Heat Balance Equatıon
Occupatıonal mıcrolımıte
The microclimate represents the component of the physical
environment including temperatures, humidity, speed of air flow and
intensity of caloric radiations. Intensity of caloric radiations
characterizes the air condition within a work place and depends on
surface temperature and caloric radiations emitted in the work zone.
Microclimate influence workers’ safety, health and work capacity
whenever the parameters are outside the comfort limits of regulation
in use.
The normalized microclimate parameters in the workplace are the
following:
▪ Temperature
▪ Humidity
▪ Speed of air
People are in constant heat interaction with the environment. For the
body’s physiological processes to flow normally, the heat must be
released into the environment. A balance between the amount of the
released heat and cooling capacity of the environment determines the
degree of environmental comfort, and creates conditions for normal
temperature control of the body. In normal temperature conditions, a
person doesn’t suffer from such disturbances as overheating or
overcooling.
Regulatıon system
1.The time of year involves two periods: cold (an average daily
outdoor temperature is 10 °C and below) and warm (temperature
above 10 °C).
2.Work rate category.
3.According to the amount of excess heat all production facilities are
divided into rooms with a slight excess of explicit heat (QEH ≤ 23,2
J/m³s) or rooms with significant excess sensible heat (QEH> 23.2
J/m³s). An explicit heat is the heat from equipment, heaters, and other
sources of human exposure to the air temperature in the room.
The Measures to create normal Thermoregulatıon of the body -
Humans need to maintain and regulate their internal core
temperature as near to 36.6 ºC as possible. Any significant deviations
away from the ‘normal’ temperature range can produce a decrement
in performance, cause illness and ultimately lead to death.
Thermoregulation is the process of maintaining a constant body core
temperature.’ (Stafford-Brown et al. 2003)
There are many factors in the work place which affect the ability of
the person to maintain his/her core temperature within ‘normal’
limits such as:
▪Extreme environmental temperatures
▪Level of physical activity
▪Clothing or personal protective equipment (PPE) worn
Measures to create Normal Thermoregulation of the Body are as
follows:
1.mechanization and automation of production;
2.protection against sources of thermal irradiation (thermal insulation
and screening);
3.ventilation of work areas (natural and mechanical);
4.measures against the body’s overcooling (heaters, etc.);
5.preventive measures during work in high temperature shops
(rational water consumption, short pauses for rest, work clothes, etc.);
6.Clothing insulation: clothing acts as a barrier between the transfer
of heat and moisture between skin and the environment.
Effect of mıcrolımıte on human body --·Air Temperature:
The core temperature of the body is maintained around a fairly
constant temperature by balancing heat loss to the environment
and heat production of the body. The heat balance equation
describes the amount of heat that is gained or lost by the body
(storage) and is described as follows:
Storage = (Heat production) – (Q Conduction ± Q Radiation ± Q
Convection ± Q Evaporation ± Q Respiration)
▪ Conduction – heat transfer when in contact with an
object
▪Q Radiation – heat transfer from the body to an object
▪Q Convection – heat transfer from movement of liquid or gas
(airflow around skin)
▪Q Evaporation – heat transfer through sweating
▪Q Respiration – heat transfer during normal respiration
Heat Control
Engineering Controls
• Reduce the level of physical activity required.
• Where possible, change the location of the work to a cooler work area
• Establish a cooling station where workers can rest in a ventilated and air-
conditioned space
• Adjust the clothing requirements, when possible
• Use fans to increase air movement and help encourage sweat evaporation.
Administrative Controls
• Reduce the physical effort needed for the task by:
• Allow time for acclimatization. As discussed in Section 1, acclimatization is an
important control step.
• Use a work-rest schedule.
• If practical, workers in hot environments should be encouraged to set their own
work and rest schedules..
• Schedule physically demanding jobs for cooler periods of the day
• Carefully monitor infrequent or irregular tasks such as emergency repairs
• Provide appropriate training and education to increase workers’ awareness of
the potential hazards
• Pay attention to workers with special needs
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
• Self-contained air conditioner in a backpack
• A compressed air source which feeds cool air into a jacket or coveralls
• A jacket which has pockets that can be filled with ice packs
• Specifically designed gel packs (that fit, for example, inside a hard hat)
• Effective cooling units are available for use with supplied-air units. A vortex
tube separates the air into cool and warm components, releasing the warm air
outside the suit.
Noıse
Noise is a variety of sound. It means any unwanted sound.
Noise is one of the most common of all the occupational hazards.
Noise can be continuous, variable, intermittent or impulsive depending on how it
changes over time.
1. Continuous Noise
Continuous noise is noise which remains constant and stable over a given time
period. It’s noise that is produced continuously by machinery that keeps running
without interruption. This could come from factory equipment, heating or
ventilation systems.
2. Intermittent Noise
Noise is intermittent if there is a mix of relatively quiet and noisy periods This
might be a freight train passing by, factory equipment that operates in cycles or
aircraft overhead.Intermittent noise is measured in a similar way to continuous
noise.
3. Impulsive Noise
Impulse noise is a very short burst of loud noise which lasts for less than one
second. Gun fire or the noise produced by punch presses are examples of such
noise. Impulsive noise is most commonly associated with the construction and
demolition industry. This sudden burst of noise can startle you by its fast and
surprising nature. Impulsive noises are commonly created by explosions or
construction equipment such as pile drivers.
To measure impulsive noise, you will need a sound level meter that can calculate
Peak values.
4. Low Frequency Noise
Low frequency noise makes up part of the fabric of our daily soundscape.
Whether it’s the low background humming from power plants or the roaring of
large diesel engines, we’re exposed to low frequency noise constantly.
An increase in air temperature will decrease the benefit of conduction,
convection, radiation, and therefore increase reliance on evaporation. An
increase in evaporation will obviously increase the need for adequate
hydration and energy replenishment. The high temperature in the work
areas causes body overheating and hyperthermia. This leads to a
reduction of attention and may be the cause of the accident.A low air
temperature increases heat loss by convection and radiation. In this case
hypothermia can occur by increasing the heat transfer and diseases
associated with hypothermia - respiratory and kidney diseases, diseases
of muscular-articular apparatus.
·Air Humidity:
Normally moisture concentration will be higher at skin than the
environment, therefore causing rate of evaporation to be positive (i.e.
skin to environment). In regions of high moisture concentration, not
necessarily high relative humidity, this is reversed (environment to skin,
-ve rate of evaporation). When 100% humidity is present, moisture
concentration will be higher in higher temperatures as apposed to lower
temperatures.
An increase in the relative humidity decrease evaporation of moisture
from the skin and the lungs, which can dramatically worsen the
condition and reduce the capacity/ efficiency of man. A decrease in the
relative humidity up to 20 % results in an unpleasant feeling of dryness
of mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract of a person.
·Wind speed:
Increase wind speed across skin will cause an increase in convective and
evaporative heat losses, which can lead to hypothermia. If wind speed is
minimal or non-existent - on the contrary.
Cold control
Engineering Controls
• Use controls such as enclosures and heating systems where practical and possible.
• Protect the hands, face, and feet from frostbite with an on-site source of heat.
• Provide a heated shelter for workers to do their work in, where possible,
• Shield work areas from drafts or winds as much as possible.
• Use thermal insulating material on equipment
Administrative Controls
• Use a work/warm-up schedule..
• Allow a period of adjustment to the cold before assigning a full work schedule.
• Allow individuals to set their own pace and take extra work breaks when needed.
• Educate new or newly transferred workers on the hazards of working in a cold
environment.
• Avoid activities, whenever possible, that lead to heavy sweating.
• Do as many tasks as possible indoors and minimize the length of time people must
work outdoors.
• Work outside during the warmer hours of the day (mid-day/early afternoon).
• Minimize activities that reduce blood circulation, such as sitting or standing for long
periods of time.
• Use a buddy system and avoid working alone in very cold weather
• Older workers, or those with certain medical problems, need to be extra alert about
the effects of cold stress.
• Avoid using alcohol or drugs that may impair judgment while working in a cold
environment.
• Keep energy levels up and prevent dehydration by consuming warm, sweet, caffeine-
free, non-alcoholic drinks and soup.
Personal Protective Equipment and Clothing
• Wear at least three layers.
• Protect your feet, hands, head, and face. o Wear mittens when possible rather than
• Wet clothing causes the body to lose heat quickly
• Have a change of clothes available in case your clothes get wet.
• Dirty or greasy clothing has poor insulating properties.
Classıfıcatıon of noıse
. CLASSIFICATION OF NOISE.
Noise is classified according to the source of occurrence:
1) Mechanical occurs when machines and mechanisms
operate.
2) Aerodynamic - at the expiration of gases with high
velocities.
3) Hydrodynamic during fluid flow through pipelines.
4) Electromagnetic or magnetic striction, occurs in electrical
apparatus
by frequency:
1) Low-frequency LF - up to 300 Hz.
2) The mid-range MF is 300-800 Hz.
3) High-frequency HF - f> 800 Hz.
The greatest influence on humans is exerted by high-frequency
noise with frequencies f = 1000-4000 Hz
on the spectrum:
1) Broadband.
2) Tone.
The effects of noıse on human –
Loud noise is potentially hazardous to workers’ hearing and can
produce other adverse effects as well.
1. Auditory effects interfering with hearing (Hearing loss may be
temporary or permanent); auditory fatigue and deafness.
2. Non-auditory effects interfering with social behaviour; problems
with communications, sleep, recreation, mental equilibrium
(peace), and the ability to concentrate at work
Exposure to high levels of noise can cause permanent hearing loss.
Short term exposure to loud noise can also cause a temporary
change in hearing (your ears may feel stuffed up) or a ringing in
your ears (tinnitus). These short-term problems may go away
within a few minutes or hours after leaving the noisy area.
However, repeated exposures to loud noise can lead to permanent
tinnitus and/or hearing loss.
Loud noise can also create physical and psychological stress, reduce
productivity, interfere with communication and concentration, and
contribute to workplace accidents and injuries. Noise-induced
hearing loss limits your ability to hear high frequency sounds,
understand speech, and seriously impairs your ability to
communicate.
Ventılatıon –
Under the ventilation is a system of measures and devices that provide the
necessary air exchange in the room. By the method of moving air ventilation is
divided:
- natural
- mechanical
- mixed
NATURAL VENTILATION.
In the case of natural ventilation, air exchange is carried out due to the
temperature difference and the gravitational pressure of the air in the room and
outside, and also as a result of the action of the wind. There are two types of
natural ventilation:
1) Unorganized. (ventilation)
2) Organized controlled (aeration, diffractor).
Advantages - aeration: there is no need for additional energy sources, the
possibility of obtaining a large multiplicity of air exchange.
Disadvantages - unprocessed air in the warm season, the efficiency of aeration
decreases.
Differs - nozzles on the roofs of buildings.
Mechanical ventilation.
This is ventilation, in which air is supplied and removed from the room through
the ventilation duct system with the help of fans.
Depending on the direction of the air flow, mechanical ventilation can be:
- supply
- exhaust
- supply and exhaust.
A variety of supply and exhaust ventilation is recirculation.
In the area of operation, mechanical ventilation is divided:
- general exchange
- local
- combined
3.access Hazards
People must be provided with safe access that is suitable for the
work they perform in, on and around machinery and equipment. A
stable work platform suited to the nature of the work that allows
for good posture relative to the work performed, sure footing, safe
environment and fall prevention (if a fall may occur) is a basic
requirement.
As an example, cooling towers on building roofs may have poor
access, yet must be attended by a service person at predictable
times for water treatment, chemical dosing or monitoring of
automated dosing equipment. People performing these tasks must
be provided with the means to get themselves and any equipment
they require onto the roof with no risk or minimal risk of fall or
injury.
Access needs can be predicted and access planning must occur in
advance.
People need access to machinery and equipment in the workplace
(either continually or occasionally) for tasks such as operation,
maintenance, repair, installation, service or cleaning. These tasks
are examples of access that can be predicted.
Access may vary during each stage of machinery and equipment
life cycle.
Vıbratıon Types of vıbratıon
Vibration is a hazard associated with moving machinery parts. 1.Whole-body vibration is caused by vibration from machinery
Vibration can be described as mechanical motion or oscillation about a reference
point of equilibrium.
passing into the body either through the feet of standing workers or
Vibration is generated by driving moving vehicles such as construction equipment, the buttocks of sitting workers.
farm equipment and trucks over uneven ground or gravel. ill-health effects: back pain, increased heart rate and blood pressure,
Terms of vıbratıon –Frequency f = 1/Т, Hz. hearing loss and circulatory and digestive problems
Amplitude А is defined as the maximum displacement of either mass from its 2.Occupational desease – vibration white finger
equilibrium position, mm.
Velocity is the time rate of change of displacement, which is the first derivative of
The early symptoms are tingling and numbness felt in the fingers,
displacement with respect to time: V = 2πfA, m/s. usually sometime after the end of the working shift. As exposure
Acceleration is the second derivative of displacement with respect to time: а = continues, the tips of the fingers go white and then the whole hand
4π2f2A, m/s2. may become affected.
Vıbratıon ısolatıon – 3. Hand-arm vibration
Vibrations can be isolated from equipment using active or passive technology.
With active methods, equal but opposite forces are created electronically using Vascular spasm, neuromuscular and osteoarticular changes
sensors and actuators to cancel out the unwanted vibrations.
With passive methods, isolation is achieved by limiting the ability of vibrations to be
coupled to the item to be isolated. This is done using a mechanical connection which
dissipates or redirects the energy of vibration before it gets to the item to be
isolated. 
PPE-
Nylon/cotton knitted material ensures stretch and breathability. Palm coated with
“pods” of lightweight cellular Chloroprene. This 
design combination ensures extreme comfort. Open finger design for jobs where
tactile feedback is necessary.  
Mechanıcal Hazard 2.non-mecHanIcal Hazards
Machines have moving parts. The action of moving parts may have Non-mechanical hazards associated with machinery and equipment
sufficient force in motion to cause injury to people. can include harmful emissions, contained fluids or gas under pressure,
When reviewing machinery and equipment for possible mechanical chemicals and chemical by-products, electricity and noise, all of which
hazards, can cause serious injury if not adequately controlled. In some cases,
consider: people exposed to these hazards may
•machinery and equipment with moving parts that can be reached by not show signs of injury or illness for years. Where people are at risk
people of injury
•machinery and equipment that can eject objects (parts, components, due to harmful emissions from machinery and equipment, the
products emissions should be controlled at their source.
or waste items) that may strike a person with sufficient force to cause When reviewing machinery and equipment for possible non-
harm mechanical hazards, consider how machines and equipment can affect
Common mechanical hazards and associated risks for machinery and the area (environment) around them.
equipment Common non-mechanical hazards are shown below.
are shown below.
Hazard rIsK non-mecHanIcal Hazards
Rotating shafts, pullies, sprockets and gears Entanglement Dust Mist (vapours or fumes)
Hard surfaces moving together Crushing Explosive or flammable atmospheres Noise
Scissor or shear action Severing Heat (radiated or conducted ) Ignition sources (flame or
Sharp edge – moving or stationary Cutting or puncturing
Cable or hose connections Slips, trips and falls (e.g. oil spark)
High intensity light (laser, ultra-violet) Molten materials
Heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury) Chemicals
leaks) Steam Pressurised fluids and gases
Ionising radiation (x-rays, microwaves) Electrical
The method of electrıcal hazard Classıfıcatıon of fıre
Once hazards have been identified and the risks assessed, appropriate control The third element to the fire tetrahedron is fuel. Most fires involve a
measures must be put in place.
The ways of controlling risks are ranked from the highest level of protection and
fuel that contains carbon and hydrogen, such as wood, paper, and
reliability to the lowest. This ranking is known as the hierarchy of risk control. . flammable and combustible liquids and gases (Klinoff 2003, 87).
This may involve a single control measure or a combination of two or more different Another potential fuel is a combustible metal, such as aluminum or
controls. magnesium.
ELIMINATION The most effective control measure is to remove the hazard or For fire-extinguishment purposes, the fuels are classified as follows
hazardous work practice. By designing-in or designing-out certain features, hazards
may be eliminated.
(Klinoff 2003, 102):
SUBSTITUTION Replacing a hazardous process or material with one that is less Class A: carbon-based products such as wood and paper
hazardous will reduce the hazard, and hence the risk. For example, it may be Class B: flammable gases and liquids
reasonably practicable to use extralow voltage electrical equipment such as a Class C: combustible materials where electricity may be present
battery-operated tool rather than a tool that is plugged into mains electricity. Class D: combustible metals, such as aluminum, magnesium, titanium,
ISOLATION Preventing workers from coming into contact with the source of an
electrical hazard will reduce the relevant risks.
and zirconium
ENGINEERING CONTROLS Use engineering control measures to minimise the Class K: liquid cooking media
risk, for example installing residual current devices to reduce the risk of receiving a Each fuel classification also has a unique symbol.
fatal electric shock.
ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS Administrative controls involve the use of safe
work practices to control the risk, for example establishing exclusion zones, use of
permits and warning signs.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE) PPE includes protective eyewear,
insulated gloves, hard hats, aprons and breathing protection. Most forms of PPE are
not relevant to minimising electrical risks in workplaces, except in relation to
energised electrical work. Administrative controls and PPE do nothing to change the
hazard itself. They rely on people behaving as expected and require a high level of
supervision.
Fıre extınguıshment
As such factors as heat, fuel, oxygen, and chain reaction are
necessary for fire, it follows that the withdrawal of any of them
will cause the fire to go out. So the theory of fire extinguishment
is based on removing any one or more of the four elements in the
fire tetrahedron to suppress the fire. Before attempting to
extinguish a fire, the fireman must decide which of the factors he
will try to remove. Efforts directed at removing the fuel are
sometimes called starvation; depriving the fire of oxygen is
known as smothering or blanketing and reducing the
temperature is known as cooling.
It is often possible to use more than one method at the same
time, in fact most means of extinguishment do so, although they
are classified under the method on which they principally rely.
Electric shock
Electric shock is the physical stimulation that occurs when electric current
flows through the human body. The distribution of current flow through the
body is a function of the resistance of the various paths through which the
current flows. The final trauma associated with the electric shock is usually
determined by the most critical path called the shock circuit. The symptoms
may include a mild tingling sensation, violent muscle contractions, heart
arrhythmia, or tissue damage.
The term “electrocution” refers to an electrical event with electrical current
exposure resulting in death.
Some of the effects are as follows.
1. Tingling (Покалывание).
2. Pain.
3. Muscle immobility. If the electric current is strong enough to immobilize
ones muscles, it becomes difficult to move away from the source of the shock.
This is very dangerous because the victim cannot protect him or herself. The
level of current that immobilizes the muscles can be called “cannot let go”
current.
4. Burns. A high current flow can cause electrical burns. As the current
travels inside the body, it burns tissues along the path. Electric-current burns
can be especially severe when they involve vital internal organs.
5. Ventricular fibrillation. It is the organized passage of electrical signals that
make the atria and ventricles contract effectively to provide a cardiac output.
Electrical shock can disrupt this orderly passage of the hearts own current.
This may result in ventricular fibrillation, which if not treated, will be fatal.
Electric shocks can also lead to other types of injury, for example by causing
a fall from ladders or scaffolds etc.
Electric shock occurs when the body becomes part of an electrical circuit.
Shocks can happen in three ways.
• A person may come in contact with both conductors in a circuit.
• A person may provide a path between an ungrounded conductor and the
ground.
• A person may provide a path between the ground and a conducting material
that is in contact with an ungrounded conductor.
Flammable and combustible liquids are present in nearly every workplace.
Gasoline, diesel fuel, and many common products like solvents, thinners,
cleaners, adhesives, paints, and polishes may be flammable or combustible.
Flammable and combustible liquids play a part in our lifestyle. However, if
used or stored improperly, serious fires and death may occur.
The following work practices must be followed when handling flammable and
combustible liquids:       the “Personal Protective Equipment” section, to protect employees handling or
• Flammable liquids with a flashpoint below 100° F must be kept in covered
containers when not in use.
• Flammable liquids must be stored only in acceptable containers.
• Grounding and bonding must be utilized when transferring flammable
liquids with a flashpoint below 100° F.
• Locations where flammable vapor-air mixtures may exist must have
electrical wiring installed according to the requirements of 29 CFR 1910
Subpart S (Electrical):
—Flammable vapor-air mixtures may exist under normal conditions: Class I
Division I
—Flammable vapor-air mixtures may exist under abnormal conditions: Class
I Division II
• Where flammable or combustible liquids are used or handled, except in
closed containers, means shall be provided to dispose of leaked or spilled
liquid promptly and safely.
• Flammable or combustible liquids shall be drawn from or transferred into
vessels, containers, or portable tanks within a building by one of the following
methods:
Maın causes of fıre Hazard
Fire is the state of combustion resulting from a chemical reaction
that requires the presence of three elements in proper combination
– a fuel source (anything that burns), oxygen (a component of air),
and an ignition source such as heat or a spark – in order to begin
and develop. Extinguishing a fire usually involves removing at least
one of these elements.
In more recent years, we have expanded the fire triangle into what
is now referred to as the fire tetrahedron
(Klinoff 2003, 85). This concept contains the three elements dis
cussed above; however, it adds a fourth element, which is often
referred to as the chemical chain reaction.
Typıcal sources of fıre Gas leaks
Electrıcal sources
Exterıor sources
Open flames
Smokıng materıal
Step Potential
When a fault occurs at a tower or substation, the current will enter
the earth. Based on the distribution of varying resistivity in the soil
(typically, a horizontally layered soil is assumed) a corresponding
voltage distribution will occur. The voltage drop in the soil
surrounding the grounding system can present hazards for
personnel standing in the vicinity of the grounding system.
Personnel “stepping” in the direction of the voltage gradient could
be subjected to hazardous voltages.
In the case of Step Potentials or step voltage, electricity will flow if
a difference in potential exists between the two legs of a person.
Step potential is the step voltage between the feet of a person
standing near an energized grounded object. It is equal to the
difference in voltage, given by the voltage distribution curve,
between two points at different distances from the electrode. A
person could be at risk of injury during a fault simply by standing
near the grounding point
13. Requirements for Handling Asphalt and Tar Products
Employees who handle or work with these materials must complete a JHA,
including exposure determinations. Make available and ensure employees follow
the MSDS for storing, handling, and applying these materials.
13.1. Protective Clothing and Equipment. Give full consideration to
protective clothing, respiratory protection, and skin protection, as specified in
applying these materials.
13.2. Confined Spaces. In enclosed or confined areas where hot tar,
asphalt, enamel, or similar materials are heated or applied, the operation must
conform fully with the “Confined Spaces” section.
13.3. Heating Kettles. Do not leave asphalt or tar kettles unattended,
when in use. Place them on a firm, level base and protect them from overturning.
Kettles must have an effective lid or hood. They must have an operable
temperature indicator and limiting device ensuring the asphalt or tar
remains at no less than 50 EF below the flashpoint. Do not use kettles in confined
or unventilated spaces, underground, in conduits, or in or on enclosed buildings
or structures.
13.4. Fire Protection. Provide a fire extinguisher, rated not less than
2-A:40-B:C, where heating devices or heating kettles are in use.
13.5. Handling. Provide adequate unobstructed runways or access
ways for employees handling hot materials. Employees must not carry hot
materials up or down ladders. Instead, provide adequate hoisting devices.
13.6. Thinners. Do not use gasoline or similar volatile liquids as
thinners.
13.7. Hand Spraying. The nozzle person applying hot tar asphalt
must not work under the hoses supplying the material to the spray nozzle. Use
flexible metallic hoses fitted with insulated handles in hand spraying operations.
13.8. Housekeeping. Keep distributors, retorts, hoses, and related
equipment reasonably free of asphalt and tar accumulations.
Electrıcal hazard
Electricity is a familiar and necessary part of everyday life, but electricity can
kill or severely injure people and cause damage to property.
An electrical hazard can be defined as a dangerous condition where a worker
could make electrical contact with energized equipment or a conductor, and
from which the person may sustain an injury from shock.
Knowledge of electrical safety is important for electrical design engineers as well
as for other personnel within the field of production or maintenance of electrical
systems.
Causes of electrical accidents
1. Violation of shutdown procedure, lack of skill. Only trained and authorized
electrician should work in the live installations.
2.Poor Insulation. Insulation is the barrier between the current flow and the
operator. It is important to have a strong insulated wiring to electrical
equipment
3.Improper earthing. Earthing of machines as per electricity act / rules.
4.Inadequate guarding, defective tools, wrong assumption: All the tools and
tackles to be maintained. Periodic checking of insulation is essential.
Electrical hazards
A classic approach used to simplify the selection of protective strategies is the
division of the electrical power hazard into three components.
The main hazards of working with electricity are:
·electric shock and burns from contact with live parts;
·injury from exposure to arcing, fire from faulty electrical equipment or
installations;
·explosion caused by unsuitable electrical apparatus or static electricity igniting
flammable vapors or dusts.
When a fault occurs at a tower or substation, the current will pass
through any metallic object and enter the earth. Those personnel
“touching” an object in the vicinity of the GPR will be subjected to
these touch voltages which may be hazardous.
For example if a person happens to be touching a high-voltage
tower leg when a fault occurs, the electricity would travel down the
tower leg into the person’s hand and through vital organs of the
body. It would then continue on its path and exit out through the
feet and into the earth. Careful analysis is required to determine
the acceptable Fibrillation Currents that can be withstood by the
body if a fault were to occur.
Touch potential is the touch voltage between the energized object
and the feet of a person in contact with the object. It is equal to the
difference in voltage between the object and a point some distance
away. The touch potential or touch voltage could be nearly the full
voltage across the grounded object if that object is grounded at a
point remote from the place where the person is in contact with it.
14.Requirements for Handling Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)
Store, handle, install, and use LPG and systems in accordance with NFPA 58, 29
CFR 1910.110(f), and 29 CFR 1926.153. Cylinders must meet DOT specifications
published in 49 CFR, Part 178, “Shipping Container Specifications.”
14.1.Hazardous Locations. Do not use LPG containers and equipment in
unventilated spaces, below grade in pits or trenches, below deck, or in confined
areas.
14.2.Tubing. Use only tubing or piping approved for use in LPG systems. Do not
use aluminum or polyvinyl piping or tubing.
14.3.Hose. Use only hoses labeled “LP-gas or LPG.” Hose must have a minimum
working pressure of 250 pounds per square inch.
14.4.Valves and Accessories. Valves, fittings, and accessories connected directly
to the container, including primary shutoff valves, must have a minimum
working gauge pressure of 250 pounds per square inch and be designed for LPG
service.
14.5.Shutoff Valves. Connections to containers, except safety relief connections,
liquid level gauging devices, and plugged openings, must have a shutoff valve
located as close to the container as possible. Shutoff valves must not be located
between the safety relief device and the container, except when the location of the
shutoff valve allows the fully required capacity flow through the safety relief
device.
14.6.Safety Relief Valves. Equip each container with one or more approved
safety relief valves. These valves must allow free venting to the outer air. The
discharge must be 5 feet away from any building opening. Place container safety
relief devices and regulator relief vents at least 5 feet from air openings into
sealed combustion system appliances or mechanical ventilation air intakes.
INFRA AND ULTRA SOUND.
Noise is a combination of sounds of different frequency and intensity. These are
mechanical vibrations of an elastic medium. The region of space in which sound
waves propagate is called the sound field.
Basic parameters characterizing noise:
- Sound pressure P N / m2 [Pa]
- Intensity I (Watt / m2 ) - the energy flux at any point, per unit time, per unit
area of the surface, perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
The intensity and sound pressure of the medium is related by the relation
I = P2 / (a),
where
P is the pressure,
 is the density of the medium,
a is the speed of sound
a is the wave impedance of the medium
Under normal conditions, the speed of sound is a = 343 m / s. f, Hz frequency.
A person perceives sound vibrations in the form of audible sound in the
frequency range 20 - 20000 Hz.
 = s / f, (m) wave length
The noise source is characterized by sound or acoustic power
W = I * 4R2, Watt
The perception of sound depends not only on frequency, but also on intensity and
sound pressure. The lowest values of intensity and sound pressure that a person
perceives are called the threshold of audibility. Io, Po.
For f = 1000 Hz, the threshold of audibility: Io = 10-12 Watt / m2 Po = 2 * 10-5
Pa
The greatest values that a person perceives without damage to the hearing are
called the pain threshold:
At the frequency f = 1000 Hz, the pain threshold P = 200Pa and I = 102 Watt /
m2.
The person's ear reacts to a value 10 times less than Bell, so apply
L = 10lg (I / Io) and LP = 20lgP / P0. (DB) - decibel
As, the ear reacts to the change in sound pressure, then the notion of the sound
pressure level is used to evaluate the effect of noise on a person, and the notion of
the level of intensity when examining the noise characteristics of sources and the
sound-insulating properties of materials.
Under normal conditions, the numerical values of the intensity levels and the
sound pressure levels are LI = LP
Alcoholism.Stages of intoxication
Alcoholism is, broadly, any drinking of alcohol that results in
significant mental or physical healty problems. Heavy alcohol use can
damage all organ systems, but it particularly affects the brain, heart,
liver, pancreas and immune system. Alcohol results:
Mental illness
Delirium tremens
Irregular heartbeat
Impaired immune response
Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome
Cancer risk.
Acute Alcohol İntoxication is a condition associated with drinking too
much alcohol in a short amount of time. It’s also called alcohol
poisoning.Alcohol intoxication is serious. It affects your body
temperature, breathing, heart rate and gag reflex. It can also sometimes
lead to coma or death.Both young people and adults can experience
alcohol poisoning.Alcohol intoxication is considered a medical
emergency. If you think someone is experiencing alcohol poisoning,
seek Emergency Medical Attention ! immediately.
Drinking too much can harm your health. Excessive alcohol use led to
more than 140,000 deaths and 3.6 million years of potential life lost
(YPLL) each year in the United States from 2015 – 2019, shortening
the lives of those who died by an average of 26 years. Further,
excessive drinking was responsible for 1 in 5 deaths among adults aged
20-49 years. The economic costs of excessive alcohol consumption in
2010 were estimated at $249 billion, or $2.05 a drink.
Fire Safety
Fire losses can be one of the greatest threats to an industrial
organization in terms of financial losses, loss of life, loss of property,
and property damage.
Fire is a hazard that can potentially strike any workplace. Therefore,
industrial fire protection and prevention are crucial components of any
safety job.
Industrial fire protection and prevention involves recognizing those
situations that may result in an unwanted fire, evaluating the potential
for an unwanted event, and developing control measures that can be
used to eliminate or reduce those fire risks to an acceptable level.
Fire prevention is the process to plan and design to mitigate damages
when fire occurs.
Fire-protection strategies are those activities designed to minimize the
extent of the fire.
Fire is the state of combustion resulting from a chemical reaction that
requires the presence of three elements in order to begin and develop.
Extinguishing a fire usually involves removing at least one of these
elements.
For fire-extinguishment purposes, the fuels are classified as follows:
Class A: carbon-based products such as wood and paper
Class B: flammable gases and liquids
Class C: combustible materials where electricity may be present
Class D: combustible metals, such as aluminum, magnesium, titanium,
and zirconium
Class K: liquid cooking media
Each fuel classification also has a unique symbol
Fıre alarms and detectors
Fire detection systems are designed to discover fires early in their
development when time will still be available for the safe evacuation of
occupants. Early detection also plays a significant role in protecting the
safety of emergency response personnel. Property loss can be reduced
and downtime for the operation minimized through early detection
Psychological aspects play a critical role in life safety, as they can
influence our behaviors, decision-making, and response to emergency
situations. Here are some important psychological aspects to consider
1.Perception of risk
2.Stress and anxiety
3.Communication
4.Training and education
5. Social influence
6. Resilience
Perception of risk refers to the way in which individuals evaluate the
likelihood and potential severity of a given risk or hazard. Perception
of risk can also be influenced by media coverage and social influence.
For instance, if a particular type of crime is highly publicized in the
media, people may perceive it as more common and dangerous than it
actually is.
Stress and anxiety are two related but distinct psychological
experiences that can have a significant impact on an individual's mental
and physical health.
Communication is a critical aspect of the psychology of life safety. In
the psychology of life safety, communication can take many forms,
including verbal and nonverbal communication, written communication,
and visual communication.
Training and education in this field can help individuals develop the
skills and knowledge necessary to effectively manage and respond to
these types of situations.
Resilience is a concept in psychology that refers to the ability to adapt
and cope with adversity and stressful situations.
Meteorological Conditions in the Workplace
1.Meteorological conditions have a significant impact on workplace
safety and productivity.
Employers must take measures to ensure that their employees are safe
and comfortable while at work.
2.Understanding the various meteorological conditions that can affect
the workplace is essential for employers to make informed decisions
about safety and productivity.
Heatwaves
Thunderstorm
Wındstorm
Cold Wheather
Heatwaves can be dangerous for workers, especially those who work
outdoors or in hot environments. Heat exhaustion and heat stroke are
common risks associated with working in high temperatures.
Cold weather can also pose risks to workers, particularly those who
work outside or in unheated environments.
Employers should provide warm clothing, heating devices, and regular
breaks to allow workers to warm up and avoid cold-related illnesses.
Thunderstorms can be hazardous for workers, especially those who
work in areas with metal structures.
Lightning strikes and falling waste are common risks associated with
thunderstorms.
Windstorms are problem for workers, who work in areas with tall
structures. Falling objects and flying debris are common risks associated
with windstorms.
Different types of drugs can affect your body in different ways, and the
effects associated with drugs can vary from person to person.
How a drug affects an individual is dependent on:
body size
general health
the amount and strength of the drug
whether any other drugs have been taken around the same time.
a person’s mood or the environment they are in.
As illegal drugs are not controlled substances the quality and strength
may differ from one batch to another.
Drugs have short-term and long-term effects. These effects can be
physical and psychological. Drugs can impact the way you think, feel
and act. Making sure you know the risks can help reduce the potential
harms you experience.
People use drugs for many reasons, these reasons might include to:
feel good
relax
cope with stress, anxiety or feelings of depression
deal with emotional pain or a history of trauma
experiment
stay awake
fall asleep
increase confidence
enhance social experiences – such as partying
Not all drug use leads to dependence. And not everyone who uses drugs
or alcohol wants (or needs) help.
The home is supposed to be where you and your family are safe and
protected but every year accident and emergency units deal with serious
injuries and sometimes fatal accidents that occur in the home. It is not
just children and the elderly that can come to harm in the home with
things like chemicals and choke hazards. Accidents in the home claim
18,000 lives each year in America alone. It also accounts for 21 million
Occupatıonal health and safety.
The health status of the workforce in every country has an immediate
and direct impact on national and world economies.
Total economic losses due to occupational illnesses and injuries are
enormous. Work-related diseases and injuries were approximately 4-5
% of the world’s GDP.
Workforce is a backbone of a country development. A healthy, well
trained and motivated workforce, increases productivity and generates
wealth. The difficulty of obtaining accurate estimates of the frequency
of work-related diseases is due to several factors.
However, globally millions of men and women work in poor and
hazardous conditions. According to ILO(1997):
1.2 million working peoples die of work related accident &diseases
every year.
More than160 million workers fall ill each year due to workplace
hazards.
In Ethiopia in 2010E.C about 71 people died.
Reasons for occupational injury and disease are—
Workplace
-Unsafe building, Old machines, Poor ventilation, Noise,
Inaccessible to inspection etc…
Workers
-Limited education, Limited skill and training
Employers
-Limited financial resources, Low attention and knowledge.
The effects of radiation on human health –
Radiation refers to the energy that travels through space and matter in
the form of electromagnetic waves or particles. It can come from
natural sources such as the sun, rocks, and cosmic rays, or from
human-made sources such as X-ray machines, nuclear power plants,
and nuclear weapons. There are two main types of radiation: ionizing
radiation and non-ionizing radiation.
Ionizing radiation is a type of radiation that has enough energy to
remove electrons from atoms, causing ionization. This can damage
biological tissue and increase the risk of cancer. Examples of ionizing
radiation include X-rays, gamma rays, and some forms of ultraviolet
(UV) radiation.
Non-ionizing radiation, on the other hand, does not have enough
energy to ionize atoms. This type of radiation can still have biological
effects, but they are generally less severe than those caused by ionizing
radiation. Examples of non-ionizing radiation include visible light,
infrared radiation, radio waves, microwaves, and some forms of UV
radiation. Radiation is typically measured in terms of both dosage and
exposure. Dosage refers to the amount of radiation energy absorbed by
a particular material, while exposure refers to the amount of radiation
that is present in a given area or environment.
Dosage can be measured using a unit called the gray (Gy). For
example, a typical radiation therapy dose for cancer treatment may
range from 20-80 Gy
Cosmic Radiation .Radon Gas . Medical Imaging. Nuclear Power.
Plant Consumer Products
Gambling problems can happen to anyone from any walk of life. Your
gambling goes from a fun, harmless diversion to an unhealthy
obsession with serious consequences. Whether you bet on sports,
scratch cards, roulette, poker, or slots—in a casino, at the track, or
online—a gambling problem can strain your relationships, interfere
with work, and lead to financial disaster. You may even do things you
never thought you would, like running up huge debts or even stealing
money to gamble. Gambling addiction—also known as pathological
gambling, compulsive gambling or gambling disorder—is an impulse-
control disorder. If you're a compulsive gambler, you can't control the
impulse to gamble, even when it has negative consequences for you or
your loved ones. You'll gamble whether you're up or down, broke or
flush, and you'll keep gambling regardless of the consequences—even
when you know that the odds are against you or you can't afford to
lose. Of course, you can also have a gambling problem without being
totally out of control. Problem gambling is any gambling behavior that
disrupts your life. If you're preoccupied with gambling, spending more
and more time and money on it, chasing losses, or gambling despite
serious consequences in your life, you have a gambling problem.
A gambling addiction or problem is often associated with other
behavior or mood disorders. Many problem gamblers also suffer with
substance abuse issues, unmanaged ADHD, stress, depression, anxiety,
or bipolar disorder. To overcome your gambling problems, you'll also
need to address these and any other underlying causes as well.
because control efforts are started while the fire is still small. Most medical visits annually, which costs a staggering $220 billion a year.

alarm systems provide information to emergency responders o These Many of these accidents are preventable and dealing with a serious
systems have numerous advantages as discussed above. The one major accident that could have been avoided can lead to a lifetime of guilt.
limitation is that they do nothing to contain or control the fire.
Suppression systems such as automatic sprinklers act to control the fire. We have put together this quick guide to alert you to the hazards in your
They also provide notification that they are operating, so they can fill home so that you can keep your family as safe as possible.
the role of a heat detection-based system if connected to notification 1. Falls
appliances throughout the building. They will not, however, operate as 2. Poısonıng
quickly as a smoke detection system. This is why facilities where rapid 3. Carbom monoxıde
notice is essential, even when equipped with sprinklers, still need 4. Fıre hazard
detection and alarm systems.n the location of the fire, speeding the 5. Drownıng
6. Chokıng
process of fire control. 7. Sharp objects
8. Stows
A fire alarm system is a set of devices that detect and alert people to the 9. Dıshwashers
presence of smoke, fire, carbon monoxide, or other fire-related 10. Suffocatıon
emergencies. Fire alarms systems are required in most commercial 11.
buildings and are installed to protect life, and property. Examples
include, schools, churches, restaurants, and corporate buildings. These
devices may include smoke detectors, heat detectors, and manual fire
alarm activation devices which are all connected to a Fire Alarm
Control Panel (FACP) normally found in an electrical room. The
purpose of a fire alarm system is to notify occupants, and emergency
forces. They do this so that they can take action to protect themselves
and others