Applications of Nuclear Chemistry

Sem VI
(1) In medicine:
The use of radio isotopes for diagnosis and therapy of
various diseases is one of major application of isotopes.
They can be used either by oral or intravenous
administration to humans or by performing a test in vitro
on blood or urine. This branch of medicine is called
“Nuclear medicine.”
Reactor radio isotpes:
• Molybdenum-99 (66 h): Used as the 'parent' in a
generator to produce technetium-99m.
• Technetium-99m (6 h): Used in to image the skeleton
and heart muscle in particular, but also for brain,
thyroid, lungs (perfusion and ventilation), liver,
spleen, kidney (structure and filtration rate), gall
bladder, bone marrow, salivary and lacrimal glands,
heart blood pool, infection and numerous specialized
medical studies.
• Cobalt-60 (10.5 mth): Formerly used for external
beam radiotherapy.
• Copper-64 (13 h): Used to study genetic diseases
affecting copper metabolism.
• Iodine-131 (8 d): Widely used in treating thyroid
cancer and in imaging the thyroid; also in diagnosis
 of abnormal liver function, renal (kidney) blood flow
and urinary tract obstruction. A strong gamma
emitter, but used for beta therapy.
• Phosphorus-32 (14 d): Used in the treatment of
excess red blood cells. (Beta emitter).
• Potassium-42 (12 h): Used for the determination of
exchangeable potassium in coronary blood flow.
• Sodium-24 (15 h): For studies of electrolytes within
the body
Cyclotron Radioisotopes:
• Carbon-11, Nitrogen-13, Oxygen-15, Fluorine-18:
These are positron emitters used for studying brain
physiology and pathology, in particular for localizing
epileptic focus, and in dementia (Associated with a
decline in memory or other thinking skills severe
enough to reduce a person's ability to perform
everyday activities), psychiatry and neuro
pharmacology studies. They also have a significant
role in cardiology.F-18 in FDG
(Fluorodeoxyglucose) has become very important in
detection of cancers and the monitoring of progress
in their treatment.
• Cobalt-57 (272 d): Used as a marker to estimate
organ size and for in-vitro diagnostic kits.
• Iodine-123 (13 h): Increasingly used for diagnosis of
thyroid function, it is a gamma emitter without the
beta radiation of I-131.
• (2) In agriculture:
Radioisotopes can be used to understand chemical
and biological processes in plants.This is true for two
reasons:
1)radioisotopes are chemically identical with other
isotopes of the same element and will be substituted
in chemical reactions
2)radioactive forms of the element can be easily
detected with a G.M counter or other such device.
Example:
A solution of phosphate, containing radioactive
phosphorus-32, is injected into the root system of a
plant. Since phosphorus-32 behaves identically to
that of phosphorus-31, the more common and non-
radioactive form of the element, it is used by the
plant in the same way. A GM counter is then used to
detect the movement of the radioactive phosphorus-
32 throughout the plant. This information helps
scientists understand the detailed mechanism of how
plants utilized phosphorus to grow and reproduce.
Radiations from certain radioisotopes are used for
killing insects which damage the food grains. Certain
seeds and canned food can be stored for longer
periods by gently exposing them to radiations. Better
yields of milk from cows, and more eggs from hens
have been obtained on the basis of information
gained by mixing radioisotopes with their diet.
Radioisotopes are used for determining the function
of fertilizer in different plants. Radioisotopes are also
used for producing high yielding crop seeds. Thus the
agricultural yield is increased.
Food Irradiation
Food irradiation is a method of treating food in order
to make it safer to eat and have a longer shelf life.
This process is not very different from other
treatments such as pesticide application, canning,
freezing and drying. The end result is that the growth
of disease-causing micro organisms or those that
cause spoilage are slowed or are eliminated
altogether. This makes food safer and also keeps it
fresh longer. Food irradiated by exposing it to the
gamma rays of a radioisotope -- one that is widely
used is cobalt-60. The energy from the gamma ray
passing through the food is enough to destroy many
disease-causing bacteria as well as those that cause
food to spoil, but is not strong enough to change the
quality, flavor or texture of the food. It is important
to keep in mind that the food never comes in contact
with the radioisotope and is never at risk of becoming
radioactive. Irradiation of certain foods also have
additional benefits. Since the energy passing through
the food can disrupt cellular processes.
(this is the mechanism for destroying
microorganisms) it also can halt the cellular
processes that lead to the sprouting or ripening of
foods. Potatoes and onions are irradiated to retard
their sprouting.
(3) In studying reaction mechanism in photo
synthesis:
An example of naturally-occuring biological
oxidation-reduction reactions is the process of
photosynthesis.In this process the energy is taken
From sunlight and via a series of oxidation-
reduction reactions oxygen and sugar are
produced, as well as other compounds
The overall equation for the photosynthetic
process may be expressed as:
6 CO2 + 6H2O --------> C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2
Here a fundamental question arises.
i.e what is the source of separated O2? We can get the
answer using radio active isotope of oxygen(O18).
Use of this isotope has suggested that the liberated
oxygen is not from CO2 but from H2O.the process can
be shown as
6CO2 + 6H2O18 → C6H12O6 + 6O218

(4) Age determination by c14 dating method:

The age of ancient artifact which contain carbon can
be determined by a method known as radiocarbon
dating. This method is sometimes called C14 or
carbon-14 dating. C14 is formed in the upper
atmosphere by the bombardment of N14 by cosmic
rays. Cosmic rays are protons, particles and some
heavier ions. Other particles, including neutrons, are
produced by subsequent collisions. The amount of
C14 in any sample of carbon containing material can
be found by measuring the level of radioactive decay,
and comparing that with the decay rate observed in a
carbon sample exposed to the continual mixing at the
surface of the earth of C12 and C14 produced in the
upper atmosphere. Using the ratio of C14 to total
carbon, one can determine the age of the sample. The
period the sample has been dead is being given, in
units of half life period n of C14, by the relation
s = 15.8 (0.5)n ----------- (1)
This is a particular form of the more general
expression applicable to residual activity of any radio
nuclide
 s = so (0.5)n ------------- (2)
Here s is activity of sample after n half lives are over,
so is its activity at time zero. This is based on
assumption that a live sample (age zero) gives 15.8
dpm (disintegrating per minute) per gram of total
carbon.
Example: A piece of sack cloth found in an ancient
cave, when analyzed in the year1990 gave 11.1 dpm.
Substituting this value for s in
Eq. 1 leads to a value of 0.509 for n. hence the
sample has remained dead for 2919 years in 1990.
The technique was invented by Willard Libby, a
professor of chemistry for many years at UCLA.
What do you mean by Q values of Nuclear Reactions?
For the complete equation of nuclear reaction, it must
include the change in energy of the reaction also. The
energy change in the nuclear reaction
is represented by Q.
Hence the Rutherford’s Transmutation reaction
would be mentioned completely as follows:
7N14 + 2He4 ——-> 8O17 + 1H1 + Q
Where Q is known as Nuclear reaction energy.
The value of Q depends on the type of reaction.
If the reaction is exoergic i.e. Energy is released then
the
value of Q will be positive.On the other hand if the
reaction is endoergic i.e. Energy is absorbed then
the value of Q will be negative. The value of Q can
be
calculated from the masses of the products and
reactants
of the equation. Hence
masses of reactants =
14.0031+4.0026=18.0057a.m.u.
masses of products = 16.9991+1.0078
=18.0069a.m.u.
Therefore,
ΔM = (∑ masses of reactants) - (∑ masses of
products)
= 18.0057 - 18.0069 = - 0.0012 a.m.u.
As the above reaction involves increase of mass by
0.0012 a.m.u. hence equivalent amount of energy is
being absorbed. Therefore the value of Q is negative
as the reaction is endoergic.
 Since
1 a.m.u. Ξ 931.5 MeV of energy
Therefore, Q=-0.0012 a.m.u. x 931.5 MeV/a.m.u.
= -1.118 MeV
Hence the reaction is endoergic.(Energy absorbed).
Here the energy of product will be higher than
reactants.
If Q is +VE, the reaction will be exoergic (Energy
realized). i.e. the energy of product will be less than
reactants.
Necessary energy required for the occurrence of
endoergic reaction is known as Threshold energy.
Eth = Q (1+ ma/mM)
Here a = projectile, M = Targeted nucleus and
m = nuclear mass.
Packing Fraction :-
When isotopic weights are first determined by means of
mass spectrograph ,it was noted that the results were close
to integer. The departure for integral values was
expressed by Aston (1927,as the packing fraction )
It was realized that the P.F was related to the stability of
the nucleus. A -ve packing fraction implying stability
whereas a +ve P.F. indicates instability .By plotting mass
number against P.F the following curve is obtained

With the exception of He , C , O the point fall on or close

to a single curve. due to small P.F of He , C, O . They
remain out of the curve .Their low packing fraction values
indicate their stability .
For transitional elements for Cr to Zn ,the value of P.F is
very low but the values increases with increasing mass
number .The P.F becomes greater than 200.This indicates
their increasing instability and resultant radioactivity .
 Binding energy , Mass Defect and their relation
with fission and fusion reactions :-
Mass defect ; “The actual mass of an isotope of an
element is invariably less than the sum of the masses of
the protons , neutrons and electrons present in it .The
difference between the two is known as mass defect”
If A & Z are the mass no. & atomic no. of a nucleide ,then
it contains A-Z neutrons ,Z protons & Z electrons. Let mn
= mass of neutrons ,me=mass of electron ,mp =mass of
protons. Then the sum of masses of the constituents of an
atom
= (A-Z)mn + Zmp + Zme .Suppose the observed isotopic
mass of atom is M , the change in mass is called mass
defect
Mass Defect( ∆m) = (A-Z)mn + Z (mp + me) – M
= (A-Z)mn + ZmH – M; (Zmp+Zme= ZmH )
B.E = ∆m × 931 MeV .
The mass defect will be equal to energy that would be
released in the hypothetical formation of the nucleus from
individual proton and neutron , this is binding energy of
nucleus . ‘Total binding energy of nucleus is the energy
with which all the nucleons are held together in that
nucleus”.

The amount of energy that would be required to break up

the nucleus and dissociates it into individual nucleons.”
The values are obtained for a number of nucleids and are
plotted against the mass no. The salient features of the
B.E are as follows :-
1.The B.E curve shows that the middle elements have
max. B.E .
2.Nuclei of both large and small mass no. possess a
smaller B.E per nucleon , these nuclei are less stable with
exception of 2He4 , C12 , O16 , the points fall on or close to
a single curve (they are exceptionally stable)
Very light elements like H2 can become more stable by
fusion forming 2He4
4 1H1 2He4 + 21e0 + Energy
Heavy elements like U235 becomes more stable by
fission. Thus fission and fusion are natural processes to
get stability . The B.E has a broad max. close to 8.5mev
per nucleon (for 40-120).For higher no. , the value
decreases and has fallen to 7.6 for U. This diminution in
B.E which is the fundamental cause of release of energy
in fission of nuclei of higher mass number.
1 235 236 ¿ 144 89
0 n+ 92 U → 92 U → 56 Ba+ 36 Kr +3 n+Q

Discovery of Nuclear Fission:

Until 1938 all scientists believed that the elements with
Z > 92 (transuranium elements) arises when uranium
atoms are bombarded with neutrons.
1 235 236 ¿ 144 89
0 n+ 92 U → 92 U → 56 Ba+ 36 Kr +3 n+Q
The energy released by fission of the nucleus of atom is
known as atomic energy .Such an explosion reaction is
made use of in atom bomb and nuclear weapon
Controlled nuclear fission finds application in getting
atomic energy for producing electricity.
U235 is known to split up into at least 30 diff. ways
releasing a no. of neutrons. It is the characteristics of
fission that every nucleus first absorbs neutrons and eject
two or more. The reaction becomes so fast that
tremendous explosion will result. This exactly happens in
atom bomb.
The secondary neutrons may bring about fission of more
U nuclei and thereby propagating fission reaction or
autocatalytic reaction 570000lit. gasoline
Fission based fuels:- 92U235 , 92U233 , 94 Pu239.
 The fission process is an a natural one as a
French researcher found a natural uranium reactor in
Gabon, West Africa; it has been estimated to be over
2 billion years old
 Fission produces large amounts of heat energy
and it is this heat that is captured by nuclear power
plants to produce electricity
 Fissile nuclei are generally heavy atoms with
large numbers of nucleons
 The nuclei of such heavy atoms are struck by
neutrons initiating the fission process
 Fission occurs due to electrostatic repulsion
created by large numbers of protons within the nuclei
of heavy atoms
 The fission process is an a natural one as a
French researcher found a natural uranium reactor in
Gabon, West Africa; it has been estimated to be over
2 billion years old
 Fission produces large amounts of heat energy
and it is this heat that is captured by nuclear power
plants to produce electricity.
Atom Bomb:
atomic bomb, also called atom bomb,  weapon with
great explosive power that results from the sudden
release of energy upon the splitting, or fission, of the
nuclei of such heavy elements
as plutonium or uranium. When a neutron strikes the
nucleus of an atom of the isotopes uranium
235 or plutonium-239, it causes that nucleus to split
into two fragments, each of which is a nucleus with
about half the protons and neutrons of the original
nucleus. In the process of splitting, a great amount
of thermal energy, as well as gamma rays and two or
more neutrons, is released. Under certain conditions,
the escaping neutrons strike and thus fission more of
the surrounding uranium nuclei, which then emit
more neutrons that split still more nuclei. This series
of rapidly multiplying fissions culminates in a chain
reaction in which nearly all the fissionable material is
consumed, in the process generating the explosion of
what is known as an atomic bomb. Many isotopes of
uranium can undergo fission, but uranium-235, which
is found naturally at a ratio of about one part per
every 139 parts of the isotope uranium-238,
undergoes fission more readily and emits more
neutrons per fission than other such isotopes.
Plutonium-239 has these same qualities. These are
the primary fissionable materials used in atomic
bombs. A small amount of uranium-235, say 0.45 kg
(1 pound), cannot undergo a chain reaction and is
thus termed a subcritical mass; this is because, on
average, the neutrons released by a fission are likely
to leave the assembly without striking another
nucleus and causing it to fission. If more uranium-
235 is added to the assemblage, the chances that one
of the released neutrons will cause another fission are
increased, since the escaping neutrons must traverse
more uranium nuclei and the chances are greater that
one of them will bump into another nucleus and split
it. At the point at which one of the neutrons produced
by a fission will on average create another
fission, Critical mass has been achieved, and a chain
reaction and thus an atomic explosion will result.
Fission releases an enormous amount of energy
relative to the material involved. When completely
fissioned, 1 kg (2.2 pounds) of uranium-235 releases
the energy equivalently produced by 17,000 tons, or
17 kilotons, of TNT. The detonation of an
atomic bomb releases enormous amounts of thermal
energy, achieving temperatures of several million
degrees in the exploding bomb itself. This thermal
energy creates a large fireball, the heat of which can
ignite ground fires that can incinerate an entire small
city. Convection currents created by the explosion
suck dust and other ground materials up into the
fireball, creating the characteristic mushroom-shaped
cloud of an atomic explosion. The detonation also
immediately produces a strong shock wave that
propagates outward from the blast to distances of
several miles, gradually losing its force along the
way. Such a blast wave can destroy buildings for
several miles from the location of the burst. Large
quantities of neutrons and gamma rays are also
emitted; this lethal radiation decreases rapidly over
1.5 to 3 km (1 to 2 miles) from the burst.
Materials vaporized in the fireball condense to fine
particles, and this radioactive debris, referred to
as fallout, is carried by the winds in the troposphere
or stratosphere. The radioactive contaminants include
such long-lived radioisotopes as strontium-90 and
plutonium-239; even limited exposure to the fallout
in the first few weeks after the explosion may be
lethal, and any exposure increases the risk of
developing cancer. The atomic explosion in
Hiroshima on August 6,1945, at 8:15am opened the
gate of obtaining enormous energy by nuclear fission
.The recent Pokharan test made India a country
having nuclear power.

Nuclear Reactor:
A nuclear power plant is a thermal power plant in
which heat is produced by a nuclear reactor instead of
combustion of fossil
fuels .Nuclear fission is a self – sustaining chain
reaction as long as released neutrons able to be
captured by more fissionable material. This is the
basis upon which nuclear reactor operate to produce
energy. The fission chain reaction is controlled by
using natural uranium instead of U235, U238 absorbs
neutrons and retards explosive fission. {One type of
reactor uses metal slug containing uranium placed
into a graphite block to form a “pile”. Another type,
known as “breeder” reactor uses ordinary uranium
but makes new fissionable metal Pu239
92U + 0n1 92U 93Np +-1e0 94Pu +
238 239 239 239

-1e
0

The name pile was originally used because the first

nuclear reactor was made by piling blocks of graphite
upon one another and inserting pieces of U at pre-
determined location.
The essential parts of atomic reactors are
I}Core :-It consists of U-rods(Covered with Al)
usually 1.5 inches thick and 4 inches long
II}Moderators :-Highly purified graphite, beryllium
and heavy water are used as moderators (Graphite in
atomic pile and D2O in swimming pool type reactor)
III}Controlled Rods :-These are generally made of
cadmium and absorbs neutrons .When the process of
nuclear fission is to be slowed down ,these rods are
pushed in. The value of Ke = 1.
IV}Coolant :- The heat produced (nearly 106 oK) is
removed from the reactor by a liquid called
coolant .Liquid alloy of Na & K , air CO2 , different
poly phenyls are employed . Because water adsorb
neutron it cannot be used as coolant.The heat directly
or indirectly convert water into superheated steam
which runs a turbine generator to produce electricity .
IV} Protective Screen :- It serves to keep the heat, γ-
rays and “n” etc. from escaping and is made of
special concrete about 8 foot thick.
In nuclear chain reaction effective reproductive
constant (Ke) is
Ke = no. of neutrons produced in chain reaction at
any stage
No. of neutrons applied at that stage.
If Ke < 1, chain reaction stop in a short time
If Ke > 1, chain reaction becomes explosive
If Ke ~ 1 chain reaction continue at definite rate.
Nuclear Fusion
The graph of binding energy per nucleon suggests
another way of obtaining useful energy from nuclear
reactions. Fusing two light nuclei can liberate as
much energy as the fission of 235U or 239Pu. Most of
the energy radiated from the surface of the sun is
produced by the fusion of protons to form helium
atoms within its core. Fusion reactions have been
duplicated in man-made devices. The enormous
destructive
power of atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima and
Nagasaki
touched off a violent debate after World War II
about the
building of the next superweapon a fusion, or
"hydrogen," bomb.
Alumni of the Manhattan project, who had developed
the atomic bomb, were divided on the issue. Ernest
Lawrence and Edward Teller fought for the
construction of the fusion device. J. Robert
Oppenheimer and Enrico Fermi argued against it.
The decision was made to develop the weapon, and
the first artificial fusion reaction occurred when the
hydrogen bomb was tested in November 1952.
  2H + 3H ----> 4He +n

An example of a fusion reaction important in

thermonuclear weapons and in future nuclear reactors
is the reaction between two different hydrogen
isotopes to form an isotope of helium as shown
above. This reaction liberates an amount of energy
more than a million times greater than one gets from
a typical chemical reaction. Such a large amount of
energy is released in fusion reactions because when
two light nuclei fuse, the sum of the masses of the
product nuclei is less than the sum of the masses of
the initial fusing nuclei. Once again, Einstein's
equation, E=mc2, explains that the mass that is lost it
converted into energy carried away by the fusion
products. Even though fusion is an energetically
favorable reaction for light nuclei, it does not occur
under standard conditions here on Earth because of
the large energy investment that is required. Because
the reacting nuclei are both positively charged, there
is a large electrostatic repulsion between them as they
come together. Only when they are squeezed very
close to one another do they feel the strong nuclear
force, which can overcome the electrostatic repulsion
and cause them to fuse.  Fusion reactions have been
going on for billions of years in our universe. In fact,
nuclear fusion reactions are responsible for the
energy output of most stars, including our own Sun.
 Scientists on Earth have been able to produce fusion
reactions for only about the last sixty years. At first,
there were small scale studies in which only a few
fusion reactions actually occurred. However, these
first experiments later lead to the development of
thermonuclear fusion weapons (hydrogen bombs).
Fusion is the process that takes place in stars like our
Sun. Whenever we feel the warmth of the Sun and
see by its light, we are observing the products of
fusion. We know that all life on Earth exists because
the light generated by the Sun produces food and
warms our planet. Therefore, we can say that fusion
is the basis for our life.

Stellar energy .
In 1932 it was proposed that heat of sun and stars is
due to a series of nuclear reaction. For the Sun and
other normal main-sequence stars, the source of
energy lies in the conversion of hydrogen to helium.
The nuclear reaction thought to occur in the Sun is
called the proton-proton cycle. In this fusion reaction,
two protons (1H) collide to form a deuteron (a
nucleus of deuterium, 2H), with the liberation of
a positron (the electron’s positively
charged antimatter counterpart, denoted e+). The main
source of energy in hotter stars is the carbon
cycle (also called the CNO cycle
for carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen), in
which hydrogen is transformed into helium, with
carbon serving as a catalyst. The reactions proceed as
follows: first, a carbon nucleus, 12C, captures
a proton (hydrogen nucleus), 1H, to form a nucleus of
nitrogen, 13N, a gamma-ray photon being emitted in
the process; thus, 12C + 1H → 13N + γ. The light 13N
nucleus is unstable, however. It emits a positron, e+,
which encounters an ordinary electron, e−, and the
two annihilate one another. A neutrino also is
released, and the resulting 13C nucleus is stable.
Eventually the 13C nucleus captures another proton,
forms 14N, and emits another gamma-ray photon.
Again, the positron meets an electron, and the two
annihilate each other while the neutrino escapes.
Eventually the 15N nucleus encounters a fast-moving
proton, 1H, and captures it, but the formation of an
ordinary 16O nucleus by this process occurs only
rarely. The most likely effect of this proton capture is
a breakdown of 15N and a return to the 12C nucleus
Thus, the original 12C nucleus reappears, and the four
protons that have been added permit the formation of
a helium nucleus. 
This transformation involves C-H-N cycle.
12
C + 1H → 13N + γ. 
13
N → 13C + e+ + ν;
13
C + 1H → 14N + γ
14
N + 1H → 15O + γ;
15
O → 15N + e+ + ν.
15
N + 1H → 12C + 4He + γ.
Overall change may be summarized as follows
41H1 2He + 1e + ϒ
4 0

C12 appears to act as a catalyst, the fusion of H nuclei

in to He is not a single step conversion.
The net loss in mass is 0.0286 amu. Thus 45 mg of
hydrogen can produce as much energy as is
produced from 1 ton of coal.
Hydrogen bomb:
Hydrogen bomb is a device in which energy from
nuclear fusion reactions between isotopes of
hydrogen is released in an uncontrolled ,explosive
manner . The energy set free by the almost
instantaneous fusion of many millions of nuclei
results in an explosion of enormous power .The
hydrogen bomb is the most destructive device ever
produced by man ,being many times more powerful
than an atom bomb.
Drastically high temp. needed for bringing about
fusion is a difficult task on the earth .The only means
available at present is nuclear fission of U235 and
Pu239 .This fission can create condition to initiate the
fusion of hydrogen isotopes.
This forms a basic principle of hydrogen bomb .Once
the critical temp. is achieved ,fusion will begin ,and
the energy released will maintain temp. through out
the process. Here nuclei of protons , deuteron , Triton
are employed to yield atomic energy . Deuteron from
heavy water or from Li- deutride , 1H3 from Li
bombardment with n01.

1 H1 +1H2 2 He3 +5 MeV

1 H2 +1H2 2 He3 +0n1 + 3.2 MeV
1 H2 +1H3 2He4 +0n1 + 17.6 MeV
1 H3 +1H1 2 He4 + 20MeV
1 H3 +1H3 2 He4 +20n1 + 11MeV
Tritium nuclei are better fusion material than
deuteron and proton .They fuse at low temp. ,liberate
more energy and at a quicker rate . To reach high
temp.,U235 bomb is to be exploded . So neutrons are
produced which are responsible for the production of
tritons from Li nuclei .Then 1H3 & H12 fuse with
explosion.
The explosive power of hydrogen bomb is much
greater than that of an atom bomb .This can be
explained on the following grounds .
1)Hydrogen is lightest of all elements , a given mass
of deuterium or tritium contains many more atoms
than the same mass of Uranium or plutonium
available to undergo fission .In fact ,the complete
fusion of a given mass of deuterium would
theoretically yield almost three times as much energy
as the complete fission of the same mass of U235
2)The size of a hydrogen bomb unlike that of an atom
bomb only continue if more than a but when the
bomb explodes ,much of the fissionable material is
blown away unused , and because of the required
mass is no longer present ,the chain stops .In the
hydrogen bomb ,fusion will continue as long as
fusion able material is available ,in however small
amounts ,provided that the temp is high enough and
so a large proportion of the fusionable material is
used . Hydrogen bomb size is therefore ,limited only
by the wt. that an aircraft or missile delivery system
can carry.
Hazards of Nuclear Radiation :
Radio-active substances emit γ ,α, β ,radiations which
damage the living organisms by causing ionization of
complex or organic molecules .Radiations damage
the living organisms in two different ways .
A) Pathological damage :- When the radiation
produces a permanent damage to the living organism
resulting in death ultimately, the damage caused is
termed pathological damage .
 B) Genetical Damage :-Radiations affect the
chromosomes of the cellular nuclei in the genetic
cells and injure the genes in the reproductive
cells .This causes mutation which pass from one
generation to the next .Mutation is an irreversible
process and invariably very harmful .
• Every nuclear explosion is accompanied by
radioactive fall out .Humanity may be saved from
total destruction by putting a stop to these nuclear
explosions . Total damage caused by radiations
depends on the quantity of radiations . A smaller dose
will damage brain ,liver & heart but hands and feet
can receive much larger dose without any permanent
injury .
*****