MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION 291

Integrated Outcrops and Subsurface Studies

292 M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON
 MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION 293

MASS-TRANSPORT DEPOSITS: COMBINING OUTCROP STUDIES AND SEISMIC

FORWARD MODELING TO UNDERSTAND LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS,
DEFORMATION, AND THEIR SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHIC EXPRESSION

MASON DYKSTRA
Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, 1615 Illinois St., Golden, Colorado 80401, U.S.A.
e-mail: mdykstra@mines.edu
KATERINA GARYFALOU
Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland, U.K.
e-mail: k.garyfalou@abdn.ac.uk
VANESSA KERTZNUS
Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland, U.K.
Current address: Shell Exploration New Ventures and Business Development, Shell International
Exploration and Production, Inc., 150 Dairy Ashford, Houston, Texas 77079, U.S.A.
e-mail: vanessa.kertznus@shell.com
BEN KNELLER
Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland, U.K.
e-mail: b.kneller@abdn.ac.uk
JUAN PABLO MILANA
CONICET and Instituto de Geología, Universidad Nacional de San Juan, Ave. I. de la Roza y Meglioli, 5400 San Juan, Argentina
e-mail: jpmilana@gmail.com
MATTEO MOLINARO
Shell International Exploration and Production B.V., Rijswijk, The Netherlands
e-mail: Matteo.Molinaro@Shell.com
AND
MAGDALENA SZUMAN AND PHILIP THOMPSON
Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 3UE, Scotland, U.K.
e-mail: m.szuman@abdn.ac.uk; p.thompson@abdn.ac.uk

ABSTRACT: Mass-transport deposits may act as barriers or baffles to fluid flow in the subsurface, or may conduct fluids via internal structures
or lithological connectivity. Conventional seismic and borehole data present radically different scales of observation to assess the likely
fluid-flow behavior of mass-transport deposits. Seismic-scale outcrops and high-resolution seismic data bridge this scale gap. Exceptional
outcrops of large mass-transport deposits are used to develop strategies to relate core- and seismic-scale observations for the purposes of
subsurface prediction of reservoir, baffle, or seal potential, and for prediction of fluid flow through mass-transport deposits in the
subsurface. We present here an outline of our approach, and some preliminary results based on two systems of contrasting styles. One is
a > 120-m-thick debrite of Carboniferous age in northwest Argentina; the other is an approximately 300-m-thick slide complex of Jurassic–
Cretaceous age in Antarctica. Differences in these two systems are assessed by evaluating the internal structure and seismic expression of
the deposits, based on forward modeling of the outcrop architecture. Topography on the top surface of mass-transport deposits is defined
by very localized (a few meters wavelength and amplitude), localized (a few tens of meters wavelength, a few meters to ~ 10 m amplitude),
and subregional (kilometers in wavelength, tens of meters in amplitude) “ponding” or partial confinement of turbidite beds immediately
above the mass-transport deposits. Strain histories and strain distributions are complex and variable within deposits, implying that
inferences based on limited well data are likely to yield incorrect conclusions regarding direction of movement and slope orientation. This
observation is clearly illustrated by the non-coaxial deformation, which is visible in high-resolution seismic data.

KEY WORDS: mass-transport deposit, Argentina, Carboniferous, Antarctica, Cretaceous, turbidite, fluid flow, sediment ponding

INTRODUCTION
Mass-transport deposits form a significant part of the stratig-
raphy in many slope and basin-floor successions, and are com-
monly intercalated with turbidite deposits. Mass-transport de-
posits cover a wide spectrum of facies, ranging from highly
mud-prone bodies (e.g., remobilized slope muds) that may act
as complete barriers to fluid flow (top seals or intrareservoir
barriers), through to bodies with sufficient interconnected sand
(e.g., slumped levees or channel bodies) that may form reser-
voirs in their own right (Shultz, 2004). Within this spectrum lies
a range of partial or leaky barriers and baffles. Some deposits

Mass-Transport Deposits in Deepwater Settings

SEPM Special Publication No. 96, Copyright © 2011
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 978-1-56576-287-9, p. 293–310.
294 M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON
contain bodies of hydrocarbon-charged sand, even though the
net-to-gross and the complex stratigraphic architecture in many
cases would suggest that connectivity of these sands is very low.
Clearly, in hydrocarbon-bearing deep-water successions that
contain significant proportions of mass-transport deposits
(which is to say, most of them, according to Posamentier and
Walker, 2006), it is crucial to understand fluid flow through
these bodies on economic production time scales, as opposed to
the geological time scales required to introduce the hydrocar-
bon charge.
Data from present-day seafloors and outcrops provide evi-
dence that fluids flow within and are transported out of mass-
transport deposits onto the seafloor in the form of cold-water,
sulfur-rich, or methane-rich seeps, around which chemosyn-
thetic and metazoan communities may thrive (Bohrmann et al.,
2002; Lucente and Taviani, 2005). This evidence shows that mass-
transport deposits can not only act as barriers to fluid flow but
also may conduct fluids from within or beneath. However, this
behavior does not explain the pathways that fluids can exploit in
mass-transport deposits.
Seismic surveys and well data provide two radically different
scales of observation in the subsurface environment. Seismic data
have the distinct advantage of allowing the investigation of true
three-dimensionality of sedimentary successions, albeit at a much
lower resolution than outcrop data. In contrast, outcrop data can
provide not only high-resolution 2D to quasi-3D views of stratig-
raphy but also very detailed information on lithology distribu-
tion, structure, and texture. In outcrop, data can be directly
gathered about lithologic connectivity and fluid pathways.
The purpose of this investigation is to: (a) define relationships
between properties of mass-transport deposits at seismic scale
(tens to hundreds of meters) and borehole scale (decimeters),
thereby defining uncertainties in subseismic prediction; (b) es-
tablish the relationship between measurable properties at both of
these scales of observation and the fluid-flow properties of the
deposits, largely determined by properties within the scale gap;
and (c) establish reliability and uncertainty in determining slope
orientation and movement directions from structural measure-
ments within mass-transport deposits.
OUTCROP STUDIES
The study of the rock record is vital to developing an under-
standing of the structural evolution, lithofacies distribution, and
reservoir or barrier potential of mass-transport deposits. Out-
crops of mass-transport deposits that are large enough to span
these two scales are rather rare. In this study, however, we are
fortunate to have data from two large exposures, which are end-
member types of deposits: a chaotic debris-flow deposit from the
Carboniferous Guandacól Formation in La Rioja Province, north-
west Argentina, and a slide complex from the Jurassic–Creta-
ceous Fossil Bluff Group, Antarctica (Macdonald et al., 1993). The
former site is mapped in detail in 3D space, using laser-based
digital mapping techniques.
Guandacól Formation, Argentina
The Guandacól Formation was deposited in the epicratonic
Paganzo Basin (Fig. 1) during the Mid to Late Carboniferous
(Namurian to early Westphalian, 325–305 Ma; Gradstein et al.,
2004). This event occurred when the bulk of the Earth’s landmass
was concentrated in the Southern Hemisphere and experienced
a series of glaciations (Fernández Seveso and Tankard, 1995;
Lopez-Gamundi, 1987, 1989). The Paganzo Basin was located
between 60° and 70° S latitude in a retroarc position with respect
to the west-facing active margin of Gondwana. This basin expe-
rienced repeated episodes of glacial and periglacial conditions,
followed by melting and consequent flooding of the continental
landmass (López-Gamundí et al., 1992). The Guandacól Forma-
tion comprises the earliest deglacial sedimentary succession de-
posited in the Paganzo Basin. Fernández-Sevezo and Tankard
(1995) report that the succession is characterized by four fining-
upwards depositional sequences, bounded by erosional uncon-
formities. These unconformities represent the stratigraphic re-
sponse to glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations and to rapidly
subsiding depocenters.
Cerro Bola Study Area.—
The Cerro Bola study area is located approximately 30 km
southwest of the town of Villa Union in La Rioja Province,
northwestern Argentina (Fig. 1). Structurally, the study area
consists of a large west-vergent, doubly plunging, north–south-
oriented anticline, which exposes the Carboniferous to Triassic
section (Fig. 1B). This structure is a hanging-wall anticline to a
thrust dipping east at about 24°. This structure is related to Late
Tertiary to Quaternary Pampean Range orogenic deformation,
with very recent onset of local deformation, dated to approxi-
mately 4.5 Ma (Fig. 1B; Zapata and Allmendinger, 1996).
The succession exposed in the Cerro Bola anticline alternates
between fluviodeltaic sediments, turbidite intervals, and aquatills.
An aquatill is a deposit of ice-rafted debris, ranging from lami-
nated siltstones to bouldery, pebbly muddy siltstones, with little
or no primary stratification or sedimentary structure. The overall
shallowing-upward succession culminates in Permian red beds,
over a total stratigraphic thickness exceeding 1 km (Figs. 1, 2).
There are at least two major intervals of mass-transport deposits,
although many of the stratigraphic levels exhibit some degree of
mass movement. In this paper, we concentrate on one well-
exposed mass-transport deposit (Aquatill 1; Figs. 1, 2).
The main mass-transport deposit interval described here
overlies a thick (~ 100 m) succession of shallow marine and
fluviodeltaic sandstones, interpreted as glacioeustatic lowstand
deposits. These lowstand deposits are related to growth of the
Gondwana ice sheet to the east (Fernández Seveso and Tankard,
1995). During the subsequent deglaciation, these lowstand de-
posits were flooded and ice-rafted debris was deposited on top
of the lowstand deposits and the previously emergent slope to the
east. This material was then resedimented westwards into deeper
water, at least in the location of the Cerro Bola anticline. The
resulting > 120-m-thick mass-transport deposit consists of resedi-
mented, relatively fine-grained (silt-size mode) aquatill, with
granule- to boulder-size clasts of granitoid and metamorphic
basement rocks (interpreted as ice-rafted debris). Additionally,
allochthonous blocks of sandstone (up to a few tens of meters
long) occur, similar to the lithology of the immediately underly-
ing fluviodeltaic sediments. The Cerro Bola anticline creates
exposures up to 1000 m high over approximately 7 km of strike on
the west side of the range, mostly on the east-dipping backlimb of
the hanging-wall anticline (Fig. 1).
Deposit Structure and Texture.—
The mass-transport deposit at Cerro Bola shows considerable
textural and structural variation over its 100–120 m thickness.
Blocks of sandstone, varying from a few meters to tens of meters
wide and a few meters to ~ 10 m thick, are common near the base
of the deposit. In general, these blocks decrease in abundance
upward from the basal contact with the underlying fluviodeltaic
sediments (Figs. 3A, 3B). These blocks are interpreted as having
 MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION 295

FAMATINA RANGE
South
SIN
BA America
CO
AN
BL
RIO

a
ntin
area in map
Villa to left

Arge
western Union
domain Cerro Bola La Rioja
central PAMPEANAS
CALINGASTA-USPALLATA BASIN

domain RANGES
C
PRECORDILLERA

PAGANZO BASIN

Chile
La Rioja
HEIGHT L ITHOLOGY, STRUCTURE
Key to symbols in C (METERS) AND GRAIN SIZE
San Juan San Juan vf f m c vc
cl si sand g p c b
eastern Ripples; Cross-Stratification
PIE DE domain San Luis
PALO Dropstones
RANGE 950
Mendoza Organic Material
Mendoza
Fossil Fragments
Study Area 900
0 50 km Towns Mudclasts
Positive/Eroded Areas

B 850

Area of 800
Figure 2
(

65
o 14
00

15
00
N o 28 750
(

14
00
64 700
(
o

63
o

650
(

160
0
15
o

Legend 600
(

160
0
65 Strike & Dip of
o
o

6
170

Bedding 56
o

550
(

Topographic
1800
19

Contours (m)
00
110

Anticline Hinge 500

0

0
200

( Reverse Faults
(

00
Normal Faults 21 00 450
18

Triassic
400
1200

Permian (
1900

Fluviodeltaic 3 (
350
1500

Aquatill 2
Fluviodeltaic 2 16 300
00
o

30 13
o

20 00
Upper Turbidites 15
00
00
1600

14

250
Black Shale
o

Ponded Turbidites 46
o

200
Aquatill 1 16
1700

Fluviodeltaic 1
o 150
33
Aquatill 0
160

o
1300

70
Fluviodeltaic 0
0

100
1700

50
00
13
1200
100

00

0 500 1,000 2,000 0

160
12

meters
0

cl si sand g p c b
120

vf f m c vc

FIG. 1.—A) Location and paleogeographic map of Western Argentina showing the extent of the Paganzo Basin and the location of the
Cerro Bola field area. Modified from Césari and Gutiérrez (2000). B) Regional geologic map of the Cerro Bola anticline. The area
of Figure 2 (zoomed geologic map) is shown by the boxed area. The topographic contours are based on NASA Shuttle Radar
Topography Mission data with a native resolution of 90 m, available from http://srtm.usgs.gov/index.php. C) Schematic
sedimentary log of the succession exposed in Cerro Bola, showing the vertical alternation from fluviodeltaic sediment to aquatills
(the deposits of ice-rafted debris) to ponded or semiconfined and unconfined turbidites. Each alternation from fluvio-deltaics to
aquatills represents one glacioeustatic cycle. Color codes are the same as shown in Part B).
296 M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON

Fluvio-Deltaic 3 Topographic
Contours (m)

1300
1200

1400
Aquatll 2 Strike and Dip

56
of Bedding
Fluviodeltaic 2

Upper Turbidites

150
N

0
Black Shale

Ponded Turbidites 14
00
Aquatill 1 (Mass-Transport
Deposit) with sand blocks m
Fluviodeltaic 1 0 500
Aquatill 0
17
thrust fault
00
16
normal fault 00
fold axis
a = orientation of
photo of base of MTD 180
0
b = strike sections
through MTD
c = dip sections
through MTD
d = window of seismic
model (Fig. 13)

64

d
boudins
56

33
a
c
63

43 23
1200
1300

15
1400

150 b
0 coherent slide
sheet
2000

170
160

0
0

170

1900
0

1800
18
00

FIG. 2.—Detailed geologic map of the area studied at Cerro Bola, showing details of the internal makeup of the mass-transport deposit
described here (Aquatill 1). Shown on the map are the locations of some of the larger fluviodeltaic blocks “plucked” up from the
underlying Fluviodeltaic 1 Unit. Also shown are the locations and orientations of Figure 3A (circled a), and the strike and dip
sections through the mass-transport deposit shown in Figures 4 and 5 (circled b and c, respectively), as well as the window for
the seismic forward model shown in Figure 13.
 MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION 297

3m

1m

post-MTD sediments E

MTD
plucked
blocks

fluviodeltaic sediments

approx. 100 meters

FIG. 3.—A) Topography at the base of the Cerro Bola mass-transport deposit, showing sandstone blocks that have been plucked from
the underlying fluviodeltaic sandstones and incorporated into the resedimented mass. Location and orientation shown in Figure
2 (circled a). B) Line drawing of Part A, showing boundary and blocks in mass-transport deposit. C) Large-scale sandstone
boudins in the mass-transport deposit. Folds between the boudins attest to two phases of strain (extension to form the boudins
followed by compression to create the folds). This could be the product of two discrete phases of strain or a continuum related
to noncoaxial strain (see Fig. 8). D) Sand preserved in the process of streaking off a sandstone block in the mass-transport deposit.
Sand appears to be incorporated into the matrix of the moving mass via shearing from blocks. E) Streaked and folded sand laminae
(derived from blocks) in the aquatill matrix. Basement-affinity dropstones are visible in the gray matrix. The sand attests to either
two phases of strain (extension to remove, attenuate, and incorporate the sand into the matrix from sandstone blocks followed
by compression), or differential local strains associated with the same stress regime (i.e., accommodation due to slight differences
in rheology, strength, and stress).

been plucked from the underlying fluviodeltaic sediments dur-
ing movement of the mass-transport deposit and incorporated
into the resedimenting mass. The interface between the mass-
transport deposit and the underlying deltaic to shallow marine
deposits is markedly irregular (Figs. 3A, 3B). Individual blocks
exhibit disaggregation by attenuation and boudinage in the in-
ferred transport direction. Material sheared from the blocks
forms sand laminae within the matrix that decrease in abundance
away from the blocks (Figs. 3C, 3D, 3E). This provides a “snap-
shot” of the process of entrainment of coarse sediment into the
mass-transport deposit, a process that has also been observed in
3D seismic data (e.g., Fig. 155 of Posamentier and Walker, 2006).
Stratigraphically, the middle part of the deposit consists of an
apparently structureless siltstone, containing granule- to boul-
der-size crystalline clasts of ice-rafted debris. This siltstone lo-
cally includes rafts of laminated siltstone up to several meters
thick and several tens of meters in length, probably representing
the least deformed remnants of the original aquatill. This middle
part of the mass-transport deposit is thin or absent in some
localities (Fig. 4). The upper part of the deposit consists of folded
 298

60 m

N S
deformation due to post-emplacement creep
“ponded” sediment overlying MTD
turbidites “ponded” on top
of the MTD
top MTD

coherent slide sheets, silt

dominated

rafted silt–fine sandstone

blocks, shale matrix sandstone blocks
few blocks of medium main slide plane
sandstone siltstone blocks

FIG. 4.—Photomosaic and line drawing of a depositional strike section of the upper part of the mass-transport deposit (i.e., approximately perpendicular to the apparent
transport direction), showing a series of imbricate thrust faults. Some of these faults are with apparently opposed vergence, because the fault planes are curved
and the outcrop cuts obliquely through them. Sediment overlying the mass-transport deposit is “ponded” or partially confined in topographic relief at the top of
the mass-transport deposit. Deformation of this “ponded” sediment is evidence for post-emplacement creep of portions of the mass-transport deposit. This creep
M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON

is possibly due to progressive fluid expulsion or continued gravitational instability, caused by emplacement on a relatively steep slope. Location is shown on Figure
2 (circled b).
 MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION 299

and sheared siltstones. These rocks are imbricated along discrete
shear planes (thrust-sense), dipping approximately 20° east after
removal of the tectonic structural dip (Figs. 4, 5).
The upper surface of the mass-transport deposit exhibits
topography on several length scales: very localized (a few meters
to tens of meters wavelength, a few meters amplitude), localized
(tens to a few hundred meters wavelength, a few meters ampli-
tude to ~ 10 m amplitude), and subregional (kilometers in wave-
length, tens of meters in amplitude) (Fig. 6). This topography is
probably related to the yield strength of the material constituting
the mass-transport deposit (i.e., the higher the yield strength, the
larger the amplitude of potential topography), in combination

20 m
PT

PT
10 m

FIG. 5.—Depositional dip sections through the upper part of the mass-transport deposit, showing the predominance of thrust
structures, and the relationship of post-mass-failure stratigraphic thicks to lows on top of the mass-transport deposit. Much of
the topography above the mass-transport deposit appears to be controlled by structural deformation within the deposit, as shown
in the center of Part A and on the right side of Part B. PT = ponded turbidites. Location is shown in Figure 2 (circled c).
 300

S
N fluviodeltaics 2 black shale
ponded turbidites
black shale MTD 200 m
MTD faults
MTD
120 m
A 700 m 2 km
fluviodeltaics 1

ponded turbidites 25 m ponded turbidites

MTD
MTD
B

FIG. 6.—Topographic relief at the top of the mass-transport deposit. A) Oblique air photos looking east at the core of the Cerro Bola anticline. This mosaic shows the broad-
scale and intermediate-scale variations in thickness of the ponded turbidites overlying the mass-transport deposit. Thickness of the ponded turbidites is controlled
by the relief on top of the mass-transport deposit. The long-wavelength relief is on the order of 25 m over 3 km, but the outcrop is not large enough to tell if this is a
M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON

repeating pattern. Perspective varies in this view; vertical and horizontal scale bars refer to the local apparent stratigraphic thicknesses and horizontal distance. B)
Photomosaic showing onlap of the overlying turbidite beds onto small-amplitude topographic highs at the top of the mass-transport deposit. Local relief varies on
the order a few centimeters to ~ 10 m over several meters to tens of meters horizontally.
 MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION 301

with structural deformation within the deposit. This topography
is further modulated by the morphology of the pre-existing
seafloor, and formed during emplacement and deposition of the
mass-transport deposit, possibly with some postdepositional
modification (e.g., compaction and creep; Dykstra, 2005; Dykstra
et al., 2006).
Structurally, the mass-transport deposit is complex, with
zones of both semi-brittle and ductile deformation present, some-
times superimposed one on the other (Fig. 7). Structures consis-
tent with both compression and extension are present, with
compressional structures commonly superimposed onto pre-
existing extensional structures (Fig. 7). In the lower parts of the
deposit, small-scale folding is commonly superimposed upon
boudinage of the sandstone blocks, and at smaller scales sheared
sand laminae. Stacked, imbricated boudins are also observed.
This may indicate extension early in the mass-failure event,
followed by compression during deceleration of the moving
mass. On a smaller scale, superposition of extension and com-
pression may also be the result of rotational deformation, occur-
ring during simple shear as stresses change from extension to

FIG. 7.—Structural deformation in the Cerro Bola mass-transport deposit. A) Folded and extended laminae interpreted as
superimposed compressional and extensional strain histories; and B) parasitic folds superimposed on a larger slump fold.
302 M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON
A B
σ1
compression
σ3 extension extension
compression
σ1
FIG. 8.—Strain ellipses showing how a transition from A) pure shear to B) simple shear can cause a transition from extension to
compression in the same quadrant. Therefore complicated strain histories can be explained by relatively simple transitions in the
stress field, especially where vertical or horizontal axis rotations of the sedimentary mass are possible. Note that this two-
dimensional simplification becomes more complex when one considers rotation about vertical axes due to lateral shear gradients.
compression and vice versa (Fig. 8). Differential shear and super-
posed folding are demonstrated by the common occurrence of
box and sheath folds.
Arcuate thrust faults are common in the upper part of the
mass-transport deposit. Dip sections show consistent vergence to
the WNW, whereas strike-oriented sections exhibit concave-up
geometries (Fig. 5). These geometries are interpreted as a product
of differential shear within the mass-transport deposit, which
deformed initially planar slide surfaces. In these outcrops, they
are commonly expressed as apparently doubly vergent thrusts
(Fig. 4). Such arcuate geometries are commonly observed in
pressure ridges in surficial mass-transport deposits, and also in
high-resolution seismic images of subsurface mass-transport
deposits (Fig. 8; See Fig. 151 of Posamentier and Walker, 2006).
Relict bedding in the mass-transport deposit (generally from
beds within slide sheets) shows a wide scatter of structural
orientations after removal of the Andean-related folding. Al-
though contouring demonstrates that data do cluster around a
mean orientation of 352°, 8° E, this pattern is consistent with
overall westward vergence of compressional structures (Fig. 9).
The wide scatter of bedding and fold hinge orientations can be
explained by heterogeneous simple shear. This shear is respon-
sible for the sheath folds and arcuate thrusts, producing a
dispersion on a west-dipping great circle of bedding poles. This
is consistent with westward transport, and accords with paleo-
current directions in the overlying turbidites (305°, n = 19; Fig.
9).
Several general points can be made concerning this deposit
in the Cerro Bola study area. First, presence of porous and
permeable lithologies in this particular example is dependent
on incorporation of sandstone blocks into the mass-transport
deposit by plucking and erosion of the underlying deltaic and
shallow marine sandstone. The aquatill protolith contained
virtually no sand. Final distribution of sand is largely depen-
dent on deformation processes that disrupted the original blocks,
and sheared sand from the block margins into the matrix.
Second, the strain distribution within the deposit is complex
and heterogeneous. Lower parts of the mass-transport deposit
3
σ
1
ex
σ
ten
sio
n
ion
ss
pre
m
co
σ3
co
m pres
sio
n
n
sio
x ten
e
1
σ
3
σ
are dominated by bulk extension (e.g., boudinage of blocks), but
with evidence of small-scale compression superimposed (fold-
ing of shear laminae of sand around the blocks, imbricated
boudins, etc.). These changes may indicate a transition from
spreading (pure shear), with most of the translation initially
taken up along a basal detachment, to sliding (simple shear), as
drag increased along the base (Figs. 3, 6, 8). The middle portion
(where present and distinct) shows the least visible deforma-
tion, though this may be due to an absence of strain markers. The
upper part appears to be dominated by compression, but with
a temporal transition from distributed ductile strain (folds and
shearing) to more focused brittle or semi-brittle strain (discrete
slide surfaces). This condition may reflect changes in strain rate,
changes in material properties as the moving mass expelled
water, or both. Third, while the bedding orientations sampled
over a wide area seem to give a consistent indication of displace-
ment direction, it would be hard to establish this picture from
single vertical profiles in mass-transport deposits. This last
observation highlights the limitations of interpreting paleo-
slopes and movement direction from dipmeter, image-log data,
or the orientations of fold or slide surfaces in core.
Ablation Point Formation, Antarctica
The Ablation Point Formation is one of the largest ancient
slide deposits that has been recognized in outcrop (Lucente and
Pini, 2003; Macdonald et al., 1993). It forms part of the Jurassic–
Cretaceous forearc sedimentary succession, comprising the Fos-
sil Bluff Group exposed on the eastern side of Alexander Island,
Antarctic Peninsula (Fig. 10; Butterworth et al., 1988; Doubleday
and Tranter, 1994). The Ablation Point Formation has been de-
scribed by Butterworth et al. (1988), Butterworth (1988), and
Macdonald et al. (1993). This site is defined by the presence of
large synsedimentary slide deposits, which indicate a west to
west-northwest paleoslope and transport direction (Fig. 11). Near
Ablation Point, the mass-transport deposit is over 400 m thick,
with a basal unit, consisting of blocks of volcanic rocks in a
mudstone matrix. This basal unit is overlain by a lower unit of
 MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION 303

A Axis of rotation: 004°

All bedding in MTD
Amount: 18°

n = 123 2% contour interval

B
All folds in MTD Axis of rotation: 004°
Amount: 18°

n = 21
3% contour interval

C
Paleocurrent directions in overlying turbidites Mean Vector = 305°

n = 19

FIG. 9.—A) Lower-hemisphere stereographic projection of poles to bedding planes (restored for structural dip) for all the
measurements taken within an approximately 1 km2 area in the northern part of the Cerro Bola mass-transport deposit. Although
there is a wide scatter in bedding orientation, the contour plot clearly shows a clustering of bedding around 352°, 8° E, consistent
with WNW-directed transport in the mass-transport deposit. B) Poles to planes and contour plot of axial planes from folds within
the mass-transport deposit. The spread of directions is interpreted as subvertical axis rotation of the resedimenting mass, but with
a common axial-plane orientation consistent with WNW-directed shear. C) Paleocurrent data are from the turbidite beds
overlying the mass-transport deposit described here; data from flute casts. The vector mean transport is to the WNW, consistent
with structural deformation in the mass-transport deposit associated with its emplacement. Stereographic projection used
Salvini, F., 2002, Daisy free Software, University of Roma III (Italy).

mudstone, with unfolded and internally undeformed blocks and
sheets of sandstone up to 1000 m long by 50 m thick, which exhibit
crude east-southeast-dipping imbrication. A middle unit consist-
ing of blocks of pebbly sandstone, up to 100 m long and 50 m thick
overlies the lower mudstone unit. These blocks protrude into
both the underlying and overlying units. The upper unit consists
of sheets of interbedded sandstone and mudstone up to 500 m
long and 75 m thick. Strata in these sheets downlap onto the lower
unit (Macdonald et al., 1993).
The Ablation Point Formation is particularly well exposed at
Belemnite Point, 20 km to the north of Ablation Point, where it is
at least 300 m thick and is exposed in a 5-km-long cliff (Macdonald
et al., 1993; Fig. 12). This exposure consists of rafts and blocks of
turbidite sandstone, with variable amounts of chaotic, mudstone-
rich matrix (Butterworth et al., 1988). In some localities, sedimen-
tary deformation is very chaotic in character with no clearly
dominant strain orientation, whereas in other localities there is a
consistent sense of deformation. Deformation varies from well-
mixed sediment to coherently offset slide sheets with clear pierc-
ing points (Fig. 12; Macdonald et al., 1993).
Descriptions of the Ablation Point Formation by Butterworth
et al. (1988), Butterworth (1988), Macdonald et al. (1993), and
Macdonald (personal communication) were used here as inputs
for seismic forward modeling (see following section). The out-
304 M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON

crops were described as follows. The lowest exposed unit in the

A 60°W
45°W Belemnite Point area consists of east-dipping imbricate blocks,
composed of well-bedded turbidite sandstones. These blocks are
60°S overlain by a chaotic mudstone and a slightly deformed sand-
stone marker bed, which yields a piercing point (Fig. 12). The
upper part of the mudstone is cut by a slide horizon, underlying
a stack of imbricate thrust blocks 100–160 m thick. Individual
imbricates are up to 800 m long, with an apparent dip of 5–30° to
the east. Imbricate blocks are composed of interbedded sand-
stone and mudstone turbidites. Stratigraphy internal to the blocks

Antarctic
Alexander Peninsula

750
Island
Belemnite Point
70°S

apparent
transport
direction
B

0 70°45’S
0 km 50 50

Fig. 11 0 Ablation
75
Point
00
10
50
Belemnite
Alexander Point
Island
Ablation
Point
0
50
0
25

Neogene alkaline volcanics 10 km 71°00’S

Tertiary calc-alkaline volcanics
Tertiary calc-alkaline plutons
FIG. 11.—Topographic and location map of Ablation and Belem-
Fossil Bluff Group - Mesozoic fore-arc basin
LeMay Group - Mesozoic accretionary prism
LeMay Group - accreted oceanic material
Covered or unknown
FIG. 10.—A) Location map of Alexander Island; B) geological map
of Alexander Island. White areas in Part B are not exposed.
Boxed area shows location of Figure 11. Figures are compiled
and modified from Butterworth (1988), Butterworth et al.
(1988), Doubleday and Tranter (1994), and Macdonald et al.
(1993).
68°30’W
nite Points, described here. Green areas show the extent of
outcrops, whereas white areas are not exposed (ice or scree
covered). The gray area outlines the approximate extent of the
Ablation Point Formation, composed of the mass-transport
deposits addressed in this paper. Figures are compiled and
modified from Butterworth (1988), Butterworth et al. (1988),
Doubleday and Tranter (1994), and Macdonald et al. (1993).
Topographic data are from U.S. Department of Commerce,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National
Geophysical Data Center, 2006, 2-minute Gridded Global Relief
Data (ETOPO2v2); http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/fliers/
06mgg01.html.
 ponded sediment

thrust surfaces

main slide

Belemnite Point
SCREE
SL
O
P
E
tertiary dike coarse-grained sandstone
beds ponded “blocky”
0
sediment

1
MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION

thrust ramps 6 km
main slide surface chaotic debris-flow deposits

2 5

3 4

FIG. 12.—Photomosaic of the Ablation Point Formation at Belemnite Point, showing the underlying chaotic debris-flow deposit, a zone of very coherent, imbricate thrust
blocks, and overlying “ponded” sediments. The red box outlines the boundaries of the seismic forward model (Fig. 14). No vertical exaggeration, although scale varies
due to perspective. Photos courtesy of David Macdonald.
305
306 M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON
can be correlated between them, implying that all blocks origi-
nally belonged to a single sheet.
The upper boundary of the imbricate thrust blocks is sharp
and undulose, following the crests and troughs of the thrusted
sheets. To the west, this unit becomes more chaotically deformed.
It is overlain by up to 60 m of chaotically deformed sandstone in
a mudstone matrix, which is thickest in their troughs between the
imbricate blocks and thinnest over their crests. An overlying unit
of well-bedded turbidites may either downlap or onlap at the east
end of the exposure; it is not certain whether this is a single large
slide block or in situ sedimentation “healing” the topographic
relief on top of the mass-transport deposit. Turbidite beds are
capped by a 20-m-thick bed of very coarse sandstone, containing
blocks of pebbly sandstone (Butterworth et al., 1988).
Several general points can be made from these Antarctic
outcrops. First, the presence of volcanic clasts only in the basal
part of the Ablation Point outcrop (which is probably the strati-
graphically lowest exposed part of the section) suggests that
these clasts may have been eroded from underlying volcanics,
implying that basal erosion was occurring during movement and
emplacement of this mass-transport deposit. Second, the sense of
strain in both the Ablation Point and the Belemnite Point outcrops
ranges from both apparent extension and compression near the
base, to compression-dominated strain in the middle and upper
part of the deposit. Spatially strain appears quite variable in any
given stratigraphic level, from completely localized strain where
all the deformation occurs in faults to quite penetrative strain in
chaotically deformed zones.
Comparison between Outcrop Sites
The mass-transport deposit in Antarctica is distinct from that
of the Argentine mass-transport deposit in several respects. First,
the Antarctic deposit is dominated by slide sheets or rafted blocks
with coherent or semicoherent internal stratification. Second, the
Antarctic deposit contains a much higher proportion of sand-
stone, and therefore constitutes a potential reservoir analog.
Third, the Antarctic deposit is more than twice as thick as the
Argentine deposit, making the internal features resolvable in our
seismic forward models (see following section).
Similarities between both settings include their apparent
strain histories, with combinations of extensional and compres-
sional strains near the base and compressional strains dominat-
ing nearer the top of the deposits. Also, both outcrop areas exhibit
evidence that basal erosion and incorporation of sediment from
underlying strata is an important process during mass failures.
SEISMIC FORWARD MODELING
The geometric and lithologic data from the two outcrop areas
in Antarctica and Argentina were used as a basis for seismic
TABLE 1.—Input parameters for the
Cerro Bola seismic outcrop model.
forward modeling. This workflow involved the construction of
an impedance model, based on geological interpretations of each
outcrop. Geological models were used to construct seismic mod-
els using (1) the convolution method for a range of frequencies,
with a zero-phase Ricker wavelet, and (2) physical properties
(compressional and shear-wave velocities, densities, porosities,
and lithologies) derived from representative subsurface datasets
from a variety of settings and burial depths (Tables 1, 2). To
simulate seismic data, the geometry of the synthetic receivers was
set up with conventional 12.5 m spacing. Synthetic seismograms
were created for 40 and 80 Hz frequencies (Figs. 13, 14).
Not surprisingly, the scale difference between these two
outcrop sites is the most critical factor in determining the quality
of the seismic models. The Guandacól Formation example in
Argentina is on a smaller scale, and with more mixed lithologies
(finer-scale lithologic domains), thus producing a more confused
synthetic seismic image (Fig. 13). Nonetheless, at 80 Hz the nature
of the deposit is well resolved, even though this image is domi-
nated by the external boundaries. In contrast, the Ablation Point
Formation model in Antarctica is on a broader scale; the major
structure is well resolved in the resulting 2D synthetic seismic
model, even at 40 Hz (Fig. 14).
Based on these outcrop studies, it would appear that a lack of
coherency at mesoscales (centimeter to a few meters) is mirrored
by a lack of seismic coherency. It remains to be established
whether there is a relationship between seismic response and
mesoscale and microscale (submillimeter to a few centimeters)
structures and fabrics; we expect that velocity anisotropy that
results from these structures also will have an effect.
DISCUSSION
Composition of Mass-Transport Deposits
The initial composition of any given mass-transport deposit
depends on the facies present in the protolith strata. In many
settings, the composition of slope-derived mass-transport depos-
its may be quite muddy, while mass failures which cut the shelf
edge (especially shelf-edge deltas) or involve basin-floor sedi-
ments may contain much more sand (Lucente and Pini, 2003;
Manley et al., 1997; Piper et al., 1997). However, large variations
in initial grain size can occur if a mass-transport event involves
failure of a channel, fan, or levee (e.g., Manley et al., 1997). Initial
spatial distribution of different grain sizes may change as the
feature moves downslope, due to progressive deformation within
the moving sediment. How sediment is redistributed depends on
whether deformation occurs in a ductile or a brittle fashion and
TABLE 2.—Input parameters for the
Belemnite Point seismic outcrop model.
 MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION 307

100 m

100 m

FIG. 13.—Cerro Bola seismic forward model, showing: A) the geometrical input parameters for the model; B) the model response
at 40 Hz frequency; and C) the model response at 80 Hz frequency. Although the details are not resolved at 40 Hz, the chaotic
nature of the deposit is evident in the lack of coherent through-going reflectors. Location of the seismic model window is shown
in Figure 2.

whether strain is dispersed or localized within the moving mass
(see Cerro Bola section above; Dykstra, 2005). This process can
lead to mass-transport deposits with either a more even, dis-
persed sediment distribution or can cause coarse sediment to
become localized along discrete internal shear surfaces (faults)
(Dykstra, 2005). Additionally, as we have shown above, incorpo-
ration of underlying sediment into the moving mass can change
the bulk grain-size distribution within a mass-transport deposit.
For example, an initially muddy mass-transport deposit may
become progressively sandier, if it moves over a sandy seafloor
and thereby incorporates sand into its mass. Therefore, it can be
difficult to determine a priori what facies or grain sizes may be
present in a mass-transport deposit without detailed knowledge
of the source area, the various facies the mass failure may overrun
during transit, and the style of internal deformation. That said, in
general mass-transport deposits sourced from the shelf may be
sandier than those sourced from the slope.
“Ponding” of Turbidites on Mass-Transport Deposits
Topography created on the top surface of mass-transport
deposits discussed here and elsewhere (Dykstra et al., 2006;
Posamentier and Walker, 2006; Walker, 2008) can exert a signifi-
cant control on the distribution of sediment deposited on the
seafloor, following a mass-failure episode. In some cases, this
influence by the underlying feature can persist into the overlying
stratigraphy for hundreds of meters of section. This influence is
due to the large amount of relief possible, combined with post-
depositional compaction and creep of the underlying mass-
transport deposit, as it is differentially loaded in areas of low
relief (e.g., Walker, 2008). We loosely term sediment sitting
within topographic lows on the top surface of mass-transport
deposits “ponds”, although they may not be ponded in a true
three-dimensional sense. These lows represent accommodation
space in which sediment can accumulate and is at least partially
confined. Presence of a rugose surface on the top of mass-trans-
port deposits may exert significant control over the dynamics of
turbidity currents flowing over the seafloor. The amount of
control depends on the relationship between the scale of topog-
raphy and magnitude of the turbidity currents. Although not
discussed in detail here, this topography can dramatically affect
grain-size distribution, types and abundances of sedimentary
structures, and grading of beds in the turbidite successions (e.g.,
Walker, 2008).
CONCLUSIONS
This work leads us to a number of general conclusions about
mass-transport deposits:
(1) Incorporation of strata below the main detachment surface of
the mass-transport deposit may be important for the incorpo-
ration of porous and permeable materials. In Argentina this
was accomplished by “plucking” of blocks from the substrate,
followed by shearing of their margins and incorporation of
sand into the matrix. In Antarctica, the base of the mass-
 308
B

Key to Colors in A
Net:Gross = 10
200 m
Net:Gross = 30

Net:Gross = 50 200 m
Net:Gross = 60

Net:Gross = 70

Net:Gross = 90

FIG. 14.—Belemnite Point seismic forward model, showing: A) the geometrical input parameters for the model, B) the model response at 40 Hz frequency; and C) the model
M. DYKSTRA, K. GARYFALOU, V. KERTZNUS, B. KNELLER, J.-P. MILANA, M. MOLINARO, M. SZUMAN AND P. THOMPSON

response at 80 Hz frequency. Location of section is indicated in Figure 12.

 MTD LITHOFACIES DISTRIBUTIONS AND DEFORMATION
transport deposit is poorly exposed, but incorporation into
the sediment of volcanic clasts lithologically similar to the
underlying strata suggests that basal erosion occurred in that
example as well. A snapshot of this process has also been
observed in 3D seismic data (e.g., Posamentier and Walker,
2006).
(2) Strain distribution may be complex and heterogeneous, both
between different mass-transport deposits and spatially
within the same deposit. In the Argentine example, the
lower zone is dominated by bulk extension, but with com-
pressional features (folds and imbrication, and stacking of
boudins) superposed, indicating a complex strain history
during transport; the upper zone of the Argentine mass-
transport deposit is dominated by compression, with semi-
brittle strains superimposed on earlier more penetrative
ductile strains. In the Antarctic example, the whole thickness
of the mass-transport deposit appears quite well organized
into discrete thrust sheets, with strain concentrated along
the thrusts and in intervening zones between thrust sheets.
Spatially within the Antarctic example, strains vary radi-
cally from completely localized along faults to very penetra-
tive strains in highly chaotic zones up to 60 m thick and
hundreds of meters wide.
(3) Bedding and fold orientations can be used to infer transport
direction only when many measurements are taken over a
large area. In any given vertical profile, the picture that would
emerge of transport may be incorrect and often contradictory
at different places and different levels within the same mass-
transport deposit. Therefore caution should be used in inter-
preting transport direction from log or core data of mass-
transport deposits.
(4) Lithologic coherency at the outcrop scale is reflected in both
high-frequency (80 Hz) and medium-frequency (40 Hz) seis-
mic data. This is best seen in the forward model of the
Antarctic field area, where individual thrust sheets in the
mass-transport deposit exhibit a higher degree of stratigraphic
continuity. It is quite easy to map the stratigraphy within
individual thrust sheets in both the high-frequency and me-
dium-frequency datasets.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank David Macdonald for providing unpublished data
from Antarctica, and acknowledge the guidance and advice of
Mads Huuse, David Macdonald, and Peter Butterworth, and the
support of our research sponsors: BG Group, BHP-Billiton, BP,
Chevron, Conoco-Phillips, Hess, Maersk Oil, Marathon Oil,
Murphy Oil, Norsk-Hydro, Petrobras, Statoil, Total, and Woodside
Petroleum. Seismic-Micro Technology and Ikon Science pro-
vided academic licenses for the software used in this study.
Stereographic projection was done using Salvini, F., 2002, Daisy-
free Software, University of Roma III (Italy). Helpful reviews
were provided by Henry Posamentier, Janet Yun, Richard Wild,
and Craig Shipp.
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