, thus, play an important role in
evaluation. instructional planning. They are, however, secondary
to language acquisition; in other words, the effective
Any instruction consists of three components: first, deployment of certain strategies should lead to
the purposes identify the objectives of instruction – enhanced second language attainment and usage.
the “WHY”; second, the plans describe the means of Clearly, language objectives are fundamental to
attaining those objectives – the “HOW”; third, practice second language evaluation.
reveals what actually takes place in the classroom – the Gensee and Upshur (1996) argue that evaluation
“WHAT”. Gensee and Upshur (1996) also discuss other and assessment involve comparison. More specifically,
factors, which are not part of classroom instruction decisions that result from assessment are arrived at
itself, but can have a significant effect on second by making comparisons. They claim that in order to
language teaching and learning. They refer to these evaluate and assess, it is necessary to understand the
additional factors as “input factors.” Thus, it can be factors that influence student performance in class.
said that classroom assessment and instruction have This means going beyond the assessment of just
four aspects, namely: purposes, plans, practices, and achievement. Chastain (1988) believes that teachers
input factors. need to constantly evaluate their teaching on the basis
Instructional objectives are identified as the of student reaction, interest, motivation, preparation,
goals that a teacher sets while teaching. On the one participation, perseverance, and achievement. The
hand, they provide direction for planning appropriate conclusions drawn from such ongoing evaluation
instruction and, on the other hand, they provide a constitute their main source for measuring the
basis for determining whether a student has achieved effectiveness of selected learning activities.
what a teacher has set out to accomplish. They provide Evaluation of achievement is the feedback that
criteria for assessing the outcomes of students’ makes improvement possible. By means of evaluation,
learning and monitoring their performance. Different strengths and weaknesses are identified. Evaluation,
kinds of objectives can guide classroom instruction: in this sense, is another aspect of learning. It enables
1) language, 2) strategic, 3) socio-affective, 4) learners to grasp what they missed previously and
philosophical, and 5) method or process. helps the teacher to comprehend what can be done
Language objectives refer to language skills that in subsequent lessons to improve learning. To do
learners are expected to acquire in the classroom. so, alternative methods (e.g. dialogue journals,
Objectives that are concerned with strategies for portfolio conferences, interviews and questionnaires,
communicating, learning, and critical thinking are observation, etc.) are available for collecting useful
referred to as “strategic objectives”. Learning process information about language learning and about
refers to a “conscious processes and techniques student-related factors that influence the processes of
that facilitate the comprehension, acquisition, and language teaching and learning. It is widely accepted
retention of new skills and concepts” (Chamot & that the assessment/evaluation process involves the
O’Malley, 1989). According to Chamot and O’Malley, use of multiple sources of information collected in a
they may include metacognitive strategies (such as variety of contexts. At the primary level, many teachers
selective attention), cognitive strategies (such as use observation, work samples, and questionnaires as
summarizing and elaboration), or socio-affective tools in the process of assessment and evaluation.
strategies (such as questioning for clarification).
Socio-affective objectives refer to changes in Methodology
33
This article includes analyses of the evaluation and Table 1

assessment tools carried out by teachers at the National Assessment results of the first group (43 students)
Research University Higher School of Economics with Number of Score
fourth-year students in the Department of Public students (60)
Administration. The main idea of the experiment was 4 55-58
to develop students’ability to assess their own speaking 5 53
skills. The expected skills of fourth-year students
included: specialized knowledge and experience in 4 50
conveying ideas and information clearly and in a 9 45-49
well-organized manner; ability to give presentations; 9 41-44
effective communication skills. To acquire these 5 37-40
necessary skills in order to confidently and effectively 3 32-35
interact in speaking situations, students should learn
2 28-30
how to plan, organise and present information on a
variety of topics. They should be able to give formal 2 27
presentations at conferences as well as talk to experts,
consultants, visiting researchers, etc. Table 2
Focusing on this primary task, the authors Assessment results of the second group (47 students)
conducted an experiment on developing, improving,
mastering and assessing oral presentation skills Number of Score
students (60)
among the fourth-year students. At the end of
5 55-57
the course the students were supposed to give
presentations to accompany the formal written paper, 6 52-54
i.e. a project proposal. The 90 students who took part 5 51
in the experiment were split into six smaller groups: 10 47-49
three of these groups were organised as Group 1; the 8 41-45
other three groups comprised Group 2. Both groups
4 38-40
were given instruction on oral presentation skills. But
while the first group were given specific instruction 3 34-36
about how they would be assessed and were shown the 4 29-32
evaluation criteria for oral presentations, the second 2 26-27
group received no explicit information regarding
evaluation; the input they received was based solely
on the fourth-year teaching materials (Kuzmenkova, Results
2011).
To assess students’ level of English language Introducing a Presentation
competence at the beginning of the course, both
groups were given Objective Placement Test, Variant 1 In Group 1, information shared on how to
CUP & FLTRP, 2010 (consisting of 60 multiple-choice introduce a presentation and make it effective was
questions divided into three sections Language Use provided by the teacher’s input and the students
(40 items), Reading (10 items), Listening (10 items)). were asked to select a problem that they felt deserved
The results achieved of the first group of 43 the special attention of the class. After that, they
students are presented in Table 1. worked individually to prepare a one- to two-minute
The second group of 47 students (whose results introduction for a presentation on the topic. When
were rather close to the first group) results are the task was completed, the students worked in small
presented in Table 2. groups and they then took turns presenting their
The pre-test showed that the level of the English introductions to the group. Once all the introductions
language competence was practically equal in both were presented, the strengths and weaknesses of each
groups. were discussed. Before the discussion, the instructor
To accomplish the objective of the study,the authors assigned different students to fill out the evaluation
attempted to verify the role of continuous evaluation form and consider the following questions in analysing
of different stages on their ability to master the special both positive and negative sides of each introduction.
skills associated with giving presentations. With this 1. How did the speaker attract listeners’ interest
task in mind, the authors conducted research with the and focus their attention on the topic?
first group of 43 students. The essence of the study 2. What was the central idea of the presentation?
was to evaluate each part of the presentation, which Was it clearly stated?
was to be introduced during the academic course. 3. What preview did the speaker give of the
34
presentation organisation? 5. What do your peers want or need to know about

4. How did the speaker plan to handle questions this subject?
from the audience? After that, the teacher wanted the students to write
5. Can you offer any suggestions for improving down two topics from their field of the research that
the introduction? they thought would be suitable for a five- to ten-minute
After that the listeners carefully studied the presentation to be given to students in the class. The
assessment criteria and justified the grade allocated. instructor collected these topics, listed them on the
Eventually the students were given a list of board and asked students to work in small groups. The
suggested topics (in alphabetical order) and optional students in groups analysed each topic, considered
guidelines: whether it was too limited, too general, too technical
A. Discuss a recent development or innovation in or too well-known for the audience. Moreover, if the
your field students found the topic unsatisfactory, they revised
Guidelines: it to make it adequate for delivering a precise message.
• How was it developed?
• What are its current and future applications or Concluding a Presentation
uses?
• What needs does the particular development To make a strong impression on listeners, the
meet? conclusion of the presentation should be brief and to
• What, if any, are the problems associated with the point of the talk. For example, when presenting
it? conclusions, students are instructed that it is not the
B. Discuss a research project that you have carried time and place to introduce new ideas, but to remind
out: the audience of what has already been presented by
Guidelines: reviewing the main points and emphasising the major
• the purpose of the research; issues. The listeners are prepared for the end of the
• what you did; talk through some signalling strategies for concluding
• when and where you conducted the research; a presentation; for example, “And now let me quickly
• significant results/conclusions/ review the main points (advantages, reasons, effects,
recommendations; types) of _________.”
C. Imagine that you are speaking to some students Having identified the main features of conclusion,
who are interested in majoring in your particular the teacher assigned the tasks for writing conclusions
field of study. Conduct a discussion on different usingthesametopicsthatweregivenastheexamplesfor
job opportunities in this field. writing an introduction. Students worked individually
to prepare a one- or two-minute conclusion to a
Determining Content presentation they selected. When everyone finished,
they started to work in small groups, taking turns
Inevitably, at some point in preparing for a presenting conclusions to the group. Within the small
presentation, students began to be concerned about groups, strengths and weaknesses were discussed and
determining the content, that is, what specific then results were reported to the whole group.
information to include.Students were introduced to the After studying the information on determining
structure and teachers emphasised that the focus of any the content and preparing the conclusion of the
informative presentation should be to communicate presentation, students prepared a four- or five-minute
useful information in an explicit way. For the fourth- talk to give to a group or to the entire class, taking into
year students, the topic chosen for presentation was account the following guidelines:
related to their studies or research projects. Once the • making an outline of the points to be presented
subject issue was chosen, the topic would be limited in (avoiding writing out every word of the
order to cover the information adequately within the presentation)
time available for the presentation. When students • making sure the points were put in a logical
selected the topic for their presentations they also order
considered the following points: • planning the introduction and conclusion
1. Do you have enough time and resources to • making up a short list of any specialised or
conduct the necessary research? technical terms, etc.
2. Have you narrowed the topic enough to cover it The teacher assigned some students the task
adequately within the time limits? of evaluating the presentations. These listeners
3. Is the topic of potential interest to your considered the following questions in analysing
listeners? strengths and weaknesses of the content presented:
4. Is the topic too easy/too difficult or too 1. What kind of details, examples or facts related
technical for the audience? to the topic did the speaker include?
35
2. Did the speaker use the appropriate vocabulary? way to understand and remember. Some of the most
3. Was it the right level for these particular commonly used patterns of organisation are: (a) topical,
listeners in terms of understanding? (b) chronological, (c) spatial, (d) problem-solution, (e)
4. Was the information too simple or too complex cause and effect, (f) comparison/contrast (Matthews
for the audience? & Marino, 1990). For example, in comparison/contrast
5. Did the presentation meet the time pattern, there are two basic ways to follow when two
requirements? things are compared or contrasted: A-B and point-by-
They also examined the positive and negative sides point. In the first type, the two things to be compared
of the conclusion focusing on the following questions: are discussed in turn to give a general picture of the
1. Did the speaker use a fixed phrase to lead into comparison by focusing first on A then on B. While in
the conclusion? What was it? the second type, the point-by-point approach, specific
2. Was there a summary of the main points of the details are emphasised, alternating between A and B.
presentation? The plan for this pattern is given in a Table 3.
3. Did the presenter highlight the major issues?
Table 3
4. How did the speaker elicit questions from the
Two solutions to a problem
audience?
5. If the conclusion did not meet the format how To compare two solutions to a problem
could it be improved?
According to the teacher’s instructions, the A-B type Point-by-point type
listeners then reported the results to the speakers and
I. Solution 1 I. Cost
the rest of the class, and finally discussed them.
A. Cost A. Solution 1
In terms of organising information, determining the
central idea explains exactly what aspect of the topic B. Practicality B. Solution 2
is to be covered. Thus, the central idea controls what is C. Side effects II. Practicality
included in the presentation and also determines the D. Disadvantages A. Solution 1
arrangement of the main points. E. Advantages B. Solution 2
Organising Information
II. Solution 2 III. Side effects
For example, the chosen subject ‘International
Cooperation’, could be developed in a variety of A. Cost A. Solution 1
ways: a) the history of creation; b) the importance B. Practicality B. Solution 2
of international cooperation to avoid dangers, solve C. Side effects IY. Disadvantages
problems; c) working together with the UN and other D. Disadvantages A. Solution 1
organisations to deal with international problems;
E. Advantages B. Solution 1
d) priorities of international cooperation: a. the
environment b. economic cooperation c. regional Y. Advantages
infrastructure d. the indigenous population e. social A. Solution 1
aspects f. cross-border cooperation, etc. B. Solution 1
To build up several different topics with a clear
central idea, the teacher asked the students to work in Further, the teacher asked the students to
small groups. Each group was given the list of general work in small groups to determine which pattern
subjects: of organisation would work best with the general
• Public Administration subjects suggested earlier. When the students finished
• Civil Service the task, they discussed the results in their groups.
• Procurement After giving some time for comparing the patterns, the
• Bureaucracy teacher invited one person from each group to present
• Corruption the outline of their topics on the board. The audience
• Budgeting made comments, pointed to positive and negative
• E-Government sides and improved the imperfect ones.
• Knowledge Management
• Public-Service Motivation Using Transitions
• Crowdfunding
Working in a group, the students compared their In order for the listeners to understand the
topics, reported their results and finally selected relationship of the ideas and to show them how
those that sounded most relevant to the subject. The the pieces of information fit together into a logical
teacher emphasised that the central idea is the main pattern, transitions need to be used. The students were
body of the presentation. It consists of key points given the task to work individually, planning their
that need to be arranged for the audience in an easy presentations with the focus on outlining and using
36
transitions effectively, moving from point to point and Table 5

connecting different parts of the talk. Post-test scores of the second group
When individual work came to an end, the Number of Score
students (47) (60)
teacher instructed the students to work in groups,
taking turns giving their presentations. After each 5 56-58
speaker had finished, the discussion of strengths and 6 53-55
weaknesses was initiated. Having practiced in groups, 5 49-50
some of the students were asked by the teacher to 8 48-49
give presentations to the entire class. Meanwhile
8 42-46
the teacher also assigned some students to do the
following listening task: 6 39-41
1. What was the central idea of the presentation? 4 35-37
2. What pattern of organisation did the speaker 5 30-33
use?
3. What were the main points presented by the
speaker?
4. Were the main points presented in a logical Discussion
way?
5. How well-connected were the different parts
and ideas of the presentation? The present study provides an overview of
Turning to the conditions of the experiment assessment techniques pertinent to English language
the first group under research was aware of the training in the field of oral speech. This exploration can
examination speaking criteria while the students of help to understand the extent to which these learning-
the second group were not presented the criteria and orientedtechniquesofassessmentaffectcompetencein
were not evaluated according to these criteria as the English language learning and lead to self-assessment,
first group was. which plays an active role in English Learning
To see the effect of the experiment and to assess Teaching. This issue has not been studied so far and
students’ level of English language competences in the main aim of the present study was to observe and
terms of general English, the students were given characterise these effects. The research consistently
Objective Placement Test, Variant 2, CUP & FLTRP, 2010 showed that only assessment “for learning” and not “of
before the exam of the fourth-year academic course. learning” lead to self-assessment. A sequence of steps
This post-test revealed a definite progress in the first to develop self-assessment was worked out: setting
group: goals for students; the assessment of each language
component; guidance of the teacher in discussions;
Table 4
clear references if students needed further review;
Post-test scores of the first group
teacher insights into student motivation. These
Number of Score patterns were repeated several times. They proved to
students (43) (60) demonstrate permanent progress. The development
7 60 of the assessment techniques encourages the active
6 57-58 involvement of students in the process of their own
5 53-55 learning and assessment. These results indicate that
the techniques implemented to develop assessment
7 48-50
and self-assessment are intended to shift the focus
7 45-47
more to students, enabling them to become more
5 41-43 effective learners and to succeed in English language
3 38-40 learning.
3 33-36
While the results of the second group did not Conclusion

improve much (see Table 5).
Therefore, the authors were persuaded that
continuous evaluation and awareness of the The research conducted by the authors shows that
assessment criteria had a positive impact on the the framework used in assessment produces good
process of students’ further development in the field results.It outlines the relationship between assessment
of English language training. Moreover, these methods and self-assessment. The authors argued that self-
led to remarkable results at the final examination. assessment plays a major role in ELT and explored
37
the assessment activities which they embedded in the the main stream. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 227-249.
curriculum to develop self-assessment. The research Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills.
shows that the impact on learning outcomes was New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
great. The degree of English learning competence Davison, C., & Cummins, J. (2007). Assessment
improvement helped students to develop and perfect and evaluation in ELT: Shifting paradigms and
their language skills. practices. In International Handbook of English
The research into assessment and evaluation Language Teaching (Vol. 15, pp. 415-420). Boston,
in ELT highlights several broad themes for further MA: Springer Science Business Media, LLC.
research into teachers’ professional development. Dunn, B., et al. (2004). Genetic footprinting: A functional
More detailed classroom studies of assessment analysis of the S. cerevisiae genome. Stanford, CA:
practices and their effects on students’ learning are Stanford University Press.
needed. By investigating the effect of using some Genesee, F., Upshur, J. (1996). Classroom-based
self-assessment techniques on language competence, evaluation in second language education. Cambridge,
this study hypothesized that the development of self- UK: Cambridge University Press.
assessment can foster language skills. In order to verify Gibbs, G. (2003). Using assessment to support student
this hypothesis different techniques were adapted and learning at University of East Anglia. Leeds, UK:
injected while teaching “Oral Presentation Skills”. It Leeds Metropolitan University.
was found that the development of self-assessment Jabbarifar, T. (2009). The importance of classroom
helped improve and foster language skills and assessment and evaluation in educational system.
contributed to the development of reliable monitoring In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of
and evaluation, thereby influencing students’ progress Teaching and Learning (ICTL 2009). INTI University
and attainment. However, an important variable not College, Kuching, Malaysia.
investigated in this study was the effect of assessment Matthes, C., & Marino, J. (1990). Professional
on students’ motivation. This might be a focus for a interactions: Oral communication skills in science,
further experimental study and calls for a wider range technology, and medicine. London, UK: Prentice Hall.
of assessment strategies. Nunan, D. (1989). Understanding language classrooms.
London, UK: Prentice Hall.
O’Malley, J. M., & Valdez-Pierce, L. (1996). Authentic
References assessment for English language learners: Practical
approaches for teachers. Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley.
Allwright, D., & Bailey, K. (1991). Focus on the language Rea-Dickins, P. (1994). Evaluation and English
classroom: An introduction to classroom research language teaching. Language Teaching, 27, 71-91.
or language teachers. New York, NY: Cambridge Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective
University Press. teaching in second language classrooms. New York,
Biggs, J. (1999). What the student does: Teaching for NY: Cambridge University Press.
enhanced learning. Hager Education Research and Sainsbury, E., & Walker, R. (2007). Assessment as
Development, 18(1), 57-75. a vehicle for learning: Extending collaboration
Carter, R., & Nunan, D. (2001). The Cambridge guide into testing. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher
to teaching English to speakers of other languages. Education, 33(2), 1-18.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Kuzmenkova, Iu. (2011). Academic project presentations.
Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1989). The cognitive Мoscow, Russia: MSU.
academic language learning approach: A bridge to
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Self appraisal
1. Multiple-choice items are widely used in
achievement testing
diagnostic testing
performance testing
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Self appraisal
2. The elements of a multiple-choice item are
stem, key, alternatives
stem, alternatives, distractor
stem, key, distractors
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Self appraisal
3. The stem can be presented as
direct question
complete statement
direct question and incomplete statement
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Self appraisal
4. Negative forms in the stem should be
ignored
not included
highlighted
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Self appraisal
5. Distractors should be
different in size and length
similar in size and length
grammatically complex
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Self appraisal
6. The correct options should be located
in different positions
in a fixed position
in the second position
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Self appraisal
7. In each multiple-choice item there should be
a correct alternative and some incorrect answers
a correct alternative and some plausible correct answers
a correct alternative and some plausible incorrect answers
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Self appraisal
8. The distractor must
fit in the stem
be totally incorrect
distract students
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Self appraisal
9. A distractor should
be easy to identify
be easy to read
be different from the key
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Self appraisal
10. All the options below represent the advantages of multiple-choice items EXCEPT:
scoring is easy and reliable
guessing is diminished
reading ability influences scoring
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Measurement is:
a. Series of actions that help the teacher measure student
performance
b. The process in which the progress of the students is measured
quantitatively or qualitatively.
c. Method used by teachers to determine learning progress.
What is the purpose of Evaluation?

a. Make decisions about the learner´s future, and how they are going
to perform in the future class
b. Evaluate in a qualitative way how students perform
c. Get a better idea about the current learner's knowledge
What information provides the tests?

a. Students’ accuracy in certain area
b. Students' performance in certain area
c. Teachers’ performance in certain area
It is the one that measures knowledge at the end of a cycle, which aims
to measure performance, known as:
a. Learning assessment
b. Formative evaluation
c. Informative Evaluation
Which assessment motivates students and provides constructive

feedback?
a. Summative assessment
b. Formal assessment
c. Informal assessment
In the binomial selection test, are the answers true or false?
a. Yes, because it is a basic format

b. No, because it is a test of writing concepts
c. Is used to evaluate teachers
2. What should be the appropriate length of true and false statements?

a. They should be long and complex and suggest an answer
b. They should be in the middle with the wrong answer
c. They should be short and simple and not to suggest an answer
3. True and false statements are used to test __________ skills and
________ topics to get ________ results.
a. Writing- hard- objective

b. Receptive-easy-objective
c. Listening and speaking-long-subjective
4. The tests of true and false must avoid _________, for example at the
moment of_______two coins of different denomination, both the size and
monetary value can be considered to choose an answer.
a. Ambiguity-comparing
b. Reliability-contrasting
c. Quality-comparing
5. The selection items have two possible answers and are useful to
.........
a. That students recognize true or false information.

b. That students recognize the bad or good information
c. That students recognize the correct or incorrect information.
What is the principal assumption of traditional assessment?

a. It assumes that all students should learn the same thing
b. It assumes that all students should memorize
c. It assumes that all students should enjoy the learning process.
What determines a traditional assessment tool?

a. How much a student wants to learn
b. How are the students perspectives
c. How much a person knows
Which of the next ones is NOT a common traditional assessment tool?

a. Multiple choice tests.
b. True/false tests.
c. Open texts
What is Alternative Assessment?

a. This is a method of evaluation that measures a student’s level of
proficiency in a subject.
b. This is an evaluation that measures a student’s level
c. Tests taken with paper and pencil that are usually true/fals,
matching, or multiple choice
d. Referring to formal tests that check students’ ability to recollect
and reproduce the content studied during a course
What are some examples of alternative assessment?

a. Portfolio, performance test, open tests
b. Quizzes, reports, essays
c. Multiple-choice questions and unit tests
d. Multiple-choice , short answers
What does evaluation in middle schools mainly consist of?

a. Curriculum, design, infrastructure.
b. Teachers, approach and content.
c. Curriculum, content and infrastructure
d. None of the above.
What is the main purpose of student evaluation in secondary schools?

a. Identify student needs
b. Measure student progress and give direction to everything that we
do when changing and improving school programs
c. Measure student progress, abilities and individual achievement.
Examination should be an integral part of…..

a. The learning process and it only should focus on being digestible
and easy for middle school students
b. The process of education, it should point out the strengths and
weaknesses of the student in particular disciplines
c. Teacher performance in favor of middle school students well being
and development
Select the important considerations for educational evaluation

a. Students must focus on design new processes of student's
feedback to achieve the goal of learning
b. Evaluation must be realistic, relevant, constructive, communicative
and flexible
c. "Evaluation is a system of resources of processes educational”
d. "Evaluation must be raised for the improvement of teacher
learning. It is a double effect, since teaching practice can also be
improved"
Updating and developing the competencies in the field of specialization

corresponding to the teaching functions obtained through initial teacher
training corresponds to:
a. The role of the teacher in education
b. Roles and strategies of teacher evaluation
c. Legal framework
d. None of the above
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7. Introduction
The primary notions of assessment are deeply linked with the possibility to monitor the progress made by apprentices as
they follow a painstakingly meant set of tasks which comprise a particular course of action whereby the pursuit of
milestones and accomplishments may be gauged as per the effectiveness of the instruction for performance’s purposes
(Hodges, et all, 2014). In keeping with what is required to assess or rather according to the nature of feedback educators
would desire to pass on their students, assessment, based on its function or purpose, falls into formative and summative
assessment (Brown, 2004).
Formative assessment is informed back instruction given that teachers are getting student-learning-based facts by means
of a varying array of activities which allow them to execute adjustments to the instruction in a bid to enhance the quality
of teaching and thereupon the opportunities for apprentices to construct their learning (Flores, 2016).
On the flip side, summative assessment embraces a widely encompassing conception with regards to the students’
performance in terms of achievements and skills. These are mirrored in a sort of summation by the end of a course or
when instruction is on the verge of coming to an end. By and large, summative assessment traces the trajectory made by
learners so that the implications of their proper performance may be framed by establishing benchmarks which serve to
diverse purposes (Brown).
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7.1. Formative Assessment
As CCSSE has stated (Dolin, et all, 2018): “Formative

assessment is a process used by teachers and students
during instruction that provides feedback to adjust
ongoing teaching and learning to improve students’
achievement of intended instructional outcomes”. The
primary pursuit that educators strive when deploying
formative approaches is to both gain insights into the way
teaching is being conducted as well as perceived by
students and outline benchmarks that can be utilized as
indicators to reshape the teaching practice. It is truly worth
mentioning the fact that not only do teachers play a part in
formative assessment but also students as they are in the
wait for reliable feedback that showcases their
performance in a bid to materialized their endeavors put
into tackling the learning process over the duration of the
course.
https://michiganvirtual.org/blog/how-implementing-voice-
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7.1. Formative Assessment
Formative assessment finds its foundations in a

broadly accepted focus regarding what the process of
learning entails, which is a collaborative practice
between teachers and learners. That is to say, the
assessment of learning takes place in the interaction
teacher-learner while issuing task-oriented information
that results in a double track feedback (Black, et all,
2003). Teachers, on their part, are steadily parsing the
consistency of the approach employed through which
teaching was conducted (strategies, techniques,
activities, tests, etc.); whereas learners, respond to the
impact this all repertory had on them, while interacting
to it in due course.
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7.1.1 Principles
The likely definitions that revolve around assessment are abided by two views, the one is beholding assessment as an
instrument and the other contemplates the assessment matter more of a procedural nature (Dolin, et all, 2018). In this sense,
regardless of what outlook is intended to take advantage to make the most of the teaching practice, the principles that formative
assessment embraces might differ from the approach this being considered, be it assessment for learning or assessment as
learning (Clark, 2011).
Assessment regarded in a for-learning-based way goes on to steer students’ efforts through a process in which learners are
capable of noticing the progress they are making in order to reach long-waited goals. This can be done by implementing
mechanisms that provide both meaningful and immediate feedback to learners in such a way that the current gap existent
between the present-day student state and the potential development they could attain may be bridged by dint of process-based
activities such as balanced feedback, pertinent questioning and socializing the criteria indicators with learners (AAG/APMG,
2002-2008). In this respect some helpful guidelines may be outlined so that the principles of assessment for learning can get as
clearly as possible:
• Clarifying good performance standards for students.
• Combining effort and time on defiant learning activities.
• Providing students with high-quality feedback for self-correcting.
• Fostering students motivation and self-stem .
• Ensuring that summative assessment does not disturb learners focus.
• Enabling learners to respond to given feedback.
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7.1.1 Principles
Assessment as learning, on its part, is rather directed at creating opportunities within classrooms that enable students to
develop independency and autonomy while strengthening peer engagement notions. Unlike assessment for learning, students
are the ones who undertake the establishment of the benchmarks in the learning process be it in the form of fixing goals,
debating both the intentions of the learning and success criteria, or evaluating their progress either on their own or by means of
the help of their peers (self and peer assessment) (AAG/APMG, 2002-2008). This all is accomplished by having the co-reflection
as the pivotal axis of the envisaged activities which enables students to pull together and take notice of the up and down sides
of working both individual and collaboratively. The fundamental bases over which assessment as learning is developed into are
outlined as follows (Edinburgh, 2016):
• Prompting debates and dialogues as opportunities to peer engagement.

• Encouraging the development of co-reflection and self-assessment in learning.
• Including students in the decision-making process about assessment practice and policy
• Enabling students to make their choice for the topic, criteria, methods, weighting and timing of assessments activities.
• Fostering the construction of learning communities among learners.
• Gathering information to help reshape the learning process.
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7.1.2 Techniques & Strategies
In a bid to perform a further elaboration on principles,

formative assessment can be pieced together through a core
array of techniques and strategies that apart from
characterizing its nature, they both emphasize different
aspects, which though might not be overlapping, contribute to
varying phased insights into its analysis (Flores, 2016).
Developing formative assessment within classrooms entails a

somewhat demanding endeavor for teachers as the activities
stemmed from this assessment tend to be strenuous and
time-consuming (Banks, 2005). Nevertheless, formative
assessment techniques happen to be far more rewarding for
learners as they are enabled to get involved in the decision-
making process of the forthcoming class enlargement (Harris,
http://www.atsstem.eu/wp-content/uploads/2020/02
2007). Thus, the more noteworthily advisable techniques that /14454_ATS3_Merged-1.pdf
could not be neglected to be implemented while conducting
teaching range from target-setting, sharing the learning
objectives to structuring lesson introductions.
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Target-setting Quite closely related to walking learners through taking hold of their own learning process
(responsibility for the management and accomplishment of targets), when they are given the
chance to outline their very aims that they aspire to either overtake or fulfill within classrooms,
renders the learning far more gratifying (Schunk, 1996).
When both teacher and student engage in sharing their anticipations about what they expect
Sharing learning objectives:
from each other in order to firstly, attain the learning milestones in terms of the performance
on the verge of deploying, and secondly the skills entangled to be mastered; learners will
render far more concentrated on the way through for the sake of fulfilling such goals (Sadler,
1989)
Structuring lesson A valuable alternative to giving rise to a successful lesson introduction has to do with a
introductions: sensible order previously attempted in which the teacher firstly provides students with an
overview of the lesson by mentioning the topic or the name unit accompanied with a stimulus
that will have students engaged while it lasts, secondly the objectives are stated and clarified
so that the forthcoming activity and further success criteria can be ultimately socialized
seamlessly (Harris, 2007)
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Ultimately, as for the strategies that

formative assessment encompasses, it is
really worth stating the fact that they can
be both formal and informal and based
on these two approaches they can be
outlined as follows:
Table 1 Formative Assessment Strategies

Note: Outlining of formal and informal formative
assessment strategies
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7.1.3 Impact on Students Learning
The practice of applying formative assessment within classrooms has gained traction over time as the response on the part
of students is highly valued as being a helpful resource to be implemented during the course time frame and given that the
breadth of it goes far beyond a mere alternative to assessing apprentices’ performance (Cowan, 2009). That is to say, the
implications of formative assessment are deeply embedded in students when they are guided through this type of
assessment, in other words, formative assessment comes across as an effective and long-standing way when assessing.
What teachers gain by means of deploying activities or tasks in keeping with formative assessment benchmarks is that
learners get involved in the process of learning actively while striving for reaching the accomplishments that they are being
told that they may attain by following the success criteria socialized beforehand by teachers (Black & William, 2009). By and
large, formative assessment entails a fruitful interaction ( of the sort of social one) between teacher and student in which
according to the agreements they may come, the class development as well as class management can become endurable
over time while strengthening the role-model affection from students towards teachers.
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7.1.3 Impact on Students Learning
Figure 1 Classroom Context Interaction

Note: Analysis regarding student interactions based on teachers’ practices.
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7.2. Summative Assessment
Summative Assessment as it is put (Moss, 2013, pág.

235):”Unlike assessments that are formative or
diagnostic, the purpose of summative assessment is to
determine the student’s overall achievement in a specific
area of learning at a particular time— a purpose that
distinguishes it from all other forms of assessment”. The
breadth and relevance of summative assessment lie in its
judgmental nature at the moment of reporting students’
information in terms of success or failures at deciding on
whether students have reached the essential knowledges
to go on to the next course. In a nutshell, summative
assessment rules the student performance on a numeric
basic which is thereafter weighted over standard scales
that shed light on the qualifications of the students.
https://www.oecd.org/education/school/50077677.pdf
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7.2. Summative Assessment
The information ensued from summative assessment

overall may well pass into outsiders’ hands such as
schools, principals, or authorities in charge of educational
departments either at local or national or even
international level. The detail of such information it is not
a guiding factor to determine the thoroughness of
instruction (Ellis, et all, 2020). What can be gathered from
this is that the record of the scores stemmed from
summative assessment may well serve for diverse
purposes, those that have properly to do with referent
indicators utilized on overall basis in order to keep track
the educational management at either national or
international level, thereby conclusions that came from
that data can solely be seen as a cursory benchmark of
https://www.prodigygame.com/main-en/blog/types-of-assessment/
education and further teaching from the place they stem.
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7.2.1 Principles
What could not be disregarded for both summative and

formative assessment is the matter of how flexible they can
be in order to fulfill the needs as per teachers in classroom
require to be met. On the basis of a particular assessment
task the approach through which the data collected may be
utilized or applied is what really determines the function of
such assessment either formative or summative. (Eberly
Center, n.d.)
The principles that summative assessment is built on are
closely related to two primary aims that it is quite often
utilized for: a) determining students’ success at particular
time and b) establishing eligibility for study programs
(Harlen & Gardner, 2010). In order to stick to the
accomplishment of the aforementioned guidelines, https://www.readingrockets.org/article/school-based-identification-
summative assessment is routed to not only serve for characteristics-dyslexia-parent-overview
judgmental purposes in terms of conceptual understanding
but also this assessment is demanded to walk students
through the involvement in developing critical thinking skills
for solving problems (Council, National Research, 2001).
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7.2.1 Principles
In this respect, summative assessment is abided by four principles:
Practicality: It is said that a summative assessment is practical when it beholds that the amount of resources entangled in
its development are appropriate rendering it accessible. Besides, the administration and the time bounds are relatively
effortless to execute and ultimately the process of scoring in tandem with the process of evaluation are both time-efficient and
cost-effective (Brown, 2004)
Reliability: Summative assessment for reliability’s sake must be consistent and dependable. Consistent insofar as there should
not be much difference when applying it to the same student more than once; and dependable to the extent that the factors
governing the environment are not born on aspects of the sort of: scoring, test administration, test inner-related matters and
student-related issues (Brown, 2004)
Validity: In order for a summative assessment to be valid it has to comply with that the inferences made upon the test results
are along the lines of appropriateness, meaningfulness and usefulness as to what are the purposes of the assessment as such
(Gronlund, 1998). That is to say, a summative assessment is narrowly closed to the set of matters dealt with along the course.
Authenticity: The authenticity within a summative assessment lies in the narrowly natural relation between the tasks presented
in the test with those that may take account of in the real world (Bachman & Palmer, 1996). In this sense, there must be an
applicability and concordance regarding what a test task is meant with what from the real world can be matched.
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As it has been elucidated the far-less possible elaboration on

summative assessment is narrow due to the fact that the sole
breadth it could extend upon is merely confined as a way of
judgement which has encapsulated students’ facts in a bid to
communicate recent evaluation results that barely take into
account likely suggestions for enhancing students’ growth
further ahead (Taras, 2005). This gives rise to questioning
whether the current formative assessment approach enacts
the lack of guiding required so that a holistic contemplation
may be in the pipeline to route the commonplace notions
placed on the very summative assessment conception. Upon
this reflection few techniques are sketched to widen the focus
that this type of assessment has been unduly discussed.
These are detached from the view of performance-based
assessment as under that lineaments is considered the notion
of providing learners with opportunities for demonstrating the http://www.lovelearningideas.com/home/2015
learning they have embraced (Council, National Research, /2/27/meaningful-manageable-assessment
2001).
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Product-assessments:
Emphasized on delivering an ultimate product along the lines of knowledge indicators
previously agreed so that the product may resemble real-world objects (Dixson & Worrel,
2016).
Performance-assessments
Deeming teachers either monitoring or observing the knowledge by way of application in a real
setting by students who are developing their understanding in a hands-on way, or what is the
same, by doing so (Dixson & Worrel, 2016).
Process-focused assessments
Establishing concrete stages in which certain aspects are being contemplated such as the
steps employed to reach particular outcomes while prioritizing the resourcefulness of students
(McTighe & Ferrara, 1998).
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Likewise in the formative assessment, there are concise strategies through which summative assessments could be built on within
classrooms. These have been outlined as follows:
Table 2 Summative Assessment Strategies

Note: Outlining of summative assessment strategies when
designing instruments.
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7.2.3 Impact on Students learning (graphic)
It could not be overlooked that when it comes to assessing

knowledge summatively students are the ones who are
mostly paid attention regarding the way they respond to
such an assessment procedure. Learners are benefit from
the external uses of summative assessment in the form of
vocational qualifications, employment selection or school
performance given that they are both aware of the criteria
functioning and able to take root their learning while being
assessed. Besides, when summative assessment is
employed for serving internal purposes such as grading
on a regular basis for record keeping, informing decisions
about school choices and reporting non-judgmental
feedback, it has been perceived a spike on students https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-importance-of-assessment-in-
motivation for further endeavor (Moss, 2013). education.html
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It could not be overlooked that when it comes to assessing

knowledge summatively students are the ones who are
Further to the aforementioned, it is reckoned that
mostly paid attention regarding the way they respond to
some other upsides are brought in on students when
such an assessment procedure. Learners are benefit from
utilizing summative assessments like the increase in
the external uses of summative assessment in the form of
confidence by allowing them to build their own
vocational qualifications, employment selection or school
learning environment and encouraging them to
performance given that they are both aware of the criteria
develop meta-cognition related foundations when
functioning and able to take root their learning while being
preparing for gauging their progress across priorities
assessed. Besides, when summative assessment is
and targets. Ultimately, students after summative
employed for serving internal purposes such as grading
assessment can report disconformities over adverse
on a regular basis for record keeping, informing decisions
points that happened to be rather complex in terms of
about school choices and reporting non-judgmental
achievement so that on further occasions these may
feedback, it has been perceived a spike on students
be painstakingly overhauled (Reddy, 2019).
motivation for further endeavor (Moss, 2013).
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Figure 2
Note: Assessment factors and mechanism of impact of summative assessment
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Self appraisal
1. Underlying notions in assessment refer to the possibility of having an informed instruction when teaching. What are
the pursuit of milestones and accomplishments in keeping with?
Confidence and experience of teachers
Effectiveness of the instruction
Objectives and aims previously contrived
Painstakingly meant set of tasks
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Self appraisal
2. Assessment is conceived for the most part as a way to provide students with information as per their performance.
What are the types of assessment based on the feedback nature desired?
Standardized testing and rubrics
Formative and Summative
Multiple-choice and open-ended questions
All of the above
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Self appraisal
3. Information gather from students may be interpreted in different ways according to what the teachers require. What type of
assessment do empower teachers to reshape teaching?
Summative Assessment
Summative and Formative Assessment
Formative Assessment
All of the above
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Self appraisal
4. Over time the notions of teaching assessment have varied depending on the trendy ideologies and paradigms.
Select the views that have been ascribed to assessment within teaching.
Procedural and instrument nature
Reliable and Valid
Testing and scoring nature
None of the above
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Self appraisal
5. In order to narrow down the concept of formative assessment some primary notions have been developed to endorse
and understand its function. What guidelines must a formative assessment have?
Fostering students motivation and self-stem
Ensuring that assessment does not disturb learners focus
Enabling learners to produce worth feedback
Providing students with low-quality feedback
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Self appraisal
6. For the sake of devising a proper formative assessment teachers must seek out appropriate techniques and strategies. What
is the benefit obtained from employing target-setting technique in formative assessment?
Students and teachers are engaged
Students can predict classroom development
Learning is rendered far more gratifying
The interaction between students and teachers is increased.
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Self appraisal
7. The only way by which teachers can yield judgements regarding learners approval and failure is through evidence. Select the
main function of summative assessment.
Approving and Disapproving learners in curricular terms
Determining students overall achievement at a particular time
Providing students with judgmental feedback upon learning process
Ruling student performance by means of scoring scales
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Self appraisal
8. Information elicited from summative assessment tend to be used to make decision at national curricular levels. What are two
chief aims of summative assessment?
Evaluating and improving teaching instruction
Gathering and sorting students evidence
Determining success and eligibility of students.
Establishing goals and purposes for testing
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Self appraisal
9. Summative assessment encapsulates students information in order to communicate it on a numeric basis. Select one of the
techniques for performance-based assessment
Addressing procedural assessments
Addressing projects throughout the course instruction
Addressing alternative ways for assessing performance like portfolios
Addressing based learning methodologies for assessment
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Self appraisal
10. Employing summative assessments gives rise to establishing curricular standards and benchmarks for educational
purposes. What is one of the benefits that students acquire by virtue of summative assessment?
Students develop task-oriented responsibility
Students manage to meet their goals
Students learn to establishing short and long term potential achievements
Students gain confidence in building learning environments
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8. Introduction
It could not be neglected the fact that when teachers are

devising their instruments to serve assessment purposes,
there are several concerns that might arise from the
planification’s moment of doing it. One of this likely issues
has to do with whether the communication of the
information arranged in the test is strictly clear and meet
the outlined goals in terms of both validity, to the extent
that it pertinent and appropriately tests a particular skill or
ability; and the reliability as to any number of times the
instrument is tested, there will not be as larger difference
when applying it repeatedly as for the result obtained
(McAlpine, 2002). In this respect, it is worthy of notice that
validity and reliability comprise two pivotal principles that
must be beheld when undertaking assessment
https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/educational-assessment/testing-youre-
instruments development given that they ensure that the
teaching-without-teaching-test/
ultimate products have envisaged any likely concern from
a test-taker’s point of view.
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8. Introduction
Validity tackles primary issues related to how faithful is the

representation as to what teachers have purported to assess in
order to become students aware of the potential applications of
the knowledge they have within day-to-day scenarios
(Broadfoot, 2007). This with the aim of inducing students into a
large outlook reliant on the varying usages of the effort and time
invested in the course and at a later stage, ensuring that the
acquired skills do not render vague but they get ingrained into
their minds as helpful resources for solving real-world
problems.
On the flip side, reliability focuses on the dependability that
assessment instruments portray to the extent that they do not
be variable according to the times they are employed regardless
of the conditions under which they are applied (Moskal &
Leydens, 2000). In other words, there must be a consistency
among the test applications so that they do not display a https://tryengineering.org/news/its-national-environmental-education-
haphazard scoring obtained after testing. An assessment week-april-19-23/
instrument should be of a reusable nature in that it is meant to
gauge accomplishments and dexterities of diverse student
groups, hence the importance of it being reliable.
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8.1. Validity
As it has been stated: “Validity refers to the degree to

which the evidence supports that these interpretations are
correct and that the manner in which the interpretations
are used is appropriate” (Bhatnagar et al, 2021, p. 2).
Thereby the insights into what the validity within
assessment entails are narrowly close to declaring
whether the measures obtained are valid in that they are
in keeping with information about the population the
assessment was created for. In this sense, it should be
clear the fact that validity is not a property of the
instrument; but rather, the quality of conceivable
constructions stemmed from the measures of a test are
appropriately aligned with generalizations about the
knowledge of students so that evaluative judgments can
be made according to the scores of a test (Messick,
1989). https://www.educaciontrespuntocero.com/noticias/tipos-de-
aprendizajes-electronicos/e-can-improve-student-
engagement/
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8.1. Validity
Given that level of evidence validity is prone to be

addressed in several ways, among the varying
possibilities to gather students evidence that endorses
the validity of a particular assessment, this could be
done by comparing the performance of two sets of
students, one that possesses the skill or ability on the
verge of being measured and other that does not; or in
turn, contrasting different performances of a very
group of students while taking two distinct tests meant
to measure similar or separate constructs. This
underlines the fact that judgments on validity must be
collected from different pieces of evidence (Solano-
Flores, 2016).
https://www.activecampaign.com/blog/validity-in-research-design
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8.1.1. Content-Related Evidence
As long as a test meets these two foremost

requirements: a) sampling the subject matter from
which conclusions will be drawn and b) test-taker’s
required performance goes aligned with purported
behaviors to be measured; it is said that the evidence
provided fits in the sort of content-related evidence
(Mousavi, 2002; Hughes, 2003). Then it could be held
that whenever achievements may be clearly defined
prior to measuring, it is being referred to content
validity, that is to say, assessment outline goes hand in
hand with curricular aims that have been pretended to
be reached in the form of desirable outcomes.
https://psychcentral.com/lib/what-is-a-psychological-evaluation
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8.1.1. Content-Related Evidence
As per it has been raised concerning content validity, it

could be taken into account as low-content-validity
testing illustrations of the sort of (Brown, 2004):
• Testing tennis players speed running
• Assessing language oral fluency by employing
multiple-question exams
• Assessing two objectives in a test out of ten
previously agreed upon a course development.
Content validity has as its primal target assessing

sensibly dexterity or knowledge provided in a course in
the most suitable way so that can be depicted the very
application of either without a doubt. That is, if oral
fluency development is being dealt with in a course,
then benchmarks like vocabulary, language flexibility,
grammar management, etc. must be regarded as the
guidelines around which learners’ speaking
performance will revolve while being assessed.
https://psychcentral.com/lib/what-is-a-psychological-evaluation
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8.1.2. Criterion-Related Evidence
Before the need of comparing certain results obtained from a

specific test with others of the same nature in terms of
knowledge, skill or ability, it was remarked that an overall
indicator should exist be it teacher judgements or results
according to assessments of recognized validity (Green,
2014). This issue in the early years of the twentieth century,
would give rise to criterion-measure concept within
assessment.
It is said that an assessment possesses criterion-related

validity, provided its results obtained are equally matched with
those from the criterion measure. In this sense, by assuming
an individual took a Cambridge proficiency English test in
which the total score obtained after averaging each skill
equals B2, then such a score it is accepted as that of an
intermediate-level learner, however, in order to make a
Figure 1 Standard English proficiency levels
comparison with others English proficiency test scales, it
Note: Comparison chart regarding English standard proficiency scores
should be conducted a contrast with the criteria from such
English proficiency scoring tests.
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8.1.3. Construct-Related Evidence
What is meant to be referring by means of construct

validity is the degree to which underlying knowledge along
with the skill that the assessment is intended to gauge is
representative (Broadfoot, 2007). In other words,
construct-related evidence comprises a vast baggage of
both knowledge and dexterity upon a specific area that
requires complementary data to make inferences in order
to be measured. Construct depends on the field in which
the assessment is tackled as it entails the inclusion of
further data as in the case of “self-stem” that is a
psychological construct; whereas “communicative
competence” is a linguistic construct (Brown, 2004). In
layman’s terms, whenever a test is to be administered, a https://teachonline.ca/tools-trends/how-teach-online-student-success
particular construct underlies across its devising given that /new-pedagogy-emerging-and-online-learning-key-contributing-factor
never is it assessed a narrowly defined matter; but rather,
a whole set of concepts, foundations and ideas regarding
the subject matter are separately included throughout the
tasks of the assessment.
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8.1.3. Construct-Related Evidence
For the sake of example, when oral production is

tackled for assessment, aspects such as vocabulary
flexibility, grammatical accuracy, pronunciation, etc. are
taken into account in such a way the assessment can
be comprehensive in terms of what oral production
encompasses.
Figure 2 Language Testing Constructs

Note: Approaches to defining the construct in language testing (Fox et al,
2007)
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8.1.4. Consequential Validity
So far it has been addressed the salient matters within the validity of assessment which suggests that further notions may be
detached from those three. In that respect, consequential validity underlines the consequences stemmed from primary factors
entangled in the assessment practices such as the accuracy of criteria measurement, impact on test-taker preparation, its
aftermath on learners and further social consequences based on the interpretation and use of the very test (McNamara,
2000).
One of the far-reaching factors that has come to light is the preparation for high-stakes assessments given that they have
gained traction over the last few decades, in which the most outstanding fact is related to socio-economic conditions that
reflect the cautions envisaged by those who have the possibility to afford private coaching before others who do not. Further
to this, another aspect reckoned that consequential validity has placed attention on is the washback effect or what is the
same, the repercussions that assessment entails on students (Brown, 2004).
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8.2. Reliability
What should be placed attention on when it comes to defining reliability is that this term happens to be rather succinct in
terms of the considerations made by different authors: “Reliability in its simplest definition refers to consistency, often
meaning instrument consistency” (Mackey & Gass, 2016, p. 180). This definition does not vary along the lines of further
definitions that result in holding quite a close acceptation: “A simple definition of test reliability is the consistency of
information obtained from a test” (Sawaki, 2016, p. 51). As it is remarked, there is rather a narrow relation between reliability
and consistency as per is stated in Popham: “When you encounter the term reliability in any assessment context, you should
draw a mental equal sign between reliability and consistency, because reliability refers to the consistency with which a test
measures whatever it’s measuring” (Popham, 2005, p. 31). With this all being elucidated, it must be worth referring to the fact
that a test it is said to be reliable, provided it is both consistent and dependable. That is to say, as many times as the test is
administered to a student, the results obtained might not differ in a greater extent; hence, it gives rise to raise what matters
come into play when rendering a test unreliable. These may range from multiple variations in terms of students, scoring,
administration of the test, and to ultimately the test per se.
Likewise, the quality of the data drawn by dint of a reliable test it is regarded as being of a high standard nature as it can be
consistent, dependable and in turn, replicated over time, over any instrument and over whatever cohort of respondents
(Wiersma, 2000; Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007). Nonetheless, it could not be neglected the fact that as measures are
being employed, then there is a slight error likelihood to be taken place when retesting the instrument. This can be illustrated
as follows:
X=T+E
Where (X) is the score observed while testing, (T) is the true score stemmed from the umpteenth times that an individual took
the test, and (E) stands for the measurement error that, for the most part, is present in the bulk of measurements in a real-
world scenario (Sawaki, 2016).
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8.2.1. Student-Related Reliability
One of the unquestionable issues that might render an

assessment unreliable is that of the inconsistencies
presented in students which manifest in the form of
fatigue, anxiety, physical and psychological factors,
among others (Brown, 2004). In this sense, the breadth
that the aforementioned student-related issues may entail
is closely incidental to affecting the truth value of a
specific score that deviates from its real one, that is, the
score may entirely vary from what it is expected to be in
the light of the implications of student-related issues over
the performance. Besides, other aspects can be included
in terms of the strategies adopted by test-takers for a
perfectly functional test taking as well as the mastery or
test-wiseness acquired from performing the test
Figure 3 Factors affecting testing
repeatedly (Mousavi, 2002).
Note: The three main mental factors that bear on students grades.
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8.2.2. Rater Reliability
Rater reliability has to do with the differential degree that

either several raters or the very rater at two different
moments have obtained consistent scores (Nitko &
Brookhart, 2011). This issue takes on greater relevance
given that matters of the sort of human error or
subjectivity may, to some extent, come into play during
the process of scoring.
• Inter-rater reliability: When two or more raters have

judged the same data, yet the presence of personal
bias might influence the yielded scores in such a way
there could be an inconsistency between them. This
likely tends to occur on account of issues regarding
the lack of experience as well as attention to the
scoring criteria (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994).
Figure 4 Inter-rater Reliability
Note: The three main mental factors that bear on students grades.
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8.2.2. Rater Reliability
• Intra-rater reliability: Quite alike to inter-rater

reliability yet it differs insofar as in this case a sole
rater is in charged of scoring the same data, which
means that as the data is scored, teachers tend to
suffer from fatigue or any personal bias towards a
particular student so that it can lead to produce
inconsistencies when scoring; hence, the suggestion
of scoring the data at two different times (Brown,
2004).
Figure 5 Intra-rater Reliability

Note: Didactic approximation what Inter-rater Reliability looks like
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8.2.3. Test Administration Reliability
The conditions that shape the setting in which the test is to

be administered play a crucial role in generating
unreliability given that some non-considered aspects like
classroom conditioning might be disrupting the right curse
of test taking (Brown, 2004). For instance, if the test
requires playing an audio file, the lack of an appropriate
acoustic within the classroom will significantly affect test-
takers in that it will entail a nuisance for concentration.
Besides, there are other external questions that have been

raised at the moment of administering a test such as the
rapport (Ainsworth, 2021). Children that were not familiar https://www.helpguide.org/articles/autism-learning-disabilities/does-my-
with the test administrator did not manage to perform child-have-autism.htm
successfully compared to those who were (DeRosa &
Patalano, 1991).
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8.2.4. Test Reliability
All in all, for the sake of preventing a test from falling into
unreliability, it must be clear that reliability does not
constitute a steady property of a test; but rather, it should
be addressed in accordance with the different levels of the
construct that will be measured in tandem with that of the
populations it is intended to (Franzen, 2011). On some
occasions the design of a test tends to lead to
measurement errors. This might happen due to the
duration of the test that could render test-taker listless by
the moment they will have reached certain stages of the
test, despite the fac that in some cases the command of
the course material might not entail a real problem but the
https://www.readingrockets.org/article/school-based-identification-
timing. Another factor involved is the fashion in which the characteristics-dyslexia-parent-overview
items have been written as this could on a worst case
scenario yield vagueness in terms of the correct answer,
giving rise to two likely correct answers.
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Self appraisal
1. Developing assessment material to measure students’ knowledge require to be done painstakingly in keeping with
learning achievements. What likely issues are frequently encountered in assessment instrument development?
knowing whether students are comfortable with the assessment
Including the whole content provided in the course
Testing skills accurately and employing clear information
Scoring without affecting students
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Self appraisal
2. There are several principles that test developers employ when developing assessment instruments. What principles
could not be set aside when assessing content?
Validity and Reliability
Accountability and Comparability
Authenticity and Washback effect
All of the above
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Self appraisal
3. The content that is required to be laid out within the assessment instrument devising may vary depending on the subject
matter. What do the measures obtained have to be in keeping with?
Objectives and achievements
Age and Name of the students
Population information
All of the above
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Self appraisal
4. Evidence gather from students must be practical when making comparisons with other tests. Select the types of
procedures that allow verify students evidence.
Comparing the achievements between classrooms
Employing previous test scores
Contrasting different performances of the same group
None of the above
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Self appraisal
5. Content validity ensures that an assessment instrument does not measure information that may be slippery. What of
the followings examples are low-content-validity testing?
Employing rubrics to measure performance
Measuring timing records in a competition
Endorsing research results with previous studies
Multiple-choice for testing writing skills
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Self appraisal
6. One of the properties about students evidence is that they can be weighing with varying scales. What of the following
examples could be regarded as a source for criterion-related evidence?
Standardized testing
Rubrics for performance assessment
Records of performance competence
Measuring preferences and predilections
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Self appraisal
7. The assessment of instruments somehow or other entails that students may be affected by a wide assortment of aspects.
Select two factors mentioned in consequential validity.
Extracurricular and Intracurricular achievements
Washback effect and socio-economic conditions
Complexity and timing of assessment
High and low stakes assessment
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Self appraisal
8. Reliability of assessment sometimes may differ depending on the validity indicator. What is the nature of the results
obtained from a reliable assessment?
Clear and Objective
Consistent and Replicable
Measurable and Gradable
Concise and Succinct
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Self appraisal
9. At the moment of scoring an assessment it may render unreliable by different factors. What is intended to convey when
referring to student-related reliability?
Students inner factors affect the performance results
Students may get absent-minded if they are ill
Students become proficient when takin the same test
Students require to be placed on appropriate test classroom conditions
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Self appraisal
10. The scoring of an assessment depends exclusively on the experience of the raters. What are the types of existent issues on
account of raters?
Subjectivity and Students apathy
Variability and Inconsistency when testing
Lack of experience and attention
Inter and intra reliability
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9.1. Introduction to test techniques
Nowadays, technology has become the perfect

complement for English Teachers who are looking for
more options to design their tests.
There are several web sites which have collections of

tests according to the skills that English learners need to
develop. These tests have been designed with regards to
the English learners level and with enough activities so
teachers are able to choose the ones that think are good
for their classes.
However, something important happens when the same

teachers are in charge of designing and developing these
tests, since not all of them have the expertise to make https://elearningindustry.com/321-free-tools-for-teachers-free-educational-
these instruments and even more they do not know technology
correct techniques.
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9.1. Introduction to test techniques
For that reason, this information will be helpful in order to

have a clear idea of what to do, what to include and what
you expect to obtain when you are testing your learners,
since the way that you design your test will let you know
specifically what you need from your students. In fact,
Saragih (n.d) claims that it is a must that instructors know
a lot of strategies, in order to give learners, the chance to
demonstrate what they have learned through their skills.
(p.75)
https://pepvirtual.globalsleepeducation.com.co/course
/index.php?categoryid=3
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9. 1.1 Test Techniques Definition
According to Madsen (1983) in plain words, test

techniques are ways to design evaluation tools in order to
include all the components that will deliver specific results
at the end of the process (p.75). In addition, the use of
techniques will give us an idea of the learners’ progress in
language before, during and after the program ends.
Thus, tests are a type of assessment method that tell the

teachers about students’ abilities and knowledge.
Likewise, tests provide information about students’
performance in certain areas of language.
https://safetyculture.com/topics/training-evaluation/
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9.1.2 Characteristics
At present, teachers are looking for techniques that

meet their expectations when they make and apply
tests and above all, that include the following aspects:
⇨ Trusty and authentic sections which show learner’s
attitudes in order to help instructors clarify their
appreciations about the students.
⇨ Tests techniques that can be graded showing
learners skills’ progress.
⇨ Tests techniques that save time and energy.
⇨ Test techniques with positive washback where it is
needed.
https://www.dreamstime.com/stock-photos-girl-test-grade-
school-education-concept-little-student-image37771973
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9.1.3 Elements
In order to have good development in the layout of

these techniques, it is necessary to consider the
elements that will be included. And these are:
⇨ Testers: People who do the testing.
⇨ Coverage: Things that will be tested.
⇨ Identification of potential problems.
⇨ Activities: What to include.
⇨ Evaluation: To check how well test was designed.
https://blog.edmentum.com/10-classroom-and-school-tips-improve-
test-scores
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9.2. Types of test techniques
Common Test Techniques that are used to test abilities like

reading, writing, listening, use of language, etc. Hughes
(2003) classifies them in: Multiple choice items, Yes/No
and True/False items, Short-answer items and Gap filling
items.
9. 2.1 Multiple choice items

The Multiple-choice main structure consists of a stem and
several options where only one is correct, as it follows:
What is the capital of Germany? ______
A. Düsseldorf
B. Berlin
C. Munich
D. Hamburg
https://data-flair.training/blogs/c-multiple-choice-questions/
As it can be seen, this item has four options but only the
option B is the correct. Thus, the multiple-choice technique
is a good option since it is reliable and easy to score.
Besides, it saves a lot of time and it is possible to add more
items.
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By means of Multiple-choice items, it is viable to

measure receptive skills and students have just to make
a mark to select their options. This technique was
considered in the past as the best, and trusty to test,
but nowadays some grammarians think that it is limiting.
Moreno (2006) suggests, avoiding answers like “All of

the above” since this technique should have only one
correct option in order to guide learners to reach their
skills’ goals.
https://cte.smu.edu.sg/approach-teaching/integrated-design/lesson-planning
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However, not everything is positive in multiple choice items and there are some difficulties as it follows:
This technique only recognizes knowledge of some skills

As it was described before, this technique is perfect to measure receptive skills, which means that it won’t be as accurate as it is
supposed to be since the productive skills won’t be scored.
During the teaching process, it is not difficult to notice that some of our students are really good at grammar, but when they have
to communicate their ideas they fail and it happens due to different reasons. Therefore, the information that we will collect by
means of multiple-choice items won’t be precise, and we will need more details to really discover how well prepared is the learner.
Guessing shows unknown effects on learners’ scores

Sometimes tests are designed with only three options and when learners have three options to choose and they guess, it is
considerably difficult to identify how well they are developing their skills. For this, it is necessary to include four options instead of
three to reduce the score that learners will get only through guessing since this score won’t show us what we really expect from
them regarding their skills.
The technique is limiting

When teachers have to develop some multiple-choice items, they have to add more than two distractors. In some cases, it is
possible to add them, but other times not and this is due to the structures that we want to score. When this happens, teachers
usually add options that are not correctly written or structures that don’t belong to the grammatical structure what makes learners
select their answers by default.
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Not always the items are outstanding

People who are in charge of designing the items, always mention that while more items you create, better test will you get and this
will help after a strict review to select the correct items that will be included in the tests. In addition, some kind of expertise will
guarantee more positive results and save time since tests with no good distractors or common mistakes that sometimes are
recognized by learners during the test application will be a waste of time and energy.
Disadvantageous washback
After tests are designed and applied, they are commonly used to make a review with learners and it sometimes results in a no
positive washback. This will mean, that the learning process won’t be successful if teachers don’t reach their class goals while the
evaluation is taking place. So that, it is mandatory to work carefully in designing the tests taking control of the structures to
guarantee the success.
The Items are easy to cheat

It is well-known that multiple-choice items are easy to cheat. Learners use non-verbal communication to share their answers.
Thus, we are not saying that these types of items are wrong, we are saying that they need to be created by someone with
previous knowledge and they need to be applied after a careful review and piloting.
In addition, they should be used in moderation and with care to test different skills. Some tips are used by teachers, the design
more that one test, they group learners in different rows or they use the same tests in just a different order to carry out the process
without any inconveniences.
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9.2.2 YES/NO and TRUE/FALSE items
YES/NO and TRUE/FALSE items consist in choosing

between two possible options. For example:
Peter used to live in Germany until he got sick due to

the weather. His doctor recommended him to live in a
warmer place to recover. So that, Peter decided to
travel to his brother’s flat in Miami. Once that he got
U.S. Peter felt better and started playing racquetball
as he used to do it.
Did Peter decide to travel to Germany to recover?
No, he didn’t.
The disadvantage of these items is that learners have

half of the chance to choose the right answer for what
it is not considered a good option in formal tests. One
way to modify and make it more acceptable would be https://elearningfeeds.com/truefalse-and-numeric-entry-questions-on-
by adding the reasons that learners have to choose a-single-articulate-storyline-slide-heres-how/
the answers, but it would mean that instructors should
grade writing sections by judgement making the tests
not valid or reliable.
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9.2.3 Short-answer items
These items refer to questions that need short answers, and

they are commonly used to test listening and reading skills.
For example:
Every single morning, Martha, Dan and Erick go to the park.

They usually leave home at 5 o’ clock and get the park 15
minutes later. They meet there more friends who live around
and make soccer teams. They usually play soccer on
weekends for two hours or more. After that, they come back
home together and plan the teams for next day.
How often do the children play soccer?

On weekends.
As we can see, after analyzing the reading; it is not difficult

that learners find out the answer. Nevertheless, even these
items seem to be advantageous there are both; advantages https://www.talentlms.com/elearning/tests-and-quizzes
and disadvantages to consider.
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9.2.3 Short-answer items
Advantages
⇨ Guessing and cheating is not easy with these
Short-answer items would be a good option in tests for the items.
reasons described above, but it is important to take into ⇨ Even though distractors are possible to use,
account that the design of the test has to be clear and they do not limit the items.
easy in order to guide learners to the correct answer after ⇨ It is easier to write.
analyzing the question. Nowadays, computer-based tests
use this short-answer options and it depends mostly on
how well the test has been designed.
Disadvantages
In fact, McDermott et al. (2014) claim that well-designed ⇨ Longer answers and a reduced number of
items in tests with a correct feedback in both, multiple- items.
choice or short-answer items improve learners retention ⇨ Learners have to produce language to
and help them for a very good learning. answer.
⇨ The answers may not be reliable if instructors
have to judge the answers provided by
learners.
⇨ Teachers may need more time to score some
long answers.
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9.2.4 Gap filling items
Gap filling items consist in common missing words in a

text, that usually learners have to complete.
For instance:
Sunlight brightens the water near the surface _____

plankton float.
In this example, after the gap it is easy to identify the

noun plankton and the verb float, which means that it is
needed the subordinating conjunction “where”.
In addition, it can be seen that “where” is the only one
answer for this statement what makes that learners do
not hesitate or get confused with more possibilities.
The design of gap filling items demands a hard work
since it is necessary to use statements where only one
word be the right option. Because of this, it is not
recommendable to use some structures up like the Past
Continuous Tense where the Simple Past Tense would be
a possible option too.
https://www.pinterest.com.mx/mary34964/bitacoras/
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9.2.4 Gap filling items
For that reason, one important thing to take into account is

that answers where more than one option would be
acceptable, should be avoided; like the Modal Verbs or
options with more than one gap to fill in.
These technique works very well in receptive skills; inasmuch

as students will get previous information to read or listen to in
order to choose their responses.
In grammar, the technique is suggested if the activities are

well designed to avoid confusion in learners.
Smith et al. (2010) claim that this technique helps learners

improve their vocabulary in context comprehension without
memorization. However, they also claim that for item-writers it
is time consuming and it is not easy to create good items
since some of the writers believe that all parts of the speech
may be used in gap filling without analyzing. https://brainly.lat/tarea/48878019
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9.3. Common Testing Mistakes to avoid
As we have seen, there are a lot of options to design

items in a text in order to make it reliable. Nevertheless, it
is important to consider the advantages and
disadvantages that have been proposed before to choose
the correct items. Once that we have made the selection,
it is necessary to avoid some mistakes that may appear
during the layout as it is claimed by Henning (2012) who
has considered four categories that instructors have to
keep in mind. These are: general examination
characteristics, item characteristics, test validity concerns
and administrative and scoring issues.
https://www.varsitytutors.com
/blog/3+common+mistakes+to+avoid+on+ap+exams
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9.3. Common Testing Mistakes to avoid
3.1 General Examination Characteristics 3.3 Test Validity Concerns
⇨ Too difficult or too easy tests. ⇨ Content inaccurately measured.

⇨ Too short items. ⇨ Questions that measure other skills instead of the one for
⇨ The same kinds of tests. what it was created.
⇨ Measures that do not guarantee the reliability and validity ⇨ The use of general knowledge questions.
of the tests. ⇨ Disproportion between instructional objectives and course
⇨ Non-existent structures as distractors. content.
⇨ The use of content matching as measures of
comprehension.
3.2 Item Characteristics 3.4 Administrative and Scoring Issues
⇨ The use of trick questions. ⇨ Little control over cheating.

⇨ Unnecessary phrasing. ⇨ Lack of clear instructions for teachers and students.
⇨ Diversity of cues. ⇨ Inequality in the administration process.
⇨ Overlap content. ⇨ Absence of piloting.
⇨ Not sufficient number of options. ⇨ Lack of rubrics when scoring
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UNIT 2 TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS OF
EVALUATION
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Observation
2.2.1 Types of Observation
2.2.2 Recording Information from Observation
2.2.3 Uses and Limitations of Observation
2.3 Interview
2.3.1 Types of Interviews
2.3.2 Techniques of Interviewing
2.3.3 Uses and Limitations of Interviews
2.4 Proles
2.4.1 Types of Proles
2.4.2 Uses and Limitations of Proles
2.5 Rating Scale
2.6 Projects
2.7 Tests
2.7.1 Types of Tests
2.7.2 Uses and Limitations of Tests
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
l dene the observation technique, describe the types and the steps to be taken
to observe, record and interpret an observation;
l dene an interview and describe the various types of interview;
l explain the uses and limitations of interviews;
l dene proles and describe the steps involved in preparing proles;
l dene the rating scale and describe the various types of rating scales;
l explain the uses and limitations of rating scales;
l dene projects and describe their types, uses and limitations; and
l distinguish between the different types of tests and describe their uses and
limitations.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
You may recall from the previous Unit that evaluation involves decision making.
We can make rational decisions if we have necessary information or data. Various
tools and techniques are used for collecting information. In order to select the
26 most appropriate tool and/or technique for a given evaluation situation, it is
necessary to acquaint ourselves with various types of tools and techniques. Techniques and Tools of
Selection of tools and techniques is critical to the whole evaluation process. Evaluation
It does not matter how carefully you have planned an educational activity or
an effort if inadequate instruments are involved, because poor tools can lead
to ‘poor’ decisions. This means that the selection of an appropriate tool for
evaluation purposes is essential, though we may be familiar with the wide variety
of tools that exist. In this Unit we present to you a few criteria which are applied
in selecting one tool from among alternatives. This will serve the major purpose
of this Unit: to provide an overview of the various types of tools and techniques
used in evaluation processes.
Let us begin the discussion now.
2.2 OBSERVATION
Observation is a technique which deals with the external behaviour in controlled
or uncontrolled situations. It deals with recording the changes taking place
during the process of occurrence of a phenomenon, i.e., individual, event or
object. In case of human beings, there are certain traits like honesty, punctuality,
persistence, truthfulness, etc., which can hardly be measured objectively through
paper-pencil tests. This being the case, observation is an appropriate technique
to measure the ‘change’. The behaviour of the learner in the classroom, in the
playground, in the institution, among his/her peer group, in social situations can
be observed. For example, you could ask the students about their sportsmanship
and you could ask the teachers how they handle inattentive students in their
classrooms, but more objective information would probably be obtained by
actually observing students at a sporting event and teachers in the classroom.
In the context of distance education if the instructional system of an institution
includes face-to-face tutorials, the behaviour of tutors as well as the students’
behaviour can be included in evaluation (Video lms of the tutorial sessions,
for instance, can be made and also be used in tutor training). An observation is
purposeful when it is well planned, carefully focussed and thoroughly recorded.
Working within a particular environment over a period of time, an observer may
become so familiar that he/she subconsciously becomes selective in what is
seen. Validity increases by keeping the setting as natural as possible. By making
observation more systematic, it is often easier to focus on particular aspects and
to collect specic information.
Observational data especially that gained through participant observation permits
the evaluator to understand a situation or a programme-setting to an extent not
entirely possible using only the insights of others obtained through interviews. Of
course, not everything can be directly observed or experienced, and participant
observation is highly time-consuming and, relatively, an expensive evaluation
strategy.
The primary purpose of observational description is to take the reader of an
evaluation report into the programme-setting that was observed. This means
that observational data must have depth and detail. The data must be highly
descriptive so that the reader can understand what occurred and how. The
evaluation observer becomes the surrogate eyes and ears of the reader. The
descriptions must be factually accurate and without irrelevant matter.
To sum up, we can say that the rst criterion to apply to a reported
observation is the extent to which that observation permits the reader to enter
into the programme situation observed. Evaluation data collection through
observation is demanding work. Validity in qualitative method depends to a
great extent on the skill, competence and rigour of the evaluator because the
observer is the instrument. 27
Curriculum Evaluation 2.2.1 Types of Observation
There is a spectrum of styles of observing: from the non-structured to the
highly structured, and from the observer as participant in the activity, to the
observer as non-participant, perhaps even using a video camera. Two types of
observation are generally used in an evaluation effort. They are:
i) Non-structured observation: Non-structured or open or natural
observation allows the collection of a rich variety of information. In such
situations the observer, while being present at the site, does not control
or manipulate anything. It is a technique of many social anthropologists.
Here the observer enters the observation site with as open a mind as
possible. He/she can see the things and record them in a natural setting.
However, practice and skills are needed by the observer in drawing
his or her experience and judgement to focus upon, and record events
considered being important. It must be realised that however experienced
the observer, only a fraction of the interactions and events occuring will
be seen and recorded. For this reason, it is often valuable to focus upon
certain aspects of the event, object, etc., being observed. For example,
behaviour in a counselling session -- behaviour of the counsellor,
behaviour of the learners, and the interaction between the counsellor and
learners — can best be assessed through natural observation.
ii) Structured observation: An evaluator observes the phenomenon
under structured conditions, with the knowledge of the person(s) being
observed. The observation situation may also be simulated and observed.
This technique allows the evaluator to observe particular behaviours.
For example, a teacher, trainee observes the role play in a teacher-parent
conference, etc. The major disadvantage of this type of observation is
that it is not natural, and the behaviour exhibited by people may not be
the behaviour that would occur in a natural setting. People may behave
the way they think they should behave rather than the way they normally
would. A checklist to be used during the observation process is valuable
to have accurate records of the behaviour expressed.
2.2.2 Recording Information from Observation

Information may be recorded through a variety of methods, some of which are:
l eld notes;
l observation schedules or checklists;
l audio recording; and
l video recording.
These can be used individually or collectively.
2.2.3 Uses and Limitations of Observation

Some of the uses and limitations of observation are given below:
l It helps us to get rst hand information;
l Certain traits like honesty, punctuality, truthfulness, etc., can be observed;
l Structured observation yields objective and accurate data;
l The observer codes and records the overt behaviour at the time of its
occurrence;
l However, the tendency of an observer to let overall feeling towards an
individual or an initial impression affect subsequent observations; and
28 l A ‘subject’ may intentionally attempt to exhibit articial behaviour.
Techniques and Tools of
Check Your Progress 1
Evaluation
Notes: a) Space is given below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
1) List the types of observation.
a) ..........................................................................................................................
b) ..........................................................................................................................
2) State any three traits which can be assessed with the help of these
observation techniques.
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
2.3 INTERVIEW
We use the term ‘interview’ to indicate a process of communication or
interaction in which an interviewee gives information verbally in a face-
to-face situation. An interview is essential to assess certain inner (mental)
traits. Interviews in a congenial atmosphere where personal rapport has been
established can succeed in bringing out the inner feelings of the interviewee.
The main objective of an interview may be the exchange of ideas and
experiences, the eliciting of information pertaining to a wide range of data
in which the interviewee may wish to rehearse his/her past and, present, and
canvass his/her future possibilities.
Interview questions
An ideal qualitative interview is normally semi-structured. To prepare for an
interview one should construct an interview protocol that allows for maximum
exibility during the interview process. One should formulate two or three
lead-off questions before an interview. These leadoff questions help to open
up a topic domain that one wishes a subject to address. They should be
formulated very concretely and abstract questions should be avoided.
When writing these questions, we may try to anticipate the possible directions
in which the conversation could go and then formulate possible questions.
Thus, while formulating interview questions the method should be two or
three lead-off questions for each domain, a list of questions covering the
covert categories for each domain, and a set of possible follow-up questions
for each domain.
Interviewer responses
It would be helpful to categorise interviewer responses into types. The
different types of interviewer responses are:
i) Bland encouragement: Usually one word and/or facial expressions
that show attention, interest and acceptance. These are excellent for
establishing rapport and encouraging the interviewees to keep talking.
ii) Non-leading leads: Sometimes leading questions may not elicit more
material on a certain topic and to indicate interest and attention one has
to add something, like “Oh tell me more about that! This is interesting.
Keep telling me about it.”
iii) Active listening: Active listening responses are the establishing of a rapport 29
and helping subjects to open up about certain things.
Curriculum Evaluation Interview analysis
Interview analysis, of course, will have many unarticulated but referenced
meanings associated with it. To uncover them we need only to go through
the steps and correlate the interview conversation as per the content of the
subject. The nal analysis developed in a qualitative way will draw upon
strips of foot-notes and associated segments of the interview manuscript.
In the above discussion, we have treated observation and interview skills as
two separate qualitative data collection techniques. In practice, however, they
are typically fully integrated approaches.
2.3.1 Types of Interviews

Interviews may be classied according to the purpose for which they are
used and according to their design and structure. For purposes of research, an
interview may be used as a tool gathering data required by the researcher to
test a hypothesis or solve his/her problems of historical, experimental, survey or
case study type research. This type of interview is called ‘research interview’.
In many situations the objective of an interview is to secure information about
individuals’ problems, their past history, job or family adjustment. Here the major
purposes of interviews are diagnosis and treatment. This type of interview is
termed a ‘clinical interview’. It is used by social workers and psychiatrists.
In some situations, an interviewer may interview one individual at a time. It is
called an ‘individual interview’. Further, telephone interviews are used when
information is needed in a short span of time. In a ‘group interview’ a group of
individuals is interviewed by an interviewer. Group interviews have been more
effective with students who have completed a particular course. Interviews are
classied as ‘structured’ and ‘unstructured’. A ‘structured interview’ involves the
interviewer asking specic predened questions. These questions are carefully
planned and the major areas of inquiry are mapped out. However, the interviewee
is given considerable freedom to express his/her opinion. In this type of interview
the interviewer uses a highly standardised form as a ‘directive interview’ because
often the interviewee is directed to say ‘yes/no’ or give very brief answers.
Unstructured interviews are also designated as ‘uncontrolled’, unguided, or ‘non-
directive’. In this type of interview, the interviewer does not follow a system or
list of predetermined questions. Used with skill, unstructured interviews can yield
information which may not emerge when we use any other technique. Group
interviews may provide valuable insights especially in situations where people
have differences of opinion.
Sometimes, the interviewees are encouraged to relate their concrete experiences
with no or little direction from the interviewer, to dwell on whatever events seem
signicant to them, to provide their own denition of their social situations,
or reveal their opinions and views as they feel t. Although the unstructured
interview is conducted through an informal discussion, a series of questions to
be asked and the procedure to be followed are decided upon in advance. The
interviewer is largely free to arrange the form and timing of the questions. He/she
can rephrase the questions, modify them, and add some new questions to his/her
list.
This technique is very useful for collecting information in the context of
improving learning. The interviewer takes advantage of the exibility of non-
structured techniques, to maintain the desired focus. For example, few staff
members in an institution of higher education attend an ‘induction course’.
Formal evaluation of the effectiveness of the course is undertaken half way
through and/or at the end. Results from these, help to incorporate changes into
the present course and help in the design of future courses. One technique used to
30 collect information is the unstructured interview. If it is in a counselling session,
a schedule of issues to be raised during interviews is drawn up by the counsellors Techniques and Tools of
in consultation with the learners. Questions like ‘Do you consider the course to Evaluation
have been useful to you?’ are open-ended. Questions like “How long have you
spent discussing the course with your learner?” are specic in nature. The latter
types of questions generate more information than the former.
2.3.2 Techniques of Interviewing

We have discussed a few techniques of interviewing here.
Preparing for an interview
It is necessary to plan carefully for an interview. The interviewer must decide
what kind of data the interview should yield, whether the structured or
unstructured type of interview will be more useful, and how the results should
be recorded.
Conduct of interview
An interview is a stressful occasion on which every effort should be made to
generate a calm atmosphere. You may not get a true picture of the ‘subjects’ if
they nd the situation intimidating. So, ensuring a cordial environment is an
important task. Interview processes will be more effective if:
l the interviewee is continuously reassured;
l interruptions during the interview are avoided; and
l seating arrangement should be given a thought, so that the candidate is not at
a physical disadvantage.
Some general rules for conducting interviews:
i) Ask only one question at a time;
ii) Repeat a question if necessary;
iii) Try to make sure that the interviewee understands the questions;
iv) Be a good listener, remembering that smiles of encouragement and a friendly
gaze show that you are interested;
v) Make sure the questions and answers stick to what is relevant. Allow the
interviewee sufcient time to answer the question;
vi) Avoid suggesting answers to questions; and
vii) Do not show signs of surprise, shock, anger, if unexpected answers are
given.
Closing the interview
After you have worked your way through your plan, the interviewee should
be given an opportunity to ask questions. It is important to summarise and
outline the next step. For example, approximately how long it will take
to make a decision and how will it be informed. The interviewee should
be nally thanked warmly for his/her co-operation and for attending the
interview.
During the interview, information should be properly gathered. It is easy to
record information arising out of a highly structured interview. The use of
a tape recorder during the conduct of the interview not only eliminates the
omissions, distortions, elaboration and other modications of data usually
found in a written interview, but it also provides an objective basis for
evaluating the adequacy of the interview data in relation to the interview.
If the tape recorder is not available, the use of a schedule, a structured 31
Curriculum Evaluation formal questionnaire or a rating scale may be used. An open or unstructured
interview is less easy to record. It is so easy to hear what one wants or
expects to hear and to forget the not so desirable points made.
Objectivity can be aided by having more than one person recording the
information and discussing the recorded information with the respondent.
2.3.3 Uses and Limitations of Interviews

i) An interviewee provides an opportunity to the interviewer to question the
interview thoroughly in various areas of inquiry.
ii) An interview is not an entirely independent tool of research for gathering
information pertaining to feelings, attitudes or emotions. It is supplementary
to other tools and techniques.
iii) It is an effective tool for a social scientist in the study of human behaviour.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit.
Explain the techniques of interviewing in about 30 words only.
.................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
..................................................................................................
2.4 PROFILES
A prole is a portrayal of the characteristics of a person or institutions in relation
to some kind of activity or another. Proling is the task of recording information
which has been commonly used in industries for many years for purposes of staff
appraisal. Within the last 20 years proles have acquired some importance in
education also, especially in the schools and further education sectors in Britain.
A single grade as a measurement of a person’s overall performance is regarded
as unsatisfactory or ‘hazardous’. Proles may therefore provide a means of
overcoming this difculty, and may also be used to give information about
personal qualities and interests.
Proles can provide a record of what has been achieved at any point of a
course. Prole of the learner includes information about the learner’s educational
background, socio-economic status, the cultural and environmental organisation
etc. In distance education these aspects of a learner should be considered
for specic evaluation activity by specialised services. The individual initial
evaluation is aimed at dening the prole of each learner enrolled in a distance
course. This gives an idea of and information about the learners’ cognitive
framework at the beginning of the learning activity (placement evaluation). It
also gives you an idea of the changes in the attitudes, skills, knowledge and
experience after the learner engages herself/himself in a course during the
intermediate period (formative evaluation), and helps you to know about the
learners’ achievement at the end of a course (summative evaluation).
32
Proles provide a focus for guidance and counselling and continuous feedback Techniques and Tools of
to the learners. They give us the end statement or a quantitative value. They are Evaluation
not a method of assessment but a tool for recording information. So proles are
considered a prerequisite for evaluation activities.
In our context, a prole is a panoramic representation alpha-numerical,
graphical or verbal — of how a student seems to his/her assessors across a range
of assessment methods. The use of proles carries no stipulation about what
should be assessed or how. They can be used in reporting any assessment. In
other words, they are the means of recording information. Proles can record the
following information about a learner:
l enrollment in specications;
l year of admission;
l experiences/job/employment;
l achievements; and
l Personal bio-data.
One example of an academic prole in use in higher education in Birmingham is
the Graduate Prole used by the Birmingham School of Architecture. Proles are
useful in a number of ways but chiey, they help identify aspects of a student’s
work and ability which would not otherwise be systematically recorded. They
contribute to the students’ knowledge of themselves and help future employers
and colleagues know them better. Proles do not claim to be predictive, nor do
they mark the limits of a student’s potential.
Proles explicitly state that they are internal records and will not be released
outside without the written agreement of a student. Each student receives a copy
of his/her own prole document. Thus the prole is private.
2.4.1 Types of Proles

Grade proles
These relate to examinations. Examinations in higher education are split into
a number of sub-tests. Generally, it is argued that a better description of the
candidate is possible if the results of the individual sub-tests are included in
the score. In the 1970s this possibility was examined for GCE Engineering
Science at A level in Britain and it was A Grade in 7 point scaling: ultimately
it was concluded that it would cause more confusion than the single grade.
Criterion proles
These have long been used in technical and professional education. One
of the intentions of these student-proles is to record student-progress. In
that sense they are diagnostic. They help provide meaningful information to
students in such a way that they can see realistic hurdles which have to be
jumped if they want to improve their performance.
Disadvantage of the criterion form of prole is that it is scaled, and, as soon
as that happens, the subjective view of the examiners comes into play. This
suggests that anyone who is being assessed with forms of this kind should
be assessed by two examiners at least, who should then agree as to the nal
score.
Learning proles
At the University of Sydney, the Department of Anatomy devised a nine-week
course using two complementary teaching techniques: self-instruction and
group interaction. 33
Curriculum Evaluation During the course at the end of each of the seven modules (7 weeks) the
students were given tests which measured recall, comprehension, application,
and short-chain problem-solving. At the end of the course there was a
summative examination designed to test the capacity to solve long-chain
multi-step problems. This was continued for four years. The results represent
a measure of performance or learning curve which the authors of the course
call ‘learning prole’. The learning proles of each of the students were
put together to obtain regression curves of the group as a whole. In addition,
general ability, age and interest data were obtained. An anxiety test was
administered and a learning styles test was conducted during the rst and
seventh week of the course.
An academic assessment prole is a multi-dimensional end-statement
expressing the results of the formal assessment of a student’s performance.??
This tells us that learning prole is:
i) an end-statement — it is not a method of assessment but an ofcial
pronouncement about a student made at the end of his/her course or at some
other specied period.
ii) multi-dimensional— the end-statement comprises observations of more than
one features of a student’s abilities or achievements, unlike the classied
degree which is undifferentiated.
iii) academic — it is not concerned with the non academic characteristics or
activities of a student.
iv) assessment — it is conned to reporting the results of the (formal) academic
assessment undergone by the student, and neither describes nor reproduces
the work he/she has done.
2.4.2 Uses and Limitations of Proles

Uses of a prole:
i) It is a means of recording information.
ii) It covers a wide range of experiences and skills and encourages a great
variety of assessment techniques.
iii) Records and reports are meaningful for both learner and teacher.
iv) Proles help to know the nature and sequence of student learning and
assessment.
Limitations
l
i) It is just a process of attaching labels to learners rather than helping the
learning process.
ii) Broad descriptions of skills and crude grades are open to casual judgments.
b) Check your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1) Dene a prole in about 25 words.
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34
Techniques and Tools of
2) Explain the two types of proles. Evaluation
i) Grade proles (20 words)
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3) Explain the two types of proles.
ii) Criterion Proles (15 words)
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2.5 RATING SCALE

‘Rating’ is a term applied to an expression of opinion or judgement regarding
some situation, object, character, or an attribute. A ‘Rating scale’ refers to a
‘scale’ with a set of points which describe varying degrees of the dimension
of an attribute being observed. Rating scales can be self-report instruments or
observation instruments depending upon how they are used. These are different
types of rating scales such as:
i) numerical scales;
ii) graphic scales;
iii) standard scales;
iv) rating by cumulative points; and
v) forced choice ratings.
We shall discuss them below in the same order.
Numerical scales
In a typical numerical scale, a sequence of dened number is supplied to a
rater or to an observer. The rater or the observer assigns to each stimulus to
be rated an appropriate number in line with these denitions or descriptions.
For example, the following scale may be used in obtaining ratings of the
affective values of colours:
10) Most pleasant imaginable
9) Most pleasant
8) Extremely pleasant
7) Moderately pleasant
6) Mildly pleasant 35
Curriculum Evaluation 5) Indifferent
4) Mildly unpleasant
3) Moderately unpleasant
2) Extremely unpleasant
1) Most unpleasant
0) Most unpleasant imaginable.
The use of negative numbers is not favoured, as those observers or raters who are
not well versed in Algebra nd it difcult to manage negative numbers.
Numerical rating scales are the easiest to construct and to apply. They are also
the simplest in terms of handling the results. However, numerical scales are
often rejected in favour of other types of scales because it is believed that they
suffer from various biases and errors.
Graphic scales
The graphic scale is the most popular and the most widely used type of rating
scale. In this scale a straight line is drawn, vertically or horizontally, with
various clues to help the rater. The line is either segmented into units or is
continuous. If the line is segmented, the number of segments can be varied from
case to case. Given below is an example of such a scale.
How effective was the teacher in the class?
Very Slightly Average Slightly Very
Effective Effective ineffective ineffective
There are many advantages in graphic scales. They are simple and easy to
administer. Such scales are interesting to the rater and require little added
motivation. However, scoring in the case of some formats of graphic scale is
rather laborious.
Standard scales
In standard scales, a set of standards is presented to the rater. The standards
are usually objects of the same kind to be rated with pre-established scale
values. For example, scales of handwriting provide several standard specimens
that have previously been spread over a common scale by some standardised
procedure like regular intervals. With the help of these standards specimens,
a new sample of handwriting can be equated to one of the standards judged
as being between two standards. The ‘man-to-man scale’ and the ‘portrait-
matching’ scale are the other two forms that conform more or less to the
principles of standard scales.
Rating by cumulated points
The unique and distinctive feature of rating by cumulated points is its
immense and easy utility of scoring. The rating score for an attribute object
or individual is the sum or average of the weighted or unweighted points. The
‘check-list method’ and the ‘guess-who technique’ belong to this category
of rating. ‘Check-list methods’ are applicable in the evaluation of the
performance of personnel in a job. The weights of +1 and -1 are assigned
respectively to every favourable and unfavourable trait and the individual’s
score is the algebraic sum of the weights. In the ‘guess who technique’ some
statements in terms of some ‘descriptions’ like “here is one who is always
doing bad things to make others sad”, are constructed and each individual
is asked to list all the members of his/her group who t such a description,
36 mentioning the same individual as many times as necessary. Each individual
scores a point for each favourable or unfavourable description applied to him/ Techniques and Tools of
her, and the total score is the sum total of all such points. Evaluation
Forced choice ratings

In ‘forced-choice rating’ methods, the rater is asked not to say whether the
rate has a certain trait or to say how much of a trait the rate has, but to say
essentially whether he has some or one trait or another of a pair.
Uses of rating scales
i) Rating methods consume much less time than other methods of scaling like
‘pair comparison’ and ‘rank ordering’.
ii) Rating methods are quite interesting to the raters, especially if graphic
methods are used.
iii) Best ratings can be obtained by presenting one stimulus to a rater at a time.
iv) Rating scales can be used with raters who have very little training in this
area.
v) Rating methods can be used with a large number of stimuli.
vi) Rating scales have a much wider range of application and can be used for
teacher-ratings, personality ratings, school appraisals, sociological surveys,
etc.
Limitations of rating scales
Rating scales have several limitations. Some of them are discussed here:
i) Error of leniency: There is a constant tendency among the raters to rate
those whom they know well or in whom they are involved higher than they
should. Such raters are called ‘easy raters’. Some raters become aware of
the temptation of easy rating and consequently rate individuals lower than
they should. Such raters are called ‘hard raters’. The leniency error refers to
a general and consistent tendency for a rater to rate too high or too low for
whatever reasons.
ii) Error of central tendency: Most of the raters hesitate to rate the
individuals on the extremes of the scale, instead they tend to rate the
individual on the middle of the scale. Obviously, the results get distorted.
iii) Halo-effect: Halo-effect is an error which obscures the clusters of traits
within an individual. The rater forms a general opinion about the person’s
merit and his/her ratings on specic traits are greatly inuenced by this
general impression. It results in a spurious positing of a correlation among
the traits which are rated.
iv) The logical error: is due to the fact that raters are likely to give similar
ratings for traits which they feel are logically related to each other.
v) The contrast error: The contrast error is due to the tendency of a rater to
rate others in the opposite direction (contrasting) from himself/herself to each
other.
The proximity error: It has been seen that adjacent traits on a rating trend to
inter-correlate higher than remote ones, their degree of actual similarity being
approximately equal. This error may be counteracted to some extent by placing
similar traits further apart and the different ones close together.
37
Curriculum Evaluation Check Your Progress 4
List the types of rating scales.
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2.6 PROJECTS
Projects are a feature of education in certain subject areas. The dissertation
in the eld of humanities is at times considered equivalent to a project in
science. Projects are advocated for interdisciplinary studies because real-
life situations require a variety of areas of knowledge and resources for their
solution and also because people have had to work in teams. Projects have
been used in mathematics to open up real situations for investigation and have
also been employed to encourage students to read literature. For example, a
study conducted in Napier College, Edinburgh, a librarian and a biologist have
collaborated to help students to prepare three projects of increasing complexity
involving detailed literature searches. The study claimed that this technique
increased the student’s ability and willingness to read scientic literature, and that
these attitudes persisted throughout the course.
Project work done by a student has not been conned to full time study. It has
also been used in open education, covering varieties of problem areas, including
evaluating a programme. Interestingly, a study shows that project work in the
context of open/distance education found favour among staff and students. Some
of the problems found (during the study mentioned above) seem to be general,
and these relate to the amount of time required by tutor and student for guidance
and work. The role of the supervisor at both graduate and undergraduate levels
has been identied as an issue. Open University students need guidance in
choosing a viable topic and in identifying, locating, and collecting information.
This is also true of many students in undergraduate and school courses.
The British Open University nds, as do many others, that the amount and
organization of individual support is problematic. For some departments it could
be too costly. There is no doubt that some project work can be expensive. The
general impression of project work is that it is favored by many students who are
motivated and it provides ‘independence’. Some, however, suggested that project
work is not all plain sailing.
Advantages
l It provides motivation to the students.
l It develops independent thinking in the learner.
l The student develops the ability to formulate a problem and solve a problem
while working in a project. The ability to formulate a problem is a crucial
skill: it separates those who can do projects from those who cannot.
38
Limitations Techniques and Tools of
Evaluation
i) “Own-tutor effect”. Tutors may give their own students higher marks.
ii) The criteria for rating may vary from tutor to tutor and often reects their
specialization /research interest.
iii) The advice offered may be non-specic and characterisation of grades may
be couched in general phrases.
iv) Rank ordering is difcult if the projects are dissimilar.
v) Unreliability of grades does exist.
vi) It is difcult to discriminate between a structured, well dened project area
and wide-ranging unstructured projects.
vii) Tutors’ specialisms may inuence their perception of particular projects.
viii) The criteria used by motors? When marking projects will affect the reliability
of the grades awarded.
List the limitations of ‘project work’ in about 20 words.
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2.7 TESTS
Tests as tools of measurement are concerned with the product of learning
behaviour. Different types of tests are in vogue to facilitate the realisation of
the different purposes of education in the varying contexts of use. They may be
categorised along three lines of approach. The approaches may be:
i) purpose-specic categorisation of test-types;
ii) mode-specic categorisation of test-types; and
iii) process-specic categorisation of test-types.
2.7.1 Types of Tests

We should note here that tests of different types may require the very same
kind of tasks and sometimes even the repetition of the very same item. That
is to say that it is quite possible to nd an item recurring in tests which
otherwise belong to a different type, or even a different category. What
distinguishes the test-types, then, is not what is obvious in them but what
guided them into being what they are. It is neither in the choice of test-tasks,
39
Curriculum Evaluation nor in the realisation of these tasks in the form of test-items that we are to
nd the difference. We are to notice the difference in the overall design of
the tests, the purpose that guided them in their construction and, sometimes,
in the nature and extent of coverage of a given area of learning. With this
understanding we can now discuss the features of design of different test-
types.
Purpose-specic category
Purpose-specic category includes tests designed to achieve a specic purpose
of evaluation. Generally four test-types are identied in this category:
l diagnostic tests;
l aptitude tests;
l achievement tests; and
l prociency tests.
Let us briey present the features of each of these.
Diagnostic tests: These help us identify the areas of learning in which a learner
needs a remedial course. They give us a prole of what the learner knows and
does not know in a given area of learning. To present such a prole, a diagnostic
test has to consist of a battery of a number of sub-tests each covering one area
fairly thoroughly.
Aptitude tests: These tests serve a predictive function. They help us identify
potential talents. They identify the prerequisite characteristics which are essential
for one to be competent to perform a given task. Presenting items on such sub-
skills as may eventually be developed into expert complex skills, these tests
identify those who can do well in the eld of study or a profession and those
who cannot. These tests are generally used while selecting people for special
courses/careers.
Achievement tests: These tests aim to measure the extent to which the objectives
of a course have been achieved. The scope of these tests is governed by
the objectives of the given course and they cover only the areas of learning
demarcated by the given syllabus.
Prociency tests: These tests aim to assess the general ability of a person at a
given time. Their scope is governed by a reasonable exception of what abilities
learners of a given status (say, matriculates or graduates) should possess. It is
not restricted by considerations of the areas covered in any specic course-
objectives or syllabus as in the case of achievement tests. While the usual end-
of-course examination in a school or college may be taken as a typical example
of an achievement test, a national level selection or admission test for candidates
coming from different states and/or university jurisdictions can be taken as a
typical example of a prociency test.
Mode-specic category
Under the mode-specic category, we identify test-types on the basis of the
mode/attitude that governs the construction and use of tests. Under this category,
we present six pairs of test-types along six dimensions.
Formal assessment vs. Informal assessment: Formal assessment is applicable to
a situation where a body answerable to the public is holding a test for a selection
or an award. Assessment in such a situation has to ensure objectivity, credibility
and relevance. To ensure these, it will have to follow a set of standardised norms/
40 procedures of test construction, administration and interpretation. Informal
assessment is applicable to situations where an individual or a voluntary body is Techniques and Tools of
holding a test to obtain some information to fulll some personal requirements. Evaluation
The informal assessment also needs to be objective and reliable, but the valuator
is not bound to satisfy the public about these qualities of his/her assessment.
Hence the process of assessment need not follow very strictly the set procedures
of evaluation.
Formative assessment vs. Summative assessment: Formative assessment is
concerned with identifying learner weakness in attainment with a view to helping
the learner and the teacher overcome/remedy those, while summative aims at
certifying the grading the attainment of the learner at the end of a given course.
Tests for formative assessment are given at regular and frequent intervals during
a course, while the tests for summative assessment are given at the end of a
course (or at the end of a fairly long period, say a term or a semester or a year).
In a course that extends over six months, a test at the end of, say, every fortnight,
will be a formative test, while the test at the end of the sixth month will be
summative.
Moreover, the level of generalisations sought by the items of a summative test
will be much higher compared to that sought by the items of a formative test. For
instance if the items of a formative test check the ability to apply a given rule or
principle to a given unfamiliar situation, the items in a summative test may check
the ability to apply one or more of the appropriate rules/principles from among
the many given in a variety of situations.
We would like to include two notes here.
i) The account of formative assessment and summative assessment given here
belongs to the context of EIEP. Yet the terms are also applied to the context
of EOEP. However, in the context of EOEP, the functions of formative and
summative assessments are different. Formative assessment here includes
tests and other forms of measurement which are intended to give a measure
of success of the parts of a course - even as the course is in the process of
development. Summative evaluation includes such forms of measurement
that would give a measure of success of the course as a whole.
ii) In distance education yet another term is in use, besides formative
assessment and summative assessment. It is ‘developmental assessment’. It is
used in the context of course development and refers to the evaluation of the
preliminary versions of courses with a representative sample of learners. It
is treated generally as a part of the course development schedule. Formative
assessment in this context refers to the evaluation made of a course (when it
is produced) with a larger group (actual, not sample) of learners. The purpose
of such an assessment is not to help the process of course development (as
with the developmental assessment) but to help the activities of maintenance
and revision of courses already developed.
Continuous assessment vs. Terminal assessment: While progress or achievement
in learning is the concern of formative vs. summative mode of assessment, it
is the purpose of grading learner achievement which guides the continuous vs.
terminal mode of assessment. Continuous assessment seeks to spread the basis
of grading on a number of tests with regular, even intervals, instead of placing
it on one end-of-the course test (terminal test). Continuous assessment, thus,
allows for more intense accommodation of the learning-content in the test process
than the terminal assessment normally does. Scores on a series of continuous
assessment tests, taken together, can serve for summative assessment. Taken
individually, a continuous assessment test may be used formatively at the time of
its administration. In the same way a terminal assessment may serve the purpose
of formative assessment for follow-up courses. 41
Curriculum Evaluation Course work vs. Examination: Learner assessment can be based on work(s)
performed by them during or at the end of a course, or, it may be based on
examination(s) taken by them during or at the end of the course. Evaluation of
course work or examination at different points of time during a course can be
compiled at the end of a course to serve the purpose of summative evaluation.
Process vs. Product assessment: The basis for evaluation may be either the
nal product or the result of a given task, or the performance at different
stages leading to the accomplishment of the task (as in a research work). While
evaluating a learner, one may look for the correct solution to a given problem
or take into consideration the correctness of the successive stages followed to
solve the given problem (as in problem-solving tasks). If we do the former, we
are supposed to be engaged in product assessment, if we do the latter, we are
supposed to be making a process assessment.
Internal assessment vs. External assessment: The mode of assessment is
external when the evaluation of a learner’s ability is made by an outsider—a
person who is not related to the actual process of teaching. The evaluator and
the learner are anonymous and unknown to each other in this case. When the
assessment is made by a person, responsible for affecting the learning being
measured, it becomes internal assessment. Formative and summative assessment
of both scholastic and non-scholastic abilities is possible in the case of internal
assessment. External assessment serves only summative evaluation of scholastic
abilities.
These are actually different perspectives along which assessment of learner
ability can be thought about and planned accordingly. It is possible to practically
combine two or more of these perspectives in one’s approach to assessment.
For example, one may include both course work and examination as the basis
for learner-assessment and these two may constitute the units of continuous
assessment. Or, one may include both internal and external assessment to serve
the purposes of formative and summative evaluation.
Process-specic category
Sometimes test-types are identied on the basis of the process of test-
construction. We can talk of two pairs of contrasting test-types here:
l teacher made test vs. standardised test, and
l norm-reference test vs. criterion-reference test.
Teacher made test vs. Standardised test: Standardised tests are commercially
produced tests adhering meticulously to certain procedures to meet the demands
of objectivity and accuracy. They are nalised through the construction
procedures of formulating objectives, designing test-blueprints, employing item
trials, item-analysis and item-revisions. The teacher made tests, on the other hand,
are not governed rigidly by such processes. The teacher who makes the tests uses
his/her discretion in matters of the scope of test area and choice of task-types
and items. Standardised tests derive their name from the fact that they ensure
standardisation of the procedures of administration, scoring and interpretation
through elaborate specic instructions.
While a teacher made test is designed to operate within the restricted situation of
a given classroom (in terms of test purpose, construction and use) a standardised
test is designed for a larger operational situation crossing the barriers of a
classroom, and institution or even a region. A standardised test may be chosen
for use by different teachers/institutions in different classrooms, on different
occasions and in different regions.
42
Norm-referenced test vs. Criterion-referenced test: In a norm-referenced test Techniques and Tools of
(NRT) the purpose is to discriminate between the high-achievers and the low- Evaluation
achievers. Its focus is not on what one has learnt or how much one has learnt
of a given chunk of learning. Its focus is on where one stands in relation to the
others. It assesses the ability of one against the standard ‘norm’ of achievement
of one’s fellow testees.
A criterion-referenced test (CRT), instead, assesses one’s ability against the
standard ‘criterion’ of what has been set as an acceptable level of ability-
demonstration. That is while a CRT compares the testees’ performance with a set
standard of performance; a NRT shows the relative position (of attainment) of a
testee with regard to the other testees who took the test with him/her. This might
help administrative purposes of selection through rank-ordering. But a CRT can
specify in behavioural terms the ability of a testee.
2.7.2 Uses and Limitation of Tests

Tests help in:
a) Providing knowledge concerning a student’s entry behaviour;
b) Setting, rening, and clarifying realistic goals for each student;
c) Evaluating the degree to which the objectives have been achieved; and
d) Determining, evaluating, and rening the instructional techniques.
For example, aptitude and intelligence tests provide information concerning the
speed and ease with which a student can be expected to learn. Achievement tests
provide information as to whether a student is weak or strong in a particular
discipline/subject. For more specic information regarding the deciency,
diagnostic tests are used.
Tests are also used to conrm a student’s ideas about the skills, abilities or
personality characteristics.
Tests of intelligence or special aptitudes should not be considered the measures of
pure intelligence or creative thinking because performance in such tests is partly
determined by one’s background and schooling.
Tests measuring cognitive processes can hardly be measured as higher mental
processes such as the ability to discover scientic laws and principle.
i) Name of four types of purpose specic category tests
a) .....................................................................................................................
b) .....................................................................................................................
c) .....................................................................................................................
d) .....................................................................................................................
ii) Explain formative and summative assessments in about 15 words each.
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Curriculum Evaluation
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2.8 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit we have discussed a few techniques and tools of evaluation such as
observation, interview, proles, rating scales, projects and tests.
Observation refers to a technique in which one or more persons observe what
is happening in some real-life situation. It is used to evaluate the overt behavior
of individuals in controlled and uncontrolled situations. As a good evaluation
tool, observation needs proper planning, expert execution and adequate recording
and interpretation. Observation may be either participant or non-participant, and
structured or unstructured.
Interview is a process of interaction in which the subject provides the information
verbally in a face-to-face situation. Preparation, conduct and recording are the
main steps of the interview technique.
A prole is a portrayal of the characteristics of a person or institution in relation
to some kind of activity. There are three types of proles. They are grade prole,
criterion prole, and learning prole.
A rating scale refers to a ‘scale’ with a set of points which describe varying
degrees of the dimension of an attribute being observed. There are ve types of
rating scales.
A project is a discrete activity. The dissertation in the area of humanities is at
times considered equivalent to a project.
Tests are tools of measurements and they guide us in evaluation. There are three
different types of tests. They are process-specic, mode-specic and purpose
specic.
2.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

i) a) Non-structured observation
b) Simulated observation
ii) Honesty, punctuality, and truthfulness.
The techniques involved in interviewing are preparing for the interview, the
conducting of the interview and closing the interview. The interviewer should
plan carefully for an interview and for the collecting and recording of the
information. There are some general rules for conducting interviews. These are:
asking only one question at a time and not showing signs of surprise, shock or
anger if unexpected answers are given.
i) A prole is a portrayal of the characteristics of a person or an institution
in relation to some kind of activity or another. It is a panoramic
representation—alpha-numerical, graphical or verbal—of how a student
44 appears to his/her assessors.
ii) a) Grade proles are related to examinations. Examinations in higher Techniques and Tools of
education are split into a number of sub-tests. Generally, it is argued Evaluation
that a better description of the candidate is possible if the results of
the individual sub-tests are included in the score.
b) Criteria proles have been used in technical and professional
education. One of the intentions of these proles is to record student
progress. In that senses they are diagnostic. They provide meaningful
information to students seeking to improve their performance.
a) Numerical scale
b) Graphic scale
c) Standard scale
d) Forced scale
a) Own tutor effect
b) Criteria effect
c) Rank-ordering
The criteria used by tutors when marking projects will affect the reliability of
the grades awarded.
i) Diagnostic
Aptitude
Achievement
Prociency
ii) Formative assessment is concerned with identifying learner weaknesses in
attainment with a view to helping the learner and the teacher overcome/
remedy those, while summative assessment aims at certifying and grading
the attainment of the learner at the end of a given course.
45
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Assessment and Evaluation Techniques
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DOI: 10.17323/2411-7390-2017-3-2-30-38
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National Research University Higher School of Economics Baranovskaya, T., & Shaforostova, V. (2017). Assessment and Evaluation
Journal of Language & Education Volume 3, Issue 2, 2017 Techniques. Journal of Language and Education, 3(2), 30-38. doi:10.17323/2411-
7390-2017-3-2-30-38
Assessment and Evaluation

Techniques
Tatiana Baranovskaya
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Tatiana Baranovskaya, National Research
E-mail: tbaranovskaya@hse.ru
Valentina Shaforostova
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Valentina Shaforostova, National Research
E-mail: shafo@hse.ru
Assessment and evaluation have always been important; they are linked to language teaching
methodology, program outcomes, language teacher competencies, language standards and
second language acquisition training. They can serve many different policies and can come
in different forms. Assessment and evaluation have always been seen as the responsibility of
the specialists, but they have rarely been included as a component in English language teacher
(ELT) training. However, the ELT field has been experiencing a major shift in assessment and
evaluation with effects on teachers, and learners around the world. It has also been influenced
by a major questioning of traditional forms of testing and the underlying psychometric
principles of measurement in ELT. Recent studies reveal that the reconceptualization of English
language assessment and evaluation provides systematic information about student learning
in relation to their performance and contributes to better understanding of their strengths and
weaknesses. In many ways ELT has lagged behind the rest of education in the exploration of new
theories and assessment and evaluation tools, including self-assessment. This research gap was
generated partly because of the lack of integration with mainstream educational theory and
practice in many areas of ELT, and partly because of powerful positions of traditional English
language tests. The attempt to bridge this gap has lead to the research carried out. The aim of
this article is to elaborate different assessment techniques that may better address student
learning needs, improve student learning and engage students in self-assessment, including
the sequence of steps that could lead to self-assessment. The study shows that the techniques
implemented to develop self-assessment enable students to perform well.
Keywords: evaluation, assessment, important, English language
This article examines the importance of assessment teachers useful information on how to improve their
and evaluation A major concern of English language teaching methods.
teaching has been assessing and evaluating students’ Assessment and evaluation are very important
progress during the course of study as well as their parts of the constructive alignment process. Well-
achievements at the end of it. The methodology of designed assessments can allow students to use the
this paper is a qualitative approach using classroom knowledge and skills they have learnt and indicate
activities and library sources as well as other related their level of mastery. The feedback on the assessment
research in an attempt to improve students’ knowledge will also provide students with clear information on
and learning. Assessment and evaluation also give the criteria they need to succeed at assigned tasks,
This article is published under the Creative

30 Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
can give the lecturer a clearer sense of how the task is making.
assessing mastery and what aspects are being assessed. In classroom assessment, since teachers themselves
Evaluation of the course or module, by students and develop, administer and analyse the questions, they
lecturers should feed back into the whole process of are more likely to apply the results of the assessment
curriculum alignment, as well as reflect critically and to their own teaching. Therefore, it provides feedback
constructively on the outcomes, the teaching and on the effectiveness of instruction and gives students
learning activities, the assessment and the experience a measure of their progress. As Biggs (1999) maintains,
of the course or module. Reflexivity, continuous two major functions can be pointed out for classroom
learning and development are key aims of successful assessment: one is to show whether or not learning
evaluation. has been successful, and the other one is to clarify the
Through the use of appropriate classroom expectations teachers have of the students (Dunn et
assessment strategies and techniques, teachers can al., 2004).
increase their students’ motivation and show them Assessment plays a number of roles in the life of
how well they have learned the language. Evaluation a student, some of which they may be more aware
goes beyond learners’ achievements and language of than others. It is widely accepted that students’
assessment to consider all aspects of teaching and learning patterns, educational focus, and allocation of
learning. Although the terms ‘assessment’ and time will be directly influenced by assessment. It does
‘evaluation’ are often used interchangeably, they more than allocate a grade or degree classification
can be considered two parts of the same process. to students – assessment plays an important role in
Assessment is the process of gathering evidence of focusing their attention and, as Sainsbury & Walker
what the child can do. Evaluation is the process that (2007) observe, actually drives their learning. Gibbs
follows this collection of data, including analysis and (2003) states that assessment has 6 main functions:
reflection, as well as decisions based on the data. 1. Capturing student time and attention;
This paper will present some useful assessment 2. Generating appropriate student learning
and evaluation techniques that can assist language activity;
teachers to create a dynamic classroom situation 3. Providing timely feedback which students pay
for evaluation. It will show that the quality of the attention to;
assessment and evaluation in the educational process 4. Helping students to internalise the discipline’s
has a profound link to students’ performance and standards and notions of equality;
can engage them in self-assessment which is most 5. Generating marks or grades which distinguish
important in English language teaching. among students or enable pass/fail decisions to
be made;
6. Providing evidence enables them to judge the
Materials and Methods appropriateness of course standards.
He states that, with the exception of the last two
Theoretical Background points, these functions should occur as frequently as
possible to support effective learning.
The present study focuses upon the qualitative The purpose of classroom assessment and
approach of English language learning assessment evaluation is to give students the opportunity to show
and evaluation process in the educational system. what they have learned rather than catching them out
Evaluation in teaching the English language is a or to show what they have not learned. Needless to
process of collecting, analysing and interpreting say, evaluation and assessment can focus on different
information about teaching and learning in order aspects of teaching and learning: respectively,
to make informed decisions that enhance student textbooks and instructional materials, student
achievement and the success of educational programs achievement, and whole programs of instruction.
(Rea-Dickens & Germanie, 1993; Genesee & Upshur, It is important to clarify the distinction between
1996; O’Mally & Valdez-Pierce, 1996). Evaluation is a evaluation and assessment. These terms are often
process that includes five basic components: used interchangeably and are, in fact, related, but they
• Articulating the purpose of the educational are technically different. Assessment of an individual
system; student’s progress or achievement is an important
• Identifying and collecting relevant information; component of evaluation: it is that part of evaluation
• Having ideas that are valuable and useful to that includes the measurement and analysis of
learners in their lives and professions; information about student learning. The primary focus
• Analysing and interpreting information for of assessment in English Language Teaching has been
learners; language assessment and the role of tests in assessing
• Classroom management or classroom decision students’ language skills. Evaluation goes beyond
31
student achievement and language assessment to of tests and theses or dissertations are examples of
consider all aspects of teaching and learning and to summative assessments.
look at how educational decisions can be made on Feedback is a very important part of the assessment
the basis of alternative forms of assessment. Gensee process, both formative and summative. Through
(cited in Carter & Nunan, 2001) believes that another receiving focused, relevant and guiding feedback,
purpose of evaluation is to guide classroom instruction students are able to understand where their strengths
and enhance student learning on a day-to-day basis. and weaknesses are, and where they still need to
Classroom assessment and evaluation concerns: concentrate their efforts in terms of their own learning.
• Suitability of general instructional goals and Through giving feedback, lecturers and tutors are
objectives associated with an individual lesson better able to make similar assessments of strengths
or unit plans; and weaknesses for students. This can enable more
• Effectiveness of instructional methods, responsive teaching and tutoring to address gaps and
materials and activities used to attain weaknesses where necessary. It can also provide a
instructional objectives; better understanding of how students are responding
• Adequacy of professional resources required to to the methods and styles of teaching and tutoring.
deliver instruction. It can further show how deeply and accurately the
Classroom assessment and evaluation under students grasp and understand the relevant knowledge
the active management of teachers can also serve and employ the related skills and practices to explore
important professional development purposes since and demonstrate their knowledge.
the information resulting from such evaluations Evaluation is an important part of an aligned
provides teachers with valuable feedback about curriculum and an overall teaching and learning
their instructional effectiveness that they can use strategy because it is a part of the feedback and
to develop and improve their professional skills. development cycle. It should be a part of any responsive
As part of reflective teaching movement, teachers and up-to-date teaching and learning strategy or
are encouraged to conduct research in their own plan. Evaluation gives students opportunities to
classrooms (Nunan, 1989b; Allwright & Baily, 1991; speak to the lecturer about their experiences and
Richards & Lockhart, 1994); classroom assessment impressions of the course content and the pedagogical
and evaluation is an important part of such research. approaches that have been used. It, therefore, gives
Assessment is perhaps one of the most important lecturers valuable insights into how they teach and
elements of curriculum design and alignment, how effectively instruction has been taken up by the
because this is where it is possible to see if students students.
can demonstrate mastery in terms of the knowledge One of the most important issues in evaluation is
and skills they need to have learnt. Assessment, in a timing. Teachers can use quick exercises to check in
constructively aligned curriculum, must speak to the with students during the course, at the end of a topic
outcomes listed for the course. It must draw in both or after an assignment has been completed. Longer and
the knowledge and the practical and intellectual skills more detailed evaluation for the end of a course can
and competencies that students have been taught also be created. Students who did the course last year
and that they have practiced in lectures and tutorials. can be asked to complete a retrospective evaluation.
Assessment activities must test what has been learnt The important thing to consider when thinking about
and taught, and should not be constructed so as to be the timing is the purpose of the evaluation (what do
ambiguous or inexplicit. students need to know and why), and what teachers
Assessment tasks can be formative and summative. plan to do with the information students give them.
The former give students opportunities to make errors Gensee and Upshur (1996) state that classroom
and get constructive, guiding feedback used to develop assessment and evaluation is concerned primarily
competency and understanding in further assessments with improving instruction in order to help enhance
and teaching and learning. Formative quizzes, essays students’ learning. Teachers in any educational system
that can be drafted and revised, and short written or are actively and continuously involved in assessment
verbal tasks that receive detailed feedback are examples and evaluation. Students can also be active participants
of formative assessments. They are opportunities for in assessing their own achievements and in planning
the students to demonstrate mastery or competence how they will study and learn a second language, i.e.
in a particular area or across several areas that have they can be engaged in the early stages of the process of
been studied. The feedback is usually less detailed and self-assessment. The context of classroom assessment
aimed more at providing a summary of what they have and evaluation is summarized by Gensee and Upshur
and have not yet mastered. Examinations, some kinds (1996) in the following figure:
32
1 learners’ attitudes or social behaviour that result from

Input Factors classroom instruction (e.g. changes in attitudes toward
↓ the target language, the target language group, or the
2 3 10 learner’s first language group). However, in most cases
Student needs →→→ Instructional Assessment these objectives are secondary to language learning
and abilities purposes Evaluation
objectives. Gensee (1996) deals with philosophical
↓ ↓ ↑ objectives as changes in attitudes, values, or beliefs of a
4 5 9 more general nature than those associated with socio-
Time, Instructional Redesigned affective objectives. And, finally, method or process
Attitudes, →→→ Plans Restaffed
Resources,
objectives refer to methods, processes, experiences,
Facilities, materials, activities, or other aspects of instruction.
Support Nevertheless, Gensee and Upshur (1996) state that
↓ ↓ ↑ the influence of these objectives is not equally useful
6 7 8 for classroom instruction. They believe philosophical
Teacher →→→ Instructional →→→ Output objectives, for example, are minimally useful.
Abilities practices Result Strategic objectives help in understanding students’
Figure 1. The context of classroom assessment and performances in class, thus, play an important role in
evaluation. instructional planning. They are, however, secondary
to language acquisition; in other words, the effective
Any instruction consists of three components: first, deployment of certain strategies should lead to
the purposes identify the objectives of instruction – enhanced second language attainment and usage.
the “WHY”; second, the plans describe the means of Clearly, language objectives are fundamental to
attaining those objectives – the “HOW”; third, practice second language evaluation.
reveals what actually takes place in the classroom – the Gensee and Upshur (1996) argue that evaluation
“WHAT”. Gensee and Upshur (1996) also discuss other and assessment involve comparison. More specifically,
factors, which are not part of classroom instruction decisions that result from assessment are arrived at
itself, but can have a significant effect on second by making comparisons. They claim that in order to
language teaching and learning. They refer to these evaluate and assess, it is necessary to understand the
additional factors as “input factors.” Thus, it can be factors that influence student performance in class.
said that classroom assessment and instruction have This means going beyond the assessment of just
four aspects, namely: purposes, plans, practices, and achievement. Chastain (1988) believes that teachers
input factors. need to constantly evaluate their teaching on the basis
Instructional objectives are identified as the of student reaction, interest, motivation, preparation,
goals that a teacher sets while teaching. On the one participation, perseverance, and achievement. The
hand, they provide direction for planning appropriate conclusions drawn from such ongoing evaluation
instruction and, on the other hand, they provide a constitute their main source for measuring the
basis for determining whether a student has achieved effectiveness of selected learning activities.
what a teacher has set out to accomplish. They provide Evaluation of achievement is the feedback that
criteria for assessing the outcomes of students’ makes improvement possible. By means of evaluation,
learning and monitoring their performance. Different strengths and weaknesses are identified. Evaluation,
kinds of objectives can guide classroom instruction: in this sense, is another aspect of learning. It enables
1) language, 2) strategic, 3) socio-affective, 4) learners to grasp what they missed previously and
philosophical, and 5) method or process. helps the teacher to comprehend what can be done
Language objectives refer to language skills that in subsequent lessons to improve learning. To do
learners are expected to acquire in the classroom. so, alternative methods (e.g. dialogue journals,
Objectives that are concerned with strategies for portfolio conferences, interviews and questionnaires,
communicating, learning, and critical thinking are observation, etc.) are available for collecting useful
referred to as “strategic objectives”. Learning process information about language learning and about
refers to a “conscious processes and techniques student-related factors that influence the processes of
that facilitate the comprehension, acquisition, and language teaching and learning. It is widely accepted
retention of new skills and concepts” (Chamot & that the assessment/evaluation process involves the
O’Malley, 1989). According to Chamot and O’Malley, use of multiple sources of information collected in a
they may include metacognitive strategies (such as variety of contexts. At the primary level, many teachers
selective attention), cognitive strategies (such as use observation, work samples, and questionnaires as
summarizing and elaboration), or socio-affective tools in the process of assessment and evaluation.
strategies (such as questioning for clarification).
Socio-affective objectives refer to changes in Methodology
33
This article includes analyses of the evaluation and Table 1

assessment tools carried out by teachers at the National Assessment results of the first group (43 students)
Research University Higher School of Economics with Number of Score
fourth-year students in the Department of Public students (60)
Administration. The main idea of the experiment was 4 55-58
to develop students’ ability to assess their own speaking 5 53
skills. The expected skills of fourth-year students
included: specialized knowledge and experience in 4 50
conveying ideas and information clearly and in a 9 45-49
well-organized manner; ability to give presentations; 9 41-44
effective communication skills. To acquire these 5 37-40
necessary skills in order to confidently and effectively 3 32-35
interact in speaking situations, students should learn
2 28-30
how to plan, organise and present information on a
variety of topics. They should be able to give formal 2 27
presentations at conferences as well as talk to experts,
consultants, visiting researchers, etc. Table 2
Focusing on this primary task, the authors Assessment results of the second group (47 students)
conducted an experiment on developing, improving,
mastering and assessing oral presentation skills Number of Score
students (60)
among the fourth-year students. At the end of
5 55-57
the course the students were supposed to give
presentations to accompany the formal written paper, 6 52-54
i.e. a project proposal. The 90 students who took part 5 51
in the experiment were split into six smaller groups: 10 47-49
three of these groups were organised as Group 1; the 8 41-45
other three groups comprised Group 2. Both groups
4 38-40
were given instruction on oral presentation skills. But
while the first group were given specific instruction 3 34-36
about how they would be assessed and were shown the 4 29-32
evaluation criteria for oral presentations, the second 2 26-27
group received no explicit information regarding
evaluation; the input they received was based solely
on the fourth-year teaching materials (Kuzmenkova, Results
2011).
To assess students’ level of English language Introducing a Presentation
competence at the beginning of the course, both
groups were given Objective Placement Test, Variant 1 In Group 1, information shared on how to
CUP & FLTRP, 2010 (consisting of 60 multiple-choice introduce a presentation and make it effective was
questions divided into three sections Language Use provided by the teacher’s input and the students
(40 items), Reading (10 items), Listening (10 items)). were asked to select a problem that they felt deserved
The results achieved of the first group of 43 the special attention of the class. After that, they
students are presented in Table 1. worked individually to prepare a one- to two-minute
The second group of 47 students (whose results introduction for a presentation on the topic. When
were rather close to the first group) results are the task was completed, the students worked in small
presented in Table 2. groups and they then took turns presenting their
The pre-test showed that the level of the English introductions to the group. Once all the introductions
language competence was practically equal in both were presented, the strengths and weaknesses of each
groups. were discussed. Before the discussion, the instructor
To accomplish the objective of the study, the authors assigned different students to fill out the evaluation
attempted to verify the role of continuous evaluation form and consider the following questions in analysing
of different stages on their ability to master the special both positive and negative sides of each introduction.
skills associated with giving presentations. With this 1. How did the speaker attract listeners’ interest
task in mind, the authors conducted research with the and focus their attention on the topic?
first group of 43 students. The essence of the study 2. What was the central idea of the presentation?
was to evaluate each part of the presentation, which Was it clearly stated?
was to be introduced during the academic course. 3. What preview did the speaker give of the
34
presentation organisation? 5. What do your peers want or need to know about

4. How did the speaker plan to handle questions this subject?
from the audience? After that, the teacher wanted the students to write
5. Can you offer any suggestions for improving down two topics from their field of the research that
the introduction? they thought would be suitable for a five- to ten-minute
After that the listeners carefully studied the presentation to be given to students in the class. The
assessment criteria and justified the grade allocated. instructor collected these topics, listed them on the
Eventually the students were given a list of board and asked students to work in small groups. The
suggested topics (in alphabetical order) and optional students in groups analysed each topic, considered
guidelines: whether it was too limited, too general, too technical
A. Discuss a recent development or innovation in or too well-known for the audience. Moreover, if the
your field students found the topic unsatisfactory, they revised
Guidelines: it to make it adequate for delivering a precise message.
• How was it developed?
• What are its current and future applications or Concluding a Presentation
uses?
• What needs does the particular development To make a strong impression on listeners, the
meet? conclusion of the presentation should be brief and to
• What, if any, are the problems associated with the point of the talk. For example, when presenting
it? conclusions, students are instructed that it is not the
B. Discuss a research project that you have carried time and place to introduce new ideas, but to remind
out: the audience of what has already been presented by
Guidelines: reviewing the main points and emphasising the major
• the purpose of the research; issues. The listeners are prepared for the end of the
• what you did; talk through some signalling strategies for concluding
• when and where you conducted the research; a presentation; for example, “And now let me quickly
• significant results/conclusions/ review the main points (advantages, reasons, effects,
recommendations; types) of _________.”
C. Imagine that you are speaking to some students Having identified the main features of conclusion,
who are interested in majoring in your particular the teacher assigned the tasks for writing conclusions
field of study. Conduct a discussion on different using the same topics that were given as the examples for
job opportunities in this field. writing an introduction. Students worked individually
to prepare a one- or two-minute conclusion to a
Determining Content presentation they selected. When everyone finished,
they started to work in small groups, taking turns
Inevitably, at some point in preparing for a presenting conclusions to the group. Within the small
presentation, students began to be concerned about groups, strengths and weaknesses were discussed and
determining the content, that is, what specific then results were reported to the whole group.
information to include. Students were introduced to the After studying the information on determining
structure and teachers emphasised that the focus of any the content and preparing the conclusion of the
informative presentation should be to communicate presentation, students prepared a four- or five-minute
useful information in an explicit way. For the fourth- talk to give to a group or to the entire class, taking into
year students, the topic chosen for presentation was account the following guidelines:
related to their studies or research projects. Once the • making an outline of the points to be presented
subject issue was chosen, the topic would be limited in (avoiding writing out every word of the
order to cover the information adequately within the presentation)
time available for the presentation. When students • making sure the points were put in a logical
selected the topic for their presentations they also order
considered the following points: • planning the introduction and conclusion
1. Do you have enough time and resources to • making up a short list of any specialised or
conduct the necessary research? technical terms, etc.
2. Have you narrowed the topic enough to cover it The teacher assigned some students the task
adequately within the time limits? of evaluating the presentations. These listeners
3. Is the topic of potential interest to your considered the following questions in analysing
listeners? strengths and weaknesses of the content presented:
4. Is the topic too easy/too difficult or too 1. What kind of details, examples or facts related
technical for the audience? to the topic did the speaker include?
35
2. Did the speaker use the appropriate vocabulary? way to understand and remember. Some of the most
3. Was it the right level for these particular commonly used patterns of organisation are: (a) topical,
listeners in terms of understanding? (b) chronological, (c) spatial, (d) problem-solution, (e)
4. Was the information too simple or too complex cause and effect, (f) comparison/contrast (Matthews
for the audience? & Marino, 1990). For example, in comparison/contrast
5. Did the presentation meet the time pattern, there are two basic ways to follow when two
requirements? things are compared or contrasted: A-B and point-by-
They also examined the positive and negative sides point. In the first type, the two things to be compared
of the conclusion focusing on the following questions: are discussed in turn to give a general picture of the
1. Did the speaker use a fixed phrase to lead into comparison by focusing first on A then on B. While in
the conclusion? What was it? the second type, the point-by-point approach, specific
2. Was there a summary of the main points of the details are emphasised, alternating between A and B.
presentation? The plan for this pattern is given in a Table 3.
3. Did the presenter highlight the major issues?
Table 3
4. How did the speaker elicit questions from the
Two solutions to a problem
audience?
5. If the conclusion did not meet the format how To compare two solutions to a problem
could it be improved?
According to the teacher’s instructions, the A-B type Point-by-point type
listeners then reported the results to the speakers and
I. Solution 1 I. Cost
the rest of the class, and finally discussed them.
A. Cost A. Solution 1
In terms of organising information, determining the
central idea explains exactly what aspect of the topic B. Practicality B. Solution 2
is to be covered. Thus, the central idea controls what is C. Side effects II. Practicality
included in the presentation and also determines the D. Disadvantages A. Solution 1
arrangement of the main points. E. Advantages B. Solution 2
Organising Information
II. Solution 2 III. Side effects
For example, the chosen subject ‘International
Cooperation’, could be developed in a variety of A. Cost A. Solution 1
ways: a) the history of creation; b) the importance B. Practicality B. Solution 2
of international cooperation to avoid dangers, solve C. Side effects IY. Disadvantages
problems; c) working together with the UN and other D. Disadvantages A. Solution 1
organisations to deal with international problems;
E. Advantages B. Solution 1
d) priorities of international cooperation: a. the
environment b. economic cooperation c. regional Y. Advantages
infrastructure d. the indigenous population e. social A. Solution 1
aspects f. cross-border cooperation, etc. B. Solution 1
To build up several different topics with a clear
central idea, the teacher asked the students to work in Further, the teacher asked the students to
small groups. Each group was given the list of general work in small groups to determine which pattern
subjects: of organisation would work best with the general
• Public Administration subjects suggested earlier. When the students finished
• Civil Service the task, they discussed the results in their groups.
• Procurement After giving some time for comparing the patterns, the
• Bureaucracy teacher invited one person from each group to present
• Corruption the outline of their topics on the board. The audience
• Budgeting made comments, pointed to positive and negative
• E-Government sides and improved the imperfect ones.
• Knowledge Management
• Public-Service Motivation Using Transitions
• Crowdfunding
Working in a group, the students compared their In order for the listeners to understand the
topics, reported their results and finally selected relationship of the ideas and to show them how
those that sounded most relevant to the subject. The the pieces of information fit together into a logical
teacher emphasised that the central idea is the main pattern, transitions need to be used. The students were
body of the presentation. It consists of key points given the task to work individually, planning their
that need to be arranged for the audience in an easy presentations with the focus on outlining and using
36
transitions effectively, moving from point to point and Table 5

connecting different parts of the talk. Post-test scores of the second group
When individual work came to an end, the Number of Score
students (47) (60)
teacher instructed the students to work in groups,
taking turns giving their presentations. After each 5 56-58
speaker had finished, the discussion of strengths and 6 53-55
weaknesses was initiated. Having practiced in groups, 5 49-50
some of the students were asked by the teacher to 8 48-49
give presentations to the entire class. Meanwhile
8 42-46
the teacher also assigned some students to do the
following listening task: 6 39-41
1. What was the central idea of the presentation? 4 35-37
2. What pattern of organisation did the speaker 5 30-33
use?
3. What were the main points presented by the
speaker?
4. Were the main points presented in a logical Discussion
way?
5. How well-connected were the different parts
and ideas of the presentation? The present study provides an overview of
Turning to the conditions of the experiment assessment techniques pertinent to English language
the first group under research was aware of the training in the field of oral speech. This exploration can
examination speaking criteria while the students of help to understand the extent to which these learning-
the second group were not presented the criteria and oriented techniques of assessment affect competence in
were not evaluated according to these criteria as the English language learning and lead to self-assessment,
first group was. which plays an active role in English Learning
To see the effect of the experiment and to assess Teaching. This issue has not been studied so far and
students’ level of English language competences in the main aim of the present study was to observe and
terms of general English, the students were given characterise these effects. The research consistently
Objective Placement Test, Variant 2, CUP & FLTRP, 2010 showed that only assessment “for learning” and not “of
before the exam of the fourth-year academic course. learning” lead to self-assessment. A sequence of steps
This post-test revealed a definite progress in the first to develop self-assessment was worked out: setting
group: goals for students; the assessment of each language
component; guidance of the teacher in discussions;
Table 4
clear references if students needed further review;
Post-test scores of the first group
teacher insights into student motivation. These
Number of Score patterns were repeated several times. They proved to
students (43) (60) demonstrate permanent progress. The development
7 60 of the assessment techniques encourages the active
6 57-58 involvement of students in the process of their own
5 53-55 learning and assessment. These results indicate that
the techniques implemented to develop assessment
7 48-50
and self-assessment are intended to shift the focus
7 45-47
more to students, enabling them to become more
5 41-43 effective learners and to succeed in English language
3 38-40 learning.
3 33-36
While the results of the second group did not Conclusion

improve much (see Table 5).
Therefore, the authors were persuaded that
continuous evaluation and awareness of the The research conducted by the authors shows that
assessment criteria had a positive impact on the the framework used in assessment produces good
process of students’ further development in the field results. It outlines the relationship between assessment
of English language training. Moreover, these methods and self-assessment. The authors argued that self-
led to remarkable results at the final examination. assessment plays a major role in ELT and explored
37
the assessment activities which they embedded in the the main stream. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 227-249.
curriculum to develop self-assessment. The research Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills.
shows that the impact on learning outcomes was New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
great. The degree of English learning competence Davison, C., & Cummins, J. (2007). Assessment
improvement helped students to develop and perfect and evaluation in ELT: Shifting paradigms and
their language skills. practices. In International Handbook of English
The research into assessment and evaluation Language Teaching (Vol. 15, pp. 415-420). Boston,
in ELT highlights several broad themes for further MA: Springer Science Business Media, LLC.
research into teachers’ professional development. Dunn, B., et al. (2004). Genetic footprinting: A functional
More detailed classroom studies of assessment analysis of the S. cerevisiae genome. Stanford, CA:
practices and their effects on students’ learning are Stanford University Press.
needed. By investigating the effect of using some Genesee, F., Upshur, J. (1996). Classroom-based
self-assessment techniques on language competence, evaluation in second language education. Cambridge,
this study hypothesized that the development of self- UK: Cambridge University Press.
assessment can foster language skills. In order to verify Gibbs, G. (2003). Using assessment to support student
this hypothesis different techniques were adapted and learning at University of East Anglia. Leeds, UK:
injected while teaching “Oral Presentation Skills”. It Leeds Metropolitan University.
was found that the development of self-assessment Jabbarifar, T. (2009). The importance of classroom
helped improve and foster language skills and assessment and evaluation in educational system.
contributed to the development of reliable monitoring In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of
and evaluation, thereby influencing students’ progress Teaching and Learning (ICTL 2009). INTI University
and attainment. However, an important variable not College, Kuching, Malaysia.
investigated in this study was the effect of assessment Matthes, C., & Marino, J. (1990). Professional
on students’ motivation. This might be a focus for a interactions: Oral communication skills in science,
further experimental study and calls for a wider range technology, and medicine. London, UK: Prentice Hall.
of assessment strategies. Nunan, D. (1989). Understanding language classrooms.
London, UK: Prentice Hall.
O’Malley, J. M., & Valdez-Pierce, L. (1996). Authentic
References assessment for English language learners: Practical
approaches for teachers. Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley.
Allwright, D., & Bailey, K. (1991). Focus on the language Rea-Dickins, P. (1994). Evaluation and English
classroom: An introduction to classroom research language teaching. Language Teaching, 27, 71-91.
or language teachers. New York, NY: Cambridge Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1994). Reflective
University Press. teaching in second language classrooms. New York,
Biggs, J. (1999). What the student does: Teaching for NY: Cambridge University Press.
enhanced learning. Hager Education Research and Sainsbury, E., & Walker, R. (2007). Assessment as
Development, 18(1), 57-75. a vehicle for learning: Extending collaboration
Carter, R., & Nunan, D. (2001). The Cambridge guide into testing. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher
to teaching English to speakers of other languages. Education, 33(2), 1-18.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Kuzmenkova, Iu. (2011). Academic project presentations.
Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1989). The cognitive Мoscow, Russia: MSU.
academic language learning approach: A bridge to
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Self appraisal
1. Test should include trusty and authentic sections that help teachers identify learners’ attitudes.
Tests Elements
Tests Characteristics
Tests Types
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Self appraisal
2. Which ones are not considered elements in test techniques?
Coverage, activities and evaluation.
Coverage, activities and energy.
Coverage, activities and time.
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Self appraisal
3. What kind of answer is not suggested in Multiple-choice items?
All of the above.
None.
Berlin.
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Self appraisal
4. Multiple-choice items are perfect to measure?
Use of Language.
Productive Skills.
Receptive Skills.
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Self appraisal
5. How many distractors are suggested in Multiple-choice items?
Four Distractors.
Three Distractors.
One Distractor.
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Self appraisal
6. Why is it not advisable to use Multiple-choice items?
Because of their advantageous washback.
Their items are easy to cheat.
Their items are always outstanding.
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Self appraisal
7. In what kinds of tests is it not suitable to use YES/NO items?
Formal assessment.
Informal assessment.
Diagnostic assessment.
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Self appraisal
8. Short-answer items are commonly used to test?
Receptive Skills.
Productive Skills.
Vocabulary.
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Self appraisal
9. How many gaps are recommended to use in Gap filling items?
Two or more.
None.
Only one.
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Self appraisal
10. What kinds of questions are necessary to avoid when designing the items?
TRUE/FALSE Questions.
YES/NO Questions.
Trick Questions.
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10. Introduction
The knowledge of language caters to an abstract nature

in that it can only be assimilated on the basis of
perceived experiences that have conjugated both
external and internal interaction to which learners have
been subjected. The traditional approach divides
language into four edges in terms of skills. These are
grouped into two wider groups, receptive (listening and
reading) and productive (speaking and writing) skills
(Grabe, 1998; Hedge, 2000). The distinction made upon
language skills has enabled to outline the objectives of
language either acquisition or learning in such a way the
assessment meant to verify the language knowledge
level must be tailored to meet subsequent issues such
as the performance when producing language as well as
the competences that make possible receptive skills https://www.myenglishpages.com/blog/teaching-receptive-skills/
assessment (Brown, 2004).
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10. Introduction
At the moment of testing language skills it must be

considered the remark that there will be products that
could not be as effortless to validate as their nature
readies. In this sense, writing products are rather
straightforward to document, whereas for speaking’s
exists the need for employing storage devices. On the
flip side, both listening and reading leave quite a little
evidence to be parsed as they rather provide observing
evidence when test-takers are performing such-skill-
related tasks which means that teachers are called upon
making inferences based on the receptive performance.
https://www.britishcouncil.org.mx/blog/como-aprender-ingles-ninos
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10.1. Testing Receptive Skills
• Literal: Understanding specific information from

When tackling the testing of receptive skills it usually the input sources
happens by defining the type of competence area • Interpretative: Integrating information while
according to the benchmark for such a profile of ability be making inferences
it listening or reading. The four primary competences into
• Applied: Elaborating on complex ideas stemmed
which testing receptive skills fall are: interacting with
others, comprehending information, getting things done from the facts of information already parsed.
and comprehending instructions (Centre for Canadian
Language Benchmarks (CCLB), 2012).
It goes without saying that comprehension primarily plays

a pivotal role within receptive skills given that the ultimate
aim by means of testing them both is that the processing
of input may be categorized in terms of the relevance of
the information. The levels of comprehension that
assessment activities should be elaborated upon are
three (Vacca, Vacca, & Mraz, 2014):
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED552940.pdf
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10.1. Testing Receptive Skills
Testing reading encompasses the development of two

main guidelines: a) reading for meaning and b) reading
like a writer (Axelrod & Cooper, 2002). Reading for
meaning entails that both knowledge and experience of
the reader come into play so that the gist of what is
being read may be attainable; whereas reading like a
writer suggests that a further process ensued from the
latter takes place to the extent that not only is the
meaning processed but also the way it is presented is
evaluated.
Testing listening, on the other hand, is mostly focused on

the outcomes. For the most part, learners during
listening assessment are asked to either provide
condensed information or repeat facts based on what https://www.bridgeblueglobal.com/es/listening-test-2/
they heard. Nonetheless, none of these tasks really
measures how well the student listens (Vandergrift &
Goh, 2012).
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10.1.1. Assessing Listening
At the moment of assessing the listening skill, the

product that is being tackled is the comprehension that
students have developed with regards to the input
processing. Teachers by means of varying methods
conduct listening assessment either formal or
informally. However, what the majority tend to set
aside is that listening comprehension goes hand in
hand with underlying cognitive processes in the light of
the working memory action that is in charge of
temporarily retaining information, then this is
processed to give rise to both retrieving and verifying
knowledge from the storehouse in the long-term
memory, being this type of memory plays a crucial role
in understanding the comprehension processing
(Baddeley, 2000).
https://blog.edmentum.com/10-classroom-and-school-tips-improve-
test-scores
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10.1.1. Assessing Listening
In this light, the regular methods employed by teachers

to assess listening are of the sort of self-assessment,
standardized tests or course-based examinations.
These all have been meant under the view of listening
as a target skill complemented with the deployment of
the other skills (reading, speaking or writing) in a bid to
gauge students’ comprehension (Brunfaut, 2016). The
listening comprehension progress is assessed in the
way it occurs within class consequently it is prevailing
to determine some aspects during the assessment such
as operations (what candidates are able to do),
conditions (circumstances candidates are subjected to)
and the level to which candidates match so that the https://ireland-calling.com/features/why-do-the-irish-speak-english/
benchmarks criteria may be as accurately established
as possible (Buck, 2001).
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10.1.1.1. Micro- & Macroskills for Listening
Microskills
• Discrimination of distinctive sounds in English

• Retaining different language chunks of varying lengths
For the sake that a proper listening skill development • Recognizing stress patterns present in English and
takes place, there are some both micro and macro skills other phonological features
considered when it comes to defining the objectives that • Recognizing words in their reduced forms
listening assessment will be elaborated upon. These • Distinguishing the boundaries of words (significance,
are exclusively related to language smaller bits and word order, core words)
chunks (microskills); and those employed to tackle
larger language elements within listening tasks (macro
skills). The most relevant ones are (Richards, 1983):
Macroskills
• Recognizing language functions within real settings

• Inferring features based on real-world knowledge
• Distinguishing between implied and literal meanings.
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10.1.1.2. Intensive Listening
The development of intensive listening assessments is

directed at applying or at least fostering the micro
listening skills. In this sense, what is taken into
consideration when devising intensive listening tasks
is that learners may address phonetic matters of the
sort of minimal pair recognition and paraphrasing
recognition (Brown, 2004). In this type of listening
practice students are expected to be focused on
decoding in a bid to train their listening abilities.
Among the activities largely employed are:
pronunciation, prosody marker, transcriptions and gap
(Schmidt, 2016).
Figure 1 Recognizing Phonological Elements

Note: Intensive listening task for assessing phonology recognition
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10.1.1.2. Intensive Listening
Figure 2 Sentence Paraphrase Recognition

Note: Intensive listening task for assessing sentence paraphrase recognition
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10.1.1.3. Responsive Listening
Within responsive listening assessment, students are

required to be focused on specific small amounts of
language which are meant to mirror commands,
greetings or questions. This is woven in order for
learners to develop short answer response on
particular sentence patterns which enables students
to gain basic awareness within conversations as they
are replying according to what they listen to (Darrin,
2021).
Figure 3 Responsive listening items

Note: Responsive listening task for assessing response to open-ended and
multiple choice questions. Fuente: http://ec.europa.eu/tempus
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10.1.1.4. Selective Listening
Selective listening happens to be intended as a technique

employed to gather intelligence, hence that it is dependent
on test-taker’s ability to access to oral messages that are
to be monitored and thereupon reported accurately;
thereby, test-taker have to learn to give processing priority
to messages that they consider that likely portray
intelligence value (Schendel & Shields, 1979) . What it is
purported to assess in learners by conducting selective
listening assessments is their ability to discern particular
information derived from a constrained quantity of input
(Brown, 2004).
Figure 4 Selective listening item

Note: Selective listening task for assessing information transfer
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10.1.1.5. Extensive Listening
Extensive listening is exclusively devoted to

embracing larger language excerpts provided by aural
input. In this light, the macro listening skills are called
upon to bestow test-takers on the possibility to deal
with this type of listening material that demands to be
both content valid and authentic (Brown, 2004).
Figure 5 Extensive listening item

Note: Selective listening task for assessing dictation
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10.1.2. Assessing Reading
The assessment of reading skill spreads across two major processing approaches, bottom-up and top-down. These two come into
play for the construction of schemata in language readers that will provide them with the capacity to envision further predictions
while reading texts, be it the text development in terms of story-telling or linking information to real facts that they have
experienced previously(top-down processing); and in turn, taking in the structures present in the text in such a way the
implications that it entails are fulfilled (bottom-up) (McVee et all, 2005; Nassaji, 2002).
In a bid to assess the level of students’ reading comprehension (reading assessed product), it has been agreed upon the
consideration of establishing reading understanding levels which permit to sort the implications of high-order and low-order skills
(Munby, 1978). This outlook has been assembled upon the challenges that reading assessment entails as those of the sort of the
completeness of the reading indicator being assessed (Klingner, 2004), the controversy stemmed from non-assessment language
tasks employed as ones itself (Grabe W. , 2009) and the way in which learners tend to interact with the text while deploying
reading introspective techniques (e.g., Allan, 1992; Cohen & Upton, 2006).
In this light, at the moment of devising reading assessment items, somehow or other, it is not being measured a very unique skill
or strategy; but rather, the development of the items is directed at encompassing a set of skills or strategies (reading construct)
based on what test-developer aims at by doing so (Alderson, 1990a and b ; Weir et al, 2000) . In this sense, what is pursed by
means of reading assessment is the measurement of the process that comprises the deployment of varying skills and strategies
for the sake of making an accurate inference in keeping with the text.
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10.1.2.1. Micro- & Macroskills for Reading
Microskills
• Discriminating the orthographic English patterns

• Recognizing meaning flexibility in terms of its
presented form
In line with the objectives that test developers aspire to • Recognizing cohesive device functions within clause
depict through the assessment in terms of reading declaration
proficiency, there is a distinction regarding what skills
(micro and macro) should be prioritized in such a way
the test-taker may demonstrate their level of mastery as
per the item difficulty (Brown, 2004). Macroskills
• Identifying the functions of communications intended

in the text.
• Employing background knowledge to make non-
explicit inferences.
• Detecting particular references to culture and
interpreting them with an appropriate schemata.
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10.1.2.2. Perceptive Reading
The approach that perceptive reading employs goes quite

closely to what a literate learner is ideally described prior
to undertaking a second language learning. Nonetheless,
in some cases second language learners are not
sufficiently skilled readers at their mother tongue, which
entails that all those considerations as to how to learn to
read a language for the first time should be addressed
when assessing perceptive reading (Brown, 2004).
Figure 5 Perceptive reading item

Note: Perceptive reading task for assessing word identification.
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10.1.2.3. Selective Reading
In other words, by reading selectively or rather assessing

learners in reading selectively is no other than having
learners read with purpose in such a way the most salient
aspects of what they are reading may be captured while
dismissing those that are not. By and large, the
assessment of selective reading involves looking for
information of the sort of names, words/phrases,
figures/percentages, dates, etc. Pieces of information by
which test takers may make the most when going through
the assessment items (Urquhart & Wier, 1998).
Figure 6 Selective reading item

Note: Selective reading task for assessing contextualized vocabulary/grammar.
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10.1.2.4. Interactive Reading
In this type of reading assessment the tasks arranged are

devised with the aim of measuring top-down processing,
thereby the items have a combination of meaning-
focused and form-focused objectives. Overall test takers,
when performing interactive readding, are more
concentrated on sampling the text (words, topic
sentences, relevant, paragraphs) in a bid to piece
together a macro-structure of the entire text (Urquhart & Figure 8 Interactive reading item
Wier, 1998). Note: Interactive reading task for assessing cloze procedure.
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10.1.2.5. Extensive Reading
Within the performing of extensive reading, it is expected

to measure in learners their ability to manage longer texts
(top-down processing) so that the primary elements can
be articulated in such a way it is yielded a coherent and
feasible meaning-related standpoint without including
thorough details that could overextend and in turn deflect
the reader from what the reading revolves around
(Urquhart & Wier, 1998).
Figure 9 Extensive reading item

Note: Extensive reading task for assessing skimming.
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Centre for Research in English Language Learning and Assessment
Defining and Assessing

Listening Ability
Dr Lynda Taylor
CRELLA
Session 2:
Designing and developing
listening (test) tasks
CRELLA
The type of listening input we
select for a task – the
(external) contextual features
of the input text and
response
CRELLA
Context validity
• How can we be sure that a listening task
matches the contextual features of listening
tasks done in the world beyond the test?
• This is the issue of ‘context validity’ or
‘situational authenticity’
• The contextual features or task characteristics
(i.e. both text and task) need to be controlled
according to intended level and purpose
Context validity – external features of
listening input texts and tasks
• Setting: task • Linguistic demands: task input
and output
– Purpose
• Text purpose and
– Response method discourse mode
– Weighting • Functional resources
– Knowledge of criteria • Grammatical resources
• Lexical resources
– Order of items
– Modality • Content knowledge
– Text length – Speaker
– Time constraints • Speech rate
• Setting: administration • Variety of accent
• Sociolinguistic
– Physical conditions considerations
– Uniformity of administration • Number and gender
– Security
Task setting
• Purpose
• Response method
• Weighting
• Knowledge of criteria
• Order of items
• Modality
• Text length
• Time constraints
Task input and task output
• Text purpose and discourse mode
• Functional resources
• Grammatical/structural resources
• Lexical/vocabulary resources
• Content knowledge/topic familiarity
Speaker(s)
• Speech rate
• Variety of accent
• Sociolinguistic considerations
• Number and gender
Task administration or setting
• Physical conditions
• Uniformity of administration
• Security
Main listening task response formats
• Selected response formats
– Multiple-choice
– Matching
– True/false
• Constructed response formats

– Gap-filling (word, number, phrase)
– Short answer responses (clause, sentence)
– Short paragraphs
– Summary writing
Let’s take a closer look
at some listening test
tasks
CRELLA
Some key issues for listening test
developers
1. The nature of the listening input
2. Aspects of the testing method and format
3. The opportunities offered by technology
4. Washback on teaching and learning

1. Listening input
• risk of a mismatch between listening test input
and the listening experience beyond the test
• scripted vs unscripted material?
– ‘written’ vs ‘spoken’, transcript conventions
• balancing monologue + dialogue
• text-item relationship and information density
– what’s easy/convenient to test vs what’s
relevant/important in the recording
• linguistic variation, accentedness, etc
2. Testing method and format
• response format
– how much reading/writing? memory load?
• single or double-play?
• positioning of test items
– pre-set or post-set? or between recordings?
• scoring validity issues
– requirement for correct spelling?
• eliciting higher-level processing at the discourse
level, esp. at the advanced / ‘C’ levels
3. Technology
• greater use of visual input to accompany
acoustic speech signal
– still photos, video clips, multi-modal approaches
incl. podcasts
• more options for integrated tests
– listening-into-writing, listening-into-speaking
• enhanced test delivery
– Internet / web-based administration
4. Washback on pedagogy
• unhelpful influence of listening tests on the
classroom traditionally
• positive (rather than negative) effects of listening
tests on teaching and learning
– less focus on standardised testing formats (e.g. MCQ)
in teaching materials – artificial elicitation techniques
– less time spent on intensive test-taking practice
– reduced focus on test-wise strategies
– good design of classroom listening tasks
End of Session 2
and of this workshop
Thank you very much for your
interest and attention!
Sexto Nivel
Self appraisal
1. Within the assessment of receptive skills the competencies in which these two extend over are crucial for their
testing. What are two competences for receptive skill assessment?
Understanding purpose and objective of input
Comprehending information and instruction
Developing awareness and high-order skills
Understanding specific information and make inferences
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Self appraisal
2. The assessment of listening have some cognitive implications regarding the inner process that come about when
performing tasks related to this skill. What methods are on a regular basis employed by teachers to assess listening
skill?
Standard testing and comprehensive input
Comparability and Accountability
Self-assessment, course-based examinations
All of the above
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Self appraisal
3. Among the types of listening assessment that can be utilized in classroom assessment, selective listening happens to be of
vital utility. What is purported to be developed on learners when performing selective listening?
Prioritizing messages with intelligence value
Avoiding the use of instincts and feelings when listening
Storing and retaining input information
All of the above
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Self appraisal
4. In order to perform well withing reading assessment students must work on top-down and bottom-up processing
types. Select the challenges faced when devising reading assessment
Determining the scope of the text reading and its purpose
Encompassing a construct of the skill rather than a unique strategy
How interactions with text happen and completeness of the indicator
None of the above
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Self appraisal
5. In some cases when assessing reading, it is prevailing that test takers resort to text to reinforce information
continually. What elements are required to be sampling by learners when performing reading interactively?
Text macro-structure and connectors
Topic sentences and core words
Names and dates that are presented in the text across
Ideas presented at the beginning and ending of paragraphs
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Self appraisal
6. Assessing receptive and productive skills requires to profile the breadth of the information to which students have been
subjected to. What are two levels when it comes to processing information?
Superficial and in-depth
Interpretation and communication
Interpretative and Applied
Iteration and Application
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Self appraisal
7. When listening is being assessed there are some constraints in terms of the evidence that can be gathered. What is the major
issue that assessors of the listening skill face up?
Collecting listening evidence is time-consuming as it needs to be thoroughly revised
Collecting listening evidence is time-consuming as it needs to be thoroughly revised
Listening activities never measure how well students listen
All of the above
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Self appraisal
8. Listening assessment displays a need in students for mastering both micro and macro skills. What is a micro and macro skill
required for listening?
Decoding words and sentences as they are listened to
Distinguishing between implied and literal meanings.
Managing information listened to so that analysis takes place
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Self appraisal
9. The relevance of reading assessment lies in that this skill needs to be fostered previously in the mother tongue. Select a
priority macro skill to demonstrate mastery level as per the item difficulty
Identifying language functions depicted in the input
Employing background awareness to engage in making inferences.
Detecting particular cultural features that are to be compared with external schemata
None of the above
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Self appraisal
10. When performing reading-related activities, learners must rule out some distractors and focus on key information. What
aspects are involved to conduct successful selective reading?
Spotting activity-related information that can be further analyzed
Going through the gist of the text to signal the main idea
Detecting required information for the activities (days, years, ages)
Seeking pivotal pieces of information (words, phrases)
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11.1. Testing Productive Skills
When it comes to testing learners’ productive skills the

more substantial concerns that might arise from doing it
are related to the authenticity of what it is meant to be
measured and the relevant application of the written and
spoken language assessed within real scenarios (Centre
for Canadian Language Benchmarks (CCLB), 2012).
Once again, prior to undertaking productive skills
assessment it must be specified the competencies into
which these skills fall: social interaction, reproducing
information (writing) / communicate instructions, sharing
information and getting things done.
https://www.tefllemon.com/esl-speaking-activities-for-teens-and-adults
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In this light, for the subjectivity immersed may yield

scoring issues to the extent that some sort of bias could
affect the way of perceiving performance, teachers may
rely on varying assessment tools through which credible
criteria can be addressed (Holmes, 2005):
• Checklists: Facilitate collection of efficient feedback
performance.
• Rating Scales: Enable instructor to assess success
gradations.
• Rubrics: Contemplate criteria descriptors as per
success level.
https://www.slideshare.net/cleomangasaur/checklists-rating-scales-rubrics-
for-preschool
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At the moment of testing speaking the focus should be

placed on both the ability and its breadth for conveying
and interpreting meanings with a specific purpose within
dynamic contexts (Rukmini & Saputri, 2017). In this
sense, it is vital the guidance that may be given to
learners in order for them to develop strategies in cases
where the comprehension renders somewhat vague
(Porters & Roberts, 1987).
On the flip side, an authentic writing assessment

demands no other than time-consuming efforts on the
part of teachers so that the writing produced by test
takers may be thoroughly parsed in detail and thereby,
learners can get a reliable feedback regarding the
achievements reached as per the benchmarks already https://quicksilvertranslate.com/5446/translation-or-interpretation/
pre-set (Rukmini & Saputri, 2017).
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11.1.1. Assessing Speaking
The construct assembled at the moment of assessing

speaking is quite concrete though the approach
employed by teachers to observe performance might
seem not as effective as for measuring the true breadth
of the speaking development in learners (Brown & Yule,
1997). Before this reality, what the assessment of
speaking should be guided through brings in the validity
of the content on which learners are to be assessed,
given that in this way they are provided with sufficient
chances to demonstrate and apply their knowledge in
practical contexts (William, 2021; Ojung’a & Allida,
2017). https://www.onestopenglish.com/methodology-tips-for-teachers/skills-
assessing-speaking-skills/146607.article
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11.1.1. Assessing Speaking
Besides another issue frequently encountered is that of

the tangibility of the ultimate product in that it yields less
measurement precision while requiring oral examination
to be individual (Handbook of Second Language
Assessment). Nevertheless, at the moment of contriving
speaking assessment tasks, some guidance have been
outlined so that matters such as content-task
development, variables entangled in influencing
performance and the rating scales (Bygate, 2009) do not
affect the appraising of the speaking performance; but
rather, what is intended to be measured like the learners
repertoire (informational and interactional routines)
(Bygate, 1987). https://www.jotform.com/what-is-performance-appraisal/
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11.1.1.1. Micro- & Macroskills for Speaking
Microskills
• Self-repair or self-correctness ability

• Claiming turns of talk during interaction
• Back-channel ability (indirect conversations)
Likewise in the assessing listening, at the moment of
spoken interaction when this is assessed, some further
skills are required in a bid to depict the level of
management of matters of the sort of meaning negotiation
in the event of a potential breakdown of communication
Macroskills
and the fluency present in turn-taking when requiring
improvisation for ideas elaboration (Hughes, 2002). • Ensuring the comprehension on listeners
• Recognizing potential breaking downs and how to
manage them
• Employing compensatory skills (avoiding structure
repetition, vocabulary, etc.)
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11.1.1.2. Imitative Speaking
Imitative speaking assessment is contrived in a bid to

address phonological matters so that learners may
enhance their sounds articulation for further
pronunciation improvements. It must be remarked that
this type of assessment should not cover or dominate
the whole spectrum of speaking but rather as a mere
support for serving fluency purposes. Figure 1
Imitative speaking item
Note: Imitative speaking task for assessing word repetition
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11.1.1.3. Intensive Speaking
By means of intensive speaking assessment, test

takers are called upon to display their linguistic
competence at a concrete language level either in the
form of short spoken replies or by elaborating brief
complex ideas whose maximum length does not Figure 2
exceed that of two sentences. Intensive speaking item
Note: Intensive speaking task for assessing directed response
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11.1.1.4. Responsive Speaking
Responsive speaking assessment has to do with

having students engaged in real-world interactions so
that they can gain grasp regarding what natural
speaking conversations look like and which strategies
would be required to address such situations.
Figure 3
Responsive speaking item
Note: Responsive speaking task for assessing open-ended responses
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11.1.1.5. Interactive Speaking
The aims set within interactive speaking assessment

are in line with both the improvisation that test taker
could resort to tackling thoughts elaboration and the
management regarding the time employed while
conveying such thoughts with interlocutor/s (avoiding
rambling). Interactive speaking enables learners to
develop confidence while adopting conversation
modulator role when taking hold of the topic in
discussion.
Figure 4 Interactive speaking item

Note: Interactive speaking task for assessing oral interview performance
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11.1.1.6. Extensive Speaking
Quite alike to interactive speaking, however, what is

intended to be measure by means of extensive
speaking assessments is the individual control that test
takers display when developing thoughts so that they
can be perceived as coherent and subjected to a
uniform connecting threat. In other words, students
work on the complexity of their thoughts and how they
can be produced in an engaging and creative way.
Figure 5 Extensive speaking item

Note: Extensive speaking task for assessing oral presentation performance
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11.1.2. Assessing Writing
The assessment of writing faces a wide assortment of

challenges that test developers must be aware of in
such a way they do not have students fall into a
mistaken writing conception that could have nested
based on the descriptors provided by the CEFR levels
within assessment context (Harsch & Martín, 2012).
This has led to look beyond the common frameworks
of writing approach such as contextual, cognitive and
textual (Hyland, 2002).
Among the critical issues faced by teachers at the
moment of assessing writing are the impact of L2
proficiency on writing performance and that of writing
strategies on writing competence (Cumming, 1989);
problem-solving processes that are distinguished from
cognitive-strategic component and the semantic-
linguistic text component (Whalen & Ménard, 1995);
and the dichotomy between knowledge transforming
and knowledge telling within the composing process
(Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987).
https://prezi.com/2oy43kiwcya3/assessing-writing/
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11.1.2. Assessing Writing
In this light, a new tendency has emerged as to what

should be the path that both valid and reliable writing
assessments must go on at the moment of their
devising. Current practice of assessments are to be
aligned with the notion that writers must demonstrate
their ability to communicate to a particular audience
within specific contexts in that whoever that reads
what writers have produced may be delimited as part
of a both clearly and defined communicative event
(Huot, 1996). The aforementioned assessment
practice is to be circumscribed within a specific
context-based approach so that raters may make use
of their interpretative, pedagogical and practical
judgements in a bid to leave aside the likely influences
they may experience when scoring.
https://leverageedu.com/blog/creative-writing-topics/
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11.1.2.1. Micro- & Macroskills for Writing
Microskills
• Producing acceptable array of core words

• Employing convenient systems of grammar as well as
rules and patterns
This well largely employed taxonomy of both micro and • Showing mastery of cohesive devices within the
micro skills in assessing language, with regards to written discourse
writing, finds its foundations based on the type of writing
assessment intended, be it intensive or imitative type of
writing (microskills); and in turn, the fruitful mastery of
either extensive or responsive writing (macroskills). Macroskills
• Communicating correctly particular cultural references

in context
• Accomplishing accurately the communicative functions
as per the form and purpose intended.
• Displaying a wide domain in terms of prioritizing and
structuring of ideas, as well as connections and links
between the events.
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11.1.2.2. Imitative Writing
Imitative writing is arranged under the assumption to

foster roman-alphabet awareness in those learners
who possess a rather limited development in the
handwriting of this writing system. This can be done
by forming simple sentences, words and letters
Figure 6 Imitative writing item
Note: Imitative writing task for assessing handwriting
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11.1.2.3. Intensive (Controlled) Writing
Writing intensively or in a controlled way refers to the

widely accepted considerations made in teacher training
manuals. The assessment of this type of writing is
primarily focused on form and is strictly constrained to
merely assemble a proper articulation of words rather than
conveying significant information as opposed to real
writing.
Figure 7 Intensive writing item

Note: Intensive writing task for assessing picture-cued sentence writing
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11.1.2.4. Responsive & Extensive Writing
The approach employed withing extensive writing

assessment aims at having students develop
creativity and convey painstaking information ensued
from the articulation of their schemata and the
deployment of high-order skills. The text genres both
extensive and responsive writing falls into may range
from short reports, summaries (stories or articles),
narrative descriptions to interpretations of pie charts,
graphs and tables. Figure 8 Extensive writing item
Note: Extensive writing task for assessing guided writing stimuli
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Self appraisal
1. Scoring the performance elicited from learners in terms of productive skills requires to be made objectively. What
instruments are known to be feasible when scoring both spoken and written performance?
Multiple choice criteria and scales
Rating scales and short answer questions
Checklists and reliable feedback
Rubrics and checklists
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Self appraisal
2. At the moment of devising speaking assessment tasks, this is made by employing concrete constructs. Select two
aspects contemplated within speaking constructs
Extensive vocabulary and avoiding translation
Fluency and pronunciation
Time management and accuracy of speech
Multiple choice and Essay Questions items
Pregunta 2 de 10
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Self appraisal
3. In order to succeed when performing speaking assessments the pronunciation is vital for the speech to be easily
understood. What type of speaking assessment enables to measure learners’ phonological awareness?
Extensive listening
Intensive Listening
Responsive Listening
Imitative Listening
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Self appraisal
4. Assessing writing must take into account that aspects like cultural references and experiences that test takers have
might come into play in the performance. Select the guidelines that writers must include within their writings.
Cognitive and Background influence
Predilections and Preferences
Communication ability and target audience
Exploratory and Recursive undertaking
Pregunta 4 de 10
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Self appraisal
5. When performing reading assessment learners focus, to some extent, on linguistic features to make the reading
engaging. What type of reading assessment enables learners to develop creativity and high order skills?
Interactive writing
Imitative writing
Intensive or controlled writing
Responsive & extensive writing
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Self appraisal
6. At the moment of assessing writing and speaking the nature of the performance requires thorough parsing. What matters are
taken into consideration when presenting productive skill assessments to learners?
For speaking learners must interpret meaning with a specific purpose and for writing they need to get reliable feedback
as per achievements.
For speaking learners must convey meaning with a specific reason and for writing they need to get valid feedback
upon composition
For speaking learners must display concise performance and for writing they need to get an immediate feedback upon
composition
None of the above
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Self appraisal
7. In order for students to perform successfully in a speaking activity they must show an equilibrium between what they speak
and how they do it. Select two skills that learners must have when producing language orally.
Self-regulation at the moment of uttering language chunks
Deploying soft skills (joviality, strain management)
Spotting likely slips the speech might fall into
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Self appraisal
8. Students are to have spaces wherein they can show themselves how much they have enhanced their speaking skill. What
type of speaking assessment enables learners to perform longer and strenuous speeches?
Extensive listening
Intensive Listening
Responsive Listening
Interactive Listening
Pregunta 8 de 10
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Self appraisal
9. Among the varying sub-abilities that students may have inherited from the mother tongue when writing, they require a more
wide-ranging instruction when making compositions. Select the micro and macro skills needed to increase writing control
awareness.
Producing acceptable array of core words
Displaying a wide domain to prioritize and structure ideas.
Showing mastery of cohesive devices in the discourse.
Pregunta 9 de 10
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Self appraisal
10. Reading assessment within standardized frames can be either of independent type of writing or integrated. What type of
reading assessment enables learners to resort to other skills needed to execute a high-level composition?
Interactive writing
Imitative writing
Intensive or controlled writing
Responsive & extensive writing
Pregunta 10 de 10
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12.1. Understanding language testing
Throughout history, testing has been a universal feature

of all life aspects. In order to prove their capabilities or
establish their credentials, people have always been put
to the test.
Within the language field, the person in charge of
language assessment must claim expertise in this area,
though many other people working in the field of
language will generally want to participate as necessary
in its discourse. Some of the reasons for this are, for
example, the fact that language tests play a powerful
role in many people’s lives, so they represent important
transitional moments in education, in employment, and in
moving from one place or country to another. Secondly,
in your professional life, as a teacher or administrator,
you may be working with language tests to make https://www.tefllemon.com/esl-speaking-activities-for-tehttps:
decisions on the placement of students on particular //wiki.uiowa.edu/display/languageassessment
courses. /Language+Assessment+Club+Homeens-and-adults
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12.1. Understanding language testing
Finally, you may need to measure the language

proficiency of your students, so you will have to either
choose an appropriate existing language test or design
your own.
Therefore, if you are involved in creating language tests

or involved in using them or the information they provide,
understanding language testing is relevant for you.
https://www.infobloom.com/what-are-the-different-types-of-grammar-tests.htm
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12.1.1 Types of tests
The main difference among language tests is “how they

are designed, and what they are for: in other words, in
respect to test method and purpose” (McNamara, 2000,
p.5).
In respect to method, we can distinguish traditional

paper-and-pencil language tests from performance tests.
Paper-and-pencil tests take a familiar examination
question paper. They are mostly used for the
assessment of separate components of language
knowledge (grammar, vocabulary, etc.) or receptive
understanding (listening and reading comprehension).
The test items are often fixed response formatted. The
most important type of fixed response is the multiple-
choice format. The following example from vocabulary https://content.wisestep.com/answer-multiple-choice-question/
test shows this format:
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“Select the most appropriate completion of the sentence.

I wonder what the newspaper says about the new play. I
must read the
(a) Criticism
(b) Opinion
(c) Review *
(d) Critic”
In this format, the items present a range of anticipated

likely responses to the test-taker. From the alternatives
shown, only one is correct (in this case, the one marked
with an asterisk); the others are called distractors and
are based on typical confusions or misunderstandings
from learners’ attempts to answer the questions freely in
try-outs of the test material or from the errors generally https://www.noodle.com/articles/4-types-of-tests-teachers-give-and-why
observed in the process of learning.
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Given that these tests require selecting only one item

from a set of alternatives, they are not useful in testing
the productive skills of speaking and writing, although
they may do it indirectly.
Performance tests are commonly used for assessing
speaking and writing. A sample of speech or writing is
brought about from the test-taker, and assessed by one https://blog.duolingo.com/subscores-improving-how-we-report-
or more trained raters using an agreed rating- duolingo-english-test-results-2/
procedure.
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12.1.2 Test purpose
Another difference among tests is their purpose. Thus,

the same form of test may be used for different Standardized tests are regarded as too often having a
purposes, although there are cases in which the purpose negative, restricting influence on progressing teaching.
may affect the form. The typical distinction in test Instead, for example, learners should be encouraged to
purpose is related to achievement and proficiency share in the responsibility for assessment, and be trained
tests. to evaluate their own capacities in performance in a
range of settings in a process known as self-
When it comes to the process of instruction, the assessment. (McNamara, 2000, p.6-7).
achievement tests are the ones to be used. Examples
would be: end of course tests, portfolio assessment, or
observational procedures on classroom work and
participation. Achievement tests should support the
teaching to which they relate. They may not bear any
direct relationship to language use in the world outside,
and, therefore, an achievement test may focus on
knowledge of particular point of grammar, or vocabulary,
for example. However, this will not be the case if the
syllabus is itself concerned with the outside world and,
that being the circumstance, it will then automatically
reflect that reality in the process of reflecting the
syllabus. https://sub1.instructure.com/courses/2/pages/student-assessment-team-home-page
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12.1.3 The criterion
An essential point in testing is making inferences. The fact

that some testing procedures, especially in performance
assessment, appear to involve direct observation tends to
obscure this process.
Understanding testing involves recognizing a distinction

between the criterion, that is, the relevant communicative
behavior in the target situation, and the test. This
distinction is set out for performance-based tests.
Test performances are used as the basis for making

https://classroomcallouts.com/2020/01/its-making-inferences-time.html
inferences about criterion performances. Therefore, for
instance, listening to a lecture in a test is used to infer
how a person would cope with listening to lectures in the
course of study they are aiming to enter.
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12.1.4 Formal and Informal Assessment
Informal assessment involves an individual and

spontaneous way of assessing learners’ progress
without any grading criteria. The aim is to recognize the
difficulties and challenges that the student may face.
Among the examples of informal assessment there are
observations, surveys or oral presentations. Informal
assessment improves students’ confidence as teachers
focus their attention on students’ requirements.
In informal assessment, students are more

encouraged as it provides constructive feedback to help
them advance or improve their performance and build
confidence. For instance, saying: “good job”, “well done”, https://diffzi.com/formal-assessment-vs-informal-assessment/
Do you mean see or sees? definitely help the learners.
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12.1.4 Formal and Informal Assessment
In order to investigate students’ performance objectively,

we refer to formal assessment. It shows teachers
precise and clear evidence about how much individuals
have learned during a period or term. It is essential that
the assessment, in this case, should be organized and
designed properly as the aim is to assess learners’
performance based on specific standards or criteria.
Tests, quizzes and questionnaires, are some examples

of formal assessment, but it must be noticed that not all
formal assessment is testing. Portfolios and journals
could be used as formal assessments since they might https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-formal-and-vs-
fit the learning objectives. informal-assessment/
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12.1.5. Formative and Summative Assessment
For teachers to identify the weaknesses and the

strengths of their students it is used the formative
assessment. It allows students to manage their self-
regulatory skills by forming their own learning.
Furthermore, teachers may monitor students’ progress
so that they achieve their objectives. Formative
assessment can include tutor led, peer or self-
assessment. Virtually all kinds of informal assessment
can be formative.
Misconceptions, struggles and learning gaps can be

identified to determine the appropriate steps and close
https://www.aeseducation.com/blog/formative-vs.-summative-
those gaps during the teaching and learning process.
assessments-what-do-they-mean
Formative assessment are, for example: in-class
discussions, weekly quizzes, surveys and homework
assignments. These strategies should be engaging
and involve students in their learning process.
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12.1.5. Formative and Summative Assessment
Summative assessment assesses formally student’s

learning, knowledge, proficiency or success at the end
of a period such as a unit, course, or program.
Students often prioritize this type of assessment
because it lets them get a grade or score to pass a
course, but feedback from summative assessment
could be used formatively to guide their efforts in
subsequent courses.
On the other hand, summative assessment includes

complete chapters or content areas and, hence, it may
be considered to be more of a “product”. This type of
assessment can lead to students’ demotivation, but
teachers can explain the rationale behind the
formative assessment clearly and engagingly to work
on the formative tasks to get better results on
summative assessments.
https://smileandlearn.com/en/summative-assessment-vs-formative-
assessment/
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12.2. Self- assessment
The evaluation of learning outcomes represents a

cornerstone in the learning and teaching process. Allam
(as cited by Thawabieh, 2017) defines assessment as
the process of obtaining, analyzing, and interpreting
data, with the purpose of planning strategies in order to
improve the teaching practice. Referring to assessment,
it is important to point out the fact that there are two
main kinds; they are formative assessment and
summative assessment. Pastore (2017) declares that
one specific strategy to promote formative assessment
in class is the self-assessment technique. The next
lines will broad what self-assessment is, and what
activities are needed in order to foster the self- https://www.freeagent.com/guides/self-assessment/learn-the-lingo-key-self-
assessment process in class. assessment-terms-explained/
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12.2.1 What is self-assessment about?
Brooke and Andrade (2013) explain that self-

assessment is not simply related to the fact of allowing
students to assign a grade to their own tasks. Instead of
that, it is related to the fact of promoting reflection on
students; thus, they are the ones who can detect their
own strengthens and weaknesses. In other words, the
main objective of the process of self-assessment is to
promote the development of reflexive individuals,
making emphasis on the learning process instead of
mere quantitative results.
http://blogs.eun.org/tiwi/self-assessment-tool/
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12.2.1 What is self-assessment about?
The self-assessment practice is opposite to the

traditional teaching process since it aims to develop
critical thinkers. In the traditional teaching process, the
teacher is at the center of the learning-teaching
practice; therefore, only his or her ideas are taken into
consideration. On the other hand, self-assessment
considers students as the center of the educational
process; they are responsible of their own learning;
they take actions based on their reflections in order to
achieve the proposed standards. Thawabieh (2017)
highlights the positive aspects of considering students
as the center of the educational process; through self-
https://www.newsviewsnetwork.com/benefits-of-positive-thinking/
assessment, students are the ones who take decisions
to improve their learning, manage their time, and verify
their resources of information.
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12.2.2 Benefits of self-assessment
The implementation of self-assessment brings about some

advantages. For instance, Tan (2007) explains that self-
assessment promotes the development of individuals with
independent and permanent self-learning vision.
During the process of self-assessment the dependency on
the educator is left behind because students are in charge
of determining if their work accomplishes the proposed
criteria. Eventually, the students will take the necessary
actions to fulfill the standards. Moreover, students might not
limit this independent learning skill only to the educational
area. Instead, they could apply this skill to their professional
lives.
Another advantage that self-assessment brings about deals
with the labor field. Pastore (2017) mentions that, presently,
companies look for workers who are able to analyze
information and to solve problems. In other words, https://www.assessteam.com/benefits-values-and-guiding-principles-of-
companies are looking for individuals with high-developed self-assessment/
critical thinking skills. In a nutshell, by implementing self-
assessment in class, students will develop the necessary
skills for the labor area in today’s world.
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12.2.3 Activities to implement self-assessment in class.
Implementing self –assessment in class is not an

activity that can be done from one day to the next.
Students must be trained before put self-assessment
into practice. Brown & Harris (2014) explain that the
educator should implement the self-assessment
process in their daily teaching practice. Nevertheless,
educators should go from basic to complex activities in
order for students to get used to assessing
themselves. First, the educator should encourage
students to attain simple and concrete activities; then,
to obtain complex and abstract outcomes.
Furthermore, the participation of students when
establishing learning outcomes can be a positive
factor since it provokes motivation and autonomy on
the student.
Activities to implement self-assessment in class.
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12.2.4 Rubrics and check-lists
The implementation of rubrics and check lists promotes a

real process of self-assessment. During the self
–assessment process, it could happen that students might
undermine or over value their tasks due to some bias or
external factors. In order to avoid this, Brown & Harris
(2014) mention that students must contribute actively
when establishing the criteria to evaluate the learning
outcomes. Two activities whereby students can participate
actively by contributing to establish the criteria are rubrics
and checklists. Rourke (as cited by Thawabieh, 2017)
declares that rubrics and checklists depicts the expected
learning outcomes. Thus, learners can compare their
tasks with these educational tools. After that, students can
figure out which parameters have been reached and
which ones require more effort.
https://learninginhand.com/blog/ways-to-evaluate-educational-apps.html
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12.2.4 Rubrics and check-lists
Nevertheless, it is essential to explain that there is a

difference between checklist and rubrics. Checklists
describe only the objective and the learning outcomes of a
certain activity; they can also be adopted for short
activities with a low level of complexity. On the other hand,
the rubrics describe the objective, the learning outcomes,
and a detailed explanation of the different levels of each
standard; they must be implemented during longer
activities and with a higher level of complexity (Brooke
and Andrade, 2013).
https://www.yourtherapysource.com/product/rubrics-and-checklists-bundle/
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12.2.5 Feedback
Feedback is a cornerstone in the self-assessment

process. However, students must be trained before
emitting comments about their own work. Brown &
Harris (2014) explain that students who do not
possess the ability to emit real comments about their
own tasks might put at risk not only their academic
but also their professional lives since they may base
their actions on unreal comments. Therefore, in order
to solve this drawback; teachers must implement the
process of co-assessment before allowing students to
self-assess. That is to say, educators must start the
process of self-assessment by first allowing learners
to assess their partners. By doing so, pupils will gain
valuable knowledge and experience to assess their
own work. Kahn & Walsh (2006) argue that the ability
to self-assess effectively is acquired first from https://www.coreimpactcoaching.com/set-your-goals-for-leadership-
improvement-using-a-360/
assessing others. Once learners have developed the
ability to assess their peers’ work, they will be ready
to evaluate their own tasks (Nicol & Milligan, 2006).
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12.2.5 Feedback
With the objective of promoting reliable and positive

feedback during the co-assessment process,
educators can implement the technique called ladder
of feedback. Brooke & Andrade (2013) mention that
this strategy consists of 4 stages. On the first stage,
students ask questions about some parts they might
consider unclear on their peer’s work. On the second
stage, the students make comments about the
positive aspects of their colleague’s task. On the third
stage, learners make real comments about their
peers’ assignment; this comments must be respectful.
At the last stage, students make suggestions about
how the task could be improved; however, this
suggestions could be adopted or not by the other
pupil. Once learners have demonstrated they can emit https://elearning.jiscinvolve.org/wp/files/2011/12/AFwordle4.jpg
positive feedback about their peers’ effort, they can
self-assess their own tasks. Irons (2008) states that
self-assessment abilities permit students to learn from
their own feedback, at the same time these abilities
boost self-learning skills.
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Self appraisal
1. Are based on typical confusions or misunderstandings from learners’ attempts to answer the questions
choice
format
distractor
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Self appraisal
2. When it comes to the process of instruction, we use:
Proficidency test
Achievement tests
Attitude tests
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Self appraisal
3. It is the relevant communicative behavior in the target situation, and the test.
Informal assessment
Summative assessment
Criterion
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Self appraisal
4. The main objective of the self-assessment process is to:
Let students grade their own work
Work in groups
Promote reflection on students
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Self appraisal
5. Self-assessment is opposite to traditional teaching process because
It considers students as the center of the learning process
Teachers are in the center of the learning process
It allows students to evaluate their educators
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Self appraisal
6. Students can take their own decisions to fulfil the criteria. This sentence, best describes?
Dependency.
Independency
Standards
Pregunta 6 de 10
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Self appraisal
7. Self-assessment develops this skill, necessary for the labor area. This sentence, best describes?
Problem solving
Self-grading
Self-criticism
Pregunta 7 de 10
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Self appraisal
8. Before implementing self-assessment in class, the educator should go first from:
Simple to concrete activities
Complex to simple activities.
Simple to complex activities
Pregunta 8 de 10
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Self appraisal
9. Motivation on students is one of the positive effects when including learners in this activity. This sentence, best describes?
Establishing learning outcomes
Co-assessment
Training on self-assessment
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Self appraisal
10. Another reason why students should be taken into account when establishing criteria is?
To undermine their task
To over value their work
To avoid some bias.
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CATEDRA INTEGRADORA_DISEÑO Y GESTIÓN DE AMBIENTES DE APRENDIZAJ... https://evirtual.espe.edu.ec/programas_scorm.cgi?id_curso=22395&id_unidad=253371&id_p...

This document provides information that will help to

This is just to exemplify the terrible feeling that a

We will contribute to help you build knowledge on

1.1 Assessment and Testing

1.1 Assessment and Testing

1.2 Measurement and Evaluation

Measurement and evaluation are usually confused or

1.2 Measurement and Evaluation

Verbal or qualitative descriptions give teachers

Evaluation is sometimes confused with testing but, they

When a teacher evaluates, he makes an interpretation of

1.3 Formal and Informal Assessment

Informal assessment refers to an individual and

Informal assessment motivates students and provide

1.3 Formal and Informal Assessment

Formal assessment checks out learners’ performance

Some examples of formal assessment are tests,

1.4 Formative and Summative Assessment

Formative assessment helps teachers to identify

This kind of assessment helps identify misconceptions,

1.4 Formative and Summative Assessment

Summative assessment evaluates formally student’s

In contrast to the formative assessment, summative

2. Types and purposes of assessment

Depending on the purpose of the assessment and

There are also tests called teacher-made. These tests

2.1 Achievement tests

Teachers use mostly a test to measure their students´ ability

2.2 Diagnostic tests

A diagnostic test is administered at the beginning of a

A diagnostic test can be confused with an achievement

2.3 Placement test

The principal purpose of a placement test is to place a

These tests assess productive and receptive skills, have

2.4 Proficiency tests

English Basic User (A1, A2)

2.5 Aptitude tests

An aptitude test measures the ability a person has to

These days educative institutions use aptitude tests to

3. Principles of language assessment

During this section we will be discussing about the main

According to Brown and Douglas practicality deals with

Test administration reliability

A test or assignment is said to have authenticity when

Problem solving exercises are examples of authentic

Authentic assessment is different from traditional

3.5 Washback effect

The washback effect exists when a test has great

Washback has great effect of tests on teaching and

1. These tests are administered at the end of a lesson, unit, or course.

4. These tests evaluate students` general competence.

2.1. Marco legal

According to La Constitución de la República del Ecuador art. 26

People, families and society have the right and responsibility to

2.1. Marco legal

In addition, “the processes of students evaluation in

Nowadays, the new needs in the education system and

2.1.1. Teacher roles in education

2.1.1. Teacher roles in education

2.1.3 Principles of teaching

❖ Encourage contact between students and faculty