Torque Production by Vector Method

The cross section of an N turn winding aa’ which is immersed in a uniform magnetic field is
shown in Figure 1.

a
ia
N d
∂ ∂ Bm Bm
Bm

S
a‘

F
Figure 1 N turn current carrying winding in uniform magnetic field.

The current i a in the a and a' sides of winding aa' is under the influence of the uniformly

distributed flux density B m . Applying the Lorentz force equation to the charged particles forming

the current i a flowing through the a and a' sides, each of length l meters yields
  
(
F = ia l × Bm ) (1)
  
where l is the displacement vector in the direction of current i a . When B m and l are orthogonal,

then
 
F = Bm i a l j (2)
  
where j is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane contained by B m and l .
The two forces of magnitude F acting on both sides of the winding aa' and separated by the
perpendicular distance d p as shown in Figure 1, develops electromagnetic torque on the winding

given by
 
Te1 = Bm ia l d Sin δ r (3)

where d is the diameter of winding aa' and r is a unit vector.

With winding aa' containing N turns and Aaa' = l d , φ m = B m A aa' and λ m = N φ m , the

electromagnetic torque developed by the system in (3) can be written as

 
Teaa' = λm ia Sin δ r (4)
where λ m is the peak flux linkage due to the permanent magnet.

But (4) can be rewritten in the form

  
Teaa' = i a × λm (5)

where i a is the magnetic current vector along the positive magnetic axis of winding aa', whose
magnitude is equal to that of the scalar current i a flowing in the winding. δ which is a function
  
of the winding position, is the angle between the vectors λ m and i a and r is the unit vector
 
perpendicular to the plane containing vectors λ m and i a .

Equation (5) presents a very powerful statement relating to the mechanism of electromagnetic
torque production in electrical machines. It states that electromagnetic torque is developed by the

cross product of peak flux linkage vector and current vector. Since current vector i a is fixed on

the rotor and peak flux linkage vector λ m is fixed on the stator, the electromagnetic torque

developed by the motor that causes rotor movement, decreases the angle δ between these two

vectors. Since the electromagnetic torque varies with winding current i a and Sin δ , which varies
with rotor position, then a pulsating electromagnetic torque is developed.

\
 Production of a Rotating Magnetic Field

A three-phase stator with phase windings an, bn and cn represented by their center conductors is
shown in Figure 2. The stator is star connected and energized by a system of three-phase voltages.
The current in each phase winding is considered flowing in the positive direction, that is up the
non-primed side and down the primed side as shown in Figure 2. The resulting flux vectors
  
produced are represented by φan , φ bn and φcn , where:

φan = φan e
j0
φan = φm cos(ωt )

φbn = φbn e
j120
φan = φm cos(ωt − 120)

φcn = φcn e
j240
φan = φm cos(ωt − 240)

+ bn Magnetic
axis
a

ω
n n
+ φR N +
φbn
φan + an Magnetic
axis

S φcn
b c

+
n
+ cn Magnetic
axis
 
The resultant flux vector φ R is given by:
   
φR = φan + φbn + φcn (6)

 j0 j120 j240
φR = φan e + φbn e + φcn e

φR = φm Cos(ωt )[Cos(0) + jSin(0)] + φm Cos(ωt − 120)[Cos(120) + jSin(120)]
…… + φm Cos(ωt − 240)[Cos(240) + jSin(240)]
 3 jωt
φR = φ e (7)
2 m

Equation (7) reveals that a three-phase stator when energized by a system of three-phase voltages
produces a resultant flux vector of constant magnitude which rotates at a constant angular velocity
of the supply voltages. It must be noted that a rotating flux vector represents a rotating magnetic
field and is analogous to a bar magnet rotating at a constant angular velocity.

The operation of three-phase induction and synchronous motors can be explained by the interaction
of the rotating magnetic field produced by the stator and the magnetic field of the rotor.
 OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

Electric motors are classified into two main categories, namely:

a) DC Brush and

b) AC Brushless motors as shown in Figure 3 (Pillay and Krishnan 1991).

Brushed DC motors are made up of stators consisting of poles produced by:

a) permanent magnets or

b) dc excited magnets,

which give rise to static magnetic fields across the rotor.

The rotor of these brushed dc motors consists of windings connected to mechanical commutators
to facilitate the application of a dc power source.

ELECTRIC MOTORS

DC AC
Brush Brushless

Synchronous Asynchronous

Brushless Permanent
Magnet AC Induction
DC

Figure 3 Classification of Electrical Motors

Current flow through these rotor windings takes place through carbon brushes which make contact
with the commutators, thereby producing a magnetic field which remains in a relatively fixed
position relative to the stator.

The stationary magnetic field of the rotor interacts with the stationary magnetic field of the stator,
developing electromagnetic torque given by the vector cross product of these two magnetic fields
by extension of previous work (Slemon and Straughen 1982; Vas 1998).


Figure 4 shows the brushed dc machine stationary stator flux vector φ s and the stationary rotor

flux vector φ r separated by an angle θ. The electromagnetic torque developed by the machine is

given by:

  
Te = (
C φ )
× .
r φs
(8)


φr

q

φs

Figure 4 Stationary Flux Vectors Produced By Brushed DC Motor

Three-phase ac machines are divided into two categories,

a) synchronous and

b) asynchronous.
The stators of synchronous and asynchronous ac machines are supplied with three-phase ac
voltages and the resulting three-phase ac currents produce a rotating magnetic field of constant
magnitude which rotates at the angular velocity of the supply voltage.

The difference between synchronous and asynchronous machines lies in the fact that the rotor of
an asynchronous machine derives its electrical energy from the stator by the process of induction to
produce the rotor’s magnetic field.

This process results in the speed of the rotor being lower than that of the stator rotating magnetic
field.

However, the rotors of synchronous machines possess their own magnetic field in the form of
fixed magnets or dc excited magnets and do not depend on induced currents from the stator’s
magnetic field.

This results in the rotor of synchronous machines having the same speed as the stator rotating
magnetic field.

Although the rotor speed of asynchronous machines are lower than the speed of the stator rotating
flux, the speed of the rotor flux is the same as that of the stator flux.

The stator and rotor flux vectors and their speeds, together with the rotor speed of synchronous
and asynchronous machines are represented in Figure 5

.
  
φs φs
ωs ωs

q q
ωs ωs
r r
fr ROTOR fr
ROT
O R ωm

(a) (b)
Figure 5 Stator and Rotor Flux Vectors of (a) Asynchronous Machine
(b) Synchronous Machine

In Figure 5(a), the rotor and stator flux vectors of the asynchronous machine are rotating at the
angular velocity of the supply voltage ωs , while the rotor rotates at an angular velocity ωm which
is lower than ωs .

However, the rotor and stator flux vectors and the rotor of a synchronous machine all rotate and
the angular velocity of the supply voltage ωs as shown in Figure 5(b).

The electromagnetic torque developed for synchronous and asynchronous machines in Figure 5 is
given by equation 8.

It is clear from Figures 4 and 5 that dc machines are characterized by stator and rotor flux vectors
which occupy a fixed position in the machine space, while,

ac machines are characterized by rotor and stator flux vectors which rotate at the angular velocity
of the stator supply voltage within the machine space.