MINING

1. Describe the distribution of major rock types in Botswana.

The distribution of the major rock types in Botswana

The rocks in Botswana comprise mainly of:
(a) Igneous rocks
Examples: Basalt, Granite
They are formed when molten rock/magma cools and solidifies. The layer of igneous rock found in the southern part of the country extending from
Lobatse to the North Western Province of South Africa is expected to contain some deposits of chromium and vanadium but again test exploration for the
mineral traces are so far inconclusive.

(b) Metamorphic rocks

Examples: Schist from Shale, slate from Clay, graphite from coal, Gneiss from granite, Marble from Limestone, Quartzite from Sandstone
Formed from rocks whose structure and appearance has been changed by great heat and pressure.

(c) Sedimentary rocks

Examples: Sandstones, clay, mudstone, Shale, Conglomerates, Quartzite, Dolomite and Limestone/chalk, peat, lignite
It comprises mainly of loose sand, several meters deep of salt deposits and swamp deposits known as the Kalahari beds or Kgalagadi sands. The extensive
depth of the Kgalagadi sands has obscured other systems of rock which have greater mineral bearing potential

The rocks in Botswana can also be grouped into systems (broad categories/groupings/rock in an area). They usually are named after the geographic area in
which they occur. The following systems have been identified in Botswana.
a) Damarac System/Ghanzi belt
 The Damarac, Waterberg, and Transvaal systems are very old sedimentary rocks which have been changed to metamorphic rocks.
 Was formed about 700 to 2200 million years ago.
 This is found in the north western part of the country (from Mamuno, Ghanzi and Maun to Mohembo)

b) Karoo system
 It is the largest rock type in Botswana and covers over 70% of the country (found between the damarac belt to the north west and the Proterozoic
rocks along the south-eastern borders)
 It is a succession of sedimentary and volcanic rocks beneath the Kalahari sands
 They are deposits of sandstone, clays and coal.
 This system is estimated to have been laid about 200 – 300 million years ago.

c) Limpopo complex
 Covers the area form Selebi-Phikwe, Palapye through Mmamabula
 Lies between the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe craton stretching from north to east

1
  It consists of a variety of metamorphic rocks, mainly granites and gneisses
 There are numerous mineral occurrences, including copper nickel & coal

d) The Kaapvaal Craton

 Lies along the south eastern border of the country from Sherwood, Machaneng through to Pitsane
 Consists of metamorphic basement covered by little deformed Archanean volcanic sequences
 It comprises the same type of metamorphic and igneous rocks that contain gold and uranium in South Africa

e) The Proterozoic rocks

 Found around the Jwaneng, Molopo-Tsabong area
 Several large volcanic intrusions in the area are similar to the bushveld complex in South Africa
 It has wide spread kimberlite intrusions associated with diamonds

f) The Zimbabwean Craton

 They are found on the eastern side of the country from Tutume to Selibe-Phikwe
 This forms the green stone belt and minerals that have been discovered include gold, copper and nickel
 Consists of heavily metamorphosed volcanic intrusions of Granite and Basalt which form the Basement rock
 They are the oldest of these rocks
 have been formed by volcanic activity about 3000 million years ago

The distribution of the major rock types in Botswana/The geology of Botswana

2
2. Locate on a map of Botswana the distribution of major minerals.
3. Match rock type with mineral occurrence in Botswana.

Matching rock types with minerals known to occur in them

 The eastern side of the country where Basement rocks are found has so far been the most economical in terms of the number of mineral discoveries found
in the area.
 Minerals like gold, copper, Nickel and Diamonds are found on basement rocks that either have igneous or metamorphic origins.
 Coal is found in the sedimentary rocks
 Copper mined in Selebi-Phikwe occurs in basaltic rocks/Zimbabwe craton/igneous/metamorphic/basement rocks
 The protorezoic which may have iron, chromium and vanadium is yet to be explored

3
 Igneous rocks have minerals such as Gold, Copper, Nickel, Chromium, Silver, Iron, and Diamonds
 Sedimentary rocks have minerals Coal, Soda ash
 Metamorphic rocks have minerals Agate, Amethysts, and Traces of Gold

4. Describe and explain the factors influencing the exploitation of minerals such as geology, ore content, quality, quantity, market, and technology and
government policy.
a) The depth of the mineral
 It is important to determine whether the mineral ore is deep underground (more expansive) or near the surface (relatively cheap) or under water
(dangerous to extract).
 This helps determine the method of mining to be used
 Sometimes a profitable mine will stop producing or may fail to start functioning if the mineral ores are too deep. It is for the great depth at which the
mineral appears in Selibe-Phikwe mine that we expect the mine to close down soon.
b) Geological occurrence

4
  Depending on the type of rock and the state of the rock it may require special consideration as to how to mine the ore since some areas of the world
are subject to tectonic activity such as earthquakes. Therefore if the rocks are fractured, unsuitable or weak there is a risk of killing people (miners)
when the earth collapses and even losing equipment, as happened in the Witwatersrand area of South Africa.
Example
Study Figure below and look at the geological section shown. It may be difficult or easy to mine the geological sections.

Geological section
Section A: would be easiest to mine because the ore is close to the surface and above the water line. It is not faulted or folded. It occurs at about 50m or close
to the surface, so open cast mining can be used.

Section B: might be difficult since it is folded and faulted and one section of the ore appears below the waterline. Since it is faulted or folded this may cause
rock fall.

Section C: both sections of the ore appear below the waterlines. It will need pumping out the water and provision of ventilation which may be costly.
This shows that the geology of the area can determine whether it should be mined or not.
c) Concentration of mineral or ore content
 Affects the decision whether to mine or not
 A poor grade ore has no chance to give investors rewards
 The higher the mineral concentration the higher the output per tonne processed
The other problem mostly experienced by the Selibe-Phikwe mine is the quality of the product that has less than 2% of the mineral content. What this
means is that a lot of work is done to produce a lot of waste and very little mineral recovery at great expense.

d) Quantity of the ore

5
  This determines whether or not the profits can be made by investing in mining process
 That is, it is the consideration how long the diamonds would last. In our case these diamonds may last for many years to come. This would then make
it less costly to set up the mining infrastructure since over the years of mining such costs would be effectively recovered with a profit.
 However, the same cannot be said of other mineral deposits found in Botswana, such as the gold deposits in Francistown, Ngami and Ghanzi districts.
The reasons are that the deposits are small.

e) Quality of the ore

 This determines the demand, price and size of the potential market for the mineral
 So due to the fact that our mines produce a lot of Gemstone diamonds which are used to make expensive jewelry, we can assume that the quality of
the diamonds was an important factor in deciding to extract them since they fetch a lot of money when they are sold.

N.B The quality and quantity of the mineral ore is critical. It can even determine the future of a mining town.

f) Markets
 There must be a viable, long-lasting and expanding market for the mineral
 Low demand and market prices will result in losses
 You see that without a consumer for our product they would be useless to us. This is quite important link since the worth of a product is determined
by its demand. So market and market forces can sustain the value of a commodity or cripple it forever. It is important therefore, that we must decide
whether there is an outlet for our products and how profitable they are before we rush to spend much money extracting them.
 In Botswana the greatest bulk of our marketable commodities are diamonds. Marketing of diamonds is done by a centralised organisation managed by
Debeers called the Central Selling Organisation (CSO). The CSO has controlling interests in many countries of the world and has helped in regulating
the sale and price of diamonds on the world market for many countries. Without such organised structures for marketing our diamonds, we would
probably accumulate them and still find it very difficult to sell them for a profit. A country that we may like to give as an example of the changes that
occur when minerals lose value is Zambia. It once had a thriving and vibrant mineral based economy during the years 1920 to1980s. Unfortunately
now, their mineral is no longer in high demand and the economy has deteriorated over the years. The same could happen to Botswana in future if we
do not diversify our economy in the next few years.

g) Government policy
 Governments determine which mineral to be exploited, when and by whom as well as the marketing strategy to be used
 In Botswana you do not just start extracting minerals or looking for them. You must follow certain organised structures. These would force the miner
or explorer to seek out a concession from the government. Once they have a concession they are then awarded a lease that allows them to start
working on the designated concession area. When mineral discoveries are made, the company enters into agreements with government. This is
because in Botswana nobody owns land; they only hold it on behalf of government. People have surface rights only whilst below the ground all land
belongs to government. It is therefore important that when a mine starts to operate the displaced people who had surface rights on the mine area
should benefit from their loss. And so some money called royalties can be paid to these people as compensation to their district administration
department, particularly the Land Board. Depending on the value of the mineral and or its strategic importance to the economy of a country, including
the perceived cost that it would bring to the political stability of the country, a discovery may be mined or left as it is.

6
Different ways of extracting minerals/mining methods
Selection of a mining method depend on the following; the nature of the mineral, the depth of the mineral and cost attached

Method of mining Mineral occurrence Explanation Advantages Disadvantages

open pit/open to extract those In some instances the mineral may occur below  Cheaper  Leaves behind large holes
cast occurring close to the surface but at levels not exceeding 50 – 80m.  No incidences of pit which are difficult to
the surface Open pit mining involves having to remove the collapsing rehabilitate
overburden soil and vegetation from where the  It is difficult and expensive
mineral occurs/where the ore is dug out of the to remove the overburden
ground from a large hole. Once the mineral ore rocks
has been reached, it is drilled and blasted into  It is susceptible to weather
fragments using explosives such as dynamites.  Leads to loss of habitat
The fragmented rock is loaded into heavy-duty during clearing
trucks and onto conveyor belt to the crushing  Leads to soil erosion
section and to the refinery.  It causes destruction to
landscape leading to terrible
visual impact
 Disused mine pits are
dangerous to animals
 Rock blasting cause noise
pollution
 Dust causes air pollution
 Mine waste pollute water
sources
shaft mining to extract those  Vertical shaft/tunnel is dug up into the ground  Rock fall
occurring deep and very deep down  Fires/gas explosion/toxic gases
underground  When the mineral ore is reached horizontal  Floods/flooding
tunnels are cut to ore body/galleries.  High temperatures
 Drilling- Many horizontal tunnels can be  Subsidence/mine collapse
 Poor ventilation/lack of
drilled along the vertical shaft
oxygen/rarefied air
 Blasting/use of explosives
 Very dark/lack of light
 Mechanized
 Cage accidents
NB: The tunnels may occur at different levels
along the main shaft and they are usually called
stations. The first tunnel from the top of the shaft
may be called Station 1. The stations will increase
numerically as you go down the shaft.

7
Adit/Drift/Box To extract mineral The mineral deposits are reached by digging  It is convenient and  Large amount of capital
cut deposits in tunnels known as adits from the valleys into the less dangerous required
layers/seams/strat hillsides. Railways and the conveyer belts are  Risk of landslides
a required to bring out the ore
Panning to extract minerals The technique involves using a pan to scoop out  Low productivity/It is an
that are found in mud from the river then sifting it out carefully insignificant form that
river alluvium until only a small residue remains at the bottom cannot be used on
of the pan. The residue is collected and later commercial scale
analysed or checked for mineral deposits. It can
be used for minerals such as diamonds, gold, or
tin.
Off shore drilling Minerals which Minerals that occur in liquid form are drilled and
appear as liquids pumped out from below the ground. Uses huge
(petroleum and oil derricks (oil platforms/metal structures used
natural gas) to support the drill bit and later the pumping
station gear).

Mining in Botswana
Mining is a very important industry in Botswana. The country is rich in minerals such as diamonds, copper, nickel and coal.

Mineral Places where it is Geological occurrence Factors which made Method of Processing of the mineral Uses of the
mined mining possible mining mineral
used
Diamond Orapa, Letlhakane,  Diamond occur in  Large amounts of Open  Removal of the material covering  Industrial
Jwaneng & volcanic diamond/quantity pit/open the kimberlite rock diamond used
Damtshaa areas/volcanic  Diamonds are near cast  Holes made into the kimberlite for
rocks/pipe/vent of old the surface of the rock by drilling manufacturin
volcanoes earth  Explosives are inserted into the g cutting tools
 Found in pipes  Good quality holes to blast the rocks into pieces and drills
containing kimberlite diamonds  The blasted rocks go through the  Gemstones
rocks (gemstones) following stages: are used to
Kimberlite/igneous  Good market in the i. Crushing: rock is crushed into make jewelry
rock USA small pieces (less than 2.5 and other
 Volcanic eruption  Power from cm in diameter) decorations
 Crystalized carbon Morupule Power ii. Concentration: waste rock is
Station separated from diamonds by
 Skilled local mixing the ore with water
labour/plenty of and chemicals
labour from the iii. Separation: the concentrate

8
 surrounding areas will go through an X-ray
(Orapa-Letllhakane, separator to remove the
Mopipi; Jwaneng- impurities from the
Sekoma) diamonds
 De Beers Mining iv. Sorting and grading: done by
Company provides the Botswana Diamond
large capital Valuing Company (BDVC) at
 Government Orapa House in Gaborone
policy/government v. Checking: diamonds are
aid checked by the chief
 Water supply- Orapa evaluator and staff before
from Mopipi dam, marketing
Jwaneng water from vi. Marketing: diamonds are
Magagaripa well transported to London by air
fields/boreholes then marketed by Central
Selling Organisation (CSO) to
diamond dealers in Europe
and other countries

Copper Selibe-Phikwe  Appear in the rocks of  the ore is of high Initially  Removal of the material covering  Makes
nickel the Karoo/basement quality though in open cast the basement rock electric
rocks which are old small size but as  Holes made into the basement wires/cables
igneous rocks  though the copper accessible rock by drilling  Make water
 It is chemically nickel mined deposits  Explosives are inserted into the pipes
combined with other exploited is of low were holes to blast the rocks into pieces  Used to make
metals like cobalt, grade it is exploited exhausted  The blasted rocks go through the coins, pots,
nickel and sometimes because the three it was following stages: pans,
gold metals (copper, nickel changed to i. Crushing: rock is crushed into jewelry/expor
 It contains about 1- & cobalt) occur Shaft small pieces of 80mm t earrings
3% copper (low together mining ii. Grinding: the ore is reduced  Mixed with
grade)  availability of to powder other metals
 Horizontal seams transport –railway iii. Concentration/Floatation: to make
 shallow line & tarred road the ore is mixed with lime, quality alloy,
from Serule to Selebi- water and other chemicals. brass and
Phikwe The valuable material will bronze
 availability of water float to the surface
from Shashe Dam iv. Smelting: after drying it is
 power from heated in the blast furnace.
Morupule power The dry concentrate is mixed
station with dust, coal & silica sand
 coal from Morupule and hot oxygen. Mixture is
Colliery mine heated at very high

9
  availability of labour temperature. The substance
from Selebi-Phikwe produced is called MATTE.
and the surrounding The matte is then passed to
areas the concentrator where the
impurities are further
removed
v. Marketing: it is marketed in
Germany and Norway
Coal Morupule  Coal is formed from  Shallow coal Box cut  The seam is cut mechanically with  Generate
the remains of dead seams/seam close to thick pillars being left in place to thermal
plants and animals the surface-making it support the roof power
which later compact cheaper to mine/It is  The seam is transported by  Source of fuel
to form layers of cost effective since it conveyor belt to the surface in homes
sedimentary rocks is found as a layer where it is washed and graded  Used foe
 Found in a belt or  It is in large boilers in
seam quantities/vast schools and
reserves hospitals
 Availability of market  Used to
including BPC, BCL, manufacture
Breweries etc. plastic, tar,
 Morupule is drugs etc.
connected to other  Used in the
places with network smelter in
of roads and railway Selebi-Phikwe
line for easy mine, Botash
transportation Soda Ash
 Availability of water plant
from the boreholes in
Paje
 Availability of
electricity from
Morupule
 It is Bituminous-
which is relatively
environmentally
friendly as this type
of coal leaves little
ash behind after
being burned

10
5. Analyse data presented in the form of charts and graphs to determine the relative importance of the mining sector to the economy of Botswana and
any other country in Africa.

The importance of the mining sector to the economy

Mining is a very valuable industry to Zambia and Botswana where other forms of national development are still at their infancy stages. Therefore the benefits
of mining include:
 employment creation/source of employment/income/provides salaried wages/job creation-to improve/better the standards of living
 development of/Batswana acquire skills and training-resulting in more trained personnel
 Tax-Mining provides the government with revenue that is important in the development of the country (Botswana gets about 50% of its revenue from
mining). The table below shows the contribution of minerals to the Botswana government’s revenue between the years 1999/2000 and 2002/2003

Year Mineral Revenue (million Pula) Total Government Revenue (million Pula)
1999/2000 6 687.27 11 963.09
2000/2001 8 367.80 14 115.05
2001/2002 6 878.96 12 639.09
2002/2003 8 491.95 15 411.35
Source: (Botswana) National Development Plan 9
 development of/improved infrastructure such as roads-which improves service delivery
 increased exports- which brings/ is a source of foreign exchange
 It provides raw materials-to set up/attract other industries that in turn produce goods for the local market/attracts other industries
 The industry can give the countries name recognition making it desirable to other countries/source of international relations/prestige

Production and Total estimated Value of Minerals Mined in Botswana (1970- 1995)

11
Over the years our production of diamonds is steadily increasing. This is due to the fact that other than mining we have few economic activities that can
generate a lot of money. Mining and diamond mining accounts for 74% of the total export revenues, though it employs only about 3.5% of the workforce in
Botswana. The largest user of the workforce is agriculture with roughly 75%.-the total export revenue from this sector makes up a mere 4% or below of the
total export revenue.

6. Evaluate the impact of mining on the environment using a case study of Selebi-Phikwe in Botswana and the Copper Belt of Zambia.

The Impact of Copper-Nickel Mining on the Environment- Selebi-Phikwe (A Case Study)

Copper-Nickel is mined in Selebi-Phikwe and the method of mining is the shaft. In Selebi-Phikwe the landscape began to change as soon as prospecting for the
minerals started. Prospecting trenches were dug, footpaths and roads constructed and later trees were cut on a large scale to give way to the shaft mine and
buildings as well as other mining structures. We can describe the impact of mining in Selebi-Phikwe on the environment in the following manner.

Negative impact
The negative impact involves the following:
 Holes/excavation pits
 Mine dumps/waste heaps/artificial hills/soil heaps
 Slime dams
 Pollution
 Deforestation/loss of vegetation/loss of fauna/loss of habitat/animal migration
 Subsidence
 Pit heads/winding gear

Positive impact
 establishment and development of mining towns/settlements e.g. Selebi-Phikwe
 Development of the infrastructure such as network of roads, and railways other infrastructure includes power transmission lines and water storage
towers.

The Impact of Copper-Nickel Mining on the Environment- Zambia (A Case Study)

 Holes/excavation pits
 Mine dumps/waste heaps/artificial hills/soil heaps
 Slime dams
 Pollution
 Deforestation/loss of vegetation/loss of fauna/loss of habitat/animal migration
 Subsidence
 Pit heads/winding gear
 establishment and development of mining towns/settlements

12
 Development of the infrastructure such as network of roads, and railways other infrastructure includes power transmission lines and water storage
towers.

Solution to the environmental problems brought about by mining/ways in which mined area could be reclaimed
 Land can be re-used for various purposes for example establishment of national parks/conservation areas/tourism attraction, water holes/water
catchment areas/collect water for various purposes, dumping sites/landfills, educational site, farming
 Reforestation/plant vegetation (trees/grass)
 Leveling of mine dumps/flatten mine dumps
 Backfill/fill the open pit/cover the pit
 Cover slime dams/tailings dam with waste rock

7. Identify and discuss the problems of a mineral led economy with reference to Botswana and Zambia.

The problems of a mineral-led economy- Zambia (Case study)

 Depletion of the mineral/non renewable
 Ghost towns
 Loss of jobs/retrenchment
 Fluctuation of prices/sustainability of the economy not guaranteed/economy dependent on the market
 Decline in living standards
 Skilled labour was lost as trained people emigrated
 Recession
 Slow development
 Investors may pull out

Factors leading to the closing down of mines

 Low prices/fall in prices/price fluctuation
 Decline in demand/lack of market
 Alternative products
 Political instability
 Government policy
 Depletion of minerals since they are non-renewable
 Geological occurrence-underlying a water table/unstable rock
 Minerals becoming too deep
 Bankruptcy

13
The problems which are hence likely to occur when a mine closes down are:
 Lack of income/loss of jobs/workers will be retrenched/ unemployment
 Slow development
 Lack of government revenue/decline in GNP/sustainability of the economy not guaranteed because the economy is dependent on the market, In such
situations the country cannot plan very far ahead since it would not be sure of what revenue to expect from the minerals
 Closure of some businesses/investors may pull out
 Development of ghost towns/depopulation
 Rise in inflation/recession
 Loss of skilled labour as trained people emigrated/out migration of skilled personnel
 Limited foreign exchange
 decline in the standard of living which may lead to increase in crime rate

8. Discuss strategic importance of minerals such as oil, coal, iron, diamonds and uranium.

Strategic importance of oil

Having large oil reserves gives the country influence/leverage on international affairs. Because oil drives the economy of all nations therefore countries
with oil have an enormous importance in international relations. Every country wants to be their friend/supporter. If attacked by a third country they
would be rescued by the allies/friends. The more powerful allies would want to determine the kind of government that holds political power in oil
producing countries. They do so under the pretext of protecting the so called vital national interests. Uses of crude oil include: motor fuel, source of
power, domestic fuel, lubricant, road surfacing/water proofing/roofing, production of plastic, detergents, drugs, insecticides etc.

Strategic importance of Uranium

Uranium is used in nuclear reactors to produce electricity but it also has a military application- to make atomic bombs. It is for this reason that uranium is
considered a strategic mineral with influence on global politics. The possession of uranium is causes concern and attracts the interests of many countries
especially the world military powers. They want to know what you do with your uranium and to whom you sell it.

Strategic importance of diamonds

Diamonds are economically important but not as strategically important as oil. Diamond is sought for its decorative value more than its industrial use. The
notion of “Blood Diamonds” has led to the introduction of diamond certification through the Kimberly Process so that diamond exporters are required to
issue a certificate of origin and authentication for every package (consignment) they sell. This has since brought stability in the diamond market.

Strategic importance of iron

14
 Iron is the most important mineral for industry. It is a magnetic metal which is ductile (elastic) and can easily form alloys with other metals. When it is
mixed with carbon and other metals it produces steel and various types of steel alloys are produced by mixing iron with metals such as manganese, nickel,
cobalt, chromium, vanadium & titanium. These are widely used to produce goods such as wires, sheets, pipes, bars and rafters (girders).

9. Explain how the mining of uranium and oil has affected politics in Southern Africa and the Middle East respectively
 Led to the development of blocks such as OPEC where countries in the same region join/come together for political and economic benefits and OPEC
has influence on oil prices
 Corruption-led to people clinging to power for corruption and resource control/misappropriation of funds for developments as minerals are used as
campaign strategies
 Interference by foreign powers e.g. USA in Iraq
 Abuse of power
 War may result
 Destruction of property
 Political instability/Led to dirty politics
 Refugees
 Forced policy makers to be vigilant, thus make laws or follow laws protecting national interests
 Improved ties of governments with others, that is other countries want the resources thus countries making friends

15