Transient Stability Analysis with Equal-Area
Criterion for Out of Step Detection Using Phasor
Measurement Units
Reviewed by Fekadu Gebey, Student ID: BDU1401884 Email: fekadugebey630@gmail.com
Abstract-- Any fault in one of the power system components
causes stability problem. Transient stability refers to the ability of
the synchronous machines in interconnected system to remain in
synchronism during the brief period following a large disturbance.
This paper presents the applications and the use of phaser
measurement unit (PMU) for transmission line protection scheme
by measuring the currents and voltages of the three phases of two
buses (equivalent to PMU data). The measured data is
transformed from time domain into phasor domain using Discrete
Fourier Transform to predict whether the swing is a stable or an
unstable one. The performance of the method has been tested on a
simulated system using MATLAB software. The proposed scheme
can be used for the detection of out of step condition using equal-
area criterion by developing an algorithm with different types of
faults at different locations for pi model long transmission line.
Keywords—Discreate Fourier Transform, Equal Area Criterion,
Global Positioning System, Power System Transient Stability
I. INTRODUCTION
Electrical power system component contains generation
station, transmission line and distribution system. Any fault in
one of the power system components causes stability problem.
Most power system failures are found in the transmission line
network. Because of this, it has attracted a lot of research and
design attention in the field of power system protection.
Today's power systems are huge, integrated networks of
transmission lines that connect generators and loads. Transient
stability is the ability of a power system to remain in
synchronism when subjected to large transient disturbances.
These disturbances may include faults on transmission
elements, loss of load, loss of generation, or loss of system
components such as transformers or transmission lines [1].
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In large disturbance system nonlinearities play a dominant
role. In order to determine transient stability or instability
following a large disturbance, or a series of disturbances, time-
domain simulation (TDS) method is usually employed to solve
the set of nonlinear equations describing the system dynamic.
Conclusion about stability or instability can then be drawn from
an inspection of the solution [2]. The TDS technique is the most
accurate method for assessing the power system transient
stability. The TDS approach can be applied to any level of detail
of power system models and gives visual information about
state variables [2] but it doesn’t give stability margin of a
system.
Distance relaying technique has attracted considerable
attention for the protection of transmission lines. The principle
of this technique is to measure the impedance at a fundamental
frequency between the relay location and the fault point, and to
determine whether a fault is internal or external to a protection
zone is based on the measured impedance. Voltage and current
data at the relay location are used for this purpose. The
measured impedance is affected by power swing, load current,
and many other factors. Besides, for a double-circuit
transmission line, the measured impedance is also affected by
the mutual coupling effect [2]. Double-circuit transmission line
distance protection is a significant issue in the use of distance
relay. Distance relays used on double-circuit lines typically
behave as follows: they under-reach when the parallel circuit is
active and over-reach when the parallel circuit is inactive and
earthed at both ends. Applying a safety buffer at the boundary
of the protection zone is typically how accuracy issues brought
on by the influence of parallel circuits are addressed.
 The technology of synchronized phasor measurements  PMUs are then computed using DFT-like algorithms, and
provides an ideal measurement system for monitoring and time stamped with a GPS.
controlling a power system, especially during stressed  The resultant time tagged PMUs can be transmitted to a
conditions. The essential feature of the technique is that it local or remote receiver at rates up to 60 samples per cycle.
measures positive sequence (and negative and zero sequence
III. PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNIT
quantities, if needed) voltages and currents of a power system
PMUs technology provides phasor information (both
in real time with precise time synchronization. This allows
magnitude and phase angle) in real time. The advantage of
accurate comparison of measurements over widely separated
referring phase angle to a global reference time is helpful in
locations as well as potential real-time measurement-based
capturing the wide area snap shot of the power system.
control actions [3]. This synchronized measurement data is
Effective utilization of this technology is very useful in
taken from both ends of a transmission for protection and
mitigating blackouts and learning the real time behavior of the
stability analysis. Synchronization is achieved by same-time
power system [4].
sampling of voltage and current waveforms using timing
PMUs use one pulse per second signals provided by the
signals from the Global Positioning System Satellite (GPS) [4].
Global positioning system (GPS) satellite receivers. GPS
in PMUs technology the advantage of referring phase angle to
system consists of 24 satellites in six orbits at an approximate
a global reference time is helpful in capturing the wide area
altitude of 10,000 miles above the surface of the earth. The
snap shot of the power system. Effective utilization of this
accuracy of the GPS timing pulse is better than 1μs, which for
technology is very useful in mitigating blackouts and learning
a 50 Hz system corresponds to about 0.018 degrees [3].The
the real time behavior of the power system [4].
main advantage of PMU is that measured values have same
Recently, the well-known Equal- Area Criterion (EAC)
time reference. PMU uses GPS signals to time synchronizing
using PMU to protect system against loss of synchronism in
and after calculating voltage and current phasors, using
interconnected systems for three phase short circuit faults for
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), PMU adds a time tag to
different mechanical loading and different fault clearance time
sampled data and synchronize them with GPS signals [5].
is employed [5].

II. THE GLOBAL POSITIONING SATELLITE (GPS)

SYSTEMS
The GPS system consists of 24 satellites in six orbits at an
approximate altitude of 10,000 miles above the surface of the
earth. They are thus approximately at one half the altitudes
corresponding to a geo-synchronous orbit. The positioning of
the orbital plane and the positioning of the satellites in the orbits
is such that at any given instant at least four satellites are in
Fig. 1. Block diagram of the Phasor Measurement Unit [4]
view from any point on the surface of the earth. Often, more
than six satellites are visible.
IV. PMU MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
The GPS system transmits positional coordinates of the satellites
Figure 1. shows the fundamental description of a sinusoid's
from which the location of a receiver station on earth could be
phasor representation. Assume that beginning at time t = 0, a
determined. The various features of PMUs are given below as
single frequency constant sinusoid with frequency ω is seen.
follows: PMUs are Measures 50/60 Hz AC waveforms (voltage
The sinusoid can be represented by the complex number
and current) typically at a rate of 48 samples per cycle.
"Phasor," which has an angle equal to the angle between the

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sinusoid's peak and the time t=0 axis and a magnitude equal to V. PMU REPRESENTATION IN POWER SYSTEM
NETWORK
the sinusoid's root-mean-square (rms) value. The discrete
In two or a wide are power system network, PMU integrated
Fourier transform (DFT) technique is used for determining the
on it as shown in the figure bellow. For each station PMU is
phasor representation of sinusoidal wave form input signal to
deployed and communicate with the central system protection
sample data.
center so as to take important measurements of each area like
voltage, current, frequency and phase angle.

Fig. 2. Phasor representation of a sinusoidal signal. (a) Sinusoidal signal. (b)

Phasor representation [4].

A pure sinusoidal waveform can be represented by a unique

complex number known as a phasor. Consider a sinusoidal
signal
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑤𝑡 + Ø ) (1)
The phasor representation of this sinusoidal is given by
Fig. 4. block diagram PMU in two area power system networks
Ø
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 = (cos Ø + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø) (2)
√ √

Recursive DFT algorithm is the constant sinusoid of

VI. APPLICATIONS OF PMUS IN POWER SYSTEM
nominal frequency that produces a constant phasor and the
sampling technique is shown in figure 2 bellow. The most The synchronized phasor measurement technology is

common technique for determining the phasor representation relatively new and have broad applications in electrical power

of an input signal is to use data samples taken from the system. many of these applications are Power System Real

waveform, and apply the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) to Time Monitoring, Advanced network protection and Detection

compute the phasor. of Instability.

A. Advanced network protection
Enhancing the efficiency of power system protection falls
within this category of synchronized phasor measuring
applications. Protection of the system and equipment is
necessary. The adaptive out-of-step relaying study uses ideas
from transient stability analysis to provide an example of
phasor measurements utilized for protection; it is feasible to
create enhanced out-of-step relays.
Fig. 3. Recursive estimation of phasors from sampled data
B. Detection of Instability
with moving window DFT
Power system instability detection is not a relaying function.
The out-of-step tripping function, on the other hand, is
predicated on the idea that the post-disturbance system will be
unstable. The issue of instability detection can be resolved in
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real-time in a power system made up of two synchronous 𝑃 = 𝑇 𝑥 ω = M 𝑥 α = M 𝑥 (𝑑 θ/dt ) (9)
machines and a connecting network across which The rotor angle position can be expressed with respect to a
synchronizing power can travel. If the machine's rotor angles synchronous reference frame that rotates at synchronous speed
and speeds can be measured in real-time, the equal-area ωsyn, the angular rotor position θ, is equal to the phase angle due
criterion can be used to construct a prediction algorithm for the to the synchronous rotating reference ωsyn product with time
identification of instability. plus the angular displacement from the synchronous rotating
1. Phase as Indicator of the Dynamic Performance of a reference δ as shown in equation (10).
Power System θ(t) = ω 𝑥𝑡+δ (10)
Synchronous machines must adapt to different operating The angular velocity is therefore:
conditions when exchanging real power across a power system. ω= = ω + (11)
The machines accelerate or decelerate to adapt to changing
Taking the derivatives of the angular velocity, equation (9)
power transfer requirements that occur during system
is re write as follows as a function of δ.
disturbances. Power system dynamics involve the electrical
𝑃 = M 𝑥 (𝑑 δ /dt ) (12)
properties, as well as the mechanical properties, of all the
Now, it is possible to express Equation (12) as a function of
electrical machines in the system [2]. The difference between
the constant inertia H with power expressed in per unit as
shaft torque Tm and electromechanical torque Te, in a machine
follows:
determines the accelerating torque, Ta. In generators Ta greater
𝑃 𝑃 − 𝑃 = 𝑥 (13)
than zero accelerates the machine.
𝑇 𝑇 − 𝑇 (3) Where,

It is possible to express equation (1) in the form of Pm is the mechanical power supplied to the generator, pu

accelerating power as: Pe is the electrical power supplied to a system, pu

𝑃 𝑃 − 𝑃 (4) H is the constant of inertia, sec

P as a function of torque is therefore Equation (13) is known as the swing equation; one swing

𝑃 𝑇𝑥ω (5) equation per machine is necessary to model the network

Where, dynamics. When the load-generation equation is balanced (total

T is torque in N.m and ω is angular velocity in rad/s. load equals total generation), machine speeds are practically

The change of the angular rotor position θ with respect to time equal to synchronous speed. The angular displacements, δ, of

which determines the angular velocity ω is expressed as:
ω=
The equation (7) below represents torque as a function of the
moment of inertia J in kg.m2 and the angular acceleration α in
rad/s2.
𝑇 𝐽𝑥α
The angular momentum M is a function of the moment of
inertia J and the angular velocity, as expressed in equation (8).
𝑀 𝐽𝑥ω
Equation (9) allows us to express the accelerating power Pa
as a function of both the angular rotor position and angular
acceleration.
machines in a system provide information about the system
dynamics. One cannot measure this angular displacement
(6)
mechanically. By computing the voltage phasor behind the
machine transient reactance, one can study the phase angle
variations to obtain an image of the machine angular
displacement [2].
(7)
2. Adaptive Out-Of-Step Protection
A group of generators going out of step with the rest of the
power system will cause electro mechanical oscillations that
(8)
will create system stability problem. Out-of-step relays are
designed to perform this detection and also to take appropriate
tripping and blocking decisions. For single machine system or
two machines system, EAC is an effective method to assess
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power system stability. whole system stability assessment is
equal to a special generator pair stability assessment.
VII. THEORY OF SINGLE MACHINE-INFINITE BUS
SYSTEM
A. Power transfer function
For a simple lossless transmission line connecting a
generator and infinite bus as shown in Figure 3.
In Figure 5 the changes of angle and power transfer between
the generator and the infinite bus before, during and after a fault
are plotted.
According to Fig.6, Before the fault, at steady-state condition,
the system operates at the stable equilibrium point at angle
delta0.
When a fault occurs, the electrical power output gets an
instantaneous decrease and becomes much smaller than the
mechanical power.

Fig. 5. One machine against infinite bus diagram [2].

If V1 = U1, V2 = U2cos δ + j U2 sin δ

Z=R+jX
It is well known that the active power P transferred between
two generators for a lossless line can be expressed as:
𝑃 = ǀU1ǀ 𝑥 ǀU2ǀ 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛δ (9)
V1 is the voltage of the infinite bus (reference voltage), volt
V2 is the voltage of the generator bus, volt
δ is the angle difference between the generator and infinite bus, Fig. 5. Input (dashed) and Output (solid) power of turbine generator [2].

rad
X is the total reactance of generator and transmission line,
ohm
The impedance is reduced to the reactance of the line because
the resistance is often small and gives little contribution to the
solution, the maximum amount of power that can be transferred
over the line Pmax is when δ = 90 degree.

VIII. POWER ANGLE CURVE AND THE STABILITY

OF THE SYSTEM
The voltage at the generator bus U2 is ahead of the voltage
at the infinite bus U1 by an angle of δ, which indicates that the
generator in Figure 3 is operating steadily at a phase angle of Fig. 6. Power transfer before, during and after fault close to turbine generator
with respect to the infinite bus. The power balance of the
generator is depicted in Figure 4 as the mechanical power input During the fault the angle delta will increase from delta0 to
Pm and electrical power output Pe. The stable equilibrium point delta1. The rotor angle is gaining velocity and starts to
and the unstable equilibrium point are where the curves overlap. accelerate in the right direction during the fault. When the fault
is cleared, at point 3, the impedance between the machine and

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infinite bus will change again. The change leads to an increased
level of the electrical power output.
If it is assumed that the system goes back to its pre-fault
conditions the electrical output power will jump from point 3 to
point 4. The angle delta1 will remain the same. During the time
rotor angle is still increasing, but it has started to decelerate.
Point 5 is reached when all the power gained during the fault is
transferred into the system and find a new stable equilibrium
point
IX. THE EQUAL-AREA CRITERION
The equal-area criterion can be used to calculate the
maximum fault clearing time before the generator loses
synchronism. The equal-area criterion integrates the energy
gained when the turbine-generator is accelerating, during the
fault (area A, in Figure 6) and compares that area with the
decelerating area, (area B, in Figure 6) when the generator
exports the energy stored during the fault.
Area A represents the total kinetic energy gained during the
acceleration period. As soon as the fault is cleared at angle δ1
the angle will continue to increase and the kinetic energy gained
during the fault period will expand into the power system,
when area B is equal to area A angle δ has reached its
maximum.
𝐴= (𝑝 − 𝑝 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛δ) dδ
𝐵= (𝑃 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛δ − 𝑝 ) dδ
Fig. 7. Equal-area criterion with an acceleration area A and decelerating
area B
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when the electrical power output was lower than the mechanical
power input the generator gained energy.
The energy gained has to be transferred into the system, before
a stable equilibrium point can be reached again. Therefore, the
When area A < B the system will be stable and if A > B the
system will be unstable.
X. BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND EVALUATION OF THE
PROPOSED SCHEME
A. Power System Model
The system modeled with a transformer and high voltage
transmission line. the one end of a transmission line is
connected with an infinite bus (one machine against an infinite
bus). A single machine three-phase 400 kV power system
against infinite bus with a line of 900 km length divided into
six identical π sections each of length 150 km has been
simulated for the analysis of the proposed protection.
The MATLAB Simulink model presented bellow is filled
with the transmission line parameters of table 1.1. PMU
connected at two ends of the system to measure the state
variable like frequency, current, angle and voltage. The latter
PMU connected at the ends of the comparator is to show the
results for the deviations for instability instances. 400 KV
sending end and receiving end voltage as nominal value is
taken. System frequency of 50 hz is taken as nominal value.
Series RLC load is taken which represents infinite bus. In the
latter power model simulation, out of step detection will be
seen.
Table I
TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
Positive sequence resistance R 0.01273 ohm/km
Positive sequence inductive reactance 0.009337 H/km
Positive sequence capacitive reactance 12.74*10^-9 F/km
Zero sequence resistance R 0.3864 ohm/km
Zero sequence inductive reactance XL 0.0041264 H/km
Zero sequence capacitive reactance XC 7.751*10^-9 F/km
In the latter power system model simulation, the discreate For the system model PV generator at one side as Ac source
and a swing bus as infinite bus is used with line to line
state variables taken helps to determine system stability.
voltage of 400 Kv at 50 Hz frequency

Fig. 8. system MATLAB Simulink model

B. Out of Step Detection Algorithm

out of step detection algorithm is presented in the fig. 9
below. First the algorithm takes data from the MATLAB
Simulink model at different time steps which is the same as
the sample interval for the PMU, 0.02 seconds. This data will
be converted by a DFT to complex phasors of voltages and
currents. The algorithm takes complex current and voltage.
From these vectors it calculates new vectors with
impedance, phase angle and power for all time steps. After
that the program determines the areas A and B and finally
checks if there is out-of-step condition or not according to
the algorithm developed for equal area criterion evaluation.

XI. SIMULATION RESULTS

Different type of faults is applied to the system in the
transmission line near to the generator bus, as a fault at a bus
near to infinite bus will cause very high fault current and
hence it is difficult to measure. Some simulation results are
presented below.
Case 1: voltage and current wave form at the generator and
infinite bus for fault free system
Fig. 9. Flow chart of algorithm

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 The system may be unstable but in synchronism or both
unstable and out of synchronism. This is due to the
application of PMU which provides discreate values of
current, voltage and other state parameters with the
application of DFT.

Fig. 10. Voltage at generator bus for no fault happened

Fig. 11. Voltage at infinite bus for no fault happened

Fig. 11. current at infinite bus for no fault happened

Case 2: three phase ground short circuit at 900km from

generator side (near the infinite bus) Fig. 12. Voltage, angle and frequency versus time plot measured at the
The time of fault is at 1.0 sec and duration of fault is 0.25 generator bus for fault near the infinite bus

sec. implies that fault will clear at 1.25 seconds. Both at the
generator and infinite bus (from both the source and from the
receiving or load end) voltage wave form, angle versus time
and frequency versus time plot is presented in fig. bellow.
The system gains instability at a time of 1 second and starts
to stabilize after 0.25 seconds of fault.
According to the simulation result system out of stability
is detected or determined using out of step detection
algorithm developed in fig. 9. and hence the state of the
system synchronism can be clearly identified.

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Fig. 13. Voltage, angle and frequency versus time plot measured at the
infinite bus

Case 3: three phase ground short circuit at 150km from

generator side

Fig. 15. Voltage, angle and frequency versus time plot measured at the
infinite bus

Fig. 14. Voltage, angle and frequency versus time plot measured at the
generator

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Fig. 15. Voltage, angle and frequency versus time plot comparator results
of case 3. The fig. 18. bellow shows the Current versus time plot measure at a
generator for fault occurred near the infinite bus (750km)

The fig. 18. bellow shows the Current versus time plot measure at a infinite
bus for fault occurred near the infinite bus (750km)

Fig. 19. Current versus time plot measured from comparator for fault near
infinite bus
Fig. 16. Voltage, angle and frequency versus time plot comparator results
of case 2.

The fig. 20. bellow shows the Current versus time plot measure at a
generator for fault occurred near the generator (150km)
Fig. 17. Current wave form with out fault measured at generator side
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 [2] A. Y. Abdelaziz, Amr M. Ibrahim, Zeinab G. Hasan, "Transient
stability analysis with equal-area criterion for out of step detection
using phasor measurement units," International Journal of
Engineering, Science and Technology, Vols. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 1-17,
2013.

[3] A.G. Phadke and J. S. Thorp, "History and applications of phasor

measurements," Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA,
December 2006.

[4] Bindeshwar Singh, N.K. Sharma, et al. , "Applications of phasor

measurement units (PMUs) in electric power system networks
Fig. 19. Current versus time plot measured from comparator for fault near
incorporated with FACTS controllers," International Journal of
generator bus
Engineering, Science and Technology, vol. 3, pp. 64-82, 2011.
XII. CONCLUSION
[5] M. Chehreghani Bozchalui and M. Sanaye-Pasand, "Out of Step
Transient stability using PMU for transmission line Relaying Using Phasor Measurement Unit and Equal Area Criterion,"

protection scheme uses measured values of the currents and in ieee transactions on power systems, India, 2006.

voltages of the three phases of two buses (equivalent to PMU

data) to detect the out-of-step condition. The proposed
scheme is applicable to the protection of transmission lines.
The Discrete Fourier Transform is used to transform the
sampled data in phasor domain which is equivalent to PMU
readings. The PMU has great potential to be a useful
measurement unit to detect out of step conditions in the
complex power system networks that are used today. The
EAC is used and proved that it is an efficient method for
determining the transient stability of a power system and
detecting the out of step condition. Test results show that the
proposed scheme is able to detect the out of step condition
under different conditions with different fault types,
different locations and different models of transmission line
for a one machine against infinite bus or two machine system
from the measured data equivalent to one PMU reading. The
algorithm needs to be further developed to be able to detect
out of step condition for multi-machine system, it would be
interesting to make simulations on larger networks that
include more generators and machines and to find possible
nodes to implement PMUs.

XIII. REFERENCES

[1] M. W. Mustafa and M. R. Ahmad, "Transient Stability Analysis of

Power System with Six-Phase Converted Transmission Line," in First
International Power and Energy Conference, Putrajaya, Malaysia,
November 28-29, 2006,.

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