STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY When Limits are not given

σ
µ - population mean 𝐿 = 2 (𝑍𝑎/2 × )
𝑛
σ - population standard deviation
X̄ - sample mean Upper Limit = 𝑋 + 2 (𝑍𝑎/2 ×
σ
)
𝑛
s - sample standard deviation
σ
n - sample size Lower Limit = 𝑋 − 2 (𝑍𝑎/2 × )
𝑛
L - Length of Confidence Interval
𝑋̄ − µ 𝑋̄ − µ
z-test = σ t-test = 𝑠
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛
∑ 𝑥ᵢ
𝑖=1
Sample Mean =
𝑛

Length of Confidence Interval (Margin of Error)

When Upper Limit and Lower Limit are given

Simply: 𝐿 = 𝑈𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 − 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
Determining the Sample Size
δ ●
𝑛 = (2𝑍𝑎/2 × 𝐿
)²
Note: L can also be ME (Margin of Error)
Example: What should be the sample size of the five-year old
children to be included in a feeding program if the mayor
wants to estimate the mean weight (in kilograms) of the
children in a certain barangay? He wants to be 99% confident
that the estimate of the sample mean is accurate within 0.06
kg. Assuming that the standard deviation of the weights of the
target population is 0.5 kg.
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing is a decision-making process for
evaluating claims about a population based on the
characteristics of a sample purportedly coming from
that population. The decision is whether the
characteristic is acceptable or not.
● The null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is a statement
that there is no difference between a parameter and a
specific value, or that there is no difference between
two parameters.
● The alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1, is a
statement that there is a difference between a
parameter and a specific value, or that there is a
difference between two parameters.
● The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is
the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it
is true.
● Under the normal curve, the rejection region refers to
the region where the value of the test statistic lies for
which we will reject the null hypothesis.
● A type 1 error is also known as a false positive and
occurs when a researcher incorrectly rejects a true null
hypothesis. This means that your report that your
findings are significant when in fact they have occurred
by chance.
● A type II error is also known as a false negative and
occurs when a researcher fails to reject a null
hypothesis which is really false. Here a researcher
concludes there is no significant effect, when actually
there really is.
Formulating Null and Alternative Hypotheses
- A null hypothesis (𝐻0, read as “H zero”) is a statement
that there is no difference between a parameter and a
specific value.
- An alternative hypothesis (𝐻1, read as “H one”) is a
statement that there exists a difference between a
parameter and a specific value.
Note: only “is” is present in the statement use ( =, ≠)
If “greater” or “lesser” are used, use (<,>)
(Does not always apply, but can be used as a rule of thumb)
Examples:
The average daily confirmed cases of COVID19 in the
Philippines is 659 (per million population).
𝐻0: The average daily confirmed cases of COVID19 in the
Philippines is 659 (per million population) (𝜇 = 659).
𝐻1: The average daily confirmed cases of COVID19 in the
Philippines is not equal to 659 (per million population) (𝜇 ≠
659).
The average number of students per class in the new normal
is less than 20.
𝐻0: The average number of students per class in the new
normal education is equal to 20 (𝜇 = 20).
𝐻1: The average number of students per class in the new
normal is less than 20. (𝜇 < 20).
A new drink in the market is claimed by its manufacturers to
increase height by 2 inches per month with a standard
deviation of 0.42 inch. Chosen at random, fifteen teens have
reported increasing an average of 1.67 inches within a month.
Do these data support the claim of the manufacturer at 0.05
level of significance?
Claim: The average increase in height per month using a new
drink is equal to 2 inches.
𝐻0: The average increased in height per month using a new
drink is equal to 3 inches (𝜇 = 2).
𝐻1: The average increased in height per two months using a
new drink is equal to 3 inches (𝜇 ≠ 2).
Hypothesis Testing Z-Test Example
𝑋̄ − µ In a certain study conducted at Barucboc National High School, it was
Z-test = σ found that the average weight of grade 11 students is 48 Kg with a standard
𝑛
deviation of 4 Kg. To validate the result of the said study, a sample of 55

Used when: students were randomly selected and was found out that the sample is
above the average weight. Use α = 95%.
1. The population standard deviation 𝜎 is known.
2. The population standard deviation 𝜎 is unknown but 𝑛
≥ 30 and the Central Limit Theorem (CLT) applies. In
this case, the sample standard deviation 𝑠 can
replaced the population standard deviation 𝜎.27
𝑋̄ − µ
T-test = 𝑠
𝑛

Used when:
- whenever 𝜎 is unknown and 𝑛 < 30.

Critical Z Values

Level of Two Tailed One Tailed

Confidence

α = 0. 01 2.58 2.326

α = 0. 05 1.96 1.645

α = 0. 1 1.645 1.282
T-test Example
A locally produced bottled water claims that every bottle they
produce contains 330 mL of water. Grade 11 students of Tumauini
National High School wanted to test the claim and gathers a sample
of 20 bottles to measured. The students found out that the average
volume of each bottle is 327 mL with a standard deviation of 22 mL.
Calculate the test statistic value and find out if the manufacturer’s
claim is correct using α = 95%.
]
Z-Test for Proportion

𝑝̂ − 𝑝
Z-test =
𝑝𝑞
𝑛

𝑋
p̂ = sample proportion or
𝑁

p = population proportion
n = sample size
N = population size
q=1-p
Example
The largest group of moviegoers by age is the 40- to
59-year-old age group. This group constitutes 32% of the
movie-going population. A theater complex randomly
surveyed the customers over a three-week period and found
that out of 423 surveyed, 170 were 40 to 59 years of age. At
the 0.01 level of significance does this differ from the stated
proportion?