1

Introduction

15°
LT
A stone, when it is examined, will be For centuries the shapes
P of continents and ocean basins, the linearity of
er
mountain ranges, the distribution
u
– of volcanoes, and the cause of earth-
found a mountain in miniature.

A
quakes have fascinated humans C (Figure 1–1). Today we know that most of

l t
these features are produced by deep-seated processes operating since the
h

i p
ile
JOHN RUSKIN, 1858, Modern Painters Earth formed; these processes have shaped both past and present configu-

l a n
rations of tectonic plates (Figure 1–2). The effects of earthquake and volca-
Trench

nic activity are constant reminders that the Earth is a dynamic planet and
that tectonic plates PACIFIC
o
are driven by awesome forces. Most of Earth’s human
OCEAN
population is influenced by tectonic activity; unfortunately, earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions threaten many people (Figure 1–1).
0 500
25° S
kilometers
72° W 60° W

(a)
PERU Earthquake focal
depth (km)
15° 15° 0 – 70
71 – 150
LT
P
LT BOLIVIA 151 – 300
P e
er ru 301 – 500
u –
>501
–
A
A

C Holocene
l t
l t

volcano
C
h
h

i p
i p
ile

ile

l a n
l a n

Trench
Trench

PARAGUAY
o

PACIFIC
o

PACIFIC
OCEAN OCEAN
CHILE ARGENTINA

0 500 0 500
25° S 25° S
kilometers kilometers
72° W 60° W 72° W 60° W

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1–1 
PERU Earthquake
(a) Shaded relief map of part of western focal
South America.
depth (km)
The Andes Mountains stand out in strong relief. As the Nazca Plate is
subducted along the Peru-Chile Trench, South America undergoes
0 – 70 crustal thickening, uplift, and volcanism. The Altiplano is a high plateau
15°
with an average elevation LT
over 3,300 m. LT—Lake Titicaca.71(Map
– 150 created from Shuttle Radar Topography Mission [SRTM] image PIA03388.)
P BOLIVIA 151 – 300
e and focal depths of earthquakes (Mw ≥ 6) since
(b) Locations 1973 and distribution of Holocene volcanoes. Notice that earthquake focal
301 – 500
ru
depths generally increase with distance inland from the Peru-Chile
>501 Trench. (Data from U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Informa-
– the Smithsonian Institution’s Global Volcanism Program.)
A

tion Center and Holocene

l t

volcano
C
h

2
i p
ile

l a n
T
 Introduction | 3

Eurasian
Plate North
American Eurasian Plate
Plate Iranian Plate
Juan de Fuca
Plate
Caribbean
San Andreas Plate
fault
Arabian Plate
Cocos Plate
Philippine Sea
Plate
South African Plate
Nazca
Plate American
Australian Plate Plate
Pacific Plate

Antarctic Plate Antarctic Plate

(a)

Elevation
(meters)
8,000
5,000
3,000

1,000
500
250
100
0
–1,500
–3,000

–4,000

–5,000

–6,000
–10,000

(b)

FIGURE 1–2  (a) Names and distribution of Earth’s tectonic plates. Arrows indicate plate motion direction, and length of arrows indicate rate
of motion. (U.S. Geological Survey.) (b) Shaded relief map of continents and ocean basins illustrating their relationship to plates and plate
boundaries. Relief map generated from U.S. Geological Survey Global 30 Arc-Second Elevation (GTOPO30) and Intergovernmental Oceano-
graphic Commission/International Hydrographic Organization General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) digital elevation models.
 4 |  Introduction
Aside from the imminent danger and practical need
to comprehend and mitigate the dangers associated with
these hazards, most geologists feel a basic scientific urge
to understand these processes. Structural geologists are
concerned with deformation of rocks and why parts of
the Earth’s crust are bent into smoothly curved shapes—­
producing folds—but others, sometimes in the same re-
gions, are broken by faults. We also want to understand
both the processes that produce structures and the his-
tory of how the structures formed. The opening quote
by Ruskin is applicable to the structural geologist as we
consider the nature and origin of structures from regional
scale down to grain scale.
Structural geology is the study of rock deformation.
It considers the geometry, dynamics, kinematics, and
mechanics of earth structures and has great relevance
to society and the world economy. It is readily applied
to engineering problems that involve the foundations of
bridges, dams, buildings, and power plants where large
excavations are necessary, as well as highways where ex-
cavations extend for long distances. Studies of geologic
structures beneath buildings, dams, and highway cuts are
of great importance because of the potential for renewed
motion along faults and other fractures, as well as concern
for the stability of slopes and geologic materials. Siting
large engineered structures in active fault zones, like the
(a)
FIGURE 1–3  (a) Oblique aerial view to
the south of Yucca Mountain crest showing
coring activities. (b) Oblique aerial view of the
feet above sea level
south portal into Yucca Mountain; note 25 ft
diameter tunnel boring machine. (a and b
retrieved from University of North Texas Web 3,000
Archive, http://www.ymp.gov.) (c) ­Geologic
cross section through Yucca Mountain il-
lustrating gently tilted volcanic rocks cut
by a series of steeply dipping normal faults. 1,000
(­Modified from Day et al., 1998.) (c)
U.S. West Coast, is not desirable, but sometimes it is im-
possible to build them in tectonically quiet areas. There-
fore, geologists and engineers must work together from
the design stage through construction to evaluate which
structures are still active and might affect engineering
works, as well as to minimize cost.
Environmental problems and land-use planning—such
as earthquake hazards, waste isolation and disposal, and
controls on the distribution of ground water—provide ad-
ditional applicability for structural geology. Documenting
the antiquity or recent movement of faults is an important
aspect that requires understanding of structural ­geology.
Location of sites for disposal of municipal, industrial, and
radioactive waste requires application of structural and tec-
tonic principles. Understanding the controls of large struc-
tures, such as folded layers of permeable and impermeable
rocks that contain ground water, and small structures, such
as fractures, on the distribution of ground water provides
additional applications for this discipline. The proposed
(now shelved) Yucca Mountain Repository in southern
Nevada (Figure 1–3) is a controversial underground stor-
age facility intended to safely house the United States’ spent
nuclear fuel and radioactive waste for at least 25,000 years.
Over the past two decades the structural geology, mechani-
cal characteristics, seismic history, and ground water flow
paths were extensively studied in order to characterize the
(b)
WEST Yucca Crest EAST
5,000
Repository tunnel
Topopah Spring
Tuff
 Introduction | 5

site; key questions include recurrence interval and magni-

tude of seismic and volcanic activity, and permeability as-
sociated with fractures in the volcanic bedrock.
Structural geology has long had a close working rela-
tionship with petroleum and mining geology. The abil-
ity to project fault surfaces, geologic contacts, and other
structures to depth is used to great advantage by geolo-
gists who explore for valuable minerals and petroleum.
­Tectonic principles have been applied to understanding
larger trends and regional processes that control the con-
centration of mineral deposits and hydrocarbons.
Structural geology considers the geometry, dynam-
ics, kinematics, and mechanics of earth structures. Geom-
etry refers to the shape and orientation of structures on
any scale. A first-order, and non-trivial, task for structural (a)
geologists is to accurately describe the geometry of Earth
structures. Geometric understanding occurs over a wide
range of scales, from field mapping of regional-scale struc-
tures to measuring the orientation of crystal axes in indi-
vidual mineral grains under the microscope.
Dynamics deals with the study of motion of bodies in
response to forces that produced the motion. In contrast,
kinematics deals with the motion of materials independent
of the forces that caused the motion. Rock masses can be
uplifted from great depths in the crust, rotated between
fault blocks, and translated hundreds to thousands of kilo-
meters from their place of origin. Rock structures provide
important kinematic clues, and this evidence is observable
over a wide range of scales.
Mechanics focuses on the effects of forces or stresses (b)
on materials. Understanding the geometry and mechani- FIGURE 1–4  Structures are three-dimensional. Consider the
cal properties of a rock mass provides information related famed Sydney Opera House (a) and its distinctive shell roof, and
to how it will behave when put under stress. It is impor- then think about the shapes of folds such as the Sheep Mountain
tant to remember that we typically study structures after anticline in Wyoming (b). This oblique aerial view (U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture) nicely illustrates the three-dimensionality
they form, frequently millions to billions of years later; of the anticline. It is cored with Precambrian crystalline rocks and
thus we must infer the nature and magnitude of forces flanked by Paleozoic and Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of differing
that affected the rocks as well as the physical conditions resistance to erosion that hold up flanking ridges and underlie
(pressure, temperature, fluid content) present when the valleys. Note the small folds in the lower left-hand part of the
structures formed. Some structural geologists conduct ex- photo that mimic the shape of the main fold.
periments deforming rocks under controlled conditions in
the laboratory; this mechanical understanding is valuable
for ­interpreting natural structures.
Structural geology is similar to architecture in that between structures formed near the Earth’s surface and
both disciplines require an ability to visualize objects in those formed at great depth under the weight of overlying
three dimensions. Visualizing objects in three dimensions rocks and at high temperatures indicates profound differ-
can be difficult. Perhaps begin by thinking about familiar ences in physical conditions. As the elevation of a mountain
objects such as the room where you live, the decorations range is reduced by erosion, physical conditions affecting
on the wall, and the locations of furniture; and then move the crust change both near the surface and at depth. An
on to less familiar geologic structures (Figure 1–4). Keep appreciation of structural geometry thus permits us to
in mind that most of us also had difficulty with 3-D visu- make better interpretations of kinematics and mechanics,
alization when we began studying structural geology, but and ultimately of the origins of earth structures.
learning to visualize objects in three dimensions comes Tectonic structures are produced in response to stresses
through practice. The shapes of geologic structures change generated, for the most part, by plate motion within the
through time, along with the physical conditions that Earth, and include faults and folds, along with other struc-
formed them. In particular, the contrast in shape and type tures. They make up the tectonic framework of the Earth.
 6 |  Introduction
(a)
FIGURE 1–5  Continuous (ductile) and discontinuous brittle structures in rocks. (a) Folded gneissic layering produced by ductile flow in
metasedimentary rocks along Long Island Sound near Lyme, Connecticut. (b) Brittle deformation produced several sets of fractures in
Precambrian metasedimentary rocks near Central City, Colorado. Scale is indicated by 3 to 5 m tall trees in foreground. (RDH photos.)
The kinds of structures that form in different parts of
the crust are determined by: (1) prevailing temperature and
pressure; (2) rock composition; (3) the nature of layer-
ing; (4) contrast in properties with direction between and
within individual layers (anisotropy) or the lack of con-
trast (isotropy); and (5) amount and character of fluids
within the rock mass. How rapidly the mass is deformed
and the orientations of stresses applied to it also influence
the kinds of structures produced. These factors determine
whether deformation will be continuous (ductile defor-
mation) or discontinuous (brittle deformation), produc-
ing a great variety of structures both in the Earth and on
other planets (Figure 1–5).
Structures may also form as products of nontectonic
processes, such as extraterrestrial impacts, landslides, and
other features formed by gravity. It is useful to distinguish
between tectonic and nontectonic structures (Chapter 2),
because some nontectonic structures closely resemble—
even mimic—structures formed by tectonic processes.
Much knowledge about geologic structures is derived
from observing and attempting to understand structures in
the field; thus, one of our goals is to improve our abilities to
recognize, describe, measure, and interpret both subtle and
obvious geologic structures in rocks. Also, a better under-
standing of physical and chemical principles and the abil-
ity to use mathematics and computers are needed to bridge
the gaps between field, laboratory, and theoretical studies.
The link between field and laboratory studies is both es-
sential and supportive, for structural geology is divisible
into subdisciplines of scale, structures, and processes, most
of which overlap in geologic time. For example, laboratory
studies determining fluid pressure that facilitates move-
ment on faults are supported by field observations of evi-
dence that fluid was present when a fault was active.
The study of field relationships is an exceptionally im-
portant aspect of structural geology because it provides
(b)
limitations for formulating kinematic and mechanical
models. In structural geology, we try to understand how
small structures form and how they are related to larger
structures and, ultimately, to crustal deformation and plate
tectonics. A geologist undertaking a field-based structural
study may: (1) make accurate geologic maps and cross
sections of the structural geometry; (2) measure orienta-
tions of small structures to provide information about the
shapes and relative positions of larger structures in the
field; (3)  study the overprinting sequence of structures to
determine the variation in deformation conditions through
time; (4) use these structures to understand the kinematic
history; and (5) apply rock-mechanics principles and data
to relate structures to forces that were present in the Earth
during deformation. These different components will not be
completed at the same time or in the sequence listed here.
Today there are many tools available to structural
geologists that improve our work in the field. The Global
­Positioning System (GPS) permits the precise geolocation of
structural data and samples. Software on “smart” phones
and tablet computers facilitates recording, viewing, and
manipulating data in the field, and some feature compasses
and clinometers that make accurate strike and dip measure-
ments (Appendix 2).
Rock mechanics is the application of physics to the
study of rock materials. It deals with rock properties and
the relationships between forces and resulting structures,
as well as with the study of structures produced in the
laboratory in an attempt to duplicate natural structures
(Figure 1–6). In the laboratory, we can simulate the higher
temperatures and pressures that exist at great depths.
­A lternatively, very weak materials such as salt, gelatin,
clay, putty, and paraffin, which behave like rocks being de-
formed at higher temperatures, may be used to produce
experimental structures at room temperature. A disadvan-
tage of laboratory experiments is that they cannot be run
 Introduction | 7
FIGURE 1–6  Experimental structures made in a centrifuge from viscous materials of different densities and fluid properties. Compare the
shapes of these structures at this scale with those in Figures 15–18, 15–28, 16–2, 16–9, 16–21, 16E–1, and 17–14a. (From Tectonophysics, v. 19,
H. Ramberg and H. Sjöström, p. 105–132, Fig. 15, © 1973, with kind permission from Elsevier Science, Ltd., Kidlington, United Kingdom.)
over geologic time—thousands to millions of years. They
must be run on rocks and minerals at temperatures and
pressures far above those normally occurring in nature
so that deformation rates will occur rapidly enough that
the person conducting the experiment will live to see the
results! Artificial or natural materials deformed at rea-
sonable rates that simulate the behavior of rocks must be
scaled up to approximate natural processes.
Tectonics and regional structural geology involve
larger features. Studies of mountain ranges, parts of con-
tinents, trenches and island arcs, oceanic ridges, entire
continents and ocean basins, and their relationships to
stresses and tectonic plates are included in these subdisci-
plines. Plate tectonics deals specifically with plate genera-
tion, motion, and interactions. Separating tectonics from
regional structural geology is difficult. Regional structural
geology is more commonly concerned with continental
structures or well-imaged parts of the ocean floor and uses
data from detailed studies of small structures to recon-
struct the deformational history and tectonics of a region.
Moreover, geophysical data (Chapter 4) and information
derived from other disciplines of geology must be inte-
grated with structural data for use in regional structural
geology and tectonics. Use of geophysical data in struc-
tural geology is more common now because technology
has made available more data of higher quality, especially
seismic reflection, magnetic, and gravity data.
It is easy to see that the many subdivisions of structural
geology are related to other disciplines in geology as well
as to the other sciences. Direct applications are made from
physics to study the origin of geologic structures. Isoto-
pic data are frequently useful in working out the absolute
timing of deformation, and geochemical data may help
to determine mobility of fluids and elements during de-
formation. The chemical composition of highly deformed
rocks may indicate the original material (protolith) and the
environment before deformation.
As mentioned earlier, the concept of scale is of great
importance in structural geology. Structures—such as geo-
logic contacts, foliations, faults, and folds—are commonly
0 1
centimeter
observed in the field in both hand specimen and at outcrop
(or mesoscopic) scale. Microscopic structures require mag-
nification to be observed, and include many foliations and
linear structures. Mountainside to map-scale structures
are called macroscopic structures. Scales and geometric
perspectives of geologic cross sections must be maintained
between the map from which the section is constructed
and the section itself (Figure 1–7).
Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics is the framework within which all tectonic
structures form. This paradigm is as fundamental to the
Earth sciences as atomic theory is to physics and chemis-
try and as evolution is to biology. Early formulation of the
theory is attributed to Harry Hess, who during the 1930s
conceived the tectogene concept of the subsiding crumpling
crust driven by mantle convection. Isacks et al. (1968) first
published a unified theory of plate tectonics. According to
the principle of plate tectonics, new oceanic crust formed
at the oceanic ridges ultimately is consumed by subduc-
tion in oceanic trenches (Figure 1–8). While this process
can recycle all ocean crust in ~200 m.y., continental crust
has a pivotal role in recording geologic events in the 4.5 Ga
history of Earth.
The present surface of the Earth is divisible into seven
major plates and several smaller plates (Figure 1–2). The
thickness of plates corresponds to that of the lithosphere,
which is on average about 100 km thick and includes all of
the crust and part of the upper mantle (Figure 1–8). The
lithosphere is conveyed above a weaker, more plastic layer
in the mantle known as the asthenosphere (Figure  1­–9).
­Geophysical evidence demonstrates that the asthenosphere
is a solid, but it is sufficiently weak so it flows over geologic
time. Gravitational processes and convection in the mantle
drive plate generation and consumption. There are three
basic configurations of plate boundaries: (1) divergent (ocean
ridges); (2) convergent (subduction zones); and (3) transform.
 8 |  Introduction

FIGURE 1–7  Hypothetical geologic A

map (a) and cross section (b) illustrating Cp 46
macroscopic structures and relationships. 51
Note that constructing an accurate cross 37 39
34
section requires close attention to scale, Ol 41
41 48 45
strike, and dip of bedding (Appendix 1), 49 62
Oc 36
and position of geologic contacts on the
43 Oa
topographic surface. The symbols On,
Oa, Ol, and so on identify each rock unit 40
38
58
by its age (O—Ordovician, –C—Cambrian,
p –C—Precambrian), and the name of each 42
42 Ol 71
52
rock unit, e.g., On—Newala Formation. 46
See inside front cover for explanation of 68 Oc
dip-strike symbols. 47 63
73 69 Cp
On
43
67
76
57 Oa

74 74 67
64 59
62

Ol Oc Cs
66 63

57
77 58

55
61

Cp Cn
41 47
41
63
59 p Ci
57 59 42
Ch
66
48

63 32
62
38 36
0 200 400 600 800 1000 Cn
N meters contours
contours in meters
meters
Cs A'
(a)

A A'
1,100 1,100

1,000 Cs 1,000
On Cn
900 900
Cs Ch
meters

meters

800 Cn Ch 800
Cp Oc Oa p Ci
700 Oc 700
Ol Cp
Cs
600 Cs 600
Cn Cn
500 500
No vertical exaggeration
(b)

The kinematics of plate motion may be described
using an Eulerian theorem that represents the motion of
plates on a sphere, in which displacement on the surface
increases away from a rotational axis (Euler pole). Angular
displacement of a plate involves rotation about the Euler
pole, an imaginary line passing through the center of the
Earth, and rotation of a plate about this axis is expressed
by its angular velocity (ω) on the sphere (Figure 1–10a).
Although the velocity increases away from the pole of the
spreading axis, the angular velocity remains constant.
 Introduction | 9

(Cordilleran mountain chains—Andes, North American

LITHOSPHERE LITHOSPHERE
A S T H E N O S P H E R E
M E S O S P H E R E
FIGURE 1–8  Generation of lithospheric plates at spreading
centers (oceanic ridges) and destruction in subduction zones—a
simple statement of plate tectonics theory. Differences in rate
of motion or displacement between plates are taken up by
transforms connecting segments of ridges, trenches, and other
boundaries. Arrows indicate motion direction. Ocean crust is col-
ored purple. (From Isacks et al., Seismology and the new global
tectonics: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 78, p. 5855–5899,
© 1968 by the American Geophysical Union.)
Each plate has an angular velocity on the sphere (deter-
mined by the absolute motion and its position relative to
the pole) with respect to other plates. Differences in move-
ment rate between plates are balanced by transform faults
(Figure 1–10b). Plate boundaries where three plates meet
are called triple junctions (Figure 1–10c) and they connect
ridge, trench, transform segments, or various combina-
tions of the three boundaries.
Dewey and Bird (1970) outlined a model for the devel-
opment of mountain chains as a result of either subduction
Cordillera) or continent-continent or continent-arc col-
lision (collisional mountain chains—Alps, Appalachians,
Himalayas). Generation of mountain chains is com-
plex, and most collisional orogenic belts also had an ear-
lier history of subduction. Wilson (1966) suggested that
a proto-­Atlantic Ocean had closed at the end of the Pa-
leozoic, producing the Appalachian–Variscan mountain
chain of North America and Europe, making up the su-
percontinent of Pangea, and then had reopened to form
the present ­Atlantic. This cyclical closing and opening
of ocean basins has become known as the Wilson cycle
(supercontinent cycle).
Another plate tectonic corollary is that of accretionary
tectonics, whereby suspect and exotic terranes are moved
by plate motion to collision with each other or with conti-
nents. A suspect terrane is a rock mass whose original po-
sition is questionable with respect to adjacent terranes or
the continent to which it is presently attached. An exotic
terrane bears no resemblance to the mass to which it is
attached and may have originated on the opposite side of
a major ocean. Hamilton’s (1979) compilation of the geol-
ogy of the Indonesian region demonstrates that a complex
of volcanic arcs, continental fragments, oceanic crust, and
large continental blocks (such as Australia) are all in the
initial stages of being accreted to Asia as Australia moves
northward. The boundaries of suspect and exotic terranes
with surrounding terranes are always faults. Overlap se-
quences, deformational and metamorphic overprints, and

Volcanic hot spot

0–660 km Convection Upper

man
tle

1000
km Subducting slab
660–2890 km

2890–5150 km Lower Outer

mantle core

Inner core

FIGURE 1–9  Plumes (red columns) that ascend through the mantle may originate in low-velocity zones near the outer core boundary in
pools of material that could be partially melted or enriched in iron. They are strong and unbent by lower mantle convection—a sign that
they are an important mechanism for releasing heat from the core (and driving convection in the upper mantle). Subducting slabs (black)
plow downward into the mantle returning material to various depths. In addition, breakoff of descending slabs may produce rebound of
the lithosphere and uplift of mountain chains above subduction zones. (From E. Hand, 2015, Science, Volume 349, Issue 6252.)
 10 |  Introduction

Axis of rotation

A'
Angular velocity C' D'
vector, ωAmAf A B' E'

B
C
59° N D
E
23° W

N. America
Pole of
(fixed)
rotation (b)

FIGURE 1–10  (a) Angular displacement of Africa with respect

to North America predicted from the laws of spherical geome-
try. (From Hobbs, Means, and Williams, An Outline of Structural
Geology, © 1976, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.) (b) Transforms at plate
boundaries and within plates balance differences in displacement
81 m.y. or relative motion. A–A’, B–B’, C–C’ . . . represent corresponding
points on continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic. (From
Wilson, reprinted by permission from Nature, v. 207, p. 343–347,
© 1966, Macmillan Magazines, Ltd.) (c) Several kinds of triple
­junctions. (From McKenzie and Morgan, reprinted by permission
155 m.y. from Nature, v. 224, p. 125–133, © 1969, Macmillan Magazines,
Ltd.)

(a)

RRR A B TTF A B TTR A B TTR A B

FFF A B

C C C C C

B
RRF A A B TTF A B TTR A B
TTT A B TTT
C
C C C C

Trench (T) Ridge (R) Transform fault (F)

(c)

plutons that crosscut accretionary boundaries provide evi-
dence of “docking” and frequently the timing of terrane
accretion (Figure 1–11).
Moreover, of interest to structural geologists is the
deformation that occurs at and near plate boundaries.
In addition to faults and folds, accretionary complexes
(­
deformed trench-fill sediments), block-in-matrix tec-
tonic mélanges, and high-pressure mineral assemblages
(e.g., blueschists) occur here. Plate boundary deformation
can be very localized or extend for several kilometers into
the plates on either side of the boundary.
Plate kinematics from the Mesozoic to the present are
well documented and largely based on sea-floor magnetic
anomaly patterns, which are correlated to known geomag-
netic reversal events. Further back in the geological record,
paleomagnetism enables an estimate of the paleolatitude
at which many igneous and sedimentary rocks formed,
thereby providing critical data for paleogeographic recon-
structions in the Paleozoic and Precambrian. At a more
tangible human timescale, the motion of plates is being
measured using satellite-based Global Positioning System
(GPS) technology. GPS technology is in wide use for locating
everything from ships and airplanes to hikers and auto-
mobiles. In order to make measurements precise enough
to detect plate motion, GPS instruments must be capable
of making measurements with an accuracy of a few mm.
 Introduction | 11
Overlap
sequence
(Terrane C)
Terrane A
Continental
crust A
0 1
Terrane
kilometers boundary
(suture)
Measuring plate motion requires sophisticated GPS re-
ceivers (Figure 1–12) that are carefully deployed at dedi-
cated monuments over periods of several years, with the
data transmitted by satellite to a central location. In addi-
tion, corrections must be made for seasonal variations in
temperature, hydrologic conditions, and, in northern lati-
tudes, glacial isostatic rebound. Once made and corrected,
these measurements are very useful to help understand the
present-day rates and kinematics of plate motion.
Consider the GPS data from Auckland, New Zealand,
illustrating the change in latitude, longitude, and elevation
of the station over a 20-year period (Figure 1–13). These
data demonstrate that Auckland had a northward move-
ment component of over 800 mm during that time. When
data from multiple stations are combined, a kinematic pic-
ture emerges of modern plate motion (Figure 1–14).
Equilibrium
The Earth is a dynamic system. Energy from radioac-
tive decay, the Earth’s gravity field, and residual primor-
dial heat drive plate motion and other processes within
the Earth. Heat converted to work moves plates, deforms
rocks in the lithosphere, and produces melts and meta-
morphism. Any excess energy developed locally—say, at
plate boundaries—must be dissipated to restore a state of
rest, or equilibrium, to the part of the lithosphere where
the excess develops. The balance may be restored by
FIGURE 1–11  Cross-sectional
view of features provide critical
information about when two
­terranes may have joined. Terrane
A consists of continental crust with
a sequence of flat-lying sedimen-
tary rocks deposited on it. Terrane
B consists of a different continental
crust with a sequence of sedimen-
tary rocks deposited on it that was
folded before being joined to the
other terrane. The green diabase
Terrane B
dike later intruded both terranes
before the overlap sequence of
sedimentary rocks was deposited
across both terranes. Knowing
the ages of these rocks permits a
structural geologist to decipher
the tectonic history of two blocks
of different continental crust with
markedly different origins that
Continental
are now joined along a terrane
crust B
boundary.
FIGURE 1–12  EarthScope Project GPS station near Delta, Utah.
This permanent battery-operated receiver station automatically
records GPS measurements and communicates with the receiver
facility. The GPS antenna is under the dome and the GPS receiver
is located to the left. (EarthScope photo.)
volcanic eruption, breaking the crust along a fault, plas-
tic flow forming folds, or by other processes whereby heat
is converted into ­mechanical energy. The second law of
­thermodynamics predicts that a certain amount of energy
is never available to do work and will be lost in any energy-­
consuming p ­ rocess, as long as the process is not 100 ­percent
efficient. This amount of energy, called entropy, a measure
 −300

Distance move
−400

Distance moved
−400
−500
−500
−600
−600
−700
−700
12
−800
|  Introduction −800
Rate: 39.632±± 0.091
Rate:39.632 0.091 mm yr–1
mm yr -1

Rate: 39.632±± 0.091

Rate:39.632 0.091 mm yr–1
mm yr -1 −900
−900 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016
1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 (a) Time (years)
(a) Time (years)
Latitude Longitude
0 Longitude 20
20
−100 0

Distance moved (mm)

(mm)

0
−200
moved(mm)

−20
−300
−20
−40
Distancemoved

−400
−40
−500 −60
−60
−600
Distance

−80
−80
−700
−100
−800
−100
Rate: 39.632±± 0.091
Rate:39.632 0.091 mm yr–1
mm yr -1 Rate: 4.235 ±± 0.078
Rate: 4.235 0.078 mm yr–1
mm yr -1

−900 Rate: 4.235 ±± 0.078

Rate: 4.235 0.078 mm yr–1
mm yr -1 −120
−120 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016
(a) 1998 2001 2004
Time
2007 2010 2013 2016 (b) Time (years)
(b) Time (years)
(years)

20
Longitude
Elevation
FIGURE
70
1–13  GPS data from 1996
Elevation
to mid-2016 for Auckland,
70 New60Zealand. (a) and (b) illustrate the lateral movement of the
0
60 station;
50 (c) the vertical movement. Small blue dots represent the
(mm)

Distance moved (mm)

(mm)

50
−20 recorded
40 position, with the black lines denoting recording error
40 bars.30Green lines indicate significant breaks. The graphs show a
moved

−40
moved

30 strong
20 northward and slight eastward movement over the 20-year
−60
20 period.
10 There is some variability in short-term (week to week) mea-
Distance

10 surements, but the overall trends (red lines) are quite evident.
Distance

−80 0
0 Data from Jet Propulsion Laboratory GPS Time Series website
−10
−100
−10
(http://sideshow.jpl.nasa.gov/post/series.html).
−20
−20 Rate: 4.235 ±± 0.078
Rate: 4.235 0.078 mm yr–1
mm yr -1
Rate:−0.202
Rate: −0.202±± 0.298
0.298 mm yr–1
mm yr -1
−120 Rate:−0.202
Rate: −0.202±± 0.298
0.298 mm yr–1
mm yr -1 −30
−30 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010 2013 2016
(b) 1998 2001 Time (years)
2004 2007 2010 2013 2016 (c) Time (years)
(c) Time (years)
Elevation
70
60
Distance moved (mm)

50

of disorder
40
or energy not available to do work, increases (or vice versa), or some other process. Similar readjustments
30
with20time as more energy is expended. take place in response to changes in pressure (or stress). Strik-
All processes in nature move toward a state of equilib-
10 ing a rock with a hammer produces an elastic rebound if it is
rium.0 If heat is added to a rock mass, the rock mass will re- not struck hard enough to exceed the elastic strength of the
adjust
−10
to once again establish a state of equilibrium at the rock (Chapter 7). If we strike the rock hard enough to break it,
−20
new−30
temperature. The readjustment may be−0.202
Rate:
Rate: in the
−0.202 form
±± 0.298
0.298 mm yrof
mm yr –1
-1
permanent deformation in the form of a fracture is produced,
plastic
(c)
deformation,
1998 recrystallization,
2001 2004 2007 chemical
2010 reaction
2013 with
2016 and any excess remaining energy is dissipated as a tiny but
Time (years)
fluids, change in deformation style from brittle to ductile measurable temperature increase around the fracture.

Serbia Romania
Mont.
M Russia

Bulgaria
Mace-
donia Georgia
Albania
Alb
lb
bania
Greece
eece Azerbaijan
Armenia
FIGURE 1–14  Map of the eastern
Az.
Mediterranean and Middle East plot-
ting GPS–derived velocity vectors. Turkey
Note that the tail of the arrow is the
station location, and the length and
orientation of the arrows represent the
rate and direction of motion. The ve- Cyprus
Iran
Syria
locity vectors are plotted relative to a
fixed Eurasia and thus are relative, not Lebanon
absolute, velocity vectors. The small Iraq
size of the arrows along the northern Israel
part of the area indicates that Eurasia Libya
is a coherent block, whereas Africa, Jordan Saudi
Arabia, Turkey, and the Hellenic region GPS velocity vectors Arabia
are moving relative to Eurasia. Note the 20 mm yr −1 0 500
relative western movement of Turkey. Egypt
(Modified from Reilinger et al., 2006.) kilometers
 Introduction | 13
H = 10 m
0m 0m
Ice
ρ = 920 kg m‒3 D = 90 m ρ = 920 kg m‒3 95 m
Water Water
ρ = 1,000 kg m‒3 ρ = 1,000 kg m‒3
110 m 110 m
Z X
Pressure = 1.078 × 106 Pa = 1.078 × 106 Pa Pressure = 1.034 × 106 Pa ≠ 1.078 × 106 Pa
(a) (b)
FIGURE 1–15  (a) Simple model of isostasy with iceberg floating in water; (b) removal of 5 m of the iceberg; and (c) restoration of isostatic
equilibrium.
Consider an iceberg floating in a large body of water.
We’ve all heard the phrase “it’s just the tip of the iceberg,”
because ice is less dense than the water; the iceberg has a
small part that extends above the waterline and a much
deeper part below the waterline (Figure 1–15a). The height
to depth ratio is controlled by the density contrast between
the ice and the water, because ice is 92 percent as dense as
water; 92 percent of the iceberg is below the waterline.
The pressure at the base of the water may be calculated
using the formula:
Pressure = ρgh (1­–1)
where ρ is the density of the material, g the acceleration due
to gravity, and h the height of the water column. For point
X the pressure equals (1,000 kg m−3) (9.8 m s−2) (110 m) or
1,078,000 kg m−1 s−2 or Pascals (Chapter 5). The pressure
at point Z is equal to that at X and as such the system is in
equilibrium, but what happens if 5 m of ice are removed
from the top of the iceberg (Figure 1–15b)? The pressure
at point Z is now less than that at point X (out of equilib-
rium); therefore the water will flow toward the region of
lower pressure, causing the iceberg to rise upward. Equi-
librium is restored when the pressure at points X and Z
are equal (Figure 1–15c): the iceberg is now 92 percent
below the waterline, and for the 5 m of ice removed it has
rebounded upward 4.5 m. What might control the rate at
which the iceberg is restored to equilibrium?
A large-scale attempt to restore equilibrium is still
occurring in northern Europe and North America after
melting of the last Pleistocene ice sheets. When the ice
sheets formed and loaded the continents with additional
mass, the more rigid lithosphere sank to a lower level in
the less rigid asthenosphere to attain a new equilibrium state.
As the ice melted, the lithosphere was again forced out of
equilibrium and accordingly began rebounding to restore
remove 5 m of ice
H = 9.5 m
0m
Ice
Ice ‒3
D = 85.5 m ρ = 920 kg m
Water
ρ=
1,000 kg m‒3
110 m
Z X Z X
Pressure = 1.078 × 106 Pa = 1.078 × 106 Pa
(c)
a new equilibrium state. As you might expect, the greatest
rebound occurs where the ice was thickest. The condition
of balance, involving a state of equilibrium between blocks
that occurs within the continents and between continents
and the adjacent oceans, is called isostatic equilibrium
(Figure 1–16).
We also can learn about parts of the Earth from areas
that are out of isostatic equilibrium. It is possible to esti-
mate the viscosity of the mantle from the rate of isostatic
rebound of the continents where information on the uplift
rate can be obtained. A good example of this is in the de-
termination of uplift rate of raised beaches from 14C age
determinations (Chapter 3) of wood fragments found in
successive beach levels. The viscosity ( μ) of the mantle be-
neath the uplifted beaches may be estimated from
μ = (tr ρgλ) / 4π (1–2)
where tr is relaxation (rebound) time, ρ is density, g is
the acceleration of gravity, and λ is the wavelength of the
displacement of the Earth’s surface (derived in Turcotte
and Schubert, 2014). The behavior of the mantle may be
approximated as that of an ideal viscous material for our
purposes. Consequently, calculations of this kind enable
us to draw conclusions about the behavior of the mantle
in areas that have undergone recent isostatic rebound.
For example, we can calculate the viscosity of the mantle
beneath the central Canadian Shield by determining the
uplift rate of beach terraces along the shore of James Bay in
northeastern Ontario, and by using estimated dimensions
of the Keewatin ice sheet that covered this area during
the Pleistocene. The oldest beaches in that area are now
180 m above sea level and it is assumed (from gravity data)
that 20 m more uplift will occur from additional rebound.
We  can estimate the rate of uplift from the time of re-
treat of the glacier from this region about 8,000 years ago.
 14 |  Introduction

Continental Mountains Ocean

Moreover, sea level has already risen 125 m, and so 125 m
Plateau interior must be added to the amount of uplift. The best estimate
basin
basin
of the width of the Keewatin ice sheet was about 9,000 km,
which is the wavelength of the surface displacement in
2.7 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.8 3.0
equation 1–2. The density of the mantle is assumed to be
3,300 kg m−3. Relaxation time (tr ) must first be calculated
Fluid substratum 3.3 to take into account the decreasing rate of uplift with re-
(a) spect to the amount of uplift that has already occurred and
the amount still to occur calculated from
Continental t
Mountains −
interior Ocean tr
Plateau w = wm e , (1–3)
basin basin

2.7 2.7 where w is uplift still to occur (~20 m), wm is total uplift to
2.7 date (180 m from beach data plus 125 m rise in sea level =
2.7 2.7 2.7 305 m), and t is time since uplift began (8,000 y). Rewriting
equation 1–3 in logarithmic form, then solving for tr,
 t 
Fluid substratum 3.3 ln w = ln wm −   ,
 tr 
(b)
t
tr = (1–3a)
ln wm − ln w .

3.0 2.8 2.7 2.75 2.8 3.0
Substituting
Rigid mantle substratum 3.2
8, 000
tr = = 2, 936 y
Fluid substratum 3.3 ln 305 − ln 20
(c)
Calculating μ from equation 1–2,
Lithosphere
not loaded
μ = {[(2,936 y) (365 d y−1) (24 h d−1) (3,600 s h−1)] ×
3,300 kg m−3 × 9.8 m s−2 × (9 × 106 m)} / 4π =
Lithosphere 2.1 × 1021 kg m−1 s−1 or Pa s. (1–4)
loaded
(The units of viscosity, here, Pa s, are pascal seconds. One
pascal is 1 kg m−1 s−2.) The viscosity of water is approxi-
mately 1 × 10−3 Pa s; thus the Earth’s mantle is a very vis-
Lithosphere
unloaded and cous material, but over time it flows and the consequences
rebounding of this flow are profound. The calculation also demonstrates
that the lithosphere responds to loads placed on it in rela-
tively short periods of geologic time. The buoyancy of differ-
ent crustal elements is fundamental and involves all parts
(d) of the lithosphere and asthenosphere.
The phenomenon of isostasy was first discovered in
FIGURE 1–16  Isostatic equilibrium between crustal blocks surveys on the flanks of the Himalayas, where the great
of different densities and thicknesses, as well as between the
continents and oceans. (a) and (b) are the early models of Pratt
topographic relief led to an error in the calculations that
and Airy based separately on different density (in units of g cm−3) could not be compensated by usual corrections. Early iso-
and different sizes of blocks. We realize today that both density static models based on either volume or density failed to sat-
and size affect the isostatic equilibrium of the blocks (c), and are isfy the need for correction. Later, models incorporating
involved in isostatic compensation. (d) shows the effect of load- both volume and density changes (Figure 1–16), along with
ing and unloading of a mass on the lithosphere. Arrows indicate
directions of compensating flow in the asthenosphere during
flexural bending of the crust, best corrected the errors in
and after loading. the surveys and demonstrated the fundamental nature of
the principle of isostatic adjustment.
The emplacement of large thrust sheets (­Chapter  12)
with areas of hundreds of square kilometers and thicknesses
 Introduction | 15

South H i m a l a y a s T i b e t a n P l a t e a u North
26° N 27° N 28° N 29° N 30° N
South
MFT Tibetan Zangpo
10 MBT MCT detachment suture zone Gangdese batholith 10
MCT
SL Tethyan sediments SL
–10 –10
Metamorphosed
–20 Indian Plate –20
Tethyan
kilometers

kilometers
rocks
–30 T oceanic and –30
Indian crust MHT MC forearc rocks
Asian crust
–40 (Lhasa terrane) –40
–50 –50
–60 Indian mantle –60
Moho
–70 –70
–80 –80

T ib CHINA
eta
30°N
Hi
ma
n Pla
te a u FIGURE 1–17  Cross section from northern India through the Himalayas into the Tibetan Plateau. Note
lay that Indian crust is being subducted beneath the Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau, and Asia, creating the thick-
as
est crust and highest mountains in the world. The great elevation of the High Himalayas is considered
INDIA to be at least partly related to this overthickened crust. MFT—Main frontal thrust. MBT—Main boundary
20°N thrust. MCT—Main central thrust. MHT—Main Himalayan thrust. No vertical exaggeration. (Modified from sev-
eral published cross sections and geophysical data in Nelson et al., 1996, Science, v. 274, and Hauck et al.,
80°E 90°E 1998, Tectonics, v. 17.)

of 5 to 10 km would thicken the lithosphere in the immedi-
ate vicinity of the thrust sheet, and would require profound
adjustments in the asthenosphere beneath to accommodate
the increase in lithospheric thickness. The greatest thick-
ness of crust on Earth (~70 km) is beneath the Himalayas
and Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1–17). The isostatic buoyancy
of Indian crust being subducted beneath Asia has driven the
uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, and the High ­Himalayas are
being gravitationally extruded from beneath the T ­ ibetan
Plateau. Similarly, crustal extension, like that affecting the
Basin and Range Province in the western United States
(Chapter 13), has unloaded and thinned the lithosphere,
thus decreasing the amount of low density material above
the asthenosphere. So, even though the mantle is a very vis-
cous material (Equation  1–4), it flows to balance loading
and unloading of crustal materials.
Geologic Cycles
Most geologic processes are driven by cyclic changes of
energy fluxes, commonly over millions of years. The rock
or geochemical cycle is probably the most familiar of these
geologic cycles (Figure 1–18). Each stage in the cycle, from
crystallization of magma to conversion of sedimentary
or igneous rocks into metamorphic rocks, is in some way
driven by thermal processes and, to a lesser degree, by
changes in pressure. Inputs of heat or mechanical energy at
particular places short-circuit the cycle. Chemical changes
accompany deformation in several stages of the rock cycle.
All stages attempt to restore equilibrium.
The Wilson or supercontinent cycle (defined earlier in
the plate tectonics section) involves plate motion, beginning
with the opening of an ocean basin and producing a trailing
plate margin like the present-day East Coast of the United
States (Figure 1–19). The trailing margin phase is terminated
by formation of a subduction zone along the margin that
begins to subduct oceanic crust, generate heat and pressure,
and form either a volcanic island arc offshore or a conti-
nental magmatic arc on the old continent. The Wilson cycle
ends with continent-continent collision, closing the ocean.
Stages in the cycle reflect response to changing physical
conditions in an attempt to restore a state of equilibrium to
all or part of the plate system. Mountain building is thus a
direct consequence of a partial or completed Wilson cycle.
The folds and faults we observe in modern mountain chains
or the eroded roots of ancient chains formed in response
to energy expenditure in plate collision zones. The excep-
tionally rapid uplift of the Himalayas indicates extreme iso-
static imbalance in the crust because of the great thickness
of continental crust there. Erosion is rapidly reducing the
elevations in this chain to levels that will be closer to equi-
librium, but rapid uplift has thus far outstripped the erosion
rate. All processes operating upon or within the Earth act
to achieve and maintain equilibrium. Energy is constantly
being dissipated to keep the Earth in a dynamic state. Work
is performed to melt rocks within the Earth to restore equi-
librium, and energy is used to drive several cyclic processes.
Structural geology is an exciting field and an important
geologic discipline with both fundamental and real-world
applicability in many other disciplines. In Chapter 2 we
continue our review and turn to a discussion of nontectonic
structures, including a consideration of primary struc-
tures, many of which are useful to the structural geologist
to determine the facing direction (top) of a sequence and
to help distinguish tectonic from nontectonic structures.
 16 |  Introduction

FIGURE 1–18  The rock, or geo- MAGMA T

chemical, cycle—a thermally and
Cooli
mechanically driven equilibrium cycle ng
involving many intermediate states METAMORPHIC ROCKS
and shorter cycles. T—temperature. Gases
P—pressure. PLUTONS &
Water IGNEOUS

Conta
ROCKS

Reg
T, T

ct
io
P

nal
Hydrosphere
Atmosphere
Weathering METAMORPHISM

T P

Biosphere Erosion Burial

Transportation
Deposition

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

SEDIMENTS
Lithification

Suture (from earlier cycle) FIGURE 1–19  The Wilson cycle of the
opening and closing of an ocean basin.
Continent A Continent B The cycle may be complicated by forma-
tion and movement of suspect terranes,
Rifted Continent A
partial closing of small oceans, and lack of
New ocean
continent-continent collision to terminate
Continent A Crust A Continent B the cycle.
Oceanic crust Oceanic crust

Small ocean Mid-ocean ridge

Continent A Fragment Continent B

Volcanic arc Volcanic arc

Continent A Continent B
Subduct Subduct
ion z ion z
on one
e

Accreted volcanic arc block

Continent A Continent B

Continent A Continent B

Continental collision zone

(Wilson cycle complete)

Continent A Continent B
 Introduction | 17
Chapter Highlights
• Structural geology focuses on understanding the
­geometry, kinematics, dynamics, and mechanics of
earth structures.
• Structural geologists study the processes that cause
­deformation and produce the history of geologic struc-
tures and regions.
• Structural geology has societal relevance, because it plays
a key role in discovering mineral resources (hydrocarbon
and ore deposits), understanding earthquakes, and recog-
nizing geologic hazards.
Questions
1. Why was plate tectonics theory not formulated in the
­nineteenth century, like the unifying theories of physics
and biology?
2. Why do earthquake focal depths generally get deeper with
distance inland from the Peru-Chile trench (Figure 1–1b)?
3. Plate tectonics is essentially a kinematic theory. What spe-
cific evidence demonstrates that lithospheric plates move
over time?
4. Use the GPS data from Auckland, New Zealand (Figure 1–13),
to determine the velocity vector (rate in mm yr−1 and direc-
tion in degrees, e.g., 14 mm yr−1 toward 145°).
5. The Wilson cycle predicts that old ocean basins eventually
begin to close by subduction along their margins, causing
passive continental margins to change into active mar-
gins. The Atlantic Ocean is an old ocean, and some have
­proposed that subduction and the closing of the Atlantic
have already begun. Test that hypothesis using modern
GPS time series data:
a. A GPS station on the Island of Bermuda in the Atlantic
Ocean is moving at a rate of 14.3 mm yr−1 toward 303°, and
a station at Greenbelt, Maryland, in eastern North Amer-
ica is moving at a rate of 15.0 mm yr−1 toward 282°. Calcu-
late the movement vector between these two stations.
b. Is the value calculated in (a) a relative movement vector
or absolute movement vector? Explain.
c. Based on this information, is the western Atlantic Ocean
closing? How can the velocity best be explained be-
tween the two stations?
• Structural geologists commonly use field data to anchor
their investigations, but also employ mechanical, exper-
imental, and numerical techniques to answer research
questions and test hypotheses.
• Earth structures form primarily in response to plate tec-
tonic processes, which provide a key framework for geo-
logical science.
• Geologic cycles occur as earth systems work to restore or
maintain equilibrium when mechanical or thermal condi-
tions change.
6. Based on the GPS velocity vectors for the eastern Mediter-
ranean region (Figure 1–14), estimate/locate the position of
plate boundaries and their kinematics (divergent, conver-
gent, or transform).
7. During the Cenozoic Era approximately 2.5 km of mate-
rial was eroded from the central Appalachian Mountains.
How much isostatic uplift should occur due to the re-
moval of 2.5 km of material? Assume a crustal density of
2,700 kg m−3 and a mantle density of 3,300 kg m−3.
8. Derive an equation that relates the depth of the root (D)
on a less dense layer, lying on top of a denser layer, to the
height (H) it extends above the denser layer (analogous
to the iceberg example in Figure 1–15). Use ρu and ρl to
represent the densities of the upper and lower layers,
respectively.
9. Using the mantle viscosity of 2.1 × 1021 Pa in equation 1–4,
calculate the amount of up or down motion of the litho-
sphere (100 km thick, ρ = 2,900 kg m−3) that would result
from loading of the crust (and lithosphere) with a thrust
sheet 300 km long, 100 km wide, and 10 km thick and
having a density of 2,700 kg m−3. Assume the thrust sheet
was emplaced during an instantaneously short period of
geologic time.
10. Why are the elevations of young mountain chains, like the
Alps and Himalayas, so high, but those of older mountains,
like the Appalachians, British Caledonides, and Urals rela-
tively low?
 18 |  Introduction

Further Reading
Adams, F. D., 1954, Birth and development of the geological Hoffman, P., 2013, The tooth of time: The North American
sciences: New York, Dover Publications, 506 p. ­Cordillera from Tanya Atwater to Karin Sigloch: Geoscience
Provides an interesting summary of the evolution of geolog- Canada, v. 40, p. 71-93.
ical science from classical times through the beginnings of Provides insight into the development of plate tectonics
modern geology with Hutton, Lyell, Darwin, and others in the ­principles based on connecting the seafloor with land geology.
nineteenth century. Howell, D. G., 1985, Terranes: Scientific American, v. 253, no. 5,
Burchfiel, B. C., 2004, New technology, new geological chal- p. 116–125.
lenges: GSA Today, v. 14, no. 2, p. 4–9. Summarizes the distribution of microplates, or terranes, in and
around the Pacific basin, presenting the background of plate
Cloud, P. E., 1970, Adventures in Earth history: San Francisco,
tectonics and accretion concepts.
W. H. Freeman and Company, 992 p.
Kearey, P., Klepeis, K. A., and Vine, F. R., 2009, Global tectonics,
A compendium of classic papers on the foundations of ideas
3rd edition: Chichester, United Kingdom, Wiley–Blackwell,
on the origin of the Earth, the atmosphere and life, the geologic
482 p.
record, and geologic processes.
Prothero, D. R., and Dott, R. H., Jr., 2010, Evolution of the Earth,
Cox, A., and Hart, R. B., 1986, Plate tectonics: How it works:
8th edition: New York, McGraw-Hill, 576 p.
Oxford, United Kingdom, Blackwell Scientific Publica-
Provides a comprehensive overview of Earth history, with
tions, 392 p.
­additional background material.
Glen, W., 1982, The road to Jaramillo: Critical years of the revolu-
Reilinger, R., et al., 2006, GPS constraints on ­continental
tion in Earth science: Stanford, California, Stanford University
­deformation in the Africa-Arabia-Eurasia continental
Press, 459 p.
­collision zone and implications for the dynamics of plate
Outlines the history of the development of plate-tectonics
interactions: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 111, B05411,
theory, emphasizing use of paleomagnetic measurements.
doi:10.1029/2005JB004051.
Hamilton, W. B., 1979, Tectonics of the Indonesian region: U.S.
Stanley, S. M. and Luczaj, J. A., 2014, Earth system history, 4th
Geological Survey Professional Paper 1078, 345 p.
edition: New York, Freeman, 608 p.
A synthesis of the geology of the Indonesian region, contain-
Wilson, J. T., 1966, Did the Atlantic close and then reopen?:
ing numerous maps showing the elements of a dispersed
Nature, v. 211, p. 676–681.
group of terranes ranging from Precambrian basement to
This short paper sets the stage for the concept of the Wilson cycle.
recent v­ olcanic-arc materials in the initial stages of being
swept back into the Asian continent as Australia moves
northward.