PS Lab Maual 7052 - Master

EEE DEPARTMENT POWER SYSTEMS LAB
V. R. SIDDHARTHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VIJAYAWADA

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEMS LABORATORY
VR10 EE 7052
Internal Assessment: 25Marks Final Examinations: 50M
Practical: 3 hrs/ week Credits: 2
Course objectives:
This course will provide students essential knowledge required in power systems for its
analysis and protection. This course also provides the students hands on experience in
high voltage testing of various insulators and cables.
Course outcomes:
After the successful completion of the course, the student will be able to:
1. Analyze the performance of transmission lines and relays
2. Calculate the steady-state power flow in a power system.
3. Analyze different types of short-circuit faults which occur in power systems
4. Analyze the performance of insulators and cables by High voltage testing.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS: Page No
1. Determination of ABCD parameters using Transmission line model 2

2. Regulation and efficiency of transmission line including Ferranti effect 5
3. Characteristics of over current relay & Earth fault relay 8
4. Characteristics of Over voltage relay 15
5. Characteristics of definite time reverse power relay 18
6. Sequence impedances of transformer 21
7. Sequence impedances of alternator 25
8. Short circuit analysis using PC 30
9. Determination of sub-transient, transient, steady-state reactance of an alternator
35
10. Develop a program for Ybus by inspection 41
11. Develop a program for load flow analysis by Gauss and Gauss - Seidel iterative
methods. 46
12. High voltage testing of Insulators 51
13. High voltage testing of Cables 54
14. Study of corona phenomena 57
15. Study of single line to ground fault of a simple power System 62
1
1. DETERMINATION OF ABCD PARAMETERS USING

TRANSMISSION LINE MODEL
AIM: To determine ABCD parameters of transmission line using nominal π method.
NAME PLATE DETAILS

EHV Transmission Line Simulator: 220kV, 100km
APPRATUS:
S.No. Equipment Type Range Qty

1 Milli Ammeter MI 0-500mA 1
2 Ammeter MI 0-5A 2
3 Voltmeter MI 0-300V 2
THEORY:
Transmission line network is a two port network with four terminals where the
input voltage and input current can be expressed in terms of output voltage and output
current.
Is Ir
a Two port networks d
VS VR
b c
Therefore, the input voltage VS and input current IS of a 3-phase transmission line can
be expressed as:
VS = AVR+ BIR
IS = CVR+ DIR
where VS = sending end voltage per phase
IS = sending end current
VR = receiving end voltage per phase
IR = receiving end current
A, B, C and D (generally complex numbers) are the constants known as generalised
circuit constants parameters of the transmission line. The values of these constants
depend upon the particular method adopted for solving a transmission line. Once the
values of these constants are known, performance calculations of the line can be
easily worked out.
The following points may be kept in mind:
(i) The constants A, B, C and D are generally complex numbers.
(ii) The constants A and D are dimensionless whereas the dimensions of B and C are
ohms and mhos respectively.
(iii) For a given transmission line, A = D & A D -B C = 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
2
Procedure:
1. Connect as per the circuit diagram.
2. With the dimmerstat in minimum (zero) output position and DPST2 in open
position, close the supply switch.
3. Vary the dimmerstat slowly and apply the rated voltage then note down the
readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Now reduce the voltage to zero and then close DPST2 switch at receiving end for a
short circuit.
5. Increase the voltage at input side slowly so that the current that flows through the
circuit will not exceed rated current.
6. Tabulate the meter readings.
7. Open the DPST2 switch and reduce the voltage to zero and then the supply switch
is opened.
TABULAR FORMS:
Open circuit test:

S.No. Connection VS(V) IS(mA) VR(volts)
1 short 230 10 230
2 Nominal –T 230 40 240
3 Nominal- π 230 30 240
Short circuit test:
S.No. Connection VS(V) IS(A) IR(A)
1 short 80 4 4
2 Nominal –T 180 4 4
3 Nominal- π 190 4 3.8
CALCULATIONS:
VS = AVR +BIR
IS = CVR +DIR
3
From open circuit test:

A=VS/VR when IR=0
C=IS/VR when IR=0
From short circuit test :

B=VS/IR when VR=0
D=IS/IR when VR=0
Check for AD-BC=1
Short Nominal - T Nominal - π

A 230/230 = 1 230/240 = 0.958 230/240 = 0.958
B, ohm 80/4 =20 180/4 =45 190/3.8 =50
C, mho 10x10-3/ 230 = 0.0435x10-3 40x10-3/ 240 = 0.167x10-3 30x10-3/ 240 = 0.25x10-3
D 4/4 = 1 4/4 = 1 4/3.8 = 1.053
AD-BC 0.999 0.95 1.002
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check the connections before giving the supply.

2. The dimmerstat is at minimum position when DPST1 is closed.
3. The fuse rating depends on the rating of Dimmerstat.
4. The Dimmerstat should be brought to the minimum position before DPST2 is
closed (before doing Short Circuit test)
RESULT: The ABCD parameters of 220kV EHV transmission line are obtained and
the results are verified.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the A, B, C and D parameters?

2. What are the dimensions of A, B, C, and D?
3. What are the relation between A, B, C, and D for a symmetrical network?
4. What are the relation between A, B, C, and D for a reciprocal network?
5. What are the surge impedances of a transmission line and underground cable?
6. How do show that the transmission line network is reciprocal?
7. AD-BC =1 is it true for a cable?
4
2. REGULATION AND EFFICIENCY OF TRANSMISSION LINES
(INCLUDING FERRANTI EFFECT)
Aim: To find the efficiency and regulation of 220kV line using transmission line
simulator.
NAME PLATE DETAILS
Three Phase Transmission Line Model: EHV, 360km
Apparatus:
1. EHVAC Transmission line Simulator of 360km.
Circuit Diagram:
Theory:
Percentage voltage Regulation of Transmission line: the difference between the no

load voltage and full load voltage at the receiving end expressed as a percentage of
full load receiving end voltage.
Transmission line efficiency: the ratio of receiving end power to the sending end
power is called the efficiency of transmission line.
Ferranti Effect: If a long line is open circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving
end, the voltage at receiving end may become greater than voltage at sending end.
5
This is known as Ferranti Effect. Here the transmission line inductive reactance will
be less than the charging capacitive reactance. Hence the receiving end voltage is
more than sending end voltage. This can be verified by drawing a phasor diagram for
equivalent lumped parameters.
Transmission line simulator: The transmission line simulator model is designed to

study the behavior of a real transmission line spread over for 360 Km. The
transmission line is represented as a distributed network with different sections of pie
networks of L and C components, which are equivalent to a 30KM long transmission
line. The line can be charged by voltages of 0-110-220-330V-400V, line to line.
Power analyzers are connected at the sending end and receiving end panels to read all
the power flows and other parameters of the system. Circuit Breakers and various
numerical/static relays are provided for protection and study. Resistive, inductive
(Induction Motor) and capacitive loads are incorporated to study the behavior of the
transmission line under loaded conditions. Provision is also made to study the
Reactive compensations by capacitor banks.
Procedure:
1. Interconnect through patch cards, the generating station panel, Transmission

line panel, Receiving station, Reactive VAR compensators and loading panel.
2. Energize the generating station panel, receiving station panel, VAR
compensator panel, and RLC loading panel with 1-Ø, 230V, 50Hz power
source.
3. Switch ‘ON’ Auxiliary MCB and Auxiliary ON/OFF switch in generating,
Receiving VAR compensator panels and the RLC loading panel.
4. Switch ON Auxiliary switches of meters and protective relays.
5. Switch ON CB1 and CB 2 of the receiving station panel and also Switch ON
0.5 to 1A resistance or Induction motor loading.
6. After ensuring 0.5 to 1A load is switched ON, Switch ON the 3- Ø source at
the generating station panel by switching the MCB.
7. Charge the transmission line with any voltage available in the generating
station panel 0-110V-220V-330V-400V line-line as the option desirable by
switching the CB1 and CB2 in the generating station panel.
8. By changing the load note down the total active, reactive, apparent power, line
to neutral, line to line voltages and currents in lines at the sending end and
receiving end station using power analyzer.
9. After taking readings switch OFF all capacitive loads.
10. Reduce the receiving end load current 1A to 0.5A and switch OFF resistive
and Induction motor loads.
11. Disconnect the power circuit at the generating station panel through switching
OFF CB1 and CB2.
12. Disconnect the input 3- Ø, 415V source.
13. Disconnect the auxiliary 1-Ø, 230V from the simulator
6
Observation Table:
Load Generating station parameters Receiving station parameters

Vs (V) Is (A) Ps (kW) Qs Ss Cos Øs Vr(V) Ir(A) Pr(kW) Qr Sr(kVA) Cos Ør %η % Rg.
(kVAR) (kVA) (kVAR)
No - 230 1.16 0.02 -0.27 0.28 0.06 257 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
Load
R1 230 1.23 0.16 -0.24 0.3 0.53 243 0.54 0.13 0 0.13 0.99 81 57.61
R2 230 1.34 0.24 -0.2 0.32 0.76 230 0.88 0.2 0 0.2 0.99 83.33 11.76
R3 230 1.52 0.35 -0.1 0.35 0.96 205 1.4 0.29 0 0.29 0.99 82.8 25.36
L1 230 0.58 0.03 -0.15 0.15 0.18 213 0.53 0.02 0.12 0.12 0.13 66.66 20.67
L2 230 0.25 0.04 -0.05 0.07 0.72 183 0.93 0.04 0.17 0.18 0.16 100 40.43
C1 230 1.72 0.17 -0.37 0.39 0.41 285 0.67 0.13 -0.15 0.19 0.68 76.47 -9.82
R1 + 230 0.82 0.15 -0.13 0.19 0.73 207 0.73 0.13 0.09 0.16 0.8 86.66 24.15
L1
R2 + 231 0.81 0.19 0 0.19 0.99 172 1.2 0.16 0.14 0.22 0.76 84.21 49.41
L2
R1 + 229 1.74 0.29 -0.28 0.4 0.73 258 1.08 0.25 -0.12 0.29 0.91 86.20 -0.38
C1
R1 + 232 2 0.47 -0.12 0.47 0.97 222 1.79 0.39 -0.12 0.41 0.95 82.97 15.76
L1 +
C1
7
Precautions:
1. Transmission line should be charged with some minimum load i.e., 0.5 to 1A
(resistive) and all the compensator capacitors and loading capacitor should be in
off position otherwise receiving end bus voltage rises to a dangerous level.
2. While observing the Ferranti effect receiving end voltage should never exceed
280V between Line to Neutral /485 L-L.
3. Disconnect three-phase supply from the power circuit before switching off the
Single-phase auxiliary supply from the simulator.
Calculations:
% Regulation = ((Vr_NL| –Vr_FL)*100)/ Vr_FL
% Efficiency = (Pr/Ps)*100
Result: The regulation and Efficiency of the given transmission line model are
obtained for various loadings and the readings are tabulated.
Viva Questions
1. How do you classify small medium and long transmission lines?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using pie model of a
transmission line?
3. How to reduce the reactance of a transmission line?
4. What is surge impedance loading?
8
3. (a). CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER CURRENT RELAY
AIM: To study the characteristics of an over current relay (Inverse type)

i) For Direct loading ii) Transmission line protection.
APPARATUS:
S. Equipment Type Range Qty
No.
1 Ammeter MI 0-10A 1
2 SPST Switch - - 1
3 Lamp Load - Single Phase, 230V, 10A 1
4 Stop Watch Digital mS 1
Theory:
The over current relay is used for the protection of motors and current graded
protection of transmission lines. The inherent inverse characteristics of the
electromagnetic relays are essential for the overload protection of electrical loads.
In an over current relay, there would be essentially a current coil. When
normal current flows through this coil, the magnetic effect generated by the coil is not
sufficient to move the moving element of the relay, as in this condition the restraining
force is greater than deflecting force. But when the current through the coil increased,
the magnetic effect increases, and after certain level of current, the deflecting force
generated by the magnetic effect of the coil, crosses the restraining force, as a result,
the moving element starts moving to change the contact position in the relay.
Plug Setting and Time Multiplier Setting (TMS) are provided for adjusting
the inverse characteristics of the relay.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Figure1: Direct loading
9
PROCEDURE:
i) Direct loading:-
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig 1.
2. The SPST connected across the 9 and 10 terminals of the relay is initially kept
closed.
3. Switch on both the supplies
4. By using the plug setting bridge the current setting is kept at a particular value
5. Choose the required time setting by using time setting multiplier.
6. Switch on the 1- load and increase the load until the load current exceeds the
current setting value.
7. Open the SPST and start the stop watch
8. The instant at which the relay trips the circuit, stop the stop watch and note the
operating time.
9. Reset the Flag and Repeat the above procedure for different values of increased
load currents, current settings and time settings.
10. Switch OFF the supply.
TABULAR FORMS:
Current Setting =2.5A Current Setting =3.75A

Time Multiplier setting =0.2 Time Multiplier setting =0.2
S.No IL(A) T(Sec) S.No IL(A) T(Sec)

1 3 2.85 1 4 4
2 4.5 1.2 2 5 2
3 5 1 3 6 1.5
4 6 0.8 4 7 1
5 7 0.6 5 8 0.75
6 8 0.5 6 9 0.6

S.No IL(A) T(Sec) S.No IL(A) T(Sec)
1 4 5 1 4 3
2 5 2.4 2 5 1.5
3 6 1.3 3 6 1
4 7 0.9 4 6.9 0.75
5 8 0.7 5 7.2 0.7
6 9 0.5 6 8 0.6
Graph: A graph is drawn between time Vs Load current.
10
MODEL GRAPH:
IL IL
(A) (A)
T in sec T in sec
PRECAUTIONS:
1. SPST should be closed initially

2. Opening of SPST switch and switching on stop watch should be done
simultaneously.
3. Stop watch should be stopped at the instant of closing the relay contacts (At the
instant of alarm).
4. The neutral point of the supply must be properly connected to the variac otherwise
it leads to a short circuit.
CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER CURRENT RELAY
10
7
Load Current(A)
5
CS=2.5 TMS=0.2
4 CS=3.75 TMS=0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Operating Time (Sec)
11
10
6
Load
4
CS=3.75;
3 TMS=3
2 CS= 3.75;
TMS=0.15
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
RESULT: The Characteristics of Electromagnetic over current relay are obtained for
various current settings and time multiplier settings.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by Time Setting of a relay?

2. What is the difference between a relay and a circuit breaker?
3. What is Plug Setting Multiplier of a relay?
4. What is the type of the relay you have used in the laboratory?
5. What is an operating coil and restraining coil?
12
3 (b). CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH FAULT RELAY
AIM: To study the characteristics of an earth fault relay for open circuit and
unbalanced loading.
APPARATUS:
S. No. Equipment Type Range Qty
2 SPST Switch - - 1
3 Lamp Load - 3- Phase, 400V, 5kW 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
13
Internal Diagram of Earth Fault Relay: Theory
THEORY:
Earth fault relays are used for protection of generators, motors, transformers,
capacitor banks, shunt reactors and radial feeders in distribution networks against
earth faults alone.
Ground fault currents are dependent upon system grounding and they produce
zero sequence currents during fault, whereas there is very little zero-sequence current
during normal operation. Thus the pick-up settings of the ground fault relays can be
made more sensitive than those of phase fault relays. Ground fault relays are similar
to over current relays but with only one coil for current in the case of instantaneous,
definite time or inverse time ground fault types.
The Earth fault relay is a non-directional heavily damped induction disc relay
which has an adjustable inverse time/current characteristic with a definite minimum
time. The relay has a high torque movement combined with low burden and low
overshoot. The relay disc is so shaped that as it rotates the driving torque increases
and offsets the changing restraining torque of the control spring. This feature
combined with the high torque of the relay ensures good contact pressure even at
currents near pick-up. Damping of the disc movement is by a removable high
retentivity permanent magnet. The unique method of winding the operating coil
ensures that the time/current characteristics are identical on each of the seven current
taps. Selection of the required current setting is by means of a plug setting bridge
which has a single insulated plug. The maximum current tap is automatically
connected when the plug is withdrawn from the bridge, allowing the setting to be
changed under load without risk of open circuiting the current transformers. The
IDMT relay has an auxiliary unit which is powered by a secondary winding on the
electromagnet through a rectifier and as such a separate auxiliary supply is not
required. The disc unit operates and closes its contacts, the auxiliary element
connected across the secondary winding on the electromagnet operates, and one
normally open contact of the auxiliary element reinforces the disc contact. Two other
contacts of the auxiliary element are brought out to the terminals of the relay
14
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram
2. SPST across the terminals 9 and 10 is initially kept closed
3. By using plug setting, select a current setting in amperes
4. Use the time setting dial to select a time setting multiplier
5. Apply 3- unbalanced load by closing TPST switch.
6. Vary the load such that the neutral current exceeds the current setting value.
7. SPST is opened and stop clock is started
8. The instant at which circuit breaker trips making a whistling sound, stop watch
is stopped and time of operation is noted
9. Reset the Flag and Repeat the above procedure for different values of
increased unbalance loads, current settings and time settings
10. Switch OFF the supply
PRECAUTIONS:
1.SPST should be closed initially
2.Opening of SPST switch and switching on stop watch should be done
simultaneously
3.Stop watch should be stopped at the instant of closing the relay contacts (i.e. at the
instant of listening the sound of from buzzer)
OBSERVATION TABLES:
Current Setting =1A Current Setting =1.5A

S.No IN(A) T(Sec) S.No IN(A) T(Sec)
1 3.2 2.9 1 3.7 4.5
2 4.2 2 2 4.5 3.2
3 4.6 1.8 3 5.1 2.5
4 5.5 1.4 4 5.8 2

S.No IN(A) T(Sec) S.No IN(A) T(Sec)
1 3.7 9 1 3.7 4.5
2 4.4 5.2 2 4.5 3.2
3 5.2 3.8 3 5.1 2.5
4 6.5 2.5 4 5.8 2
MODEL GRAPH:
IN
(A)
T in sec
15
CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH FAULT RELAY
6
Neutral Current(A)
CS=1A;
2 TMS=0.1
1 CS=1.5A;
TMS=0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
7
5
Neutral Current(A)
CS=1.5A;
2 TMS=0.15
1 CS=1.5A;
TMS=0.1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
RESULT: The Characteristics of Electromagnetic Earth fault relay are obtained for
various current settings and time multiplier settings.
16
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is meant by Time Setting of a relay?

2. What is the difference between a relay and a circuit breaker?
3. What is Plug Setting Multiplier of a relay?
4. What is the type of the relay you have used in the laboratory?
5. If the unbalancing is not created, does your relay operate? Substantiate.
17
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER VOLTAGE RELAY
Aim: To obtain the characteristics of Over Voltage Relay
Apparatus Required:
S. No Equipment Type Range Quantity

2 SPST Switch - - 1
3 Lamp Load - Single Phase, 230V, 10A 1
Theory:
The over/under voltage relay is used for the protection of alternators,

transmission lines and transformers against over voltages which might occur due to
lightning or switching, the relay can also protect the equipment against under voltages
which can occur due to various faults in the power system.
The load is connected to the 3 phase AC supply through the contactor. This
closes its contacts when relay gives trip circuit signal through 1 and 3 terminals. The
primary of the PT is connected between R phase and N (230V) and the secondary is
connected to 9 and 10 terminals of the over Voltage Relay (110V).
For normal condition, the relay does not respond. But whenever the voltage
exceeds the pre-set value, the relay operates with definite time and closes the trip
circuit contacts (1 & 3). This makes the transformer to directly connect across R
Phase and neutral, so the output at transformer secondary is obtained which appears
across the full wave centre tapped rectifier with capacitor filter. The output of the
rectifier is given as input to the 12V relay. This makes auxiliary relay terminals 3-8
and 1-7 to separate their contacts, while 6-8 and 4-7 to close its contacts. At this time
the contactors operating coil is de-energized, electrically separating the main supply
from the load circuit.
18
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set the time multiplier and voltage settings as per desired values using the
selector switches.
3. Switch on the main supply.
4. Vary the dimmerstat until the voltage exceeds the presetting value
(> Voltage setting *230)
5. Close the SPST S1, which is open till now. Which activates the relay
6. Start the stop watch at the instant of closing S1 and measure the time for
operation of the relay which is indicate by the bulb and alarm.
7. Reset the flag.
8. Repeat the same procedure for different values of voltage from 105% to 170%
of rated voltage setting and time setting value.
9. Switch off the main supply and remove all connections.
10. Draw the graph for time (sec) Vs Voltage Characteristics for different voltage
settings and time settings.
19
Observation Table 1: Operating Characteristics with voltage setting=241.5V

(105% of 230V)
Operating Time (sec) for Operating Time (sec) for

S.NO Over Voltage (V)
TSM=1 TSM=2
1 242 1.19 2.3
2 244 1 1.9
3 246 0.9 1.7
Observation Table 2: Operating Characteristics with voltage setting=253 V

(110% of 230V)
Operating Time (sec) Operating Time (sec) for

S.NO Over Voltage (V)
for TSM=1 TSM=2
1 254 1.25 2.6
2 256 0.8 2.3
Model Graph:
Operating Time in
Seconds
Relay over Voltage in multipliers of pick-up
20
CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER VOLTAGE RELAY
2.5
2
Opertating Time (Sec)
1.5
TSM=1
0.5
TSM=2
0
241 242 243 244 245 246 247
Over Voltage (V)
Characteristics with Voltage Setting = 241.5V (105% of 230V)
2.5
1.5
1
TSM=1
0.5
TSM=2
0
253.5 254 254.5 255 255.5 256 256.5
Over Voltage (V)
Characteristics with voltage setting=253 V (110% of 230V)
21
Result: The characteristics of Inverse time Over Voltage relay are obtained.
Viva-Voce:
1. What are the applications of over voltage relays?

2. How are overvoltage caused in a power system?
3. Why do under voltage occur?
4. What are the effects of over voltage and under voltage on various types of
loads?
22
5. CHARACTERISTICS OF DEFINITE TIME REVERSE POWER RELAY
Aim: To draw characteristics of reverse power relay
APPARATUS:

1 Voltmeter MI 0- 600V 1
2 Ammeter MI 0- 5A 1
3 Lamp Load - 3- Phase, 400V, 5kW 1
Theory:
Whenever the alternator is subjected to a fault, the power flow might be
reversed, i.e., the power might flow from the system to the synchronous machine,
making the alternator run as synchronous motor. This motoring action can be
identified by the reversal of power flow and can be detected by a reverse power relay.
So the reverse power relay plays a key role in stability and control of the power
system. A reverse power relay can operate to have definite time characteristics or
inverse time characteristics depending on the requirement and design of the relay.
A definite time reverse power relay operates after a pre determine time, when
power flow reverses and is above the pick-up value.
Time setting adjustment: The operating time of a relay can be set at a desired value
using Time Multiplier Setting (TMS). The TMS can be understood by taking a simple
example .suppose that at a particular value of current or plug setting multiplier
(PSM),the operating time is 4sec,with TMS=1.the operating time for the same current
with TMS=0.2 will be 4*0.2=0.8sec. The operating time adjustment help in achieving
coordination between various protection equipment of the system.
Reverse Power (or) Directional Relay: A directional relay is energized by two
quantities namely voltage and current .torque produced on the disc is proportional to
VIcosΦ. The relay is constructed so as to produce positive torque when Φ<900, and
negative torque when Φ >900 (i.e. between 900and 1800, where Φ is the angle between
voltage and current). At a particular relay location when power flow is normal, the
negative torque is produced. Due to any reason if the power reverses the relay
produces positive torque and the relay operates.
23
Circuit Diagram to obtain the characteristics of Reverse Power Relay:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Switch on the 3-Φ AC supply.
3. Adjust a suitable value of TSM.
4. Switch on the load and apply some initial load.
5. Keep the DPDT switch in normal position and observe the response of the relay.
6. Now close the DPDT switch to other direction (current terminals are
interchanged.)
7. Observe the time taken by the circuit breaker to trip the circuit by using a stop
watch.
8. Reset the Flag and the procedure is repeated for different loadings and time
settings.
9. Switch off the supply and remove all the connections
Tabular Forms:
Time setting: 10Sec
S. No I(A) T(Sec)
1 3 22
2 4.6 22
3 7.7 22
Time setting: 15 Sec

S. No I(A) T(Sec)
1 3 35
2 4.4 33
3 7.5 33
Time setting: 20 Sec

S. No I(A) T(Sec)
1 3 54
2 4.4 51
3 7.5 51
24
Model Graph:
Current in A
Precautions:
1. Stop watch should be stopped at the instant of closing the relay contacts (at the
instant of alarm).
2. The neutral point must be properly connected to the variac otherwise it leads to a
short circuit.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DEFINITE TIME REVERSE POWER RELAY
60
50
40
30
20 TS=10 Sec
TS=15 Sec
TS=20 Sec
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Current (A)
25
Result: The characteristics of definite time reverse power relay are obtained for
various time settings.
Viva Questions:
1. What is meant by Time setting of a relay?

2. What is the difference between relay and circuit breaker?
3. What are the applications of directional relays?
4. How can we attain directional over current relay?
5. Which distance relays are inherently directional and why?
26
6. SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF TRANSFORMER

AIM: To determine the sequence impedances of a three phase transformer.
NAME PLATE DETAILS:

Transformer: 3 Phase, 15kVA, 415V/415V.
APPARATUS:

4 Ammeter MI 0-500mA 1
THEORY:
When the applied voltage is balanced, the positive and negative sequence of
linear, symmetrical, static devices are identical. Therefore in a transformer the
positive and negative sequence impedances are identical. Even though the zero
sequence impedance may slightly differ from positive and negative sequence
impedance, it is normal practice to assume the zero sequence impedances as equal to
positive and negative sequence impedance.
Positive Sequence Impedance: The impedance of a transformer when positive

sequence currents alone flowing are called the positive sequence impedance.
Negative Sequence Impedance: The impedance of a transformer when negative

sequence currents alone flowing are called the negative sequence impedance.
Zero Sequence Impedance: The impedance of a transformer when zero sequence

currents alone flowing are called the zero sequence impedance.
27
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig .1 : Experimental setup to determine Positive & Negative Sequence Reactances
Fig .2: Experimental setup to determine Zero Sequence Reactance
28
PROCEDURE:
I) Positive and negative sequence impedances:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig .1

2. Switch on the supply.
3. Slowly vary the 3-phase dimmerstat so as to get rated current in the secondary
winding.
4. Note down readings of all the meters.
ii) Zero sequence impedance:
1. Now connect the circuit as shown in Fig . 2

2. Switch on the 1 phase AC supply
3. Vary the dimmerstat so as to get 230V across the voltmeter.
4. Note down the readings of all the meters.
TABULAR FORMS:
Positive and negative sequence Impedance:

𝑉1
S. No. V1(Volts) I1(A) 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = (Ohms)
√3𝐼1
1 30 21.5 0.805
Zero sequence Impedance:

𝑉
S. No. V1(Volts) I0(mA) 𝑍0 = 3𝐼1 (Ohms)
0
1 230 200 383.33
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Short circuit test is conducted on LV side only.

2. The short circuit current should not be increased beyond the rated current of
secondary.
RESULT: The Sequence impedances of the given transformer are obtained.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Why the positive and negative sequence impedances are equal for a transformer?
2. How do you find zero sequence impedance theoretically?
3. What is the relationship between sequence impedances of a transformer?
4. Can you define sequence impedances for a 1-phase transformer?
29
7. SEQUENCE IMPEDANCES OF AN ALTERNATOR
AIM: To find the positive, negative and zero sequence impedances of an Alternator.
NAME PLATE DETAILS:

DC Motor: 7.5kW, 220V, 30A, 1500RPM, Excitation: 1.3A Shunt.
Alternator: 3-Phase, 440V, 5kVA,1500RPM, Excitation: 1.5A,220V
APPARATUS:
3 Ammeter MC 0-2A 1
4 Rheostat TCC 300Ω/1.7A 1
5 Rheostat TCC 360Ω/1.6A 1
THEORY:
The sequence impedances of an alternator have differing values. This is

because of the difference in the effect of the armature m.m.f on the DC field m.m.f for
different sequences. They may be defined as:
Positive Sequence Impedance

It is the ratio of the fundamental component of armature voltage, due to the
fundamental positive sequence component of armature current, to this component of
armature current at rated frequency. This is the usual impedance (either synchronous
or transient or sub-transient) of alternator.
Negative Sequence Impedance

It is the ratio of fundamental component of armature voltage, due to the fundamental
negative sequence component of armature current, to this component of armature
current at rated frequency.
Zero Sequence Impedance

It is the ratio of fundamental component of armature voltage, due to the fundamental
zero sequence component of armature current, to this component of armature current
at rated frequency.
30
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig –1: Measurement of Positive Sequence Reactance
Fig –2: Measurement of Negative Sequence Reactance
31
Fig –3: Measurement of Zero Sequence Reactance
PROCEDURE:
Open circuit characteristic Test:
1. The connections are made as shown in the Fig 1.

2. With the motor field rheostat in cut out position, the alternator field rheostat is cut
in position, the 3-point starter handle is initial position and the TPST opened, the
supply switch is closed.
3. The 3-point starter handle is moved slowly in the clockwise direction to cut out
the resistance in the motor armature circuit, and thus the motor starts.
4. The motor speed is adjusted by using field regulator till the synchronous speed of
the alternator is reached
5. The dc supply switch of the alternator field is closed, the field current of the
alternator is varied in steps by potential divider output and for each step the
alternator voltage along with the field current is noted. Here check for rated speed
for every reading.
6. The above procedure is repeated till 120% of rated voltage of the alternator is
reached.
7. The alternator field potential divider is brought back to minimum output position,
the alternator field dc supply switch is opened, dc motor field rheostat is brought
back to cutout position and the supply switch is opened.
Short circuit test:
1. Step no’s 1, 2, 3 and 4 of O.C.C. test are repeated.

2. The TPST switch is closed, so that the alternator terminals are short circuited.
3. The dc supply switch of the alternator field is closed and the alternator field
potential divider is varied such that the ammeter reads the rated current of the
alternator and the corresponding field current is noted.
4. The TPST switch is opened, the alternator field potential divider is brought back
to minimum output position, the alternator field dc supply switch is opened, the
motor field rheostat is brought back cut out position and the dc supply switch is
opened.
32
Measurement of negative sequence impedance:

1. Connect the circuit as shown fig (2).
2. Switch on the DC supply.
3. Using 3 point starter start the DC motor.
4. Using field regulator in the motor circuit bring the motor to rated speed
5. Keep the field winding of synchronous machine short circuited.
6. Run the alternator at rated speed by adjusting the field resistance of DC shunt motor.
7. Close the DPST of 1- AC supply.
8. Slowly apply reduced voltage to the alternator such that the ammeter reads rated current
and note down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
9. Reduce the voltage of the dimmerstat to zero and open DPST switch of the AC supply.
10. Reduce the speed of the alternator slowly and open the DPST switch of DC supply.
Measurement of zero sequence impedance:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig (3).

2. Keep the field circuit open.
3. The dimmerstat is at minimum output position close the DPST switch.
4. Slowly vary the voltage such that rated current is flow through the ammeter and note
down the readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
TABULAR FORMS:
Positive Sequence:
OC Test
S.NO If(A) VOC(V)
1 0.4 106
2 0.6 148
3 0.8 180
4 1 192
5 1.2 204
6 1.4 210
7 1.5 214
SC Test
S.No. If(A) ISC(A)
1 1.5 7
CALCULATIONS:
Zs = Z1 = Voc/Isc =214/7 = 30.57 Ohms If=constant = 1.5

33
Negative sequence:
S.No. V2(V) I2(A) Z2=V2/3I2(Ω)

1 132 7 10.887
Zero sequence:
S.No. V0(V) I0(A) Z0=V0/3I0(Ω)

1 96 7 4.57
RESULT: The Sequence impedances of the given alternator are obtained.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. When starting the motor the rheostat positions should be kept at initial position.
2. At the time of starting the dimmerstat should be kept at minimum position.
VIVA:
1. What are sequence impedance and sequence networks?
2. What is meant by positive, negative and zero sequence impedances?
3. What is meant by positive, negative and zero sequence reactance diagram?
4. What is the relationship between sequence impedances of an Alternator?
5. Why the positive sequence impedance is more than the negative sequence impedance?
34
8. SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS USING PC
Aim:
To develop a computer program to carry out simulation study of a symmetrical three phase short
circuit on a given power system.
Theory:
Short circuits and other abnormal conditions often occur on a power system. Short circuits are
usually called “faults” by power system engineers. Some defects, other than short circuits are
also termed as faults. Faults are caused either by insulation failures or by conducting path
failures. The failure of insulation results in short circuits which are very harmful as they may
damage some equipment of the power system. Most of the faults in transmission and distribution
lines are caused by over voltages due to lightning or switching surges, or by external conducting
objects falling on overhead lines. Over voltages due to lightning or switching surges causes
flashover on the surface of insulators resulting in short circuits. Short circuits are also caused by
tree branches or other conducting objects falling on the overhead lines. The fault impedance
being low, the fault currents are relatively high. The fault currents being excessive, they damage
the faulty equipment and the supply installation. Also, the system voltage may reduce to a low
level, windings and busbars may suffer mechanical damage due to high magnetic forces during
faults and the individual generators in a power station or group of generators in different power
stations may loose synchronism The symmetrical fault occurs when all the three conductors of a
three-phase line are brought together simultaneously into a short–circuit condition as shown in
Figure 1.
Figure 1 Symmetrical Fault on Three-Phase system
This type of fault gives rise to symmetrical currents i.e. equal fault currents with 120 0
displacement. Thus referring to Figure 5.1, fault currents IA, IB and IC will be equal in magnitude,
with 1200 displacement among them. Because of balanced nature of fault, only one phase needs
to be considered in calculations since condition in the other two phases will also be similar.
A three-phase short circuit occurs rarely but it is most severe type of fault involving largest
currents. For this reason, the balanced short-circuit calculations are performed to determine these
large currents to be used to determine the rating of the circuit breakers.
Flowchart for Short Circuit analysis on a PC:
35
36
Algorithm:
Step 1: Read line data, machine data, transformer data, fault impedance etc.
Step 2: Compute [Ybus] matrix and calculate [Ybus]modi.
Step 3: Form [Zbus] by inverting the [Ybus]modi.
Step 4: Initialize count I = 0.
Step 5: Find the bus at which fault occurs I=I+1.
Step 6: Compute fault current at faulted bus and bus voltage at all buses.
Step 7: Compute all line and generator currents.
Step 8: Check if I< number of buses, if yes go to step 5 else go to step 9.
Step 9: Print the results and stop the program.
Sample problem:
For a simple power system as shown in figure, find with the help of bus-impedance matrix
method the post fault currents in all the branches and post-fault voltages at all buses, if a three
phase dead short circuit occurs at bus-3. The pre- fault currents are neglected.
37
PROGRAM:
%Program for Y Bus
clc
clear all
% Initializing line data
x=[0 0+0.13i 0+0.08i
0+0.13i 0 0+0.03i
0+0.08i 0+0.03i 0];
A=[0+0.25i 0+0.2i 0];
% Admittances
nb=3;
v=[1 1 1];
nl=3;
% Number of Buses
for l=1:nb
for m=1:nb
if(l==m)
y(l,m)=0;
for k=1:nb
if(x(l,k)~=0)
y(l,m)=y(l,m)+(1/x(l,k));
end
end
if A(l)~=0
y(l,m)=y(l,m)+1/A(l);
end
end
if(l~=m)
y(l,m)=-1/x(l,m);
end
end
end
disp(y);
z=inv(y);
%Assuming fault at 3rd bus
fb=3;
fi=v(fb)/z(fb,fb);
for i=1:nb
if (i~=fb)
vf(i)=((z(fb,fb)-z(i,fb))/z(fb,fb))*v(i);
else
vf(i)=0;
end
end
for i=1:nb
for j=1:nb
ifl(i,j)=(vf(i)-vf(j))/z(i,j);
end
end
38
Output:
Y=
0 -24.1923i 0 + 7.6923i 0 +12.5000i
0 + 7.6923i 0 -46.0256i 0 +33.3333i
0 +12.5000i 0 +33.3333i 0 -45.8333i
z=
0 + 0.1274i 0 + 0.0981i 0 + 0.1061i

0 + 0.0981i 0 + 0.1215i 0 + 0.1151i
0 + 0.1061i 0 + 0.1151i 0 + 0.1345i
vf =
0.2111 0.1439 0
ifl =
0 0 - 0.6847i 0 - 1.9898i
0 + 0.6847i 0 0 - 1.2501i
0 + 1.9898i 0 + 1.2501i 0
Result: Program has been developed for fault analysis and the results obtained are noted.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the advantages of short circuit studies?

2. What are the physical assumptions while calculating fault currents?
3. What is the advantage of using Zbus for short circuit studies?
4. What are the types of faults in a power system?
39
9. DETERMINATION OF DIRECT AND QUADRATURE AXES SUB-TRANSIENT
REACTANCES OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Aim: To determine the sub-transient reactances (xd’’) and (xq’’) of a synchronous machine.
NAME PLATE DETAILS:
Three Phase Alternator: Y- connected, 3kVA, 415V, 4.2A, 0.8PF, 1500RPM

Excitation: 220V, 1.4A
APPRATUS:
2 Ammeter MI 0-5A 1
3 Ammeter MI 0-1A 1
Circuit Diagram
Fig 10.1.Experimental Setup for determining Xd” and Xq”
40
Theory:
To understand the behavior of an alternator under transient conditions, the armature and field
resistance is assumed to be negligibly small. If all the three phases of unloaded alternator with
normal excitation are suddenly short circuited there will be short- circuit current flows in the
armature. As the resistance is assumed to be zero, this current will lag behind the voltage by
90o and the MMF produced by this current will be along the d-axis. First conclusion is that this
current will be affected by d-axis parameters Xd ,Xd’ and Xd”only. Further, there will be
demagnetizing effect of this current, but as the flux linkage with field cannot change the effect
of demagnetizing armature MMF must be counterbalanced by a proportional increase in the
field current. This additional induced component of field current gives rise to greater excitation
under transient state and results in more short circuits as compared to the steady state short
circuit current. If field poles are provided with damper bars, then at the instant of three phase
short circuit, the demagnetizing armature MMF induces currents in damper bars, which, in turn,
produces field in the same direction as the main field and hence at this instant, the excitation
further increases and gives rise to further increase in short circuit armature current. This is for a
very short duration, normally 3 to 4 cycles and this period is known as sub-transient period.
Since the field voltage is constant, there is no additional voltage to sustain these increased
excitations during sub transient or transient period. Consequently the effect of increased field
current decreases with a time constant determined by the field and armature parameters and
accordingly the short circuit armature current also decays with the same time constant.
41
Fig:10.2. Symmetrical short circuit of an alternator
In the above figure a symmetrical wave from for armature short circuit current of phase-A.The
DC component is zero in this phase. The reactance offered by the machine during sub transient
period is known as sub transient reactance. Along the direct axis, it is direct axis sub transient
reactance, X"d and along the quadrature axis, it is quadrature axis sub-transient reactance, X”q.
As these reactance are due to the fact that flux linkages in field circuit during sudden
disturbance remain constant, the sub transient reactancesXd” and Xq” can also be defined as
below:
Direct axis sub- transient reactance X”d:
The field structure is assumed to have damper bars on salient poles. The field winding is
initially unexcited and is short – circuited so that field flux- linkage is zero. Armature currents
now are suddenly applied in such time phase that the peak of varying armature m.m.f. wave is
in direct axis. As per constant flux linkage theorem, the flux linkage before this is zero.Hence, it
remains zero just after the application of armature m.m.f. wave and in order to maintain the flux
linkages zero, current are induced in damper bars, additional rotor circuit formed by pole- body
etc. and the field winding. The field of the varying armature m.m.f. is forced to drive the flux
through the leakage paths mainly in air as shown in Fig. 10.3.
42
Fig 10.3: Flux path for d-axis sub transient reactance (Xd”)
The armature flux linkage per ampere under these conditions is known as direct axis sub
transient inductance Ld”.
Fig 10.4: Flux path for q-axis sub transient reactance (X”q)
Quadrature axis sub-transient reactance, Xq”:
This also is defined in a manner similar to Xd”, but in this case, armature currents are applied in
such time phase that the peak of varying armature MMF wave is along the quadrature axis. The
43
damper bars in the quadrature axis force the field of the varying armature M.M.F. to follow the
leakage path as shown Fig. 10.4.
As before, the flux linkage with q-axis damper bars must remain constant i.e. zero before and
after the sudden application of armature M.M.F. Under these conditions, the armature flux
linkages per ampere is known as q-axis sub transient inductance Lq” and Xq”=ωLq”. To
determine Xd” and Xq” in laboratory, the above mentioned conditions are created there. Two
phases of the three phase alternator are connected in series and the combination is connected to
a low voltage single phase supply. Field winding is short circuited. The rotor is rotated and
brought along the d-axis once. Xd” can be calculated from the armature current and voltage per
phase of armature in this position. Next, rotor is brought along the q-axis position and Xq” is
determined.
Procedure:
1. Connect circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Set the variac output voltage to zero and switch on the supply.
3. Gradually increase the variac output voltage and set armature current to a suitable value.
4. Slowly rotate the armature and see the field current and armature current readings. Note the
values of applied voltage and armature current when field current is maximum and also when it
is at zero.
5. Repeat step (4) for other applied voltages. Take care that armature current does not exceed its
rated value while performing this experiment.
44
Observation Calculations
S.No. Armature Current Direct axis Qud. Axis Average Value
Armature subtransient subtransient
reactance reactance
Voltage Xd"=V/IAmax Xq"= V/IAmin
(V) At At
IAmax. IAmin
Volts Amps. Amps. Ohms Ohms X d" Xq"
(Ohms) (Ohms)
1 50 2.4 1.9 26.31 20.83
28.49 19.70
2 60 3.1 2.0 30 19.35
3 70 3.7 2.4 29.16 18.91
Result: The sub-transient reactances of alternator are obtained.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between salient pole and non-salient pole alternator?
2. Why do transients occur in a power system?
3. What is synchronous impedance?
4. What is the purpose of damper winding in alternator?
45
10. DEVELOP A PROGRAM FOR FORMATION OF YBUS BY DIRECT

INSPECTION METHOD
AIM: To form YBUS matrix by direct inspection method.
APPRATUS:
1. PC
2. MATLAB Software
THEORY:
Bus admittance matrix is often used in power system studies in most of power system
studies it is necessary to form Y-bus matrix of the system by considering certain power system
parameter depending upon the type of analysis. For example in load flow analysis it is necessary
to form Y-bus matrix without taking into account the generator impedance and load impedance.
In short circuit analysis the generator transient reactance and transformer impedance taken in
account, in addition to line data. Y-bus may be computed by inspection method only if there is
no natural coupling between the lines. Shunt admittance are added to the diagonal elements
corresponding to the admittance.
ALGORITHM:
Step 1: Read the values of number of buses and the number of lines of the given system.
Step 2: Read the self-admittance of each bus and the mutual admittance between the buses.
Step 3: Calculate the diagonal element term called the bus driving point admittance, Yii which is
the sum of the admittances connected to bus i.
Step 4: The off-diagonal term called the transfer admittance, Yij which is the negative of the
admittance connected from bus i to bus j.
Step 5: Check for the end of bus count and print the computed Y-bus matrix.
Step 6: Compute the Z-bus matrix by inverting the Y-bus matrix.
Step 7: Stop the program and print the results.
46
FLOW CHART:
47
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
48
PROGRAM:
%Program for Y Bus

clc
clear all
% Initializing line data
x=[0 0.06+0.18j 0.02+0.06j;
0.06+0.18j 0 0.04+0.12j;
0.02+0.06j 0.04+0.12j 0];
A=[0.05j 0.06j 0.05j];
% Admittances
nb=3;
% Number of Buses
for l=1:nb
for m=1:nb
if(l==m)
y(l,m)=0;
for k=1:nb
if(x(l,k)~=0)
y(l,m)=y(l,m)+(1/x(l,k));
end
end
y(l,m)=y(l,m)+A(l);
end
if(l~=m)
y(l,m)=-1/x(l,m);
end
end
end
disp(y);
Output:
[ 6.6667 -19.9500i -1.6667 + 5.0000i -5.0000 +15.0000i
-1.6667 + 5.0000i 4.1667 -12.4400i -2.5000 + 7.5000i
-5.0000 +15.0000i -2.5000 + 7.5000i 7.5000 -22.4500i];
RESULT: A program is developed for YBus by direct inspection method in MATLAB

programming language and the results obtained are recorded.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define bus admittance matrix of a power system.
2. Why bus admittance matrix is sparse matrix?
3. Distinguish between bus admittance and bus impedance matrix.
4. State the applications of bus admittance matrix.
49
11. DEVELOP A PROGRAM FOR LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY G.S

METHOD
Aim :- To develop the MATLAB program for the load flow analysis of the simple power system
network using gauss saidel iterative method
Equipment required
1. PC with MATLAB Software.
Theory:
In power engineering, the power-flow study, also known as load-flow study, is an
important tool involving numerical analysis applied to a power system. A power-flow study
usually uses simplified notation such as a one-line diagram and per-unit system, and focuses on
various forms of AC power (i.e.: voltages, voltage angles, real power and reactive power). It
analyzes the power systems in normal steady-state operation.
Power-flow or load-flow studies are important for planning future expansion of power
systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. The principal
information obtained from the power-flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage
at each bus, and the real and reactive power flowing in each line.
Equations:
Pp  jQp
S P*  E P* I p  I p 
E *p
n Pp  jQ p
I p   Y pq * Eq 
p 1 E *p
1  Pp  jQ p p 1 n 
E pk 1  
Y pp  E *p
  Y pq * E ( k 1)
q   Y pq * E k
q 
q 1 q  p 1 
Algorithm:
1. a) Read the system data.

System side: n, nline, slackLine data: From bus, to bus, resistance, reactance, half-line
charging, off-nominal tap ratio. Bus data: Bus no, type, Pgen, Qgen,Pload,Qload,Shunt
Capacitor data.
b) Read tolerance epsilon, maximum iteration.
2. Form Bus admittance matrix (Using inspection method)
3. Assume the initial values for Bus voltages.
Ep(0) for p=1,2,...n; pslack; slack bus voltage specified.
Eslack =Vsp +j0 =Vsp0o.
50
4. Set iteration count k=0.

4a. Set Emax=0.0.
5. Set bus count p=1.
6. Test for slack bus, if p=slack go to (13).
7. Check for PQ bus.
If it is PQ bus go to step (10)
8. p is a PV bus: Start PV bus treatment.
 f pk 
 new  tan 1  
 ek 
 p 
enew  V p cos( new )
sp
f new  V psp sin(  new )

n
I p  (Y pp )(enew  jf new )   Y pq * E q
q 1
q p
Qcal  imag ((enew  jf new )( I *p ))
9. Check for the Q-limits at PV bus –‘p’

Set Qp = Qcal
If Qpcal>Qpmax, Qp=Qpmax, ; goto step(10)
If Qpcal<Qpmin, Qp=Qpmin.;goto step(10)
If Q is with with in the limits, replace Ep=enew+jfnew.
Vp=Vpsp
(Note: Ep is to be replaced by enew+jfnew only if Q is with in the limits.)
10. Compute Epk+1
1  Pp  jQ p p 1 n 
E pk 1   *
  Y pq * E ( k 1)
q   pq q 
Y * E k
Y pp  E p q 1 q  p 1 
11. Calculate Epk = Epk+1 – Epk.

Epk+1 = Epk +.Epk
12. Is Epk>Emax if yes, set Emax=Epk
13. p=p+1;
14. If p<n goto step (6)
51
15. If Epmax epsilon goto step (100)

16. k=k+1 (advance iteration count)
If k>itermaxgoto step (99)
Else goto step (4a)
17. GS is converged: Print Bus voltages, phase angles at all the buses.
Calculate the line flows, bus powers and print them. STOP.
18. GS is not converged in itermax iterations. STOP.
GS Merits and Demerits:
1. Easy to program.
2. Memory/Storage requirement is very low; with sparsity technique memory requirement is
further low.
3. It is easy to enforce Q-limits.
4. Solution time per iteration is low.
5. Easy to simulate generator and line outages.
6. Total solution time is high,
As no. of iterations proportional to size of the system
KN
(GS cannot be used for large systems.)with optimum value of , the number of iterations
for GS, on various test systems are:
5Bus ---- 10 iterations; =1.40
118Bus---- 92 iterations; =1.70
7. Location of the slack bus influences the convergence of GS method.
8. Fails to converge for heavily loading conditions and other ill-conditioned cases.
[Low x/R ‘or’ three winding transformer, series capacitor]
[ Increases with the loading of power system]
9. GS needs optimum -value. [=Acceleration factor].
52
Procedure:
1. Open the MATLAB software

2. Open new script (.m file)
3. Write the program in the new script window of MATLAB as per the given power system
network.
4. Run the program and observe the all the bus voltages in command window.
5. Compare these values with the theoretical values.
Power system network:

2 – j8
`
1 – j4 1 – j4
0.66 - j2.66
2 – j8
PROGRAM:
%program for load flow Analysis using Gauss Siedal Method
clc
clear all
d2r=pi/180;w=100*pi;
%The y-bus matrix is
myb=[3-12i -2+8i -1-4i 0;
-2+8i 3.666-14i -0.665+2.664i -1+4i;
-1+4i -0.666+2.664i 3.666-14i -2+8i;
0 -1+4i -2+8i 3-12i];
% The given parameters and the initial condition are
p=[0;0.5;0.4;0.3];
q=[0;0.2;0.3;0.1];
mv=[1.06;1;1;1];
v=[mv(1);mv(2);mv(3);mv(4)];
acc=1.6; %input('enter the acceleration consatnt:');
%P-Q buses
for b=2:4
tmp1=(p(b)-1i*q(b))/conj(v(b));
tmp2=0;
for k=1:4
if(b==k)
tmp2=tmp2+0;
else
tmp2=tmp2+myb(b,k)*v(k);
end
end
vt=(tmp1-tmp2)/myb(b,b);
v(b)=v(b)+acc*(vt-v(b));
end
fprintf(' voltage magnitudes are\n');
53
abs(v)
fprintf('\nvoltage angles are\n');
angle(v)
Output:
voltage magnitudes are
1.0600
1.1614
1.1909
1.3134
voltage angles are
0
0.0246
0.0198
0.0571
Result: Program for Gauss – Seidal Load flow has been developed and the results obtained are
observed and recorded.
VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is the purpose of conducting load flow studies?
2. How are buses classified in a power system?
3. What are the types of buses in a power system?
4. What are the advantages of using Gauss- Seidal method?
5. What are the types of equations in load flow studies?
54
12. HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING OF INSULATORS

AIM: To conduct one minute dry withstanding test for insulator.
APPARATUS:
1. Control panel
2. HV transformer
3. Insulator
4. Grounding equipment
5. Capacitor divider
THEORY:
TESTING OF OVERHEAD LINE INSULATORS:
ARRANGEMENT OF INSULATORS FOR TEST:
55
DRY FLASH OVER AND ONE MINUTE TEST:
56
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
Power Frequency One Minute Dry Withstanding Test:
1. Switch on the supply and control panel.
2. Using the toggle switches energize LT and HT windings of transformer
3. Using the UP and Down Toggle switches in the control panel apply voltage to the HVAC
transformer till 1.6 times rated voltage of the insulator and is read through voltmeter on
control panel.
4. Wait for one minute.
5. If no rupture or traces of cracking or chipping of the material is found then the test is
passed. Otherwise it is failed.
6. Reduce the voltage to zero using the toggle switches and switch of the control panel.
7. Earth the HT apparatus.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before and after completion of the test, earth the apparatus using the earthing rod.
2. Ensure the gate is closed otherwise Control Panel cannot be switched ON.
3. Turn ON mains and keep key in ON position on the control panel otherwise the HV
transformer can’t be energized.
RESULT: One minute dry withstand test on insulator is conducted and the breakdown voltage is
observed as 17.8kV. Flashover is observed at 47.06kV.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is disruptive discharge voltage?
2. What is Flashover?
57
3. What is puncture?
4. What is withstanding voltage?
5. What are self restoring and Non self restoring insulation?
6. What are Type Test and Routine test?
7. What are the various High voltage tests done on insulations?
58
13. HIGH VOLTAGE TESTING OF CABLES

AIM: To conduct one minute dry withstanding test for cables.
APPARATUS:
1. Control panel
2. HV transformer
3. Cable
THEORY:
TESTING OF CABLES:
PREPARATION OF CABLE SAMPLE:
POWER FREQUENCY WITH STAND VOLTAGE TEST:
59
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
Power frequency one minute dry withstanding test
2. Using control panel apply voltage to the HVAC transformer till 1.6 times rated voltage of the
insulator and is read through voltmeter on control panel.
3. Wait for one minute.
4. If no puncher is found then the test is passed. Otherwise it is fail.
5. Reduce the voltage to zero to HVAC transformer and switch of the control panel.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before and after completion of the test earth the operators.
RESULT: One minute dry withstand test is conducted on a cable and the breakdown voltage is
18.27kV and Flashover is observed at 44.26kV.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What are the necessities of High Voltage Testing?
2. What is disruptive discharge voltage?
3. What is Flashover?
60
4. What is puncture?
5. What is withstanding voltage?
6. What are the various High voltage tests done on cables?
61
14. STUDY OF CORONA PHENOMENA

AIM: To observe the corona on given insulator.
APPARATUS:
1. Control panel
2. HV transformer
3. Insulator
THEORY:
CORONA: When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose
spacing is large as compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of
atmospheric air surrounding the wires if the applied voltage is low. However, when the appplied
voltage exceeds a certain value, called crical disruptive voltage, the conductors are surrounded
by a faint violet glow called corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone,

power loss and radio interference. The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the
luminous envelope becomes, and greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio noise. If the
applied voltage is incresed to break down value, a flash-over will occur between the conductors
due to the breakdown of air insulation.
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an
overhead transmission line is known as corona.
If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uniform throughout
the length of the conductors, otherwise the rough points will appear brighter. With d.c. voltage,
there is difference in the appearance of the two wires. The positive wire has uniform glow about
it, while the negative conductor has spotty glow.
CORONA FORMATION: Some ionization is always present in air due to cosmic rays, ultra
violet radiations and radio activity. Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around the
conductors contains some ionized particles (i.e., free electrons and positive ions) and neutral
molecules. When potential difference is applied between the conductors, potential gradient is set
up in the air which will have maximum value at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of
potential gradient, the existing free electrons acquire greater velocities. The greater the applied
voltage, the greater the potential gradient and more is the velocity of free electrons.
62
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30KV per cm
(maximum value), the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral
molecule with enough force to dislodge one or more electrons from it. This produces another ion
and one or more free electrons which is turn are accelerated until they collide with other neutral
molecules, thus producing other ions. Thus, the process of ionization is cumulative. The result of
this ionization is that either corona is formed or spark takes place between the conductors.
CRITICAL DISRUPTIVE VOLTAGE: It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona

occurs.
Consider two conductors of radii r cm and spaced d cm apart. If V is the phase-neutral

potential, then potential gradient at the conductor surface is given by:
In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the breakdown
strength of air at 76 cm pressure and temperature of 25o C is 30 KV/cm (max) or 21.2KV/cm
(r.m.s) and is denoted by go. If Vc is the phase-neutral potential required under these conditions,
then,
Where
go = breakdown strength of air at 76 cm of mercury and 25o C
= 30 KV/cm (max) or 21.2KV/cm (r.m.s)
The above expression for disruptive voltage is under standard conditions i.e., at 76 cm of Hg and
25o C.However, if these conditions vary, the air density also changes, thus altering the value of
go. The value of go directly proprotional to air density. Thus the break down strength of air at a
barometric pressure of b cm of mercury and temerature of to C becomes δgo where
63
Correction must also be made for the surface condition of the conductor. This is accounted for by
multiplying the above expression by irregularity factor mo.
VISUAL CRITICAL VOLTAGE: It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona glow
appears all along the line conductors.
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona glow does not begin at the
disruptive voltage vc but at higher voltage vv, called Visual critical voltage. The phase-neutral
effective value of visual critical voltage is given by the following empirical formula:
Where mv is another irregularity factor having a value of 1.0 for polished conductors and
0.72 to 0.82 for rough conductors.
FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA:
a) Atmosphere: During stormy or rainy weather corona occurs at much less voltage as compared
with fair weather. Because, ion density around the conductors is much more than that during fair
weather.
b) Conductor Size: The unevenness of the surface of the conductors decreases the breakdown
voltage. Because of this reason with low voltage the insulation will breakdown and create sparks
and corona. That’s why solid conductors are used mostly instead of stranded conductors to
reduce the corona.
64
c) Spacing between conductors: Larger the gap between the conductors lesser the corona.
d) Line voltage: Every line voltage has a limit. After that limit breakdown will occur and will
create corona and spark. So with the application of small line voltage possibility of occurring
corona is lesser.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PROCEDURE:
2. To set short-circuit time delay in the control panel.
3. Using control panel apply voltage to the HVAC transformer till hissing noise hearing
note down critical disruptive voltage.
4. Again increasing the apply voltage till visual the glow with hissing noise note down
visual critical voltage.
5. Again increasing the apply voltage till break down occur note down the break down
voltage.
6. Reduce the voltage to zero to HVAC transformer and switch of the control panel.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before and after completion of the test earth the operators.
2. Observe corona phenomena in short duration (in few seconds only)
RESULT: High voltage AC is applied across an insulator and the visual corona is observed at
43.03kV.
65
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define Corona phenomena?
2. What type of current drawing by the line during the affect of corona loss?
3. What are the advantages of corona loss?
4. How to minimize the corona loss?
5. What is critical disruptive voltage?
6. What is visual critical voltage?
66
15. STUDY OF SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT OF A SIMPLE POWER SYSTEM
Aim: To simulate and study a single line to ground fault of a simple power system using
MATLAB/SIMULINK
Apparatus:
1. PC
2. MATLAB Software
Theory: Fault studies on a power system cannot be avoided as the power system is exposed to
atmosphere, which is not under the control of human beings. To avoid damage to the
equipment and to have proper control of the power system, the faulty portion of the system
has to be quickly isolated. For design and choice of power system protection equipment and
switch gear, the fault levels of the system for various kinds of faults have to be known prior
to the erection of the lines. The fault studies are a tool for the engineer to study and calculate
various fault levels in the system.
The study of single line to ground fault on a simple power system is studied by
building a simple power system containing a generator connected to infinite bus through two
transmission lines. The fault is created on a transmission line and the change in voltage,
current and power at the buses can be studied. The simulation and modeling of the system
can be done on Simulink available in MATLAB.
Simulink is a block diagram environment for multi domain simulation and Model-
Based Design. It supports system-level design, simulation, automatic code generation, and
continuous test and verification of embedded systems. It is integrated with MATLAB, which
enables the user to incorporate MATLAB algorithms into models and export simulation
results to MATLAB for further analysis.
Circuit diagram:
67
Procedure:
1. Open MATLAB
2. Open simulink browser.
3. Create a new ‘.mdl’ file
4. Open ‘simpower systems library’.
5. Copy the required components on to the file from the library.
6. Build the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
7. Save and Run the simulation Model.
8. Observe the obtained plots and take a print out of the graphs.
Precautions:
1. Connections are to be made neatly without overlapping, so as to avoid confusion.
Output Wave forms with a LG Fault during 1.5-1.55 Sec:
Three Phase Voltages and Currents at Generator:
68
Three Phase Voltages and Currents at Fault Location:
Three Phase Voltages and Currents at Infinite Bus:
Result: A line to Ground fault has been simulated using SIMULINK and the waveforms are
obtained.
69
Viva-Voce:
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using MATLAB/Simulink for modeling and
simulation?
2. What are different kinds of faults in a power system? And what are their causes?
3. What is meant by short, medium and long transmission line? What are their approximate
lengths?
4. What is the effect of neutral grounding on the system voltages and fault current levels?
*************** ALL THE BEST ****************
70

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EEE DEPARTMENT POWER SYSTEMS LAB

V. R. SIDDHARTHA ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VIJAYAWADA

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS: Page No

1. Determination of ABCD parameters using Transmission line model 2

1. DETERMINATION OF ABCD PARAMETERS USING

AIM: To determine ABCD parameters of transmission line using nominal π method.

NAME PLATE DETAILS

S.No. Equipment Type Range Qty

Open circuit test:

1 short 230 10 230

2 Nominal –T 230 40 240

3 Nominal- π 230 30 240

Short circuit test:

S.No. Connection VS(V) IS(A) IR(A)

3 Nominal- π 190 4 3.8

From open circuit test:

From short circuit test :

Check for AD-BC=1

Short Nominal - T Nominal - π

1. Check the connections before giving the supply.

1. What are the A, B, C and D parameters?

2. REGULATION AND EFFICIENCY OF TRANSMISSION LINES

(INCLUDING FERRANTI EFFECT)

NAME PLATE DETAILS

Three Phase Transmission Line Model: EHV, 360km

1. EHVAC Transmission line Simulator of 360km.

Percentage voltage Regulation of Transmission line: the difference between the no

Transmission line simulator: The transmission line simulator model is designed to

1. Interconnect through patch cards, the generating station panel, Transmission

Load Generating station parameters Receiving station parameters

3. (a). CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER CURRENT RELAY

AIM: To study the characteristics of an over current relay (Inverse type)

Figure1: Direct loading

Current Setting =2.5A Current Setting =3.75A

S.No IL(A) T(Sec) S.No IL(A) T(Sec)

Current Setting =3.75A Current Setting =3.75A

Graph: A graph is drawn between time Vs Load current.

1. SPST should be closed initially

CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER CURRENT RELAY

1. What is meant by Time Setting of a relay?

3 (b). CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH FAULT RELAY

Internal Diagram of Earth Fault Relay: Theory

Current Setting =1A Current Setting =1.5A

Current Setting =1.5A Current Setting =1.5A

CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTH FAULT RELAY

1. What is meant by Time Setting of a relay?

4. CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER VOLTAGE RELAY

Aim: To obtain the characteristics of Over Voltage Relay

S. No Equipment Type Range Quantity

The over/under voltage relay is used for the protection of alternators,

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

Observation Table 1: Operating Characteristics with voltage setting=241.5V

Operating Time (sec) for Operating Time (sec) for

Observation Table 2: Operating Characteristics with voltage setting=253 V

Operating Time (sec) Operating Time (sec) for

Relay over Voltage in multipliers of pick-up

CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER VOLTAGE RELAY

Characteristics with Voltage Setting = 241.5V (105% of 230V)

Characteristics with voltage setting=253 V (110% of 230V)

1. What are the applications of over voltage relays?

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF DEFINITE TIME REVERSE POWER RELAY

Aim: To draw characteristics of reverse power relay

S. No. Equipment Type Range Qty