ENG 301T

Engineering Geology III COURSE OUTLINE

• Theoretical background
- Overview
- Definitions
Lecture #7 - Weathering of Dolomite
• Distribution of Dolomite in South Africa
Sinkholes and Dolines in • Hazard and Risk Characterisation of
Dolomitic Land Dolomitic Land
- Sinkhole and Doline formation Mechanism
- Sinkhole and Doline Investigation
Dr. S. Diop - Scale and Inherent Risk for sinkhole and Doline
Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria • Engineering Solutions
October 8, 2010 • Summary
1

Theoretical Background
Sinkholes and dolines in karst terrains are
caused by natural or man-made cavities.
They occur worldwide, with notable
concentrations in South Africa, the eastern
USA, Southeast Asia, and Canada.
In South Africa …
To date 38 people have died in sinkholes
that have occurred under sports clubs,
factories and homes.
Financial losses have exceeded R1,0 billion.

The very sudden nature of this phenomenon In excess of 1000 sinkholes have occurred
can be damaging to buildings and endangers on the West Rand, 800 south of Pretoria,
the life of local inhabitants. Centurion and Atteridgeville and
approximately 150 on the East Rand.

Definitions CARBONATE ROCKS, DOLOMITE AND LIMESTONE

DOLOMITIC LAND - The term 'dolomitic land' is used
to describe areas in South Africa underlain directly or at
shallow depth (i.e. <100m) by the rock type dolomite.
DOLOMITE:
•The mineral - Dolomite is a single mineral consisting of the
chemical combination of calcium and magnesium carbonate. The
mineral is typically represented by the chemical composition of
CaMg(C03)2 where calcium and magnesium are present in equal
portions.
Ancient carbonate rocks are predominantly composed of
two minerals; calcite (CaCO3) or dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2).
When a carbonate rock is dominated by calcite (>95% with
<5% dolomite), it is called limestone, when it is dominated by
dolomite (the mineral) it is called dolomite (the rock)
(Warren, 2000)
•KARST - complex collection of landforms associated with
subsurface features caused by the solution of soluble rocks
(limestone, dolomite)

•The rock - In South Africa the word “Dolomite”, where it

denotes the rock type, has substituted the word “Dolomitic
Limestone”
Distribution of Dolomite in South Africa
1. Malmani Subgroup The dolomites were deposited in
2. Campbell Rand Subgroup Early Proterozoic times, about 2 200
million years ago, in a shallow,
3. Mzlmkulu Group tropical, inland sea. Spatially, the
4. Gariep Supergroup dolomitic land in South Africa is
represented by two major
5. Gamtoos Group occurrences, namely the Chuniespoort
6. Gumbu Group Group of the Transvaal Sequence and
the Campbell Group of the
7. Cango Group
Griqualand West Sequence.
8. Malmesbury Group Represents 98% of all soluble rocks in
9. Name Group South Africa and covers about 3% of
the total area of the country (Van
10. Vanrhynsdorp Group Schalkwyk, 1981).
11. Mzamba Formation
12. Algoa Group Carbonate rocks in the Malmani Subgroup
are essentially dolomitic limestones with
13. Sandveld Group few limestone bands, whereas the
14. Bredasdorp Group Campbell Rand Subgroup consists of
15. Maputaland Group dolomite and limestone
Significant portions (—25%) of
densely populated areas in
Gauteng Province, some parts of
the North West Province, and
most of the gold-mining districts
in the Far West Rand are
underlain by ancient carbonate
rock.
Many other areas in South Africa are
also underlain by carbonate rocks (as
well as marble) which are relatively
younger Although dolomite (carbonate)
related instability may take place in any
karstic terrain, most instability features
have been noted in the Malmani
Subgroup and the Campbell Rand
Subgroup. However, the risk of sinkhole
and doline formation in the other groups
cannot be excluded

WEATHERING OF DOLOMITE WEATHERING OF DOLOMITE (2)

• Dolomite, when exposed to weakly acidic
• This process may be represented as:
groundwater, dissolves -can be removed in the
form of Ca & Mg bicarbonates CaMg (CO3)2 +2 H2C03 Ca(H CO3)2 + Mg(HCO3)2
• Solubility of Dolomite is high in comparison to
other rocks • The resultant bicarbonate-rich water emerges at
• Weathering takes place preferentially along springs and is carried away
joints, faults & fractures • Process of dissolution has resulted in a vertically
• The differential weathering pattern gives rise to zoned succession of residual products, which in turn
a karst topography and cave systems are generally overlain by geologically younger
• Rain water takes up CO2 in the atmosphere & soil formations or soils
to form a weak carbonic acid (H2C03) • Insoluble residual products:
• Weakly-acidic groundwater circulating along - Chert (Si02)
tension fractures, faults & joints causes leaching - Ferroan soil
of the carbonate minerals -Wad (weathering product of MgCO3)

WEATHERING OF DOLOMITE (3)

Given sufficient time & correct triggering mechanisms,
instability may occur - natural or anthropogenic
• Primary triggering mechanisms: ingress of H20; poorly
managed surface water drainage and groundwater level
drawdown
- Instability - sinkholes and dolines
Weathering surfaces due to dissolution of the
carbonate minerals
• Factors influencing risk of subsidence:
- Topography & drainage
- Natural thickness & origin of soils
- Nature & topography of underlying strata
- Depth & expected fluctuations of groundwater level
- Presence of structural features

Dolomite pinnacles
Enlargement of vertical joints by dissolution of the
The residual soil remaining after dissolution of the carbonate minerals
dolomite when rainwater percolates down. contain Fe and Mn and has a very low density.

Hazard and Risk Characterisation SINKHOLE

of Dolomitic Land • A feature that occurs suddenly and manifests
Itself as a hole In the ground.
• It results from the hollowing out of a space below
the earth surface which eventually breaks through
and 'daylights' at the surface.
• Sinkholes are usually cylindrical to conical in shape
and can be 1 m to 100 m in diameter and 1 m to 150
m deep.
• Sinkholes are catastrophic and can cause property
damage or loss of life if they are sufficiently large.
• Are usually precipitated by human activity such as:
* dewatering, due to mining activity,
* water extraction from aquifers,
* leakage of wet services.

DOLINE

• An enclosed depression forms as a result of

compression at depth of low density dolomite
residuum.
• Dolines are less sharply defined than sinkholes,
and occur slowly but not catastrophically.
• These features may be large ranging from tens of
metres to kilometres in diameter or length.
• Typical visual observations at small dolines are
shallow earth depressions and surface cracks in a
circular or semi circular pattern.
 HOW DO WE INVESTIGATE
SINKHOLE RISK?
(after Wagener, 1985)
1. Gravity Survey

2. Percussion Boreholes

3. Risk Zonation

Typical soil profile showing levels of original and present water tables

SINKHOLE RISK ZONATION

HIGH RISK LOW RISK
• Use gravity and borehole
Gravity survey data to zone area as low,
medium or high risk

LOW 1 event in 200 years per ha

1 event in 200 years per ha

MEDIUM but less than or equal to 10
events in 200 years per ha
HIGH 10 events in 200 years per
ha, or more than 5 in 100
years

Sinkhole occurrence Sinkholes on the Far West Rand formed due to

groundwater lowering by the gold mines.

Venterspost tennis club Along N12

(d)
Voortrekkerhoogte, Pretoria Laudium, Pretoria
 Methods for Dolomite Land Factors for characterizing Hazard
Hazard and Risk Assessment and Inherent Risk
Hazard refers to the feature that manifests and is
Terminology used for dolomite land Hazard
determined by the characteristics of the dolomite profile.
Scale of hazard: small, medium, large, very large. & Risk assessment:
• Blanketing layer
Inherent Risk of a site refers to the chance of occurrence
of a sinkhole of certain size within the scenario of land-use • Receptacles
& dewatering or non- dewatering • Mobilization and mobilizing
Depends on: agencies
- mobilising potential of blanketing layer
-nature of mobilising agents • Maximum potential
development space
Development risk refers to the likelihood and extent of loss
of life, loss or damage to property, or financial loss and is
rated in two categories, namely acceptable or unacceptable.

Terminology Evaluation factors

Sinkhole
● Mobilisation agencies
● Receptacle development
● Potential development space
● Nature of blanketing layer
● Mobilisation potential of blanketing layer
Doline
● Mobilising agency
● Nature of blanketing layer(s)
● Mobilisation potential
(Buttrtck & van Schalkwyk, 1998) ● Lateral extent

Method to determine the risk: Step 5:

• Pooling of individual borehole characterisations
Step 1: • Amending preliminary zoning
• Field reconnaissance and desk study of site • Use subsurface conditions in conjunction with
Step 2: geophysics, karst and bedrock morphology and
• Preliminary zoning (api & geophysics) geohydrology to determine boundaries of areas
Step 3: with similar geotechnical charateristics.
• Preliminary boreholes to characterize preliminary • Develop a composite Inherent Risk
zoning characterisation
Step 4:
• Characterization process Step 6:
• Review individual borehole profiles within context • Finalised risk zonation characterised ito a certain
of the selected scenarios. risk of certain sized features forming
Step 7: Scale of sinkhole (hazard) sizes
• Selection of appropriate development design and
precautionary measures.
Terminology Diameter
Step 8: (m)
• Implementation of appropriate development Small <2
design and precautionary measures
Medium 2-5
Step 9: Large 5 - 15
• Ongoing risk management (vigilance and
management) Very large >15

Inherent Risk for sinkhole
Low:
• No voids;
• No air loss during drilling;
• Very shallow water table;
• Substantial thickness of material with a
low; susceptibility to mobilisation;
• Depth to potential receptacle is great.
Medium:
• Absence of substantial protective horizon
• Blanketing layer of materials potentially
susceptible to mobilisation
• Water table below the blanketing layer
High:
• Blanketing layer with great susceptibility to
mobilisation;
• Void may be present;
• Boreholes register cavities, air loss, sample loss;
• Evidence of cavernous subsurface conditions;
• Water table below blanketing layer.

Dolomitic Area Designations (NHBRC, 1999)

Class Description Foundations
D1 No precautionary Joint Structural Div.
Inherent Risk characterisation measures Code
Ground movement events per ha D2 General precautionary Joint Structural Div.
measures Code
in a 20 y period after an initial
20y period
Additional measures to Concrete rafts
Low 0 – 0,1 preventing ingress of
D3 Engineered fill
water mattresses
Medium 0,1 – 1,0
Shallow reinforced
High > 1,0 strip footings
D4 Measures required are -
impracticable
 NHBRC requirements for sites underlain by
dolomite
Risk <2m <5 <15m >15 Geological Development
Class m m conditions Types • Housing Consumer Protection Act (Act 95 of 1998)
1 L L L L V. good No restrictions provides for warranty protection against defects in new
2 M L L L Good 60u/ha homes and the establishment of technical standards in,
3 L M L L Good-
Good- 18-
18-25u/ha and the regulation of the home building industry
moderate • Act requires that all contractor-built houses be built
4 L M M L Moderate 25 u/ha by home builders registered with the NHBRC
5 H M L L Poor 10u/ha • Act provides for a fine of up to R25 000 or
6 H H M L Poor No residential, imprisonment of up to 1 year in respect of every
commercial only director, trustee, managing member or officer of a home
7 H H H M V. poor Selected commercial builder who knowingly contravenes the Act
8 H H H H Extremely None • NHBRC manual (1999) requires that home builders
poor
appoint competent persons to establish sinkhole or doline
formation
• Designations in accordance with Table 7

ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS 3. in-situ compaction

• Highly variable material is improved to
Geotechnical solutions improve materials in form a mattress of known strength &
the development area by: suitable thickness below the
structure
1. the removal of unsuitable material and
replacement with compacted granular fill; • Soil mattress reduces differential
settlement & improves impermeability
2. the removal of material and return of the of material — reduces risk of
same with controlled compaction layers sinkhole & doline formation

• Mattress forms competent roof over

small- and medium- sized cavities

Piles

Concrete beams
resting on
pinacles/solid rock
 Mattress for Mattress for bedrock down to 10m
shallow
bedrock

Houses on mattresses in Rooihuiskraal Summary

Dolomitic Land represents 98% of all soluble rocks in
South Africa and covers about 25% of Gauteng and 3% of
the total area of the country.

Soils covering the rock can collapse into caves or voids

resulting in catastrophic ground movement on the surface
such as sinkholes or dolines.
Sinkholes and dolines are mostly caused by water
seepage or a lowering of the ground water table.

The safe development of a site involves careful

geotechnical assessment of the delineated
area, appropriate planning and appropriate design of
structures and services.