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Culture Documents
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Saeed PDF
Wastewater Treatment
and Disposal
2nd Edition
Our Parents
v
Foreword
It is my earnest privilege to present this book titled Environmental Sanitation, Wastewater
Treatment and Disposal from the University Grants Commission, Bangladesh (UGC).
The explosion of population has exerted undue pressure on the environment and its
resources, a problem which is more severe for developing countries due to their limited
resources in providing adequate sanitation, handling of wastes and wastewater generated
and preventing pollution. This book offers primarily theoretical concepts in
environmental sanitation, treatment of wastewater and water pollution, that form a core
part of the curricula for civil/civil and environmental engineering discipline at the
undergraduate and postgraduate levels. A comprehensive textbook to address these issues
in the undergraduate and postgraduate curricula was critically necessary, and this book
certainly fills up that void to some extent. With the emergence of civil and environmental
engineering disciplines in different universities around the country, I believe that this
book will receive its due credit. Apart from that, postgraduate research students in
environmental engineering, and practicing environmental engineers in relevant fields will
also find the contents of this book useful as reference materials.
The authors of the book are three young professionals in the field of environmental
engineering working as faculty members in different universities. I wholeheartedly admire
their courage and enthusiasm in embarking on this tedious journey to write this textbook.
The University Grants Commission of Bangladesh has a long history for promoting research
and publication works from scholars in Bangladesh and therefore, is pleased to promote such
an endeavour from the young authors. From my point of view, the real beneficiaries are the
thousands of students studying in this field in various universities in the country. It is my
belief that the students as well as the respected peers will appreciate their effort.
The University Grants Commission of Bangladesh is happy to publish the book. I expect that
the book will be of immense benefit to the students, researchers and teachers of relevant
fields. I express my sincere thanks to the officers and staff of the Publication Section of the
UGC for their strenuous efforts in publishing the book.
vii
Preface
This text book has been designed to cover the curricula of undergraduate and postgraduate
environmental engineering and related courses that are generally offered by the Civil
Engineering Departments of the technological universities in Bangladesh. More specifically,
this book covers several sub divisions of environmental engineering, such as sanitation
engineering, wastewater (municipal and industrial) treatment technologies, water pollution
control that are usually taught at the 3rd or 4th level of the undergraduate programs or as
core courses in the postgraduate level.
This book is comprised of 12 chapters covering a wide range of topics related to sanitation,
wastewater treatment, disposal and water pollution. Chapter 1 gives a brief description on
the importance of sanitation, wastewater treatment and safe disposal, with an aim to provide
the reader a scope to think about the necessity of sustainable environmental solutions for the
country. Chapter 2 describes engineered sanitation technologies in context of Bangladesh.
Chapters 3-7 describe municipal wastewater transportation into treatment plants, and
different treatment stages for achieving safe disposal criteria. Several design examples have
also been included in these chapters to allow the students, as well as the professionals for
developing a clear understanding of the design process of treatment plants. Chapter 8
describes different approaches to provide treatment of industrial wastewater. Two case
studies on the treatment of tannery and textile wastewater (i.e. major sources of water
pollution in Bangladesh) have been included in this chapter, with an aim to giving the reader
a conceptual view for preventing water pollution from such sectors in Bangladesh. Chapter 9
includes a brief description on sludge treatment (for safe disposal), generated from
wastewater treatment plants. Chapter 10 focuses on low-cost natural treatment
technologies, such as ponds and constructed wetlands. Chapter 11 gives a brief description
on the factors associated with water pollution. Several case studies regarding water pollution
analysis and control have been incorporated in this chapter which will allow the reader to
acquire an in-depth knowledge on such factors. Finally Chapter 12 gives brief information
and required guidelines for the construction, operation and maintenance of decentralized
wastewater treatment systems.
During the writing phase, we received feedbacks and suggestions from national and
international experts and professionals. We are greatly indebted to them for their useful
comments, that helped us enrich the quality and content of this book. We are grateful to the
University Grants Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh, for making the publication of this
book possible. Despite our wholehearted effort there may be some inaccuracies or mistakes
for which we are wholly responsible. We would be extremely grateful if you let us know by e-
mail when you detect any such errors in the text.
We are also indebted to our colleagues, friends and family members who supported us during
the stressful writing period. Finally, we would like to express our gratitude to our parents for
showing us the light of knowledge throughout our life. This book is dedicated to our parents.
ix
Table of Contents
Page
Forward vii
Preface ix
Tables of Contents xi
List of Abbreviations xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Environmental Sanitation 3
1.2 Wastewater Engineering 5
1.3 Wastewater Characteristics: Physical, Chemical and Biological 6
1.4 Fate of Major Environmental Contaminants 7
1.5 Organization of the Book 9
2 Sanitation 13
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 International Commitments and the Global Sanitation Scenario 15
2.3 Disease Transmission Pathways and the Impact of Sanitation on 18
Public Health
2.4 Benefits of Improving Access to Sanitation 21
2.5 Hygienic Latrine 22
2.6 Challenges in Sanitation 22
2.7 Sanitation and Waste Categorization 24
2.8 Sanitation Technologies 27
2.9 Major Sanitation Technologies 30
2.10 Water Carriage Systems 36
2.11 Handwashing Facilities 38
2.12 People’s role in Latrine Construction 38
3 Sewer Systems 45
3.1 Wastewater Collection Systems 47
3.2 Classification of Sewers 48
3.3 Sewage Quantity 48
3.4 Sewer Velocity 51
3.5 Materials of Sewage Pipes 55
3.6 Sewer Appurtenances 55
3.7 Sewer Construction and Maintenance 57
3.8 Septic System 59
xi
3.9 Small Bore Sewer Systems 66
3.10 Wastewater Production and Sanitation Coverage in Dhaka 70
3.11 On-site Sanitation Technologies of Dhaka: Septic Tanks 71
3.12 Sewerage System of Dhaka 74
3.13 Pagla Sewerage Treatment Plant 75
3.14 Upgrading Sewerage Systems of Dhaka 77
xii
7.2 Nitrification Theory 188
7.3 Denitrification Theory 192
7.4 Aerobic-Anoxic Reactors for Nitrification-Denitrification 193
7.5 New Nitrogen Removal Routes 195
7.6 Removal of Phosphorus 201
7.7 Chemical Precipitation of Phosphorus 201
7.8 Biological Phosphorus Removal 205
7.9 Optimization of Biological Phosphorus Removal 209
7.10 Design of Activated Sludge Processes for Simultaneous Organics 209
Degradation and Nitrification
7.11 Metals Removal 213
xiii
10.10 Design Guidelines for the Wetland Systems 288
10.11 Modelling of Nitrogen and Organics Removal in VSSF and 291
HSSF Systems
10.12 Floating Treatment Wetland: An Innovative Natural Treatment 294
System
10.13 Pollutant Removal Mechanisms in Floating Wetlands 296
Appendix 371
xiv
List of Abbreviations
ABR Anaerobic Baffled Reactor
ANAMMOX Anaerobic Ammonium Oxidation
BABE Bio-Augmentation Batch Enhanced
BCFS Biological Chemical Phosphate Nitrogen Removal
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
CANON Completely Autotrophic Nitrogen Removal Over Nitrite
CBFP Continuous Belt Filter Presses
CETP Central Effluent Treatment Plant
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CSTR Continuous Flow Stirred Tank Reactor
DAF Dissolved Air Floatation
DCC Dhaka City Corporation
DEAMMOX Denitrifying Ammonium Oxidation
DO Dissolved Oxygen
DoE Department of Environment
DPAO Denitrifying Phosphate Accumulating Organisms
DPHE Department of Public Health Engineering
DWASA Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority
DWWT Decentralized Wastewater Treatment
EQS Effluent Quality Standards
ETP Effluent Treatment Plant
FSS Fixed Suspended Solid
GoB Government of Bangladesh
HCB Hexa Chloro Benzene
HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
HSSF Horizontal Sub Surface Flow
KW Kilo Watt
LDPE Low Density Poly Ethylene
MDG Millennium Development Goal
ML Million Liter
MLD Million Liter Per Day
MLSS Mixed Liquor Suspended Solid
MLVSS Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solid
NTU Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
PAO Phosphate Accumulating Organisms
PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyl
PE Population Equivalent
xv
PF Plug Flow
POP Persisting Organic Pollutants
RAS Returned Activated Sludge
RBC Rotating Biological Contactors
ROEC Reed Odourless Earth Closet
SBR Sequencing Batch Reactor
SDI Sludge Density Index
SHARON Single Reactor for High Activity Ammonium Removal Over Nitrite
SOR Surface Overflow Rate
SS Sanitation Secretariat
STP Sewerage Treatment Plant
SVI Sludge Volume Index
TDS Total Dissolved Solid
TKN Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
TN Total Nitrogen
TP Total Phosphorus
TS Total Solids
TSS Total Suspended Solids
UASB Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
UPVC Unplasticized Poly Vinyl Chloride
VIP Ventilated Improved Pit
VSS Volatile Suspended Solid
VSSF Vertical Sub Surface Flow
WAS Waste Activated Sludge
WSSD Water Supply and Sanitation Decade
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant
xvi
1
Chapter
Introduction
Environmental engineering is concerned with the protection of the environment and
CHAPTER 1
natural resources. Environmental engineering imparts special attention on biological,
chemical and physical reactions of contaminants in air, land and water, and focuses on
developing improved technologies for minimizing the adverse impacts of such
components on the environment.
The people who are professionally involved with environmental engineering discipline, are
referred as environmental engineers. However, the descriptive title "environmental
engineer" was not used until the 1960s, when academic programs in engineering and public
health schools broadened their scope, and required a more accurate title to describe the
people practising this discipline. The roots of this profession, however, go back as far as
recorded history reaching into several major disciplines including civil engineering, sanitary
and wastewater engineering, public health, ecology, chemistry, and meteorology.
Sanitation, wastewater treatment and impact of pollutants on aquatic environments – all
interrelated subdivisions within the environmental engineering discipline, are subjected to
intensive research worldwide due to their rigorous impact on environmental sustainability.
In Bangladesh, their impact on environment is severe, and currently gaining attention in
both government and public sectors. As such, this chapter provides a brief summary on these
topics, with an aim to provide the reader a scope to think about the necessity of sustainable
environmental solutions for the country. Section 1.1 provides current scenario of sanitation
practices in Bangladesh, and their impact on the environment. Sections 1.2-1.4 deliver the
basic knowledge on wastewater treatment theory, and fate of major pollutants in aquatic
environments. Finally, section 1.5 assists the readers, in terms of understanding the scope
and contents of this book.
Introduction 3
Table 1.1 provides a brief comparison of sanitation progress (i.e. hygienic latrine coverage)
CHAPTER 1
Sub-Saharan Africa
South Asia
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Figure 1.1 Population distribution (%) without sanitation access throughout the
world in the year 2010 (GMR, 2013).
100% 2%
11% 8% 12% 15%
90% 4%
80% 34%
58% 50% 31% 26% 58%
70% 37%
60% 0%
5%
50% 36%
16% 86% 9%
40% 4% 5%
10% 14% 6%
30% 0% 59%
52%
20% 36%
28% 27% 30% 31%
10%
0%
an
h
an
an
a
s
l
di
ve
nk
es
pa
ist
ist
ut
In
d
di
ila
Ne
Bh
k
an
la
al
Pa
Sr
ng
M
gh
Ba
Af
It is evident from Table 1.1 that a large number of population in Bangladesh are associated
with unsanitary systems, such as unhygienic latrine and open defecation. Even the
households in rural and slum areas, where sanitary facilities are available, children rarely use
them due to lack of health education. In addition, the generated faecal sludge from these
latrines are often discharged into open water bodies, thereby posing severe environmental
CHAPTER 1
Secretariat (SS) and other organizations.
threats (Rahman and Bache, 1993). According to Rahman and Bache (1993), slum
wastewater (in Bangladesh) comprises substantial pollutants (eg. BOD5 = 400-1700 mg/L,
suspended solids = 500-3000 mg/L), which can pose severe threats to the surrounding
environment. Such findings indicate the necessity of adequate wastewater transportation
and treatment systems, prior to environmental disposal in Bangladesh.
Introduction 5
CHAPTER 1
Screening
Preliminary treatment
Comminutor
Equalization
Primary sedimentation
Secondary
clarifier Disinfection
Secondary sludge
management
Tertiary sludge
management
In Bangladesh, the only sewerage system has been developed and maintained by Dhaka
Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA) to serve the inhabitants of the nation’s
capital. However, the sewerage network has a very small coverage (only 18% of the city, and
25% of the population) and the treatment plant of DWASA is not adequate for the treatment
of sewage to a satisfactory level. The overloading of the existing treatment plant and
uncontrolled discharge of wastewater into the surrounding water bodies are severely
degrading the aquatic environment of Bangladesh.
CHAPTER 1
been illustrated in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Classification and sources of common wastewater pollutants.
Introduction 7
microorganisms is bound by physical or chemical attraction to suspended sediments and
CHAPTER 1
metal ions, making it unavailable to most aquatic organisms. Nitrogen, another major
pollutant, is oxidized through a series of steps in the progression:
DEAD
ORGANICS
Proteins AEROBIC
DECOMPOSITION
Proteins
Figure 1.4 Aerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles (De Camp 1963).
Proteins ANAEROBIC
DECOMPOSITION
Proteins
Figure 1.5 Anaerobic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur cycles (De Camp 1963).
The removal mechanisms of various heavy metals (from wastewater) such as: arsenic (As),
cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), zinc (Zn) etc. are achieved via chemical
precipitation, ion-exchange, adsorption, coagulation, electro-coagulation and reverse
osmosis. In precipitation process, metal salts are converted into insoluble form, by adding
correct anions; the process requires addition of other chemicals. An ion exchanger is a solid
that is capable of exchanging either cations or anions from the surrounding materials;
commonly used matrices for ion exchange are synthetic organic ion exchange resins.
Electro-coagulation is an electrochemical method that uses an electrical current to remove
metals from solution. The contaminants present in wastewater are maintained in solution by
electrical charges. When these ions and other charged particles are neutralized with ions of
opposite electrical charges provided by electro-coagulation system, they become
destabilized and precipitate in a stable form. Reverse osmosis involves the use of semi-
permeable membranes for the recovery of metal ions from wastewater.
Introduction 9
provides information on available technologies for sludge treatment, generated from
CHAPTER 1
Source of wastes
domestic/municipal
/industrial
improper
treatmant
CHAPTER 1
1. Write short notes on: (a) environmental engineering; and (b) environmental engineers.
2. Explain the current scenario of sanitation systems in Bangladesh.
3. Provide a block diagram of wastewater treatment stages.
4. Distinguish between aerobic and anaerobic fate of major pollutants in environment.
Introduction 11
Reference
CHAPTER 1
Ahmed, M.F. and Rahman, M.M. 2000. Water Supply & Sanitation. Published by ITN- Bangladesh, BUET,
Dhaka.
De Camp, L. S. 1963. The Ancient Engineers. New York, Doubleday.
GMR 2013, Global Monitoring Report, World Bank Database 2013.
Rahman, M. H. and D. H. Bache. 1993. Bound Water Content of Digested Sludge. Resource Management
and Technology, 21(3), 142 - 148.
WHO. 2008. Sanitation (SACOSAN 2008). New Delhi, India.
Sanitation
2.1 Introduction
Adequate sanitation is defined as the safe management of human excreta and includes both
‘hardware’ (sanitation technologies, such as toilets and hygienic latrines) and ‘software’
(hygiene promotion, such as hand washing with soap). Inadequate provision of sanitation is
CHAPTER 2
directly and indirectly related to the communicable diseases, health risk, poor health and
environmental pollution. Inadequate sanitation facilities and poor hygiene practice can
cause continued transmission of disease through several routes even after safe water supply is
secured at the point of use. If we consider, faeces as the source of pollution in the
environment, there are several pathways (e.g. ingestion through drinking water, food and
utensils, host intermediates, direct contact) through which contaminants can reach humans
and cause diseases(Figure 2.1). Sanitation is considered the first line of defense (primary
intervention) for the protection of the quality of the environment and control of all diseases.
Sanitation facilities, in the form of proper treatment and disposal of all forms of wastes both
liquid and solid including human excreta, interrupt the transmission of faecal pollution to
the environment (air, water and soil). Sanitation include all off-site or on-site waste/
wastewater treatment options the goal of which is to retain and confine materials of faecal
origin for a very long time, stabilize the organic matter through aerobic or anaerobic
processes eventually causing the destruction of pathogens.
THE ENVIRONMENT
SECONDARY INTERVENTION
PRIMARY INTERVENTION
Water Supply
P O P U L A T I O N
Vegetables
(Water, Air, Soil)
FAECES
[FOCUS OF Foods & Utensils
POLLUTION]
Intermediate
Host, Insects
Figure 2.1: Transmission routes of pollution and diseases in the human environment and
their intervention options.
Sanitation 15
period, the international community set a target of achieving 100% coverage in water supply
and sanitation by 1990. It was an ambitious target and progress over the decade could not
keep up with population growth. By 2000, the World Health Organization estimated that 1.1
billion people still lacked access to a safe water supply, but over twice as many people, 2.4
CHAPTER 2
billion lacked access to basic sanitation. Development agencies believe the new sanitation
target agreed at the WSSD is more realistic, but still presents a significant challenge. The
World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, in September
2002, greatly emphasized on safe water and sanitation and urged that the population without
sanitation in developing countries be reduced to half by the year 2015. In 2010, the United
Nations General Assembly and the UN Human Rights Council recognized access to safe
drinking-water and sanitation as a human right. The UN General Assembly proclaims the
period from 2005-2015 the International Decade for Action, “Water for Life”, to commence
on World Water Day, 2005. It is an international drive with focus on water related issue at all
levels to meet many of the 2015 Millennium Development Goals MDGs1)- particularly
MDG 7, target 10, which calls for the world to halve the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. This provides an international
commitment for an integrated approach to sanitation, water supply, and hygiene promotion.
It is recognised that delivering the new sanitation target will require considerable political
will together with significant financial, technical, and human resources.
Since 1990, almost 1.9 billion people have gained access to an improved sanitation facility
(JMP, 2013). By the end of 2011, there were 2.5 billion people who lacked access to an
improved sanitation facility. Of these, 761 million use public or shared sanitation facilities
and another 693 million use facilities that do not meet minimum standards of hygiene
(unimproved sanitation facilities). The remaining 1 billion (15% of the world population)
still practise open defecation. (JMP, 2013) The world remains off track to meet the
Millennium Development Goal (MDG) sanitation target, which requires reducing the
proportion of people without access from 51% in 1990, to 25% by 2015.Fulfilling this target
remains a substantial challenge. Unless the pace of change in the sanitation sector can be
accelerated, the MDG target may not be reached until 20262.
Box 2.1
Status of Sanitation in Bangladesh
In Bangladesh, much attention was given to provide ample safe drinking water to the
people for health promotion during the last few decades but unfortunately sanitation did
not receive equal attention. As a result, the population coverage by proper sanitation
remains low. Although rate of diarrhoeal mortality has decreased significantly (due to
improved clinical interventions), the incidence of diarrhoea still remains high. The
strategy of providing safe water without adequate sanitation has failed to create expected
health impact in Bangladesh. Consequently Bangladesh is not on track in achieving the
1
The United Nations Millennium Summit agreed a set of time-bound and measurable goals called Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) aimed at combating poverty, hunger, illiteracy, child mortality, environmental degradation
and discrimination against women.
2
http://www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/sanitation.shtml.
CHAPTER 2
facilities (e.g. public toilets) as such. Bangladesh has made improvements in the coverage
of both ‘improved sanitation’ and ‘shared facilities’ in the last two decades and if
combined together, it may have reached the MDG targets. According to experts, with the
stringent definition for ‘improved sanitation’, it will be hard to achieve MDG targets for a
densely populated country like Bangladesh where in many urban slums, having
individual toilet facilities is quite an impractical proposal. In such cases, shared facility is
the best possible option that can be provided.
28
60 16
40 17
57
20
33
0
1990 2000 2012
Open defecation
Other unimproved facilities
Shared facilities
Improved facilities
Figure: Sanitation coverage in Bangladesh (JMP, 2014) As per JMP definition, Flush or
pour-flush toilets (to Piped sewer system, Septic tank and pit latrine), Pit latrine,
Ventilated Improved Pit-latrine, Pit latrine with slab and Composting toilet together
comprise of improved sanitation. Unimproved sanitation include Flush or pour-flush
to elsewhere, Pit latrine without slab or open pit, Bucket, Hanging toilet or hanging
latrines and no facilities or bush or field (i.e. open defecation). Shared latrines (public
toilets) are also considered as unimproved as they require travel, waiting time or a
fee in the case of sanitation.
Sanitation 17
2.3 Disease Transmission Pathways and the Impact of
Sanitation on Public Health
Inadequate sanitation can cause several diseases, which are transmitted from faeces to
human through contaminated hands, soil, water, animals and insects (Figure 2.2). Water
CHAPTER 2
and excreta borne diseases can be classified into various groups via:
Ÿ Water related infections can be of following types -
Ÿ Water borne
Ÿ Water washed
Ÿ Water based
Ÿ Insect vector route
Ÿ Excreta related infections can be of following types -
Ÿ Transmission via infected excreta
Ÿ Transmission by an excreta related insect vector.
Ÿ Water and excreta related infections
Health Risks
Water related infections. Water related diseases are those that in some gross way related to
unclean environment and impurities in water. Water related disease may be broadly divided
into those caused by a biological agents (pathogens), and those caused by some toxic
chemical substances in water. The first group is called the water related infections which is
most common in developing countries. However, second group is also slowly gaining
importance in Bangladesh, particularly due to rapid industrial development and
urbanization.
There are four transmission routes that are water related:
Water- borne route: Water-borne transmission occurs when a pathogen is present in water
which when drunk by a person he/she gets infected. Potentially water-borne diseases
include the classical infections, like cholera and typhoid, but also include a wide range of
other diseases, such as infective hepatitis, some diarrheas and dysenteries.
CHAPTER 2
Water-based route: A water-based diseases are ones in which the pathogen spends a part of
its life-cycle in a water snail or other aquatic animal. All these diseases are due to infection by
parasitic worms (Helmenthses) which depend on the aquatic intermediate hosts to
complete their life-cycles. Important examples are schistosomiasis and Guinea worm.
Insect Vector route: The fourth route is via insects that either breed in water or bite near
water, eg. Malaria, yellow fever, dengue etc.
Excreta- related infections. Excreta-related infections are ones that are related to human
excreta (meaning urine and faeces). Two transmission mechanisms that are excreta related
are:
Ÿ Transmission via infected excreta:The pathogen is released into the environment in
the faeces or urine of an infected individual.
Ÿ Transmission by an excreta- related insect vector:An insect that visits excreta to
breed or feed may mechanically carry the pathogens to food.
Water and excreta related infections. The water and excreta related classifications are
overlapping because many water-related infections are excreta related and most excreta-
related infections are water-related. Some examples are:
Ÿ The Diarrhea- causing infections and enteric fevers
Ÿ Viral Diseases
Ÿ Worms with no intermediate host
Ÿ Worms with intermediate stages in the pig or cow
Ÿ Worms with aquatic intermediate stage
Ÿ Water borne re-infection
Ÿ Skin and eye infections and louse-borne infections
Ÿ The infections transmitted by water-related insects
The following table 2.1 summarizes the water and excreta related infections and their
transmission pathways:
Table 2.1 Transmission routes of water and waste related diseases.
Sanitation 19
Diseases Transmission Route
Enteric Fever :
ŸTyphoid
ŸPara-typhoid
CHAPTER 2
Worm Infection with no They must remain in a suitable environment (usually warm, moist
intermediate host soil) for 5-6 week before they become infectious re-infect by oral
ŸAscariasis (round worm) route (ingesting food). Hookworm larvae cause re-infection by
ŸPinworm penetrating the unbroken skin, usually of the foot.
ŸHookworm
The adult worms live in the
Infected Soil Susceptible
human intestine, and their Person Person
eggs or larvae are passed in
the faeces
Vegetable
food
c. Worm Infection with Eggs present in the faeces are eaten by a cow or pig following which
animal host: they hatch and form encysted larvae in the muscle, tongue, liver, or
ŸTape Worm other sites. Humans are re-infected by eating inadequately cooked
The beef and pork tapeworms beef or pork containing cysts.
are parasites. The adult
worms live in the intestine of Infected Susceptible
Soil Animal Food
humans. Person Person
CHAPTER 2
ŸDengue & Yellow Fever
ŸKalazar
ŸFilariasis
ŸSleeping sickness
Sanitation provides a barrier to faecal diseases, by isolating human excreta and removing
traces of faecal material from hands after contact. The following diseases can largely be
prevented with basic sanitation and hygiene:
Ÿ Diarrhea, that causes an estimated two million deaths per year, mostly among
children under the age of five.
Ÿ Cholera.
Ÿ Schistosomiasis (bilharzia), which infects 100 million people per year, of which 20
million people suffer severe consequences. Improved water and sanitation may
reduce it by ~77%.
Ÿ Trachoma causes blindness in 6-9 million people per year. Access to sanitation may
reduce it by ~25%.
Ÿ Intestinal worms infect about a third of the population in developing countries;
improved sanitation would control their transmission.
Ÿ Hookworms cause malnutrition. Using concrete slabs to cover pit latrines can
prevent them from being transmitted to humans.
Sanitation 21
Ÿ gender – without access to household sanitation women and girls face safety and
dignity issues. They may only be able to defecate at certain times to ensure privacy
and/or avoid harassment and sexual assault. Lack of school sanitation is a barrier to
girls enrolling and staying at school, especially during menstruation.
Ÿ poverty elimination and economic growth – illness and death from poor sanitation
CHAPTER 2
results in lost economic activity, which reduces household income and the
productivity of the local economy. The contamination of rivers and aquifers from
human excreta can also damage agricultural production and tourism, which can
impact national economies.
Ÿ water supply – when human excreta enters a drinking water supply, it compromises
safety. Improving sanitation and hygiene practices maximises the benefit of
investments in water supply.
CHAPTER 2
Sanitation
Institutional
Technology
capacity
important in shaping government policy and investment priorities, and in implementing the
programmes required to meet the target.
Financing. Sanitation’s public health and environmental benefits make it a public good, but
sanitation is also a private good at the household level. Until recently, most countries and
donor agencies treated sanitation only as a public good that could not be provided by the
market, and which needed to be subsidised to provide greater incentives to expand coverage.
Inappropriate targeting of government subsidies has, however, affected government plans
for increasing access to sanitation, as subsidies did not reach those who needed them most.
In response, a demand approach to sanitation was developed. Most of the financing for
meeting the target is likely to come from users of the facilities, either through their
purchasing of materials and providing labour, or through cost recovery schemes. Low
interest bank loans are one option to help to ensure that poor families can generate enough
money to purchase adequate sanitation facilities. Some NGOs and community groups have
resisted full cost recovery for basic services to poor people, as they see this as exacerbating
poverty, but others note that many basic services are already paid by users.
Technology transfer and innovation. There are a number of known sanitation technology
options that are appropriate in many different contexts in developing countries. To facilitate
the appropriate transfer of technologies, there is a need for information to be disseminated to
local decision-makers as well as the technical capacity to adapt them to local circumstances.
This requires both networks for information exchange and skilled technicians to design and
market locally appropriate sanitation solutions. One way of increasing local capacity for
technical innovation is to assist developing countries’ institutions to adapt solutions to suit
local conditions. Some locations may require innovative solutions, for example in wetland
areas where groundwater contamination is an issue, or, in extremely poor areas, where
technologies might need to be altered to be more affordable. Technical innovation can also
aid sanitation suppliers by improving their products and incorporating local materials and
building practices into the design of new technologies.
Sanitation 23
Institutional capacity. Sanitation programmes need planners, decision-makers, and sector
professionals who are trained in evaluating different approaches to providing, operating and
maintaining sanitation. However, many point to a severe shortage of engineers and field
workers to provide the technical and social scientific skills to develop sanitation
CHAPTER 2
programmes. This shortage could jeopardise efforts to meet the sanitation target.
Historically the sanitation sector has been divided between different government agencies
such as health, water, and education. This has led to poor coordination. Some point out that
meeting the sanitation target and sustaining its progress require an increase in the capacity
and accountability of the public sector to promote, coordinate and regulate sanitation
provision. The private sector, mainly in the form of local enterprises, but also including large
corporations, has a role in improving access to sanitation. Local small scale suppliers who
deliver sanitation products to consumers include local masons, builders and market owners.
Individuals entering the sanitation sector may need help and training to provide effective
sanitation services to households. The banking sector could also play an important role in
providing low cost loans for sanitation improvements.
CHAPTER 2
sludge sludge
Total solid, TS (mg/L) 52,500 12,000– 35,000 Koné and Strauss (2004).
30,000 22,000 NWSC (2008).
≥3.5% <3% 1% Heinss et al. (1998).
nutrients, grease and also organic micro pollutants (Table 2.3) from household chemicals
and pharmaceuticals that may be present due to urine contamination (Elmitwalli and
Otterpohl, 2007; Eriksson et al., 2009; Li et al., 2009). Kitchen grey water contains a higher
level of COD and total suspended solids (TSS) than grey water from the bathroom and
laundry (Li et al.,2009). It has a nutrient content close to the COD:N:P ratio of 100:20:1
(Metcalf and Eddy, 2003) while other streams of grey water have low concentrations of
nitrogen and phosphorus. The nutrient content is a limiting factor in application of
conventional biological treatment processes for grey water treatment (Jefferson et al.,
2001). Typically, all grey water types have a good biodegradability as indicated by their
BOD5 :COD ratio which is close to 0.5 (Knerr et al., 2008; Li et al., 2009).
Solid waste. Solid waste management is one of the major problems to the environment and
to public health faced by developing countries. The growth of cities in developing countries
Sanitation 25
CHAPTER 2
26
Table 2.3 Characteristics of grey water.
CHAPTER 2
countries, less than 50% of the solid waste generated in urban areas is collected centrally by
the municipalities and private sector with limited recycling or recovery of recyclable
materials (Jingura and Matengaifa, 2009; Okot-Okumu and Nyenje, 2011). This is a missed
opportunity for resource recovery, economic benefits, and to reduce the waste quantities
disposed in landfills. The substantial amount of solid waste that remains uncollected is likely
to result in environmental pollution and negative public health effects (Bhatia and Gurnani,
1996). Solid waste generated in urban slums has a large portion that is organic (Table2.4).
Poor management of organic solid waste can lead to emission of methane from solid waste
dumps as well as leaching of nutrients, micro-pollutants and organic matter to the natural
environment. The increasing volume of solid waste generated with varying characteristics
calls for a system approach from source separation to treatment options that promote
resource recovery and finally disposal to a landfill of solely the inert fraction for which at the
time no useful application can be found.
Table 2.4 Composition of municipal solid waste in developing countries.
Composition (%)
Solid waste
type Henry et al. KCC Ogwueleka Rajabapaiah Sharholy et al.
(2006) (2006) (2009) (1998) (2007)
Food residues 53 74 76 65 45.3
Paper 16.8 11 6.6 8 3.6
Textile 2.6 1 1.4 2.2
Plastic 12.6 12 4 6 2.9
Grass/wood 5.6 – – 7
Leather 1 – – –
Rubber 1.5 – – –
Glass 2 2 3 6 0.7
Metal 2.3 0.4 2.5 3 2.5
Other waste (leather, 2.6 0.4 6.5 5 42.8
rubber, cardboard, wood,
bricks, ash and soil)
Adapted from Katukiza, A., Y. (2012).
Sanitation 27
A sanitation system is complete when it has a defined flow stream for each of the products.
Technologies and institutional aspects complement each other in the collection, transport,
treatment and disposal or reuse of the waste. The settlement dynamics in urban slums have
triggered new thinking because improved onsite sanitation will still play a key role in the
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
gradients.
Dry systems. In dry systems no water is used for the dilution of the waste. They are usually
applied in unsewered areas with no piped water supply, e.g., pit latrine systems (on-site) and
bucket latrine systems (off-site).
Wet systems. In the wet system the waste is diluted with flushes of water. Wet systems are
suitable where piped water supply systems are available, e.g., septic tank systems (on-site)
and conventional sewerage systems (off-site).
Sometimes a sanitation system can be classified as either permeable or confined depending
on whether the system allows infiltration. Confined systems do not allow infiltration of the
liquid portion of the wastes into the ground, e.g., aqua privies, septic tanks etc. In the
unconfined or permeable system the liquid part of the wastes is allowed to infiltrate, causing
potential pollution of the groundwater, e.g., pit latrines.
Sanitation systems may be considered as a combination of several components of unit
operations and processes. Each component may imply several different alternatives for
1. Overhung latrine 8. Pour flush latrine, soakaway 14. Low-volume cistern-flush, 17. Conventional 18. Vault and vacuum
2. Trench latrine 9. Pour flush latrine, aquaprivy, soakaway or sewer sewerage tank
3. Pit latrine soakaway 15. Low-volume cistern-flush, 19. Vault, manual
4. Reed odorless earth 10. Pour flush, septic tank, vult aquaprivy, soakaway or removal, truck or
closet 11. Sullage-flush, aquaprivy, sewer cart
5. Ventilated improved pit soakaway 16. Low-volume cistern-flush, 20. Bucket latrine
latrine 12. Sullage-flush, septic tank, septic tank, soakaway or 21. Mechanical bucket
6. Batch composting soakaway sewer latrine
latrine 13. Conventional septic tank
7. Continuous-composting
latrine
Sanitation 29
choice of unit operation and/ or facility. Thus, a sanitation system can be combined in many
ways. For instance, effluents from septic tanks can be disposed of into a soakage pit where
feasible or can be connected to a small bore sewer system for off-site treatment and disposal.
Figure 2.4 illustrates the categorization of sanitation technologies.
CHAPTER 2
Pit latrines should also have an upper part, called the superstructure, to provide protection
from the rain and sun, and privacy and comfort for the user. Pit latrines can have a single pit or
CHAPTER 2
sealed for a period of 6–9 months, during which time the waste will decompose and any
pathogenic microorganisms will die. After this period, the material (humus soil) in the first
pit can be taken out manually. Humus or humic substance is used to describe organic matter
that has been stabilised by decomposition processes. It is safe to handle and readily used as
fertiliser in agriculture or can be disposed of safely. This is the main principle of ecological
sanitation.
In general, pit latrines with a slab isolate human excreta from the surrounding environment
and prevent the transmission of faeco-orally transmitted diseases. They also have other
advantages:
Ÿ They do not require water so are appropriate in areas where there is no adequate
water supply.
Ÿ Squatting is normal to many people and thus is acceptable to users.
Ÿ Alternating double pits will allow the excreta to drain, degrade and transform into a
nutrient-rich, safe humic material that can be used to improve soils.
Ÿ They avoid contamination of surface water and top soil if properly installed and
maintained.
Ÿ They can be constructed with minimum cost using local material and local skills.
Ÿ The presence of properly constructed slabs will allow easy cleaning and avoid flies
and unsightliness.
However, pit latrines are not without limitations. There may be a foul odour from the pit and
they can be a favourable place for the breeding of flies and mosquitoes. With single pits, a new
pit needs to be dug every time one gets full. They can be susceptible to failure/overflowing
during floods. Other disadvantages can be overcome by proper design, construction and
usage. For example, if the superstructure is not properly constructed, it may discourage use
of the latrine by family members. Children may be discouraged from using the latrine if the
slab is not designed with them in mind and is too big for them. Use of excess water or less
compostable materials for anal cleansing should be avoided because it may affect the
decomposition rate of human excreta.
The design of a pit latrine should follow the following criteria:
Ÿ The site of a latrine should preferably be in the backyard of the house and away from
an alley in the village. It should not be nearer than 6 m or farther than 50 m from the
house. The direction of the wind should be away from the main house.
Ÿ If there is a well in the compound, the latrine should be located as far away from it as
possible on the downhill side to avoid possible seeping and contamination of
groundwater.
Ÿ The faecal microorganisms may migrate from the pit through the soil, however, the
degree that this happens varies with the type of soil, moisture levels and other
environmental factors. It is, therefore, difficult to estimate the necessary distance
between a pit and a water source, but 30–50 m is the recommended minimum, with
an absolute minimum of 15 m.
Sanitation 31
Ÿ The size of the pit depends on the number of people using it and the design period, i.e.
the length of time before it is full. Typically, the pit should be at least 3 m deep for a
family of five for a design period of three to five years. The diameter should be at least
1 m; up to 1.2 m diameter will make it easier to dig but if it exceeds 1.5 m there is an
CHAPTER 2
Newly-emerging adult flies will try to escape through the vent pipe because the pipe allows
sunlight to enter into the pit and flies are photopositive (meaning they move towards light)
by nature. A mesh screen tied at the top of the vent pipe will prevent flies from escaping to the
outside of the latrine.
VIP latrines can have a single pit or double pit. They share the advantages of simple pit
latrines with slabs described above but they also have unique advantages that improve on the
limitations, namely, that flies and odours are significantly reduced. It should be noted,
however, that the health risks from flies are not completely removed by ventilation.
As these latrines are based on a simple pit latrine, discussion is focused on only the improved
features of VIP latrines. The vent pipe should have an internal diameter of 110–150 mm and
reach more than 300 mm above the highest point of the superstructure. The vent works
better in windy areas but where there is not much wind its effectiveness can be improved by
painting the pipe black. This makes the vent pipe warmer and the heat difference between
the pit (cool) and the vent (warm) creates an updraft that pulls the air and odours up and out
of the pit. To test the efficacy of the ventilation, a small, smoky fire can be lit in the pit; the
smoke should be pulled up and out of the vent pipe and not remain in the pit or the
superstructure. The mesh size of the fly screen must be large enough to prevent clogging with
dust and allow air to circulate freely. Aluminum screens with a holesize of 1.2–1.5 mm have
proved to be the most effective.
The maintenance requirements are similar to simple latrines. In addition, dead flies, spider
webs, dust and debris should be removed from the ventilation screen to ensure a good flow of
air.
Reed Odourless Earth Closet (ROEC). The Reed odourless earth closet (ROEC) is a
variation on the ventilated improved pit latrine. With ROEC, the pit is fully off-set from the
Sanitation 33
superstructure and is connected to the squatting plate by a curved chute as shown in
Figure 2.7.
The ROEC is fitted with a vent pipe to control odour and insect nuisance. It is claimed that
the chute, in conjunction with the ventilation stack, encourages vigorous air circulation
CHAPTER 2
down the latrine, thereby removing odours and discouraging flies. This latrine is common in
southern Africa. The design considerations and design principles of ROEC are similar to
those of a single pit VIP latrine.
CHAPTER 2
ecosan approach. Ecosan systems require a little more space than conventional latrines. At
the end of the process the decomposed waste, known as compost or ecohumus, has to be dug
out before it can be spread on the land. There may be a cultural taboo against handling of
excreta, even though it should be more like soil than waste by this stage. Some people may be
unwilling to use the crops and foods produced. Nonetheless, ecological sanitation is a more
sustainable approach to waste management than other systems and should therefore be
promoted as the preferred option.
Arborloo – a single pit ecosan method. A simple form of ecological sanitation is the Arborloo
(Figure 2.8). This consists of a single, unlined shallow pit with a portable ring beam (circular
support), slab and superstructure. It is used like a normal latrine but with the regular addition
of soil, wood ash and leaves. When it is full, it is covered with leaves and soil and a small tree is
planted on top to grow in the compost. (The tree gives the system its name; ‘arbor’ is Latin
for ‘tree’.) Another pit is dug nearby and the whole structure is relocated over the new pit. No
handling of the waste is required. If a fruit tree or other useful variety is grown there is the
added benefit of food or income.
Fossa Alterna – a double pit method. The double pit latrine system can be constructed to be
an ecosan system. The alternating waterless double pit is also known as Fossa Alterna, which
means alternate ditch. The physical structure is constructed in a similar way to a single pit
latrine except that it has two pits and they are shallower than a normal pit with a maximum
depth of 1.5 m. The slab and superstructure may be movable between the two pits (Figure
2.9) or may be a larger permanent structure that covers both pits.
Like the Arborloo, soil, wood ash, vegetable kitchen waste and leaves are added regularly. A
small amount should be added after each defecation (not urination). This introduces
necessary plant material to mix with the human waste and also adds a variety of organisms
like worms, fungi and bacteria that help in the degradation process.
Sanitation 35
CHAPTER 2
When the first pit is full, after about 12–24 months depending on the size of the pit and the
number of users, everyone starts using the second pit instead. The first pit is covered and the
material in it will degrade into a dry, earth-like mixture. This takes about 6–12 months. After
this time, the composted mixture is dug out manually and can be used to spread on soil. It is
important in the construction to make sure the slab is movable or has a manhole large
enough to allow access to the pit for digging out. The health risk for the people who empty
the compost is minimal if the pit has been left for over one year. However, good personal
hygiene should always be promoted in activities related to sanitation.
Figure 2.10 Cistern flush toilet cistern or tank is behind the raised lid.
CHAPTER 2
coming back up through the plumbing. A skilled plumber is needed to install a flush toilet.
From the users’ perspective, it is a safe and comfortable toilet to use provided that it is kept
clean, but the high capital cost for installation and the need for skilled personnel makes it not
affordable by every family, especially those living in rural areas.
Pour-flush toilets. A pour-flush toilet is like a cistern flush toilet except that instead of the
water coming from the cistern above, it is poured in by the user. When the water supply is not
continuous, any cistern flush toilet can become a pour-flush toilet. Water is simply poured
into the bowl manually from a bucket or a jug to flush the excreta; approximately 2–3 litres of
water is usually sufficient. Pour-flush toilets share all the advantages of cistern flush toilets
but use a lot less water. The wastewater should be disposed of to a septic tank or seepage pit,
also known as a leach pit (Figure 2.11).
The pit will contain excreta, cleansing water and flush water. As this leaches from the pit and
migrates through the soil, faecal organisms are removed. In some geological conditions,
there is a risk of groundwater pollution; therefore, this method is not always recommended.
The basic functions of a pour-flush latrine are:
Ÿ After each use, the latrine is manually pour-flushed through the pan and trap with
about 2-3 litres of water. Some of the clean flushwater remains in the trap and
maintains the water seal, thus providing the barrier against odours and insects as in
the case of conventional cistern-flush toilets which use between 10 and 20 litres of
water per flush.
Sanitation 37
Ÿ From excreta and flushwater around 5-10 litres per capita per day (lcd) of wastewater
enter the pit, together with an additional usually equal amount if water is used for anal
cleansing. The pit has to provide sufficient volume for solids storage, as well as
sufficient area for the wastewater to infiltrate into the soil, which requires that the soil
CHAPTER 2
has sufficient long-term infiltrative capacity. If the soil is unsuitable for infiltration,
the liquid effluent can be removed by other means e.g., by connecting to the sewerage
system if available.
Aqua privy. The aqua privy is a single pit latrine which has a watertight pit filled with water.
Excreta drop into the pit and wastewater is displaced into a storage chamber, a seepage pit or
a sewer line. It needs to be topped up regularly, so a nearby water supply is required.
Urinals. Urinals, used by men and boys, are only used for collecting urine. Urinals are either
wall-mounted units or a drainage channel constructed on the floor in connection with the
wall. Most urinals use water to flush although waterless urinals are now becoming popular. In
public places and schools, urinals for men and boys help to keep toilets cleaner and decrease
the demand for more toilet-seats.
CHAPTER 2
No, I already
have latrine. Your choice may depend
on your financial capacity.
Modern latrines cost more
than traditional ones.
Don't forget
you may need
to upgrade or
maintain it.
Traditional Modern
latrine latrine
Sanitation 39
Box 2.2
The national Sanitation Campaign of Bangladesh
The Government of Bangladesh has taken up an extensive program of “National
Sanitation Campaign” in order to ensure construction of sanitary latrines, its use and
CHAPTER 2
personal hygiene practice by 100 % of the population to achieve MDGs. The aims of this
campaign are to:
Ÿ Change the attitude and practice of population towards use of sanitary latrines by
creating awareness through cooperation and collaboration of the government, and
Non-Government Organizations, Development Partners and better-off people of
the society with full commitment at all levels;
Ÿ Encourage setting out targets by Local Government Institutions (LGIs) and NGOs
in three phases of the years 2005, 2008 and 2010 to achieve the goal of 100 %
sanitation coverage;
Ÿ Discourage open defecation; and
Ÿ Provide importance to maintenance of personal hygiene and capacity building of the
population.
Removal/replacement
of hanging/ Elimination of open
unhygienic latrines defecation
Total Sanitation
Make available
Frequent monotoring of appropriate
impacts and feedback technologies
CHAPTER 2
3. Write short notes on: (a) Reed Odourless Earth Closet; and (b) Ventilated improved pit
(VIP) latrines.
4. What are the main advantages of ecological sanitation technologies?
5. Distinguish between cistern flush and pour flush toilets.
Sanitation 41
References
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privatization. Reaching the unreached: challenge for 21st century. 22nd WEDC conference, New Delhi,
India.
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Chanakya, H. N., Sharma, I. and Ramachandra, T.V. 2009. Micro-scale anaerobic digestion of point source
components of organic fraction of municipal solid waste. Waste Manage, 29, 1306–1312.
Christova-Boal, D., Eden, R. E. and McFarlane S. 1996. An investigation into grey water reuse for urban
residential properties. Desalination, 106(1–3), 391–397.
Elmitwalli, T. andOtterpohl, R. 2007. Anaerobic biodegradability and treatment of grey water inupflow
anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor. Water Res, 41(6),1379–1387.
Hargelius, K., Holmstrand, O. and Karlsson, L. 1995. Hushallsspillvatten
Framtagandeavnyaschablonvärdenför BDT-vatten. Vadinnehalleravloppfranhushall?
Näringochmetalleriurinochfekaliersamti disk-, tvätt, bad- and duschvatten. Stockholm: Swedish EPA (in
Swedish).
Heinss, U., Larmie, S. A. and Strauss, M. 1998. Solids separation and pond systems for the treatment of
septage and public toilet sludges in tropical climate — lessons learnt and recommendations for preliminary
design. EAWAG/SANDEC Report No. 05/98.
Heinss, U., Larmie, S. A. and Strauss, M. 1994. Sedimentation tank sludge accumulation study.
EAWAG/SANDEC publications.
Ingallinella, M., Sanguinetti, G., Koottatep, T., Montangero, A. and Strauss, M. 2002. The challenge of
faecal sludge management in urban areas — strategies, regulations and treatment options. Water
SciTechnol, 46(10), 285–294.
Jefferson, B., Burgess, J. E., Pichon, A., Harkness, J., and Judd, S. J. 2001. Nutrient addition to enhance
biological treatment of grey water. Water Res, 35(1), 2702–2710.
JMP 2013. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water 2013 update. World Health Organization and
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JMP 2014. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water 2014 update. World Health Organization and
UNICEF 2014.
Jingura, R. M. andMatengaifa, R. 2009.Optimisation of biogas production by anaerobic digestion for
sustainable energy development in Zimbabwe. Renew Sustain Energy Rev, 13, 1116–1120.
Katukiza, A.Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C., Foppen, J. W. A., Kansiime, F. and Lens, P.N.L. 2012.
Sustainable sanitation technology options for urban slums. BiotechnolAdv,
doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.02.007.
Koné, D. and Strauss, M. 2004. Low-cost options for treating faecalsludges (FS) in developing countries —
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(France), 213–219.
Knerr, H., Engelhart, M., Hansen, J., Sagawe, G., Knerr, H., Engelhart, M. et al. 2008. Separated grey and
black water treatment by the KOMPLETT water recycling system — a possibility to close the domestic
water cycle. The Sanitation Challenge.Wageningen, The Netherlands.
KCC (Kampala City Council). 2006. Solid waste management strategy report. Kampala City Council
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Morel, A. andDiener, S. 2006. Greywater management in low and middle-income countries. Review of
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_ewm/Morel_Diener_Greywater_2006.pdf.
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Health SciEng, 6(3), 173–180.
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WHO and UNICEF 2013, Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water 2013 update.
Sanitation 43
3
Chapter
Sewer Systems
Sewers are underground pipes used to collect and transport the municipal/ industrial
wastewater to the disposal point (i.e. natural channels/treatment plants). The network of
sewers, that collect the generated wastewater is referred as collection systems. This chapter
provides a brief description of on-site and off-site systems, often employed for the collection
of wastewater. In addition, a brief description on existing sewerage networks of greater
Dhaka has also been included in this chapter, along with future upgrading plans.
CHAPTER 3
The collection systems of the generated wastewater (from municipal/industrial sources)
can generally be classified into three groups as illustrated below.
Sanitary sewers. Sanitary sewers are developed to collect domestic, industrial and
commercial wastewaters. These sewer types are useful when rainfall is uneven, for areas with
rocky strata, and in areas with steep drainage. Since the sizes of sanitary sewers are usually
smaller, they are effective particularly when finance availability is a constraint. However,
these sewers often do not promote self cleansing velocities, unless laid at steep gradients. As
such, flushing is often mandatory for such systems, which in turn increases operational costs.
Storm sewers. These sewers are employed for the collection of storm runoff from roofs,
streets etc., followed by disposal of the collected runoff toward a receiving water channel.
Storm sewers are usually larger than sanitary sewers, and are generally operated under
gravity flow.
The main advantages of separate sewerage systems (i.e. sanitary and storm sewers) can be
enlisted as:
Ÿ Smaller waste water treatment works are required.
Ÿ Storm water can be pumped when necessary.
Ÿ Wastewater and storm sewers may follow optimum route and depth.
Ÿ Less variation in terms of wastewater flow and strength.
Ÿ Absence of road grit in wastewater sewers.
However there are also some disadvantages of separate sewer systems, such as:
Ÿ Additional costs are required for the construction of two separate pipes.
Ÿ No flushing of deposited wastewater solids by storm water.
Ÿ Lack of storm water treatment.
Combined sewers. In a combined sewer system, domestic, industrial and storm sewage are
carried together. The advantages of combined sewer can be illustrated as:
Ÿ Lower pipe construction costs.
Ÿ Economical in terms of occupying space.
Ÿ Allows dilution of sewage, which can reduce input load into the treatment plants.
Ÿ Bigger sizes render adequate cleaning provisions.
Ÿ Allows some treatment of stormwater.
Despite of the benefits of combined sewers, they also incur some disadvantages as illustrated
below:
Ÿ Combined sewers allow solid siltation, due to lower flow velocity in dry weather. As
such, these systems are not feasible in regions, where annual rainfall distribution is
uneven.
Sewer Systems 47
Ÿ May demand higher pumping cost, if the flow is pumped into treatment plants.
Ÿ Can incur greater variation of wastewater flow and strength to treatment plants.
Ÿ Grit removal is necessary.
3.2 Classification of Sewers
Despite the types of sewers can vary according to the collection and treatment of wastewater,
the major sewer types often found in a network are: building sewer, lateral or branch, main,
trunk, and intercepting sewer, as shown in Figure 3.1.
CHAPTER 3
Building sewer. These sewers typically begin outside the building foundation, and are used
to convey wastewater from building to lateral or branch sewers.
Lateral/branch sewer. These sewers are usually constructed in streets. They are used to
collect wastewater from building sewers, and to convey the collected wastewater to a main
sewer.
Main sewer. Main sewers collect wastewater from either a single or multiple lateral sewers,
and transfer it to trunk or intercepting sewers.
Trunk sewer. These sewers convey wastewater from main sewers to treatment plants, or
other disposal facilities.
Intercepting sewer. These are employed to intercept several main or trunk sewers, and to
transfer the wastewater to the treatment plants or other disposal facilities.
CHAPTER 3
The Eastern Trunk Sewer: Length of the eastern trunk sewer is 14 km, and diameter
ranging from 450 mm to 1360 mm This trunk sewer is routed from Asad Gate to Pagla
treatment through the lift stations of Tejgaon, Basaboo and Swamibagh. There are ten
pumping stations, such as: Japan Garden City, Asad gate, Bijoy Shawrani, DOHS Banani,
DOHS Mohakhali, Tejgaon, Goran, Modertek, Basaboo and Swamibagh. The pumping
stations are used for collection and transportation of sewage towards the Pagla sewage
treatment plant.
The Western Trunk Sewer: The length of this sewer system is 6 km, and diameter ranging
from 600 mm to 900 mm. It is routed from Bashbari and Mohammadpur to Narinda,
through Hazaribagh, Nilkhet, Segunbaghicha, Purana Paltan and Motijheel. There are
five sewage lift pumping stations associated with this trunk sewer, such as: Hazaribag,
New Market, Moghbazar T&T and Zikatola. These lift stations collect wastewater from
the related catchments and deliver to the western trunk sewer, which forwards flow by
gravity to the Narinda central pumping station.
The South Western Trunk Sewer: The length of the south western trunk sewer is 6 km,
and diameter ranging from 400 mm to 1000 mm. It is located in the south-west part of the
city, and is routed from Nawabgong to Narinda via Lalbagh, Jailkhan Gate, Abul Hasnat
Road, Nawabpur Road and Tipu Sultan. This trunk main was rehabilitated in the year
2003.
into the sewer networks. Such ground water infiltration is dependent on the size of sewer
pipes: 3500 to 5000 gal/d per mile of 8 inches sewer, 4500 to 6000 gal/d per mile of 12 inches
sewer, and 10000 to 12000 gal/d per mile of 24 inches sewer.
Estimation of storm run-off entering the sewer pipes via manholes is essential for design.
ASCE tests on leakage through manhole covers show that 20-70 gal/min of water may enter
a manhole cover, submerged by 1inch of rain water.
The quantity of sewage also fluctuates on hourly and daily basis, depending on the usage
pattern. Table 3.1 gives typical ratios of minimum and maximum hourly and daily sewage
flow rate, with respect to average flow.
The following equations can be employed to estimate typical variation in daily sewage flows,
with respect to Table 3.1.
Sewer Systems 49
Table 3.1 Ratio to average and maximum /minimum flows.
Flow description Ratio to average
Maximum daily 2.5 to 1
Maximum hourly 3.00 to 1
Minimum daily 0.67 to 1
Minimum hourly 0.33 to 1
CHAPTER 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
Example 3.1. Determine the maximum hourly, average daily and minimum hourly
residential sewage flows from an area occupied by 1000 people. The average per capita
sewage flow is 40 gpcd. Consider the sewer length and house connections to be 1.5 miles, and
infiltration to be 35,000 gpd.
Solution:
Total average daily flow=
Infiltration = 35000 ´ 1.5 = 52500 gal/d
CHAPTER 3
used for accomplishing the hydraulic design of sewers, as illustrated in Equation 3.5.
3.5
3.6
r = D/2
D
q q
Sewer Systems 51
Calculation of q,
3.7
3.8
CHAPTER 3
The Manning equation (Equation 3.5) can also be solved by the nomograph, as shown in
Figure 3.3. For partially filled circular pipes, with variable Manning roughness coefficient
and depth, Figure 3.4 is generally employed.
Full
Example 3.2. Flow discharge capacity of sewers. A 20 inches sewer with n = 0.013 is laid
on a grade of 0.015.
a. What will be the velocity when depth of flow is 5 inches?
b. What will be the capacity when flowing half full?
Solution:
a. Discharge capacity when depth of flow is 5 inches
Sewer Systems 53
From Equation (3.9):
The full-flow depth can be determined from Equation (3.6), and can be rearranged as:
3.12
Solution
From the Figure 3.3, the flow velocity is 1.57 m/s, and flow rate is 62 m3/min for full-flowing
sewer.
The ratio of actual to full flow,
From Figure 3.4 employing this ratio, the ratio of depth (DP to DF) is 0.28;
CHAPTER 3
two materials are highly resistive to corrosion.
The H2S corrosion of sewer materials is commonly observed, particularly in sanitary sewers.
Organic material often accumulates in sanitary sewers, as a result of deposition at lower flow
velocities and grease coagulation. This accumulated material is degraded by the sewage
bacteria under anaerobic conditions, thereby producing short chain volatile acids, followed
by pH suppression. In addition, biological sulfate reduction also occurs simultaneously. The
combination of sulfate reduction and low pH can stimulate the release of H2S, which can be
dissolved in condensed moisture accumulated at the sewer crown. Such dissolved H2S can be
oxidized into H2SO4 acid in presence of O2 (by Thiobacillus bacterium), leading to the sewer
failure if the materials are acid soluble.
3.13
Sewer Systems 55
sewer network). In large sewers, these changes can be made without using a manhole. The
spacing of manholes differs within 90-150 m, in straight alignments.
When the elevation difference between higher and lower sewer exceeds 0.6 m, the inflow is
usually dropped to the elevation of the outer sewer pipe through drop manhole or drop inlet,
as denoted in Figure 3.5. As the sewage falls from higher to lower elevation, the fall is
generally interrupted by staggered horizontal plates within the shaft. These devices prevent
excessive kinetic energy, thereby hindering the damages of the bottom structure.
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Inverted Siphons. An inverted siphon (or depressed sewer) is a section of the sewer,
dropped below the hydraulic grade line in order to avoid an obstacle such as a railway,
highway cut, subway, and stream. Inverted siphons normally include multiple pipes and an
entrance structure designed to divide the flow, so that flow velocity (in those pipes) is
sufficient to prevent solid deposition. To maintain such flow characteristics, the velocity in
these sections should be kept at least 0.9 m/s for domestic wastewater, and 1.25-1.5 m/s for
storm water to prevent soil deposition. The diameter of inverted siphons is generally 150 or
200 mm for sanitary sewers, and 300 mm for storm sewers.
Figure 3.6a shows front view of inverted siphons to avoid an obstacle. Simultaneously,
Figure 3.6b shows the design of pipes for inverted siphons to convey minimum flow,
difference between minimum and average flow, and the difference between average and
maximum flow. The inlet structure has two side flow weirs which direct flow to the central
pipes. As the flow increases, the excess flow spills over the lower weir, and enters the second
pipe. Further increase in flow diverts it to the third pipe.
Sewer outlets. Sewers discharging wastewater into large water bodies are usually extended
beyond the banks into deep water. The outfall lines are constructed of either iron or
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.6 (a) front view; and (b) top view of inverted siphons.
reinforced concrete. Iron is generally preferred, having outfalls 610mm diameter or less. For
intensified wave action, outfall can be protected, by placing it in a degraded trench.
Sewer Systems 57
these sheeting types are best suited to unconsolidated soils. Poling boards consist of short
board pieces against the trenches, supported by rangers and cross bracing (Figure 3.7).
Poling boards are used in materials, which can stand without support at a depth of 1.0m-1.5m.
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.7 (a) Vertical sheeting; (b) poling boards; and (c) box sheetings for
sewer construction.
Pipe laying. The pipe should be inspected for its soundness and damage. If sections are
joined by ring, it should be installed on one end before the assembly is lowered in the trench.
The pipe sections are placed on line and grade in the bottom of dewatered trench, and
pressed together with a hand lever. The trench should be filled as soon as possible after the
pipe installation and inspection. If concrete bedding is needed, backfill is delayed until
concrete achieves sufficient strength to support the weight of pipes.
Fill material should be free of bush, debris, rocks. Presence of rock should be inhibited within
900 mm of the top of the pipe, and within 400 mm of the ground surface. Filling materials
must be placed in layers; the thickness of each layer should be 150 mm, and tampered under,
around and over the pipe to a height of 600 mm above the crown.
Sewer maintenance. Sewer systems can be clogged by root penetration, rain water
infiltration causing overflow, deposition of solids (i.e. grease, bones, broken dishware,
garbage, concrete, and debris) and defects in manholes/pipes. Root problems can be
prevented by eliminating leakage. Troublesome parts can be replaced by iron pipes. The
roots (that enter in the sewers) can be removed in sewers (up to 380 mm diameter) by
flexible rods with an auger like cutter; the auger can be rotated by hand, or by a machine.
Grease, another critical pollutant, often causes blockage of household sewers. Such sewers
can be cleaned with rotating tools, driven by hand or electric motor.
Sand and grit can be removed (from sewers) with buckets pulled by a cable. If deposits are
not extensive, they can be removed by devices similar to the turbine cleaner (Figure 3.8);
such turbine has a rotating cutter which is positioned in the sewer by a cable, to allow flushing
of the deposits.
Flushing of water by fire hydrants can also remove grit deposits, but cannot remove grease
and roots. Flushing should be done carefully, as these devices may create backflow into
household plumbing fixtures.
A rubber ball having size slightly less than sewer diameter facilitates in removing grit and
grease materials. The ball is being adjusted by the pipe irregularities; water behind the ball
escapes around the edges of the ball at higher velocity. Such greater velocity allows the
flushing of sewer deposits. The dislodged material (of sewer) should be removed at the next
manhole, to prevent downstream blockage. For the maintenance of the broken sewer pipes,
the damaged portion may be removed from the sewer line, and the flow can be diverted from
manhole to manhole by pumping.
Overall, following steps should be executed by the municipal authorities during
maintenance program, to prevent frequent sewer blocking.
Ÿ Regular cleaning of sewer lines should be established to remove grease, grit, and
other debris, that often block sewer systems.
Ÿ Sewer cleaning should be conducted at an established minimum frequency, and
more frequently for areas where restaurants are located.
Ÿ During routine maintenance the condition of sewers structures should be inspected
closely to identify cracks, joint leaks, suspected infiltration/ exfiltration.
Ÿ Repairing should be prioritized based on the nature and severity of the problem.
Ÿ Previous sewer maintenance records should be reviewed for identifying the areas,
that require frequent maintenance.
Sewer Systems 59
A septic tank system may include the following:
Ÿ sanitary plumbing fixtures connected to drain pipes that enable sewage and sullage
wastes to be conveyed from the fixtures to the septic tank
Ÿ a septic tank
Ÿ a pumping sump
Ÿ an effluent disposal system
Ÿ a roof, surface and subsurface water disposal system
Ÿ single chambered, usually brick built (Figure 3.9) or double chambered, usually
CHAPTER 3
A A
CHAPTER 3
sludge, the floated solids are called scum, and the liquid layer in between is called the clear
zone as shown in Figure 3.11. Although the liquid in the clear zone is not highly treated, it is
greatly clarified compared to the wastewater entering the tank, the larger particles having
migrated to either the sludge or scum layers. Another important function of the tank is
storage of these accumulated solids. The tank is sized large enough to hold solids until
maintenance (i.e., tank pumping) is performed. The effluent, or wastewater, that leaves the
septic tank comes from the clear zone to minimize the solids loading on the downstream
components of the system. The baffle, tee, or effluent screen at the outlet is designed to draw
from the clear zone retaining floatable or settleable solids in the tank. The settling process
requires time to occur, so the tank must be large enough to retain the wastewater in a
turbulence-free environment for two to four days. Excessive flow and turbulence can disrupt
the settling process as shown in Figure 3.12, so tank volume, size, shape, and inlet baffle
configuration are designed to minimize turbulence.
Biological and chemical processes. Septic tank solids include both biodegradable and
non-biodegradable materials; although many of the solids will decompose, some solids will
accumulate in the tank. Anaerobic and facultative biological processes in the oxygen-
deficient environment of the tank provide partial digestion of some of the wastewater
components. These processes are slow, incomplete, and odor producing. Gases (hydrogen
sulfide, methane, carbon dioxide, and others) result from the anaerobic digestion in the tank
and may create safety hazards for improperly equipped service personnel. The gases
accumulate in bubbles in the sludge that, as they rise, may re-suspend settled solids. This will
elevate the total suspended solids (TSS) concentration in the clear zone and ultimately send
more suspended solids to downstream system components. This scenario often results
when active digestion occurs during warm temperatures.
Treatment achieved with domestic sewage. The septic tank provides primary anaerobic
treatment (dissolved oxygen < 0.5 mg/L) in an onsite sewage treatment system of the raw
wastewater. The effluent from the septic tank is typically treated so that it contains 140 - 220
mg/L BOD, 45 - 70 mg/L TSS, and 10-30 mg/L fats, oils and greases (FOGs). If
concentrations of biochemical oxygen demands, total suspended solids, and oil and grease
from the sewage are expected to be higher than 170 mg/L, 60 mg/L or 25 mg/L respectively,
an estimated or measured average concentration must be determined and be acceptable to
the local unit of government. System design must account for concentrations of these
constituents so as not to cause internal system malfunction, such as, but not limited to,
clogging of pipes, orifices, treatment devices, or media.
Factors affecting septic tank performance. The anaerobic digestion processes in tanks are
affected by temperature in the tank and by substances that have an adverse impact on
Sewer Systems 61
biological organisms. Higher temperatures will enhance the rate of biological processes and
inhibiting substances will reduce it. Too high of temperatures may liquefy fats, oils and
greases (FOGs). Ideal temperatures in the tank allow for FOGs to solidify and bacterial
activity to take place. Some factors that affect the way a tank functions include:
Ÿ strength (concentration) of the incoming wastewater.
Ÿ pH.
Ÿ introduction of harsh chemicals, drain cleaners, paint, photo processing chemicals or
other inappropriate substances into the waste stream which may affect pH and
CHAPTER 3
biological activity.
Ÿ introduction of fats, oils and grease (FOG).
Ÿ highly variable flow patterns that affect detention time.
Ÿ introduction of pharmaceuticals (especially those for chemotherapy and dialysis;
long term use of antibiotics, etc.).
Ÿ introduction of process discharge, including backwash from a water softener, and;
lack of maintenance resulting in excess accumulation of solids, reducing effective
volume and reducing detention time.
Advantages of septic tank. Subsurface infiltration systems are ideally suited for
decentralized treatment of wastewater because they are buried. The tanks are relatively
inexpensive and can be installed in multiple tank installations.
Disadvantages of septic tank. The sludge may pose an odor problem if the sewage remains
untreated for an extended period. Provisions for alarms and pumping are necessary if the
downstream treatment units go off-line due to power loss or equipment failure.
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Commercial inputs should be evaluated on a case by case basis and may need
pretreatment to remove oil, grease, or solids.
Ÿ Tank design: A key factor in the holding tank’s design is the relationship between the
liquid surface area, the quantity of sewage it can store, and the rate of wastewater
discharged. Each of these factors will impact the tank efficiency and the amount of
sludge it retains.
The greater the liquid’s surface area, the more sewage the tank can accommodate. As
solids collect in the tank, the water depth decreases, which reduces the time sewage
flow is retained in the tank. Less solids will settle in the tank, resulting in increased
solids in the tank effluent that may have a negative impact on the final treatment
process.
Placing risers on the tank openings makes it easier to access the tank for inspection
and maintenance. If a septic tank is buried more than 12 inches below the soil surface,
a riser must be used on the openings to bring the lid to within 6 inches of the soil
surface. Generally, the riser can be extended to the ground surface and protected with
a lid.
Ÿ Hydraulic loading rate: The design capacity of the holding tank is related to the
hydraulic loading rate of the treatment system. For a ground absorption system, it is
determined by soil characteristics, groundwater mounding potential, and applied
wastewater quality. Prolonged wastewater loading will clog the infiltrative surface,
reduce the capacity of the soil to accept the wastewater, and may back up the
wastewater into the holding tank. However, if the loading is controlled, biological
activity at the infiltrative surface will maintain waste accumulations in relative
equilibrium so that reasonable infiltration rates and pass through in the holding tank
can be sustained.
Performance of septic tank. To keep a holding tank system operating efficiently, the tank
should be pumped periodically. As the system is used, sludge accumulates in the bottom of
the tank. As the sludge level increases, wastewater spends less time in the tank, and solids are
more likely to escape into the absorption area. Properly sized tanks can accumulate sludge
for at least three years.
The frequency of pumping depends on:
Ÿ Tank capacity.
Ÿ Amount of wastewater flowing into the tank related to size of household(s).
Ÿ Amount of solids in the wastewater. For example, there will be more solids if garbage
disposals are used.
Ÿ Performance of the final treatment system.
Sewer Systems 63
Operation and maintenance of septic tank. A well-designed holding tank requires limited
operator attention. Management needs include tracking system status, testing for solids
accumulation, evaluating pump performance, and monitoring system controls. Monitoring
performance of pretreatment units, mechanical components, and wastewater ponding levels
above the filtration surface is essential. If a performance or level change is noted, the operator
should inspect the system to determine if additional service is required. Routine servicing of
a holding tank is limited to annual or semiannual inspection and cleaning, if necessary.
Septic tank capacity estimation.
CHAPTER 3
For multiple occupancy residential premises such as flats, units and town houses the capacity
of the septic tank is calculated on the basis of total number of bedrooms plus one bedroom
and multiply by 2 persons per bedroom.
b) For non-residential dwellings:
Calculation of the septic tank for non-residential installations requires determination of two
factors:
Ÿ volume for accumulation of sludge/scum.
Ÿ volume for daily flow, into the septic tank.
The effective capacity is obtained by calculating: (S ´P1´ Y) + (P2 ´ DF)
where, S = Rate of sludge/scum accumulation per person per year
P1 = Number of persons using the system
Y = Desludging frequency
P2 = Number of persons using the system
DF = Daily inflow in litres per person per day
Table 3.4 provides a range of load factors (S, P1, P2 and DF) to assist in determining the
capacity of the septic tank, and it may be necessary to add a number of individual uses to
obtain the sludge/scum and daily inflow total.
Where the system load varies from day to day, an average load figure is used to calculate
capacity for sludge/scum accumulation. Calculation of the daily inflow shall always be made
using the maximum daily load. The minimum capacity of any non-domestic septic tank shall
CHAPTER 3
evaporative cooling etc. The term average or highest daily number over an "x" day period
means the highest number in any 12 months period.
Table 3.4 Typical value of parameters determining capacity of septic tank based on use
conditions.
Sludge/scum rate Daily inflow rate
Number of Rate Rate
Parameters Fixtures persons L/person/year No. of persons L/persons/day
P1 S P2 DF
Hospital & Nursing homes
Accommodation WC/urinal Total number 80 Total number 150
and resident staff basin or beds plus of beds plus
bath/shower resident staff resident staff
laundry
kitchen sink
dishwasher
Non resident WC/urinal Number of 25 Number of 30
staff basin employees per employee's per
kitchen sink shift ´ shift ´
(tea service number of number
area only) shifts of shifts
Sewer Systems 65
Sludge/scum rate Daily inflow rate
Number of Rate Rate
Parameters Fixtures persons L/person/year No. of persons L/persons/day
P1 S P2 DF
Public toilets
WC/urinal Average daily 20 Highest daily 5
basin number over 7 number over
day period 7 day period
CHAPTER 3
Ÿ Reduced excavation costs. With the troublesome solids removed, the sewers do not
need to be designed to maintain a minimum flow velocity for self-cleansing. Therefore,
rather than being installed on a straight path with a uniform gradient, they may be laid
with curvilinear alignment with a variable or inflective gradient. This reduces excavation
costs, since the sewer can follow the natural topography more closely than conventional
sewers and avoid most obstructions within its path.
Ÿ Reduced materials costs. Peak flows which the small bore sewers must be designed to
handle are lower than those experienced with conventional sewers because the
interceptor tanks/septic tanks provide some surge storage which attentuates peak flows.
Therefore, the sewer and any pumping equipment can be reduced in size (and pumps
handling only liquids are simpler). In addition, expensive manholes can be replaced with
much less costly cleanouts or flushing points, since mechanical cleaning equipment is
not necessary to maintain the sewers in a free-flowing condition.
Ÿ Reduced treatment requirements. Screening, grit removal and primary sedimentation
or treatment in anaerobic ponds is not needed at the treatment works, since these unit
processes are performed in the interceptor tanks.
Thus, small bore sewer systems provide an economical way to upgrade existing sanitation
facilities to a level of service comparable to conventional sewers. Because of the lower costs of
construction and maintenance and the ability to function with little water, small bore sewers
can be used where conventional sewerage would be inappropriate. Small bore sewers
therefore offer an opportunity of improving sanitation in areas which otherwise might not be
upgraded.
Disadvantage of SBS system. The principal disadvantage of the small bore sewer system is
the need for periodic evacuation and disposal of solids from each interceptor tank in the
system. Experience with the system is limited and mixed. Consequently, in spite of its
Sewer Systems 67
obvious advantages it must be used judiciously and adopted only in situations where there is
sufficient provision to ensure a strong organization for maintenance. This organization must
also be able to exercise effective control over connections to the system. Special precautions
should be taken to prevent illegal connections, since it is likely that interceptor tanks would
not be installed in such connections, thereby introducing solids into a system which is not
designed to handle solids. This could create serious operational problems.
Component parts of SBS system. Small bore sewer systems consist of: (a) house
connections; (b) interceptor tanks; (c) the sewers and their appurtenances; and (d) a
CHAPTER 3
sewage treatment plant. Occasionally, individual pumping stations may be required to lift
the effluent from the interceptor tank into the sewer to overcome adverse elevation
differences; additionally, pumping stations may be required in the sewer system itself in very
flat areas.
Ÿ House connection. The house connection is made at the inlet to the interceptor tank.
All household wastes, except for garbage and trash which must be removed for disposal
elsewhere, enter the system at this point. Storm water must be excluded.
Ÿ Interceptor/septic tank. The interceptor tank is a buried watertight tank with baffled
inlet and outlet. It is designed to detain the liquid flow for 12 to 24 hours and to remove
both floating and settleable solids from the liquid stream. Ample volume is also provided
for storage of the solids, which are periodically removed through an access port.
Typically, a single-chamber septic tank is used as an interceptor tank.
Ÿ Sewers. The sewers are small bore plastic pipe (minimum diameter of 100 mm) which
are trenched into the ground at a depth sufficient to collect the settled wastewater from
most connections by gravity. Unlike conventional sewers, small bore sewers are not
necessarily laid on a uniform gradient with straight alignment between manholes or
cleanouts. The sewer may have an inflective gradient; that is to say, the sewer may have
dips so that sections of it remain full under static conditions. Also, the alignment may
curve to avoid natural or manmade obstacles. The objective in the design and
construction of small bore sewers is to utilize to the maximum extent the energy resulting
from the difference in elevation between the upstream and downstream ends.
Ÿ Cleanouts and manholes. Cleanouts and manholes provide access to the sewers for
inspection and maintenance. In most circumstances, cleanouts are preferable to
manholes because they cost less and can be more tightly sealed to eliminate most
infiltration and grit which commonly enter through the lids and walls of manholes. Also,
they can be easily concealed to prevent tampering. They function as flushing points
during sewer cleaning operations.
Ÿ Vents. The sewers must be ventilated to maintain free-flowing conditions. Vents within
the household plumbing are sufficient, except where inflective gradient sewers are
installed. In such cases, the high points of the sewer should be ventilated either by
locating the high points at connections or by installing a cleanout with a ventilated cap.
Ÿ Lift stations. Lift stations are necessary where elevation differences do not permit
gravity flow. Either residential or major lift stations may be used. Residential lift stations
are small lift stations pumping wastes from the interceptor tank of one home or of a small
CHAPTER 3
pipes need not be small diameter (the size being determined by hydraulic
considerations and not constrained by other conditions), and the pipe system is not
designed according to sanitary sewer practice. A more accurate description would be
"solids-free sewers", but the best term is probably "effluent drains", as is used in the
systems widely employed in Australia; this emphasizes the essential purpose of the
sewers to remove liquid effluents (from interceptor/septic tanks) that cannot otherwise
be disposed of on site and so forms a natural link to the most likely application of small
bore sewers in developing countries: to upgrade on-site disposal systems such as pour-
flush latrines when changes in water use, housing densities or other conditions lead to
difficulties in on-site effluent disposal. However, for consistency with other recent
publications on this subject, in this book, the authors have retained the term "small bore
sewers (SBS)".
Analogy between SBS and conventional sewerage system. In new schemes small bore
sewerage often appears to have little advantage over conventional sewerage when compared
to the latter in present worth terms. Yet the distribution of its costs between capital
investment and operation and maintenance is quite different to those of conventional
systems and is generally more appropriate to developing country conditions: capital costs
with their commonly high foreign exchange requirements are lower; less skill is required in
its construction; and its operation and maintenance are quite different to those of
conventional systems and are more labor-intensive, and these costs (which are generally
lower than those for conventional systems) can be mainly paid for in local currency out of
revenue. Small bore sewerage is inherently a much more flexible system than conventional
sewerage and its feasibility should always be evaluated during the technology selection stage
of a feasibility study since it can offer a viable solution in many situations where conventional
systems are technically or economically infeasible.
Hydraulic design of SBS system. Unlike conventional gravity sewers which are designed
for open channel flow, small bore sewers may be installed with sections depressed below the
hydraulic grade line. Thus, flow within a small bore sewer may alternate between open
channel and pressure flow. In making design calculations, separate analysis must be made for
each sewer section in which the type of flow does not vary and the slope of the grade line is
reasonably uniform. Manning's equation (Equation 3.5) may be used in this analysis.
Sewer Systems 69
Box 3.2
Learning from failure of SBS systems at Mirpur, Dhaka (DWASA, 2013).
The area of Mirpur, located approx. 12km north-west from the centre, covers an area of
about 6,000ha and entirely lies within MODS Zone 4 of DWASA. In 1991 the Dhaka
Urban Infrastructure Improvement Project (DUIIP) was a multi-stakeholder initiative
to improve sanitation, inter alia, in Mirpur. A Small Bore Sewer (SBS) System was
constructed which is an option for sewage collection in developing countries when
CHAPTER 3
financial and water resources are limited. However the small bore system was not
effectively commissioned. Reasons which led to failure of the system are mentioned
below:
1. The institutional responsibilities were not defined for the various activities required to assure
operations and maintenance.
2. Lack of maintenance of the sewer system and de-sludging of the interceptor tanks may have lead to
early failure of the system.
3. Only 50-60% of the original appraised pipe connections to interceptor/septic tanks were installed
by the DUIIP. Un-served houses were probably never connected to the sewer pipes in order to
minimize expenditure.
4. The SBS system was developed for low income areas with single storey houses and one toilet per
family. Presently most of the low income areas have developed to middle income areas with fully
developed multi-storey buildings. The SBS system was reportedly not designed to serve the
increased number of people and it is likely that parts of it have been destroyed during later
development. The sizing of the pipes and interceptor tanks cannot meet the current needs in the
middle income areas.
5. Community participation is a critical factor to ensure proper O&M of the facilities and ultimate
delivery of services. Periodic cleaning of the interceptor tanks is the responsibility of the owners.
However there are no septic tank sludge management facilities available in Dhaka City and there is
limited incentive for sludge tank emptying. The awareness of periodic interceptor tank de-sludging
has not developed, as most of the tanks are not in use and are currently filled with garbage.
Based on the experience in Mirpur, the SBS system is not considered suitable for areas of
excessive population growth which includes:
ŸThe DWASA service area except in specific conditions, e.g. in slum areas where development is
not expected to grow to high rise buildings.
ŸArea within the RAJUK area which are adjusted to the DWASA service area (i.e. across the
natural river boundaries) where there is a risk of fast development dueto population overspill.
ŸPourashavas within the RAJUK area which are subjected to fast growth (e.g.>4% anaual) caused
by concentrated industrial and commercial activities.
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by connecting into the drainage networks and open channels. An estimated population of
approx. 320,000 in Mirpur area was designed to be served by a small bore water- borne
sewerage system, which was never utilized; the generated sewage from these areas is also
directed to the drainage system. Improved on-site sanitation is estimated to be the sanitation
system utilized by approx. 25% of the population within the DWASA service area, with the
remaining 22% served by unhygienic on-site sanitation means, including pit, hanging
latrines and open spaces. These figures are shown in the following table 3.6 (DWASA,
2013).
Table 3.5 Water production and wastewater generation rates in different zones of
Dhaka (DWASA, 2013).
Sewer Systems 71
Table 3.6 Total sanitation coverage by population in Dhaka (DWASA, 2013).
to a nearby drainage system. The sludge, collected and accumulated in the tanks, should
regularly be removed and disposed of in a safe and controlled manner; however there are no
septic tank sludge treatment and disposal facilities in and around the city. The sludge
collected by private septic tank cleaning services is generally disposed into local low lands,
drains and khals. Such collected septic sludge is also disposed into municipal waste
collection points, on road sides, in drainage canals and into sewer lines via manholes. This
practice is illegal, highly hazardous, unregulated and contributes to the uncontrolled
spreading of pollution and pathogenic organisms over large areas.
Based on previous estimates of septic tank usage of 45% in the non-sewered areas, a zone-
wise scenario of the population using septic tanks is given in Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Septic tank usage in DWASA service area (DWASA, 2013).
Table 3.7 indicates that a significant number of population of Dhaka utilize septic tanks, that
contribute to substantial dry solids production. The following table estimates the annual
septic tank sludge production in each zone in the DWASA service area, assuming an
estimated sludge production of 0.25L/P/day.
CHAPTER 3
Zone-5 0.133 31 3.99 1457
Zone-6 0.539 126 16.17 5902
Zone-7 0.61 143 18.3 6,680
Zone-8 0.35 82 10.5 3,833
Zone-9 0.25 59 7.5 2,738
Zone-10 0.09 21 2.7 986
Naryanganj 0.62 145 18.6 6,789
Kamrangir char 0.09 21 2.7 986
DND (part) 0.32 75 9.6 3,504
Total 4.39 1028 131.7 48075
Since there are no formal collection, transportation, treatment and disposal systems of septic
tank sludge in DWASA service area, a proposal has been placed by DWASA for septic tank
sludge management, as illustrated in Box 3.3. A proposal for the treatment of such
transported septic tank sludge has also been proposed by DWASA, as indicated in Box 3.4.
Box 3.3
Proposal for Septic Tank Sludge Management (DWASA, 2013).
Options for septic sludge management
Options to ensure proper systematic control of the septic sludge management may
include: i) DWASA takes the lead role in septic tank sludge management (either via own
sludge collection vehicles or through service agreements with service providers), or ii)
allowing private sector service providers to deal directly with the households, and
DWASA takes a monitoring function. In any case, a department/division (sludge
management division) should be created within DWASA, similar to the Water Supply
and Sewerage Divisions of DWASA, or the Solid Waste Division of DCC. All households
with septic tanks should pay a septic tank cleaning fee in order to recover costs for septic
sludge management.
Engagement of sludge contractors and other measures
In the short term, DWASA would engage one or more contractors for the collection and
transportation of septic tank sludge to a special facility located at a wastewater treatment
plant, operated by DWASA. The possibility of utilizing an NGO as a contractor for these
operations can be considered.
Sewer Systems 73
Applying the Service Fee
DWASA may consider adding sludge collection charges to the water bill and outsource
the collection and transport of sludge. In order to encourage households, septic tank
owners shall be required to pay a fee whether they wish to empty their septic tanks or not.
There will be a provision that DWASA may do the inspection of each septic tank of the
house owners.
Public Awareness
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Box 3.4
Septic Tank Sludge Treatment (DWASA, 2013).
In order to provide septic tank sludge reception, treatment and disposal facilities, it is
proposed to construct septic tank sludge treatment systems at the centralized
wastewater treatment plants, which will include a screening facility (nominally 10 mm
gap width), anaerobic sludge treatment in ponds, drying and disposal. As an urgent
priority, it is recommended to pilot scale this type of system at the Pagla Sewage
Treatment Plant (PSTP), in order to gain experience in construction and operation
procedures for future projects. Initially, such pilot scale testing might include DWASA in
developing, and implementing a service contract with a septic tank service provider for a
specified region adjacent to Pagla STP. However this should be broadened to allow
private contractors to approach households directly throughout the city, once septic
tank sludge facilities are constructed at the various treatment plant sites. Consequently it
will be essential for the pilot scale test to determine the market interest and associated
costs for private sector participation. Concerning the septic tank sludge treatment
facilities, in the case of Pagla, there are two options: a) introduction into the existing
sludge lagoons; and b) introduction into the treatment plant via a dedicated process such
as Anaerobic Primary Settlement Ponds (APSP). Option b is more advantageous, but
would require an upgrading of Pagla treatment plant in order to be effective.
CHAPTER 3
Table 3.9 indicates the overall scenario of sewer networks in different zones of Dhaka.
Subsequently, Figure 3.14 depicts the areas covered by sewer networks within DWASA
service area.
Table 3.9 Sewerage system statistics of Dhaka (DWASA, 2010).
Sewer Systems 75
CHAPTER 3
Figure 3.14 Sewerage system coverage in DWASA service area (adapted from DWASA,
2013).
CHAPTER 3
of alternative process. Based on a comparison of various options, the trickling filter process
has been proposed to be installed in phased modules.
Table 3.10 illustrates typical organics and suspended solids removal performances of Pagla
treatment plant.
Table 3.10 Organics and solid removal performances of Pagla treatment plant (DWASA,
2013).
Sewer Systems 77
treatment capacity of 300,000 m3/d) will then be commissioned; e) a program of
rehabilitation and replacement of the remaining existing sewerage systems in Pagla
catchment will be undertaken; f) extensions to new sewerage systems to be constructed
within the Pagla catchment; g) refurbish Nerinda old pump station in order to increase
capacity. The second component of the Phase 2 investments will include: a) construction of
a parallel trunk sewer from Golapbagh (near Swamibagh) to Pagla treatment plant; b)
construction of the sewerage systems, transmission mains and wastewater treatment plants
for each of the remaining urban centre, such as: Rayerbazar, Mirpur, Uttara and
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 3
gpcd. Consider the sewer length and house connections to be 4 miles, and infiltration to
be 25,000 gpd.
5. A 24 inches sewer with n=0.013 is laid on a grade of 0.016. Compute the flow velocity
when depth of flow is 6 inches.
6. A 25 inches sewer with n=0.011 is laid on a grade of 0.020.What will be the velocity when
depth of flow is 3 inches?
7. State the comparison between small bore sewerage and conventional sewerage system.
Sewer Systems 79
References
Bangladesh National Building Code (BNBC) 2013 draft, p.8-269.
DWASA, 2010. DWASA Management Information Report, Dhaka, 2010.
Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority (DWASA), 2013. Updating/Preparation of Sewerage Master
Plan of Dhaka City and Preparation of Detail Design & Bidding Documents for Priority Works for Existing
Sewerage System of Dhaka City. Master plan report, Dhaka Sewerage Master Plan Project (Package DS-
1A), Dhaka, March, 2013.
CHAPTER 3
Preliminary Treatment
of Municipal Wastewater
Large floating solids, grit, and grease are the common components of raw municipal
wastewater (collected through sewerage networks-Chapter 3), which can cause corrosion,
blockage of the pumps, and equipments of wastewater treatment plants. In addition, these
pollutants can also reduce the efficacy of the biological units of treatment plants. The proper
functioning of the treatment plants is critically dependent on efficient removal of such
pollutants, which is usually achieved through preliminary treatment process.
This chapter provides a brief description of the common preliminary treatment processes,
employed for the treatment of raw wastewater. Figure 4.1 illustrates a flow diagram of the
required operations, associated with preliminary treatment process; subsequently, sections
4.1-4.6 provide a brief description of each stage, along with necessary design criteria.
CHAPTER 4
Raw
wastewater Effluent
Screening Grit Grease and Equalization
Removal Oil Removal
coarse constant skimming in-line
screen velocity tanks system
chamber
fine aerated
screen chamber
microstrainers circular DAF system off-line
chamber system
4.1 Screening
Screening devices are usually employed as the first units, for the treatment of incoming
wastewater. Screens can be defined as devices, with generally uniform openings for
capturing the solids of influent wastewater. Depending on the operating mechanisms,
screens can be classified into: (a) coarse screens; (b) fine screens; and (c) microstrainers.
Coarse screens. Coarse screens usually consist of equally spaced inclined vertical bars,
predominantly made of steel. Coarse screens can further be classified into bar racks or bar
screens, according to the bar spacing. Bar racks have clear spacing ranging between 5.08-
10.16 cm (Figure 4.2), while bar screens have clear spacing of 0.64-5.08 cm.
Mechanically raked screens are normally set at an angle between 0 and 45o from the vertical.
The use of such screens reduces labor cost and improves flow condition. They are available
commercially, and manufacturers normally provide design charts to facilitate the selection
of correct screen size for a particular service.
Figure 4.5 shows a special type of mechanically cleaned screen – a drum screen; materials
being screened out naturally fall into a hopper as the screen rotates. A water spray assists in
cleaning the screen.
Typical design values for manually and mechanically cleaned bar racks have been provided
in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Typical design criteria for manually and mechanically cleaned bar racks.a
Method of Cleaning
Parameter Unit
Manual Mechanical
Bar size
Width mm 5-15 5-15
Depth mm 25-38 25-38
Bar clearing space mm 25-50 15-75
Approach velocity
Maximum m/s 0.6-1.0
0.3-0.6
Minimum m/s 0.3-0.5
Allowable headloss mm 150 150-600
a
after Metcalf and Eddy, (2003).
The accumulation of solids across the bar racks can create hydraulic loss, which is a function
of upstream and downstream velocity through the bars (Figure 4.6), along with a discharge
coefficient. Bernoulli’s equation can be used to compute such headloss through bar racks, as
illustrated in Equation (4.1):
4.1
and
4.2
h1 v
h2
V
CHAPTER 4
Equation (4.2) can be rearranged into Equation (4.3), after considering the value of C.
4.3
Kirschmer (1926) proposed the following equation for computing headloss through racks:
4.4
where h = headloss, m
w = maximum width of the bar with flow facing, m
b = minimum bar clear spacing, m
v = approach velocity towards the rack, m/s
g = gravity acceleration, 9.81 m/s2
θ = horizontal angle of the rack
B = bar shape factor
The value of bar shape factor (B) can be obtained from Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Typical bar shape factors.a
Bar Type B
Sharp edged rectangular 2.42
Rectangular with semicircular face 1.83
Circular 1.79
a
after Lin (2007).
Example 4.1 Headloss across coarse screens. Calculate the velocity through a rack,
when approach velocity is 0.60 m/s, flow open area through clean bar rack is 0.15 m2 and
headloss across the rack is 30 mm. Also estimate the headloss, when 50% area of the flow area
is blocked off due to coarse solids accumulation.
CHAPTER 4
2. Calculation of headloss through the clogged bar rack
Reduction of screen area by 50% is associated with doubling of the velocity; as such, the
velocity through the clogged bar screen (V) is:
Assuming the flow coefficient for the clogged bar screen to be 0.6, the estimated headloss is:
Fine screens. Fine screens, which usually consist of wire, perforated plate, or closely spaced
bars (with openings 1.5-6.4 mm), are usually employed after coarse screens to retain finer
materials from the incoming wastewater (such as: agro and food processing industries).
Stainless-steel mesh or special wedge-shaped bars are commonly used as screening medium.
The clean water headloss through fine screens can be obtained by common orifice equation,
as illustrated in Equation (4.5):
4.5
where h = headloss, m
v = approach velocity, m/s
C = discharge coefficient of screen (i.e. 0.60 for a clean screen)
g = gravitational acceleration, m/s2
Q = discharge through screen, m3/s
A = effective area of submerged screen, m2
Although the headloss of clean water through a clean screen is less, it depends on the cleaning
method and frequency, size and quantity of suspended solids in the wastewater, and screen
opening size.
Microstrainers. Microstrainers are sometimes employed after fine screen, to achieve: (a)
removal of algae; and (b) further reduction of suspended solids from incoming wastewater.
Microstrainers are made of very fine fabric, or screen wound around a drum. The drum
Continuous operation of microstrainers promote slime growth (on the surface), which can
be mitigated by washing the fabric with Cl2 solution. Frequent slime build up can be
corrected by installing ultra violet radiation. Table 4.3 indicates typical design values of
microstrainers.
Table 4.3 Microstrainer design parameters.a
Item Typical Value
Screen mesh 20-25 μm
Submergence 75% of height
Hydraulic loading 12-24 m3/m2/h of submerged drum surface area
Peripheral drum speed 4.5 m/min at 7.5 cm headloss
Typical drum diameter 3m
a
after USEPA (1975).
4.2 Comminuting
Comminutors, an alternative to racks or screens (Figure 4.8), cut coarse solids (from raw
wastewater) to 6-10 mm, so that they do not interfere with other systems. Chopped solids
are removed from the flow during sedimentation process.
The basic parts of a comminutor include a slotted drum rotating in the vertical plane, and a
cutting tooth. Stationary teeth shred the material intercepted by the screen; the shredded
materials pass through the drum slots. Barminutor is the most widely implemented
comminuting device, which uses a vertical screen with cutting head travelling up and down
the rack of bars, thereby cutting the intercepted materials.
4.6
In larger treatment plant, the trend is toward aerated grit chambers (Figure 4.10). In such
systems, turbulence is created by the injection of compressed air to provide a constant rate
cross-current allowing settlement of heavier grit, whereas lighter organic particles remain
suspended and pass through the tank. Proper control of the turbulence is essential for
efficient functioning of aerated grit chambers. Extremely high turbulence washes away grit
from the chambers; on the other hand, lower turbulence promotes the removal of organic
matter, along with grit. Typically 0.0005-0.00236 m3/s of air per foot of chamber length is
required with 3-5 min retention time, to maintain the efficiency of aerated grit chambers.
Typical design values for aerated grit chambers are illustrated in Table 4.4.
An additional advantage of air supply into aerated grit chambers can be attributed to the
CHAPTER 4
freshening of wastewater, leading to notable odor reduction. If desired, the chamber can also
be used for chemical addition, mixing and/or flocculation ahead of primary treatment. If
correctly designed, an aerated grit chamber with a minimum hydraulic detention time of 3
minutes (operating at peak flow) can capture approximately 95% of the grits, that have sizes
larger than 0.2 mm.
In circular grit chambers, velocity is controlled through the paddles on a vertical shaft. The
retention time in such chambers varies between 2-3 min.
retention tank, pressure reducing valve and floatation tank. The operation mode of a DAF
system can be classified into: (a) full flow mode; and (b) recycle flow mode.
When a DAF system is operated under full flow mode (Figure 4.12), air is dissolved in
wastewater under a pressure of several atmospheres, followed by the release of pressure to
the atmospheric level. For small pressure systems, the total flow can be pressurized up to
275-350 kPa by a pump, with compressed air added at the pump suction. The entire flow is
held in a retention tank under pressure for several minutes, to allow air dissolving. The flow is
then admitted to the floatation tank through a pressure reducing valve, where air comes out
of solution in very fine bubbles attaching the particulate matter, and is removed by the
skimmer from the surface water. The main advantages of a full mode flow DAF system can be
enlisted as: (a) the entire flow is exposed to air pressure; (b) formation of bubbles; and (c)
moderate pressure requirement.
In a recycle flow mode DAF system (Figure 4.13), a portion of the DAF effluent (15-120%)
is recycled, pressurized and semi saturated with air. The recycled flow is mixed with
unpressurized main stream, prior to the entrance point of the floatation tank. Air comes out
of the solution associated with particulate matter, at the entrance zone. Since relatively
cleaner DAF effluent is utilized in recycling mode system, the blockage of diffusers is
generally reduced. However, the size of the floatation unit must be higher, for
accommodating the combination of incoming wastewater flow and recycled water.
The performance of a DAF system depends on the ratio of air volume (A) to the mass of
solids (S) i.e. A/S. The relationship between A/S ratio, air solubility, pressure, and solids
concentration for a system in which the flow is pressurized is illustrated in Equation (4.7).
4.7
4.8
Example 4.2 Design of coarse screens and aerated grit chambers. Design a coarse
screen and aerated grit chambers for wastewater treatment, employing the following
information:
Ü Peak flow through the rack, Qp = 0.9 m3/s
Ü Velocity through rack during peak flow, v = 0.8 m/s
Ü Angle of the rack to the horizontal, θ = 60°
Ü Upstream depth of wastewater, d = 1.5 m
Ü Retention time in aerated grit chamber during peak flow = 3 min
Ü Air supply = 0.00236 m3/s per ft
Ü Volume of grit to be produced during peak flow= 80 mL/m3
CHAPTER 4
Step 3. Calculate number of opening
Choose a 25 mm clear opening
Number of opening,
Air required =
Example 4.3. Volume of equalization tanks. Calculate the volume of the equalization
tank of a treatment plant, subjected to variable inflow rate (with time) as illustrated below.
Solution
Assuming the wastewater inflow is Q(t), constant pumping rate is Qp, and the process cycle
time is T, the volume of wastewater collected during the process cycle can be illustrated in
Equation (4.9).
4.9
If the volume of pumping rate is , then the volume of the equalization tank can be
computed as the maximum difference between influent and pumped wastewater; such
relation can be illustrated as = Employing the above relations the volume
of the equalization tank can be calculated, as illustrated below.
Qp =
V= 1120 m3
CHAPTER 4
grit chamber during peak flow is 3.5 min.
Primary Treatment
of Municipal Wastewater
Primary treatment of wastewater can be achieved by employing septic tanks (Chpater 3), or
sedimentation basins. The former technologies are preferred in those areas, that do not have
sewer networks for transporting wastewater into treatment plants. The latter systems are
usually included as integrated units of treatment plants, and are heavily dependent on
sedimentation mechanism.
Sedimentation depends on physical separation of the suspended materials (from
wastewater) by gravity settling. Sedimentation process removes solids (heavier than water),
particulate matter, and grit from preliminary treated effluent (Figure 5.1) through
sedimentation basin; such basin is also denoted as primary sedimentation tank, clarifier,
settling basin or settling tank. It is the most widely employed treatment unit, to provide
treatment of raw sewage. Properly designed sedimentation tanks often remove 50-70%
suspended solids, and 25-40% BOD from wastewater.
CHAPTER 5
treatment prosess
Sedimentation
rectangular
basin
circular
basin
tube and lamella
basin
Figure 5.1 A schematic diagram of wastewater flow profile across a sedimentation tank.
and 5.2
where rp = particle density
rw = water density
CHAPTER 5
g = gravity constant
Vp = particle volume
Since these forces act in opposite directions, there will be no net force on the suspended
particle when rr=rw . However, if the density of particle and water differs a net force will be
exerted, resulting in acceleration (of the particle) in the direction of force, as expressed in
Equation (5.3):
5.3
When the particle is in motion a third force is created due to viscous friction defined as drag
force (fd), expressed through Equation (5.4):
5.4
5.5
For spherical particles, the ratio of volume (Vp) and particle cross-sectional area (Ap) can be
expressed through Equation (5.6):
5.6
Substituting the ratio of volume and particle cross-sectional area in Equation (5.5) yields the
following equation:
The value of CD changes with different flow regimes. As such, the expression of CD values for
laminar, transitional, and turbulent flow regimes are defined in Equations (5.8)-(5.10).
5.11
CHAPTER 5
where d = particle diameter
µ = kinematic viscosity of water
Reynolds number (Re) values less than 1.0 indicate laminar flow, while values greater than
104 indicate turbulent flow; intermediate values denote transitional flow. The shape factor is
added to correct lack of particle spherosity. For perfect spheres, the value of is assumed to be
1.0.
In case of laminar flow, substituting Equation (5.8) into Equation (5.7) yields Equation
(5.12).
5.12
Equation (5.12) is defined as Stokes equation, often employed for determining the settling
velocity of discrete particles.
Sedimentation tank configuration. Rectangular, square or circular shaped sedimentation
tanks are usually designed for wastewater treatment. An ideal continuous horizontal flow
sedimentation tank (Figure 5.2a and b) comprises of four zones such as: (a) inlet zone; (b)
settling zone; (c) sludge zone; and (d) outlet zone. The inlet zone provides uniform
distribution of influent wastewater over the cross-sectional area of the tank in such a way
that, the flow follows horizontal path to prevent short-circuiting. In the settling zone,
uniform concentration of particles settle at terminal settling velocity to the sludge zone
(beneath the settling zone). In the outlet zone, the clarified effluent is collected through an
outlet weir, and is discharged to the following treatment units.
For the design of sedimentation tanks, a particle settling velocity Vs (Figure 5.2b) is
considered as design overflow settling velocity, and can be defined as the settling velocity of a
particle that settles through the total effective depth H in theoretical detention time. The
particles, having a terminal velocity (Va) equal or greater than Vs are also removed in the
sedimentation tanks (Figure 5.2b). Equation (5.13) expresses the design overflow settling
velocity (Vs) in terms of flow, area, width and length of the sedimentation tank.
(a)
Vs Vr H
V
Va
h
L
(b)
Figure 5.2 (a) Schematic diagram of a rectangular sedimentation tank; and (b) discrete
settling in rectangular sedimentation basin.
5.15
Equation (5.15) indicates that particles with settling velocity Va (less than Vs) will also be
removed, provided that they enter the settling zone at a depth (h), less than H (Figure 5.2b).
For actual particle suspension with size variety and density, prediction of a sedimentation
basin performance requires either particle size distribution or column analysis. From either
technique, a cumulative settling velocity frequency distribution curve may be obtained,
according to Figure 5.3.
For a given flow rate Q, particles having settling velocity ³ Vs will be completely removed. If y0
represents particles portion with a settling velocity < Vs, then the percentage totally removed
(in the sedimentation tank) can be expressed as 1- y0. Also, for each particle size with Va<Vs,
the removal proportion can be expressed according to Equation (5.15). For various particle
CHAPTER 5
sizes in this group, the percentage of removal is:
5.16
5.17
Settling column analysis. Direct application of the procedures, as described in the previous
sections is limited in wastewater treatment due to uncertainty of particles sizes, and lack of
spherical shapes. As such, an indirect method of measuring settling velocities of discrete
particles in dilute suspension was proposed by Camp (1943), commonly referred as settling
column analysis. According to the process, a settling column is employed as demonstrated in
Figure 5.4; the suspension to be tested is placed in a column, and is being mixed completely
to ensure uniform particle distribution. The suspension is then allowed to settle.
If a particle (of the solution) is just at the surface at time equal to zero (Figure 5.4), and its
settling velocity is such that it arrives at a later time i.e. t = t0, then the average settling velocity
of the particle is:
Water level
ZO
CHAPTER 5
Zp
Sampling port
Since, the time of travel is equal for the two particles, it can be shown:
and
The process is repeated several times with xi being the mass fraction of particles with vi< Z0/tl;
the values are plotted on a graph, as shown in Figure 5.5, and the particles fraction with any
settling velocities can be computed.
For a given detention time t0, an overall percent removal can be obtained. All particles, with
settling velocities greater than v0 = Z0/t0will be 100% removed. So the fraction (1-xo) will be
removed completely in time t0. The remaining particles will be removed according to the
CHAPTER 5
ratio vi/v0. If the equation relating to v and x is known, the area can be computed by
integration, as expressed in Equation (5.18).
5.18
Example 5.2. Settling column analysis of type-1 suspension. A settling analysis is run on
a type 1 suspension. The column is 2m deep, and the dataset are given below. Compute the
removal efficiency in a settling basin with a load of 25 m/d.
Solution
1. Calculate mass fraction remaining and corresponding settling rate
The mass fraction at 60 min can be computed as 200/400 = 0.5; the procedure is similar to
compute mass fractions, for the following time periods. The settling rates at corresponding
time period can be obtained from the ratio of travelled distance (i.e. column height) and
corresponding time.
D
M
CHAPTER 5
∆x vt ∆xvt
0.06 0.49 0.03
0.06 0.60 0.04
0.06 0.73 0.04
0.06 0.90 0.05
0.06 0.98 0.06
0.06 1.21 0.07
åDxvt = 0.29
5.19
where Xij = mass fraction (in percentage) removed at ith depth at jth time interval.
The values are plotted in graphical forms (Figure 5.6), and isoremoval lines are drawn. The
CHAPTER 5
slope at any point on any line is the velocity of the fraction of particles represented by that
line.
Example 5.3. Flocculant settling analyses. A column analysis of a flocculating
suspension is being performed. The initial solids concentration is 300 mg/L, with the
resulting matrix as illustrated below. What will be the overall efficiency of the removal of a
settling basin, having 3 m depth with 90 min detention time?
Solution
1. Determine the removal rate at each depth and associated time interval
The mass fraction removed, at each depth for each time can be computed employing
Equation (5.19).
The velocity becomes greater (e.g. slope of isothermal lines become steeper) at greater
depth. These common characteristics of flocculating suspensions indicate agglomeration of
particle size and settling velocity, due to continuous collision and aggregation with other
particles.
2. Plot concentration lines as in the graph, and construction of vertical line t0 = 90min
CHAPTER 5
Removal efficiency,
CHAPTER 5
velocity (on a particle), due to upward water flow and vertically downward settling velocity
directs the particle to the bottom wall of a tube, or toward the lamella. The particle slides
down the surface towards the bottom of the tank.
The plates or tube settlers are set at an angle between 45° and 60° above the horizontal
(Figure 5.8), to promote self-cleaning. If the angle is increased above 60°, solid removal
efficiency is decreased; on the other hand, the solids will accumulate on the plates or tubes,
when inclined at angles less than 45°. The plates are usually spaced 50 mm apart, having an
inclined length of 1-2 m. The accumulated solids (on plates or tube settlers) must be washed
out periodically, to prevent biological growth.
5.21
CHAPTER 5
t = nominal detention time
a, b = empirical constants, as illustrated in Table 5.3
Table 5.3 Typical empirical values for sedimentation tank designa.
The calculation of BOD and TSS removal efficacy (from wastewater) in sedimentation
tanks can also be computed graphically from overflow rate, as illustrated in Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9 Graphical relation of BOD and TSS removal efficacy vs. overflow rate in
sedimentation tanks (Steel and McGhee, 1979).
Table 5.4 and 5.5 indicate typical design guidelines, and dimensional data of sedimentation
tanks.
CHAPTER 5
Diameter m 3.6-60 12-45
Bottom slope mm/m 60-160 80
a
Value after Droste, (1997), bMetcalf and Eddy, (2003).
With circular tanks, the radial flow pattern of the wastewater from the inlet is inherently less
stable than the horizontal flow in a rectangular tank. Careful design is needed to achieve a
stable radial flow pattern. Typical arrangements are shown in Figure 5.12 for: (a) side feed;
(b) vertical pipe feed; and (c) slotted vertical pipe feed. In all these cases, the primary design
principles are that the energy of flow must be dissipated and flow velocity distribution must
be uniform.
Figure 5.12 Standard arrangements of centre-feed inlets for circular clarifiers: (a) side
feed, (b) vertical pipe feed, (c) slotted vertical pipe feed.
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5
Step 7. Compute length of outlet weir
Length=flow/weir load rate
Horizontal settling velocity at peak flow is less than scour velocity (VH-step 8); therefore, the
settled matter should not be resuspended.
Step 10. BOD and TSS removal at peak flow
Removal percentages of BOD and TSS removal can be calculated employing Equation
(5.21):
TSS removal =
Surface area
Therefore
Radius
Diameter
The required surface area for each tank ,
h
d
Step 4. Determine wire loading rate
Provide an inboard weir of 12.2 m.
Periphery length
d
Weir loading d
CHAPTER 5
Figure 5.13 Engineering diagram of a circular sedimentation tank.
3
· Peak hourly flow rate, Qp = 45000 m /d.
· Specific gravity of the particles to be removed, s = 1.25.
· Diameter of the particles, d = 120 µm.
· Darcy-Weisbach fraction factor, f = 0.025.
· Scouring material constant, k = 0.05
CHAPTER 5
Secondary Treatment
of Municipal Wastewater
Wastewater after receiving primary treatment (Chapter 5), generally contains 40-50% of the
original suspended solids, along with substantial amount of initial dissolved organics and
inorganics. As such, the effluent quality of primary treatment process does not often meet the
discharge criteria in most countries. To polish such effluent (to discharge criteria),
secondary treatment mechanism, commonly referred as biological treatment mechanism,
usually follows primary treatment process. A typical secondary treatment process includes
an aeration basin, followed by a secondary clarifier (Figure 6.1); the effluent quality (from
secondary treatment) is enhanced due to: (a) removal of organics (i.e. soluble and colloidal
form) through biodegradation; and (b) capturing of solids into biological films.
Secondary treatment
Return sludge
Sludge
waste
Influent Effluent
Biological Secondary
reactor clarifier
CHAPTER 6
suspended
growth
attached
growth
C C
M
N
CHAPTER 6
F P
Bacteria can also be classified into the following groups (Table 6.2), depending on the
survival temperature range.
Fungi. Fungi are multicellular, non-photosynthetic plants. They are strict aerobes, and have
the ability to grow under low moisture conditions. The optimum pH for fungi is 5.6; the
survival range is 2-9. Fungi compete with bacteria for food, where bacteria are mostly
favored. Fungi also have lower nitrogen requirement. The ability of fungi to survive under
low pH and nitrogen limiting condition makes them very important, in terms of providing
biological treatment to some industrial wastewaters. However, because of large filamentous
shape, fungi tend to settle poorly, thereby limiting sedimentation.
Algae. Algae are photosynthetic microorganisms. They produce bad taste and odors, so they
CHAPTER 6
are undesirable in water supplies. In oxidation ponds, algae are valuable because they have
the ability to produce O2 by photosynthesis. At night, when light is no longer available for
photosynthesis, they use up O2 for respiration.
Protozoa. Protozoa are single-celled animals. They may grow under aerobic, anaerobic or
facultative environment. They are larger than bacteria and often consume bacteria. As a
result, they perform as polishers of the biological treatment effluents.
Rotifers. Rotifers are simple multi cellular animals. They feed on bacteria, small protozoa,
thus stabilizing the waste. Since rotifiers require higher dissolved oxygen content, their
presence is a good indicator of the treated wastewater stability.
in Figure 6.4.
hydrolysis
hydrolysis
decay
biomass
inert material
Biological growth. Bacteria in wastewater treatment process can only utilize very simple
and small compounds for growth, demonstrated in Equation (6.1).
6.1
6.2
mmax
Specific growth rate, m
mmax
CHAPTER 6
Substrate concentration, S
6.3
Several observations can be made from Equation (6.3); where there is an excess of the
limiting food (i.e. S>>KS), the growth rate constant is almost equal to maximum specific
growth rate μmax, and the system becomes biomass limited (i.e. the specific growth rate is
controlled by μmax). Such correlation has been demonstrated in Equation (6.4):
6.4
Equation (6.4) is a first order reaction kinetics, denoting that the growth rate is proportional
to the first power of biomass present. When S<<KS (Equation 6.3), the system becomes food
limited and the specific growth rate is controlled by KS (Equation 6.5).
Equation (6.5) is a zero order reaction, illustrating that the growth rate is independent of
biomass presence. When S = KS (Equation 6.3), the growth rate constant is one-half of the
half saturation constant (KS).
If all food is converted to biomass by bacterial population, then food utilization rate should
theoretically be equal to the rate of biomass production. However, a portion of the food is
converted into waste products; as such, food utilization rate by bacteria is always greater than
the biomass production rate. The interrelation between food utilization rate and biomass
production is demonstrated by Equation (6.6).
6.6
and 6.7
=
CHAPTER 6
Hydrolysis. It is a process which converts larger particulate, dissolved organics and solid
molecules into small degradable products, which can be metabolized by bacteria. Since the
reaction rate of this process is slower than biological growth process, hydrolysis often
becomes the rate limiting step in biological reactors. Hydrolysis process follows first order
kinetics, as illustrated in Equations (6.8)-(6.9).
6.8
where XS = suspended solid concentration, mg/L
6.9
where S = dissolved organic matter concentration, mg/L
kh = hydrolysis constant
It should be noted that, the hydrolysis constant (kh) of Equation (6.8) and (6.9) is not
identical.
Decay. Decay process is usually associated with the reduction of the number, and mass of
microorganisms. In biological reactors, decay is the degradation of biomass due to oxidation
of the biomass organic portion. This process does not change substance amounts; in fact,
through decay metabolism slowly degradable organic matter is added to the system which is
hydrolyzed further, thereby causing new growth. Decay is described as a first order kinetics,
as illustrated in Equation (6.10):
6.11
CHAPTER 6
known as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD indicates the biodegradable organic
content of wastewater. It is often referred as BOD5, which is measured at the end of 5 days on
incubation at 20°C.
The rate at which biodegradable organics are utilized by microorganisms is assumed to be a
first order reaction; as such, the rate at which organic materials are utilized is proportional to
the amount available (in wastewater). This can be expressed mathematically through
Equation (6.12).
6.12
6.13
6.14
where L0= total oxygen equivalent of the organics at time zero
Lt = oxygen amount remaining at time t
L0 - Lt = Yt
Yt
Lt
If L0 is the oxygen equivalent of the total mass of organics, then the difference between L0 and
Lt is the oxygen equivalent consumed, or BOD exerted (Figure 6.6), defined mathematically
through Equation (6.15).
CHAPTER 6
6.15
and 6.16
where yt represents BODt of the water.
The value of k determines the reaction speed of BOD reaction. The reaction kinetics of easily
degradable organics exhibits higher k values, whereas complex organics degradation kinetics
demonstrates lower k values. For example, if k1, k2 and k3 are the degradation reaction kinetics
of complex, degradable and easily degradable organics, then the interrelation between these
three constants can be expressed as k3>k2>k1 (Figure 6.7). The values of k usually range from
0-1-0.5 d-1, and can be determined by Arrhenius model (Equation 6.17), which is critically
dependent on temperature.
L0
K3>K2
K2>K1
K1
CHAPTER 6
3. Determination of BOD7 at 10°C
Chemical oxygen demand (COD). Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is defined as the O2
equivalent of the organic matter, that can be oxidized with a strong chemical oxidizing agent
(a mixture of dichromate and sulphuric acid with silver sulphate as catalyst), at an elevated
temperature (150°C) for two hours. COD of wastewater is always greater than BOD, as
more compounds can be chemically oxidized by biological oxidation.
The COD of wastewater comprises of both biodegradable and non-biodegradable organics.
Each of these two forms can be further classified into particulate and dissolved organics.
Different physical processes (eg. screening, adsorption) of biological reactors contribute to
the removal of both biodegradable and non-biodegradable particulate matter. The
biodegradable particulate matter is initially subjected to flocculation, adsorption on biofilm
cell wall, followed by hydrolysis of the adsorbed material into soluble organic matter. In
contrast, the biodegradable dissolved organics usually pass through the biofilm cell (due to
extremely small size), thereby subjected to metabolism. The non-biodegradable dissolved
organic portions (of wastewater) leave the process, without being captured. Employing S as
a generic symbol of influent organic matter (denoted as COD), the total influent COD
concentration (Sti) can be defined as:
6.18
Removal mechanism
Biogradable dissolved
influent COD Metabolism
concentration (Sbsi)
Biogradable
influent COD
concentration (Sbi) Biogradable particulate
Adsorption, hydrolysis
influent COD
and metabolism
Total influent concentration (Sbpi)
COD
concentration Non-biodegradable
particulate influent COD Bioflocculation
Non-biogradable concentration (Snpi)
CHAPTER 6
influent COD
concentration (Sni) Non-biodegradable
dissolved influent COD Effluent
concentration (Snsi)
COD values of wastewater are always greater than BOD values, as more compounds can be
oxidized by the strong chemical agent. Typical ratio of BOD/COD for untreated domestic
wastewater is in the range of 0.3-0.8; a BOD/COD ratio of 0.5 or greater indicates that the
wastewater is easily degradable, while the ratio below 0.3 indicates that the wastewater is
difficult to degrade by microorganisms.
Combining Equation (6.20) with classical Monod Equation (Equation 6.2) yields double
Monod expression, illustrating the dependency of aerobic organics degradation on the
availability of oxygen and organics (in wastewater), as expressed in Equation (6.21):
6.21
6.22
CHAPTER 6
results in lower pH values, which can cause major problems in biological treatment
processes.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus. Lower nitrogen and phosphorus concentration in wastewater
can inhibit the growth of aerobic biofilms, due to lack of nutrient requirement.
The typical constants of the kinetic equations (as discussed previously) have been illustrated
in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 Reaction rate constants for aerobic conversions at 20°Ca.
The mass balance of organics removal across an activated sludge system can be calculated
assuming steady state conditions; the assumption defines no accumulation of influent
organic material inside the system. As such, the daily mass of applied influent organic load
(into the system) is the sum of the following fluxes (Figure 6.9b): (a) influent organic
matter, not removed in the process escapes as effluent organic material (MSte); (b)
transformation of a portion of organic material to organic sludge, and being discharged as
excess sludge (MSxv); and (c) oxidation of a portion of the organic matter (MS0). The routes
that transform organic matter are: (a) transformation of organic sludge by anabolism, decay,
flocculation and adsorption; and (b) oxidation into inorganic products.
(a)
Return sludge
Figure 6.9 (a) Pictorial view of an aeration tank; and (b) organic flow diagram (expressed
as COD) across activated sludge system.
The sludge mixing pattern in the aeration tank (of activated sludge process) follows either a
completely mixed or a plug flow approach.
Complete mix with recycle. In a complete mix reactor or continuous flow stirred tank
CHAPTER 6
reactor (CSTR), the flow is continuously stirred to enhance complete mixing in the reactor.
The substrate concentration in a CSTR reactor is same as the effluent substrate
concentration. The hydraulic retention time in a CSTR reactor is defined according to
Equation (6.23).
6.23
6.24
6.25
Qwa, X
Figure 6.10 Schematic diagram of a completely mixed reactor with: (a) wasting of sludge
from aeration tank; and (b) wasting from return sludge line.
Biomass and substrate mass balance. The mass balance in the entire activated sludge
process can be defined as the rate of accumulation of microorganisms in the inflow plus net
growth, minus that in the outflow, as defined in Equation (6.26):
6.26
Substituting Equation (6.27) into Equation (6.26), and assuming: (a) the cell concentration
(X0) in the influent is zero; and (b) steady-state conditions, results in equation (6.28):
6.28
Since the left hand side of equation (6.28) is the inverse of mean cell residence time qC
(Equation 6.24), Equation (6.28) can be expressed as:
6.29
CHAPTER 6
6.30
6.31
Substituting hydraulic retention time q = V/Q in equation (6.31) for solving volume of
reactor (V), yields equation (6.32):
6.32
The substrate concentration (S) in the effluent can also be determined from the substrate
mass balance as demonstrated in Equation (6.33):
6.33
Where k can be defined as maximum rate of substrate utilization per unit mass of
microorganism, per day.
Substituting the value of X given in Equation (6.31) for r'g in Equation (6.27), and dividing
by the term S0-S, the observed yield in the system (with recycle) is:
Applying the expression of rs (Equation 6.30) in Equation (6.35), the specific substrate
utilization rate can be computed:
6.36
In completely mixed activated sludge process the VSS in the effluent (Xe) is very small,
thereby can be neglected. As such, Equation (6.24) can be written as:
or, 6.38
6.39
The term food-to microorganism ratio (F/M) is extensively employed for activated sludge
process design. The F/M ratio (d-1) is denoted as the ratio of influent soluble BOD5
concentration (S0), to the product of hydraulic retention time (θ) and MLVSS
concentration (X) in the aeration tank (Equation 6.40).
6.40
F/M and U are interrelated, which can be implemented for the computation of the efficiency
(E) of the activated-sludge process, defined in Equation (6.41):
6.41
and, 6.42
6.43
6.44
The normal air requirements for most of the activated sludge systems are 1.1 kg O2 (93.5 m3
of air) per kg BOD5. In general, air requirements vary between 3.75-15 m3 air/m3 water
(Metcalf and Eddy, 1991). Table 6.5 describes the air requirement in activated sludge
processes, based on F/M ratio.
CHAPTER 6
Table 6.5 Air requirements and F/M ratio correlationship.a
F/M ratio Air requirements
>0.3d-1 31-56 m3/kg BOD5 removal
<0.3d-1 75-112m3/kg BOD5 removal
a
After Lin (2007).
Recycle rate. The recycle rate (R) can be defined as the ratio of return sludge and raw
wastewater (Figure 6.11), and can be expressed through Equation (6.45).
6.45
Volumetric loading. The volumetric loading (kg BOD/m3.d), which is often employed for
the design of activated sludge plants can be expressed by Equation (6.46).
(a) Qr (b)
Figure 6.12 (a) Long aeration tank to achieve plug flow regime; and (b) oxygen
concentration profile in a PF tank.
In a PF system, the oxygen demand is higher at the influent end (of the basin), due to
intensive degradation of readily degradable substrates (Figure 6.12b). At the effluent end of
the basin oxygen demand is lower, which can be attributed to lower rate of endogenous
metabolism coupled with absence of readily degradable substrates.
The widely accepted kinetic model for a PF reactor was developed by Lawrence and
McCarty (1969); the expressions derived (by the authors) for average MLSS ( ) and food
utilization are illustrated in Equations (6.47)-(6.48). It should be noted that these equations
are valid only when qc/q ³ 5.
6.47
6.48
Integrating Equation (6.47) over detention time in reactor and substituting the appropriate
boundary conditions, and recycle factor, yields Equation (6.49).
s = recycle factor,
CHAPTER 6
The settling phenomenon of solids, and various settling zones observed in secondary
clarifiers can be described by column batch analyses. If a column (in column batch analyses)
is filled with concentrated suspension and allowed to settle, the contents will be divided into
different zones, as observed in Figure 6.13a. In zone B, initial concentration C0 is preserved
and settles at a uniform velocity, resulting clarified zone (A zone); the clarified zone is
lengthened at the same velocity.
Below the uniform velocity zone, two other zones develop. Particles which reach at the
bottom gain resting position; particles fall on them form a compression zone, referred as
zone D (Figure 6.13a) which is supported from below. The intermediate zone between D
and B contains a concentration gradient slightly higher than C0 just below zone B, and
slightly less than the concentration at the top of compression zone (D zone). Such
intermediate zone (between D and B) can be defined as thickening zone.
As time progresses, relative movement occurs between the zone interfaces. C-D interface
moves upward, due to drop of particles from zone C into zone D. Such drop of particle results
upward displacement of B-C interface at the same velocity of C-D interface; this condition
continues as long as velocity gradient of C zone remains constant, resulting constant width of
this zone (C zone). However, A-B interface also moves downward due to uniform settling of
particles (with initial concentration). The simultaneous downward movement of A-B
interface, and upward displacement of C-D interface erodes particles of zone B at top to
bottom, until it becomes nonexistent (t = t3). After this time the newly formed A-C interface
settles at a decreasing rate, as the interfacial solids concentration increases from C0 (just at
the disappearance of zone B), to the concentration of the top layer of the compression zone
just as zone C also disappears (t = t5). The newly formed A-D interface will subside at a slow
uniform rate; the solids consolidate under their own weight, releasing some of interstitial
water to the clarified zone located above.
(b)
(c)
Figure 6.13 (a) Different settling zones observed in batch column analyses; (b) settling
zones of secondary clarifiers; and (c) pictorial view of a secondary clarifier.
6.50
The resulting solid flux (i.e. the product of underflow rate and the solids concentration) can
be defined in Equation (6.51):
CHAPTER 6
6.51
Yoshioka et al., (1957) employed modification of the above graphical procedures, for
matching underflow concentrations to their related limiting flux rates. According to such
modification, a line beginning at the desired underflow concentration (Xu) is drawn in
tangent to the gravity flux curve (Figure 6.15), which intersects solid flux ordinate at limiting
flux. The absolute value of the tangent slope is referred as the underflow velocity; the abscissa
value at tangency point is the limiting gravity flux concentration. The ordinate at the
tangency point is gravity solid flux (Gg), while the intercept GL-Gg is the flux due to underflow
transport.
The procedures and equations described in the previous paragraphs require extensive
experimental analyses. However, when such data sets are not available, the engineer may
depend on literature for the design of secondary clarifiers. Table 6.6 presents such data sets
for the design of secondary clarifier. However the implementation of these data is critically
dependent on the wastewater characteristics.
Operational control of secondary clarifier. The smooth performance of secondary
clarifiers (in activated sludge process) is dependent on a set of critical operational tools, such
6.54
6.55
CHAPTER 6
parameter for proper functioning of the activated sludge process, because it
maintains a certain proportion of microbial population in the aeration tank for
pollutant removal (from wastewater).The minimum percentage of RAS is related to
SVI, and can be expressed according to Equation (6.56):
% of RAS 6.56
and 6.58
The sludge settleablity method can also be utilized, to determine the RAS flow rate.
Such method requires establishing a relation between influent flow rate, and settled
sludge volume defined in Equation (6.59).
and 6.61
CHAPTER 6
SVI is in the typical range of 80-150 mL/g for MLSS concentration of 2000-3500 mg/L.
CHAPTER 6
Return flow ratio,
SS concentration,
In biological treatment units, DO concentration in the mixed liquor is less than the
saturation value, due to oxygen consumption by the microbes. As such, under normal
conditions the atmospheric oxygen is transferred to the mixed liquor. According to Fick’s
law, this transfer rate is proportional to the difference between saturation and actual DO
concentration in the mixed liquor, as illustrated in Equation (6.63):
6.63
oxygen transfer is calculated in pure water without oxygen (DOl = 0) under atmospheric
pressure (760 mm Hg), at a temperature 20° C. Considering these factors, the oxygenation
capacity (OC, mg O2.L-1.h-1) can be measured employing Equation (6.64).
6.64
Aerator types. The objective of aeration in activated sludge process can be enlisted as: (a)
to oxidize organic matter, NH4-N, and H2S; and (b) providing adequate turbulence to
maintain sludge flocs suspension. Such objectives (of aeration) in biological units are
achieved by aerators, which can be classified into two groups: (a) diffused air systems, where
air bubbles are introduced from the bottom part of the liquid phase, following upward
direction; and (b) mechanical aerators, where air bubbles are introduced in the liquid phase.
The diffused aerators can be classified as:
Ÿ Fine bubble aeration: composed of porous ceramic domes or discs mounted on
aeration tank bottom; the oxygen transfer efficiency is high.
Ÿ Coarse bubble aeration: comprises of non porous domes, discs or tubes, producing
larger bubbles; oxygen transfer efficiency is lower.
The mechanical aerators can be distinguished as:
Ÿ Horizontal shaft aerators: mounted on fixed platforms; each surface aerator has its
own motor. The rotating speed of such aerators is 20-60 rpm. Examples include
brush and disk aerators.
Ÿ Vertical shaft aerators: a propeller agitates the water, introducing air bubbles into the
mixed liquor, and suspending liquid droplets in the air. The motor can be directly
coupled to the propeller, which in turn increases the rotation speed. A gear box is
sometimes used to achieve lower rotation speed of the propeller.
6.65
6.67
where T = temperature in °C
CHAPTER 6
q = temperature dependency factor
=1.020-1.028 for diffused air systems, and 1.012 for mechanical aeration
(Landberg et al., 1969)
p = actual atmospheric pressure, mm Hg
pw = water vapour pressure, mm Hg
ps = standard pressure,760 mm Hg
a, b = constants
Putting the values of Equations (6.66) and (6.67) into Equation (6.65) results:
6.68
6.69
Power requirement,
been modified over the past years. Such modification was primarily based on F/M ratio,
BOD5 loading and hydraulic retention time (HRT). The modified processes include step
aeration, tapered aeration, contact stabilization, pure oxygen activated sludge system, Kraus
process, two sludge system, extended aeration and sequential batch reactors. This section
provides a brief operational description of such modified processes.
Step aeration. The step aeration process distributes waste flow to a number of points along
the basin (Figure 6.16), thus avoiding locally high O2 demand; the return activated sludge
(RAS) is introduced at the aeration tank head. The flow distribution lessens the effect of
peak hydraulic and organic loads, and may provide sufficient dilution to protect bacteria
against toxic materials. Step aeration follows plug flow regime.
Compressed air
CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.17 Tapered aeration process.
Q Q-Qw
Secondary
Contact tank
clarifier
Qr
Stabilization tank
Qw Qw
Figure 6.18 Contact stabilization activated sludge process.
Oxygen Exhaust
supply vent
Mixer
CHAPTER 6
Influent baffled
compartments
Secondary
clarifier
RAS
Waste
The advantages of this system include higher transfer of oxygen, small reaction chambers,
peak loading tolerance, higher efficiency in terms of treating soluble wastewater, reduction
of sludge bulking, and effective odor control.
Kraus process. This process is effective for the treatment of nitrogen deficient wastewater.
The digester supernatant (source of food) is added with a portion of the return sludge, and
transferred to the aeration tank for nitrification. The resulting mixed liquor is then
transferred to the main plug flow aeration tank. Figure 6.20 provides a schematic diagram of
the Kraus process.
Two sludge system. This system is divided into two stages; the first stage removes BOD,
whereas the second stage removes ammoniacal nitrogen (NH4-N) at longer sludge age
(Figure 6.21). BOD removal in the first stage promotes treatment of toxic substances,
thereby protecting more sensitive nitrifying bacteria in the second stage. A portion of the
influent wastewater (of the first stage) can be by passed around the nitrifying stage, to
enhance organics and solids availability for nitrification.
RAS
Sludge
Mixed
liquor Digester
Bypass
CHAPTER 6
RAS RAS
Sludge Sludge
Extended aeration. The extended aeration process is operated under longer hydraulic
retention time and sludge age. The system is also subjected to longer aeration time, resulting
higher MLSS concentration, higher RAS pumping rate, and substantial endogenous decay
of sludge mass. Such prolonged endogenous phase allows equal proportion of cell mass
production and decay, resulting in no net mass production, thereby minimizing sludge
production and wastage.
aerator may or may not be switched on in this phase. In the react phase, the aerator is turned
on to provide treatment of organics and solids, present in wastewater. The settling phase
includes settling of sludge in the reactor, while the aerator is turned off. The discharge phase
allows withdrawal of the clarified effluent from the reactor, along with excess sludge. The
main advantage of SBR can be attributed to simultaneous achievement of equalization,
primary clarification, biological treatment and secondary clarification. However, higher
maintenance costs, substantial sludge production and greater sludge volume index (SVI) are
the major disadvantages of SBR systems.
Typical operational parameters, for the design of some of the above described activated
sludge processes have been illustrated in Table 6.7.
Operational parameters
BOD5 MLSS HRT Sludge F/M ratio BOD5 removal
loading concentration, X hrs age, qc d-1 efficiency
kg/(m3.d) mg/L d %
Step aeration 0.6-1 2000-3500 3-5 5-15 0.2-0.4 85-95%
Contact 1-1.2 80-90%
stabilization
Pure oxygen 1.6-3.2 3000-8000 1-3 8-20 0.25-1 85-95%
Kraus process 0.6-1.6 2000-3000 4-8 0.3-0.8
Oxidation ditch 0.08-0.48 1500-5000 0.05-0.3 85-95%
Example 6.4. Estimate the volume of the aeration tank of high purity oxygen activated
sludge system for municipal wastewater treatment employing the following data set, and
check with design parameters. Also find out the expected effluent BOD5 concentration of the
system.
Parameter Value
Design avaerage flow, Q 4000 m3/d
CHAPTER 6
Influent BOD 300 mg/L
Influent TSS 150 mg/L
F/M 0.6 lb BOD applied/lb MLVSS.d
MLSS 7000 mg/L
VSS/TSS 0.8
Maximum volumetric BOD load 4 kg/(m3.d)
Minimum aeration time 2h
Minimum cell residence time 4d
Ks 60 mg/L of BOD
kd 0.06/d
Y 0.6 VSS/mg BOD
k 6 d-1
Solution
1. Calculation of tank volume
h h
Sludge age,
(b) CHAPTER 6
Figure 6.24 (a) Front elevation; and (b) 3D view of a trickling filter.
As wastewater passes through the filter media, it promotes the growth of biological slime
layer on the media surface. Such developed slime layer comprises of microorganisms, which
enhance biodegradation of substrates (from wastewater). The biological community
includes aerobic, facultative bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa. Higher animals such as
worms, larvae, and snails can also be an integral part of the biological slime.
The common bacteria species of trickling filters include Achromobacter, Flavobacterium,
Pseudomonas, and Alcaligenes. Within the slime layer, the filamentous forms such as:
Sphaerotilusnatans and Beggiatoa dominate due to adverse environmental conditions.
Nitrifying bacteria are observed in the lower part of the filter. The common fungi species of
trickling filters are: Fusazium, Mucor, Penicillium, Geotrichum, Yeasts etc; rapid growth of
fungi often clogs the filter media.
Sludge
Influent
Primary Trickling Secondary
sedimentation filter sedimentation
Recirculation
Sludge
CHAPTER 6
is required for BOD removal (from high strength wastewater), when compared with
activated sludge processes, because energy is required only to pump influent wastewater and
in flow recirculation. Table 6.8 indicates typical design guidelines of different types of filters.
Filter type
Low rate Intermediate rate High rate Roughing
Packing Rock Rock Rock Rock/Plastic
Hydraulic loading 1-4 4-10 10-40 40-200
m3/m2.d
Organic load 0.07-0.22 0.24-0.48 0.4-2.4 >1.5
kg BOD/m3.d
Recirculation ratio 0 0-1 1-2 0-2
Sloughing Intermittent Intermittent Continuous Continuous
Depth m 1.8-2.4 1.8-2.4 1.8-2.4 0.9-6
BOD removal efficacy % 80-90 50-80 50-90 40-70
Effluent quality Nitrified Some nitrification No nitrification No nitrification
Power 2-4 2-8 6-10 10-20
kW/103m3
a
after Metcalf and Eddy, Inc. (1979), b WEF (2000).
Design of trickling filters: NRC formula. The NRC (National Research Council)
formula is an empirical formula, developed by the National Research Council of the United
States. The formula can be applied for single stage and multi stage rock filters, with varying
recirculation ratios. The equation for the removal of BOD in a first stage rock filter is:
6.71
6.72
CHAPTER 6
6.75
6.76
CHAPTER 6
Potato processing 0.095-0.14
Refinery 0.054-0.19
a
after Lin (2007)
The values of k in (L/s)0.5/m2 for a 6 m tower trickling filter with plastic media (at 20 °C) is
illustrated in Table 6.9. These values can be used for calculating treatability constant at
another depth, employing Equation (6.76).
Distributor speed. The dosing rate to a trickling filter is a function of distributor speed or
the on-off times of a fixed distributor. The rotational speed of a rotary distributor is expressed
through Equation (6.77):
6.77
6.78
6.79
(a)
(b)
Figure 6.27 (a) Cross section of circular disks mounted on a shaft; and (b) operational
diagram of RBC processes for wastewater treatment.
CHAPTER 6
phase. During the continuous rotation of the disks, the attached biofilms are exposed to air
and wastewater alternatively (Figure 6.28). When the disks are submerged to wastewater,
the organics penetrate through the biofilms. As the disks rotate to atmospheric conditions,
the oxygen (from air) is diffused in the biofilms, allowing aerobic organic degradation. The
DO rich biofilm replenishes oxygen concentration of the wastewater, when the disk is
alternatively submerged. Attached biofilms are sloughed in wastewater (Figure 6.28), and
being removed in the following secondary clarifiers.
Figure 6.28 Slime formation across the plastic media of RBC reactors.
The RBC system includes a number of units in series to prevent short circuiting of incoming
wastewater, as illustrated in Figure 6.29. The number of stages depends on treatment
objectives; for the removal of BOD 2-4 stages are required, whereas nitrification process can
be enhanced with six or more stages. The establishment of these stages can be accomplished
by a single tank with baffles, or by multiple tanks. During stage treatment, the influent
organic concentration in the subsequent stage is lower than the previous stage; the hydraulic
retention time in each stage is usually shorter (i.e. 20 min under normal loading).
CHAPTER 6
The RBC system has several benefits over the trickling filter process (for wastewater
treatment), as enlisted below:
Ÿ Reduced loadings on the shaft and bearings.
Ÿ Ease of retrofit into existing aeration tanks.
Ÿ Lower power consumption.
Ÿ Good process stability.
Ÿ Better control of short circuiting.
However, overloading of RBC systems is often associated with the development of
anaerobic conditions in the deeper portion of the attached biofilms. In such conditions,
sulfate is reduced to H2S and is diffused outwards in oxygen rich environment, followed by
oxidation (of H2S) via Beggiatoa bacteria. The continuous oxidation of H2S enhances the
formation of whitish Beggiatoa biofilms, that do not slough under normal RBC loading. Such
problems can be mitigated by adding hydrogen per oxide. Increase of the rotational speed of
the disks also enhances the shear level of the attached biomass. The organic loading to the
first stage of an RBC should also be restricted to 3.1kg total BOD5/100 m2/d or 1.2 kg soluble
BOD5/100 m2/d (WEF and ASCE, 1992) for smooth operation.
CHAPTER 6
MLSS, mg/L 1100 1900 2500 3400 4100 5500 6700 8500
Velocity, m/h 4.5 3.5 2.5 1.4 0.7 0.25 0.1 0.07
Solution
a. Aeration tank design
Step 1. BOD and TSS loading into the plant
Design flow
BOD loading =
TSS loading =
Effluent TSS =
Effluent BOD,
CHAPTER 6
Dimension of each tank: width =17m; length = 34 m, total depth = 6 m (0.5 m freeboard).
Here,
CHAPTER 6
Increase of MLVSS mass can be calculated, employing Equation (6.43),
Increase in MLSS,
Figure 6.30 MLSS vs. G curve for the design of secondary clarifiers.
CHAPTER 6
From the graph GL is calculated as 2.3 kg/m2.h.
Step 3. Determine flow rate to the clarifiers
Clarifier flow rate = Q + Qr -Qwa (from aeration tank design)
d = 42 m
Step 6. Check overflow rate
Overflow rate =
Assuming storage capacity for 4 days due to peak flow (3 times of average flow), and 8 days
peak BOD loading (2 times of average BOD loading), the mass of solids in a clarifier for 4
days can be computed as:
For peak flow and BOD loading conditions (as discussed above), the value of the parameters
of Equation (6.43) is:
Yobs=0.3125 (from aeration tank design), Q=3×0.6m3/s=1.8 m3/s=155520m3/d, S0=300
mg/L×2=600mg/L, S=6.4 mg/L×2=12.8 mg/L.
CHAPTER 6
Step 10. Total depth of each clarifier
The depth of clear water and settling zone ranges within 1.5-2m.
3.27 m
Aeration 20394m3/d 3
12654m /d
tanks 2
Q = 51604 Q + Qr Qe
3
3
m /d 82566 m /d
1 2 3 4 5 7740m3/d
3
20394m /d 12654m3/d
Qr = 30962 m3/d 3
Qe
7740m3/d
20394m3/d 12654m3/d
4
Qe
3
7740m /d
Figure 6.33 Wastewater flow analyses diagram across activated sludge process.
CHAPTER 6
Example 6.6. Design of trickling filters. The domestic wastewater generated from a
community is discharged to open water bodies, without any treatment. Due to severe quality
degradation of such water bodies, the local authority has proposed a combination of primary
and secondary treatment processes, for domestic wastewater treatment. The authority has
selected trickling filters, as secondary treatment process. Under such circumstances:
(a) Design two stage trickling filters (for the community) using NRC formula from the
following dataset:
Ÿ Water temperature = 30°C
Ÿ Incoming wastewater = 2000 m3/d
Ÿ Influent BOD = 150 mg/L
Ÿ Estimated effluent BOD = 20 mg/L
Ÿ Depth of each filter = 2 m
Ÿ Recirculation for filter 1 and 2 (r1 = r2) = 1.5
Ÿ Assume both filters will have equal BOD removal efficacy
(b) Owing to rapid expansion of the community, the wastewater generation by the same
community has increased to a factor of 1.5 after 10 years. In addition, a food industry has also
been established in the area during this time period, and the wastewater produced from the
industry is being mixed with domestic wastewater prior to discharge. As such the existing
two-stage trickling filters cannot meet BOD discharge criteria, and replacement/upgrading
are required. After the necessary feasibility studies, the local authority has decided to replace
the two-stage trickling filters with a single stage roughing filter, for the treatment of the
combined domestic and food processing wastewater. Design a single stage roughing filter
(with Germain formula) for the community employing original (Example 6.6a), and
additional dataset given below:
Overall efficiency,
Equation (6.73):
Since E1=E2
Therefore E1 = 64%
CHAPTER 6
From Equation (6.71):
d = 9.5 m
Step 6. Calculate the mass BOD loading to the second stage
d = 16 m
Step 11. Calculate the rotation speed of the rotary distributor in the first stage
DR can be calculated by multiplying BOD load rate of filter 1 (step 9) with 0.30.
where
CHAPTER 6
Employing Equation (6.76):
BOD load=
Step 7. Calculate the rotation speed of the rotary distributor in the first stage
CHAPTER 6
ŸRecirculation for filter 1 and 2 (r1=r2)=1.5
Assume both filters will have equal BOD removal efficacy.
Metcalf and Eddy. 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse. 3rd ed., G.
Tchobanoglous and F.L. Burton eds., McGraw-Hill, Toronto.
Okun, D.A. 1949. A system of bioprecipitation of organic matter from activated sludge. Sewage Works J., 21
(5), 763-792.
WEF and ASCE. 1992. Design of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants, vol. I, Water Environment
Federation, Alexandria, VA.
WEF. 2000. Anaerobic fixed-growth reactors; a special publication. Water Environment Federation,
Alexandria, VA.
Yoshioka, N., Holta, Y., Tanaka, S., Naito, S., Tsugami, S. 1957. Continuous thickening of homogeneous
flocculated slurries. Chem. Eng., 21, 66.
Tertiary Treatment
of Municipal Wastewater
Secondary treatment processes remove 85-95% BOD and solids from wastewater; however,
such mechanisms often exhibit insignificant removal of nutrients (i.e. nitrogen,
phosphorus) and heavy metals. If the nutrients are discharged (with wastewater) into
natural channels without any treatment, they can cause: (a) depletion of dissolved oxygen;
(b) eutrophication; and (c) methemoglobinemia.
In order to protect the natural channels from the adverse impact of nutrients, wastewater is
often required to be treated through tertiary treatment process. Tertiary treatment includes
removal of nutrients, dissolved solids, metals, toxic compounds and refractory organic
compounds from wastewater, thereby further improving wastewater quality for safe
discharge.
Tertiary treatment includes a combination of aerobic-anoxic-anaerobic tanks, followed by a
secondary settler, to allow biological removal of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P); in
addition, chemical precipitation is also employed for the removal of phosphorus. Figure 7.1
depicts a typical biological tertiary treatment process, to assist nutrient removal.
Recycle Recycle
CHAPTER 7
RAS
Nitrification
Assimilation
Organic
Noi nitrogen No Noe
Figure 7.2 Traditional nitrogen removal pathways in activated sludge process. The
notations Nti, Nai, Nni, Noi denote influent total nitrogen, ammonium, nitrate, organic
nitrogen; Nte, Nae, Nne, Noe denote effluent total nitrogen, ammonium, nitrate, organic
nitrogen.
+
7.1
Ammonification is faster in aerobic environments; the process is slower in facultative and
anaerobic conditions (Reddy and Patrick, 1984). The ideal pH range for ammonification is
6.5-8.5 (Patrick and Wyatt, 1964; Vymazal, 1995). Ammonification proceeds faster at
higher temperature, doubling rate with temperature increase of 10°C (Kadlec and Knight,
1996).
Nitrification. Nitrification is a two step process where ammonium nitrogen is first
converted to nitrite nitrogen by Nitrosomonas bacteria, then to nitrate nitrogen by
Nitrobacter bacteria. This can be expressed in the following equations proposed by Reddy
and Patrick (1984):
7.2
7.3
Several conclusions can be made from the above equation, regarding the compulsory
environmental conditions required for nitrification:
(i) 1 mol of ammonia nitrogen produces 0.021 mol of microbial biomass (0.17 g of dry
weight biomass per gram of ammonia nitrogen consumed), and 3.22 g O2 are
consumed for per gram NH4+ oxidation, 1.11 g of O2 consumed per g NO2- oxidation
(Kadlec and Knight 1996). Complete NH4+ oxidation requires 4.2-4.5 mg O2 mg-1 N
(Brix, 1987).
CHAPTER 7
(ii)7.14 mg/L (as CaCO3) of alkalinity are consumed for each mg/L nitrification of
ammonia nitrogen, and 1.98 mol of H+ are released for each mole of ammonia
nitrogen consumed (Kadlec and Knight 1996).
Denitrification. Denitrification, the main mechanism of total nitrogen (TN) removal in
activated sludge processes, is a bacterial process when N oxides (ionic and gaseous forms)
serve as terminal electron acceptors for respiratory electron transport, and organic
compounds serve as electron donors (Vymazal, 1995). The conversion process of nitrate to
nitrite, and then to nitrogen gas (via denitrification) is illustrated in Equations (7.8)-(7.9):
7.8
7.9
The overall transformation can be expressed by Equation (7.10):
7.10
Equation (7.10) indicates that each mole of nitrate reduction is associated with the
acceptance of five electrons. When an external carbon source is being employed (for
example methanol-CH3OH), the stoichiometry of denitrification reaction becomes (U.S.
EPA, 1993; Kadlec and Knight, 1996):
7.11
From equation (7.12) it can be seen that denitrification process produces alkalinity, and
approximately 3 g bicarbonate (as CaCO3) is produced for per g NO3-N reduction.
The facultative bacterial groups involved for denitrification include: Bacillus, Enterobacter,
Micrococcus, Pseudomonas, Spirillum (Kadlec and Knight 1996). Although it is uncommon
for denitrification to occur in the presence of DO, the process has been observed in
suspended and attached bacteria growth environment with low DO content and anoxic
zones (Kadlec and Knight, 1996; Lee et al., 2009), including places containing finest
sediments and in DO saturated conditions (Cerezo et al., 2001).
7.13
μ = specific growth rate for Nitrosomonas, d-1; for example μ=0.4 indicates that
the daily rate of microorganism synthesis is equal to 40% of the mass
originally present.
μm = maximum specific growth rate for Nitrosomonas, d-1
kd = Nitrosomonas decay rate, d-1
Ks = Monod half saturation constant, mg N/L
Sa = residual substrate concentration (i.e. ammonium), mg/L
Equation (7.13) can be used in completely mixed steady state activated sludge process, for
calculating the residual ammonium concentration (Sa, units in mg/L). However, under such
conditions, there is no mass variation of Nitrosomonas in the system; the net growth rate
(growth rate minus decay rate) is equal to the discharge rate (due to discharge through
excess sludge). Considering these boundaries, Equation 7.13 can be written as:
7.14
7.15
7.16
And the residual ammonium concentration (Sa) can be calculated by Equation (7.17):
7.17
The residual ammonium concentration depends on four parameters: μm, Ks, kd and qc ;
residual concentration does not depend on initial concentration, and can never be superior
to the available ammonium concentration for nitrification. As such, the minimum sludge age
(cm) for nitrification is defined by Equation (7.18), after rearranging Equation (7.17):
CHAPTER 7
7.18
7.19
Ammonium oxidation rate. The ammonium oxidation rate (conversion of NH4-N to NO2-
N) is related to the Nitrosomonas growth rate, and can be expressed as:
7.20
where T = temperature in °C
Different values have been proposed for the coefficient q , as illustrated in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Arrhenius coefficient for Nitrosomonas bacteria.
Arrhenius coefficient Temperature interval Source
q °C
1.116 19-21 Gujer (1977)
1.123 15-20 Downing et al., (1964)
1.130 20-30 Lijklema (1973)
between maximum growth (μm), half saturation constant (Ks), and temperature for both
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter in suspended growth system. Such relationships have been
illustrated in Equations (7.22)-(7.23).
7.22
7.23
Dependency on oxygen. The kinetics of nitrifiers is critically dependent on oxygen
concentration; such dependency can be described by Monod type equation, as illustrated in
Equation (7.24).
7.24
Figure 7.3 Reduction of oxygen concentration at deeper portion of the sludge flocs.
CHAPTER 7
Figure 7.4 Dependency of nitrification process on alkalinity.
The impact of pH on the growth rate of nitrifiers can be illustrated by the kinetic model
(Equation 7.25) developed by Downing and Hopwood (1964), for pH values up to 7.2.
7.25
Multiple Monod kinetics: effect of substrate, DO, pH and temperature. Since
nitrification process is critically dependent on four factors: (a) presence of ammoniacal
nitrogen; (b) DO; (c) pH; and (d) temperature change, the impact of these parameters on
the growth rate of nitrifiers can be simultaneously expressed by multiple Monod equation,
illustrated in Equation (7.26) (US EPA, 1975):
7.26
Substituting effect of temperature (Equation 7.22), Ks (Equation 7.23), Ks,O2= 1.3 mg/L,
Equation (7.26) can be developed for Nitrosomonas kinetics (Equation 7.27), when pH
<7.2, and wastewater temperature ranges between 8-30°C. For pH³7.2, the term [1 -
0.833(6.2 - pH)] in Equation (7.27) will be equal to unity (Lin, 2007).
7.27
7.28
CHAPTER 7
matter in wastewater
Maximum growth rate for methanol μmax d-1 5-10
Decay constant kd d-1 0.05-0.10
Saturation constant, nitrate KS, NO3 g N/m3 0.2-0.5
Saturation constant, methanol Ks, MeOH g COD/m3 5-10
Saturation constant, COD in KS, COD g COD/m3 10-20
wastewater
Inhibition constant, oxygen SDOi g O2/m3 0.1-0.5
Figure 7.5 Three sludge systems for the removal of organics and nitrogen.
Pre denitrification (Pre D systems). This system comprises of an anoxic reactor, followed
by an aerobic reactor and a settler (Figure 7.6). The nitrate produced in the second aerobic
reactor is recirculated to the first anoxic tank, along with return sludge from the settler for
denitrification. This system exhibits higher denitrification rates due to presence of
substantial amount of biodegradable organics in the anoxic reactor. However, this system
cannot achieve complete nitrate removal, as a portion of the produced nitrate (from aerobic
reactor) is discharged directly from the settler without being recirculated to the anoxic
reactor
Post denitrification (Post D systems). In post D systems, the aerobic reactor is followed
by an anoxic reactor and a settler. Wastewater is firstly treated in the aerobic reactor, where
complete biodegradable organic matter removal and nitrification occurs. The mixed liquor
is then transferred to the following anoxic reactor. Non-metabolized organic matter (not
removed in the aerobic reactor), and organic matter released during the decay of sludge acts
as a source of carbon (for denitrification) in the anoxic tank. The mixed liquor is then
Influent Effluent
Anoxic reactor Aerobic reactor Settler
Recycle
Recycle
Bardenpho system. This system includes the principle of both pre and post D systems for
denitrification. The system comprises of three reactors; the first reactor is anoxic followed by
CHAPTER 7
an aerobic and an anoxic reactor (Figure 7.8). The nitrate produced in the aerobic reactor is
recirculated directly to the first anoxic reactor for denitrification. The remaining nitrate is
reduced in the third anoxic reactor. The MLSS is then transferred to a settler. A smaller
fourth reactor can be provided in these systems, for reaeration of the anoxic MLSS. Such
reaeration removes the nitrogen bubbles formed in the post D reactor, thereby eliminating
the possibilities of sludge floc floatation in the settler.
Recycle
Recycle
6
Nitrosomonas
The Sharon reactor can be constructed either as a single tank with alternate aerobic-anoxic
phase (Figure 7.9b), or as series of two tanks: an aerobic tank followed by an anoxic reactor.
The aerobic phase is usually maintained for 80 minutes, followed by an anoxic period of 40
minutes (Have and Kempen, 2004). In a single stage Sharon reactor, the alkalinity produced
in the anoxic phase can be immediately utilized by the following aerobic phase for
nitrification. However, one disadvantage of a single stage Sharon reactor is the possibilitiy of
direct discharge of a portion of ammonium with effluent, due to the transition towards
anoxic phase. On the other hand, in two stage Sharon reactors, the influent is nitrified first in
the aerobic reactor, followed by denitrification of the produced nitrite in the anoxic reactor.
For these reasons, the effluent ammonium concentration of two stage tanks is often lower,
compared with single stage Sharon reactor. A recirculation pump is required in two stage
systems, to transfer the produced alkalinity into the anoxic reactor (due to denitrification) to
the aerobic reactor (for nitrification). The preferable temperature ranges for Sharon
CHAPTER 7
reactors fall within 30-35°C.
The Sharon process has certain advantages over traditional nitrification process. According
to Equations (7.2), and (7.3), oxidation to nitrite requires 3/4th of the demand for oxidation
to nitrate, thereby reducing the aeration cost. Subsequently, the denitrification of the
produced NO2 requires only 3/5th of the organic material required for nitrification
(Equations 7.29-7.30).
7.29
7.30
Babe process. The Babe process includes a small reactor, where a part of the return sludge
from the secondary settler is contacted with sludge reject water (after sludge dewatering)
(Figure 7.11 a). The Babe process has two-fold objectives in an activated sludge system: (a)
it reduces the nitrogen load from the sludge treatment recycle streams; and (b) it seeds
(augments) the main activated sludge systems with nitrifiers integrated in sludge flocs,
thereby increasing nitrification capacity. Such augmentation is extremely important in
systems, where effluent ammonium levels are higher due to lower sludge age.
The Babe reactor is operated in five steps: filling, aeration, mixing, settling and discharging
(Figure 7.11 b); these steps are usually completed within three hours. Filling is continued, as
long as the centrifuge is in operation. Aeration and mixing are alternated in order to achieve
nitrification and denitrification in the Babe reactor. A portion of return activated sludge
The nitrogen removal performances by the Dokhaven Sharon reactor are illustrated in Figure 7.10,
indicating that NH4-N was initially converted to both NO2-N and NO3-N, due to higher oxic detention
times. After controlling the cyclic times, the NH4-N was converted to NO2-N, and then to N2 gas, as
indicated by decrease of C/N ratio to 2.4 (Mulder et al., 2001).
CHAPTER 7
(a) (b)
Figure 7.10 (a) Effluent NO2-N and NO3-N concentration across the Dokhaven Sharon
reactor; and (b) COD/N ratio of the reactor effluent (Mulder et al., 2001).
(RAS) is introduced in the Babe reactor during denitrification; the carbon in the RAS
reduces methanol requirements.
Anammox process. Anaerobic ammonium oxidation (Anammox) is a newly discovered
nitrogen removal process, where ammonium is directly oxidized to nitrogen gas (by nitrite)
in presence of planctomycete bacteria group under anaerobic conditions. Compared with
conventional nitrification and denitrification processes, the advantages of Anammox
process are: (a) no requirement of external carbon sources; (b) lower oxygen demand; and
(c) lower energy consumption. The overall reaction of the Anammox process has been
provided in Equation (7.31), according to Jetten et al., (2000):
7.31
Complete ammonium removal by Anammox process requires ammonium and nitrite ratio
of 1/1.32 (Jetten et al., 2000). If different ammonium and nitrite ratios are present in
wastewater, complete ammonium and nitrite removal are critical to achieve by Anammox
process.
The growth rate of Anammox bacteria is extremely low (0.04-0.06 d-1 at 35°C). Such lower
growth rate often results slow start up of the Anammox reactor. The presence of various
substrates in wastewater (eg. sulphide, ammonium, nitrite) can also inhibit the growth of
Anammox bacteria. If sulphate is present in wastewater, it is converted to sulphide in
CHAPTER 7
anaerobic conditions (by sulphate reducing bacteria), that is toxic to Anammox bacteria.
However, under anoxic conditions, the growth of sulphate reducers is inhibited. Higher
ammonium concentrations (>several hundred mg/L NH4-N), and nitrite concentration
>70 mg/L can also cause growth toxicity; in addition, the Anammox reactor must be
operated under nitrite limiting conditions (<50 mg/L NO2-N) (Haandel and Lubbe, 2007).
The Anammox process is optimized at a pH range of 6.7-8.3, and a temperature range 30-37
°C. When temperature rises above 37 °C, ammonium conversion decreases drastically; in
contrast, the conversion of nitrite increases up to a temperature of 42°C, which indicates the
possibilities of different metabolic pathway under these conditions.
Combination of Sharon-Anammox process. In a combined Sharon and Anammox
process, as illustrated in Figure 7.12, the first Sharon reactor nitrifies 50% influent
ammonium. The produced nitrite is transferred to the following Anammox reactor
(operated under anaerobic conditions), where nitrite is reduced to nitrogen gas.
When a Sharon reactor is operated without pH control, nitrification proceeds at a rate of
approximately 50-60%. At this point, the majority portion of available biocarbonate is
consumed, hindering nitrite oxidation with a nitrite-ammonium ratio closer to 1:1 in the
effluent. This ratio is suitable for ammonium oxidation in following the Anammox reactor.
The operating variables for the Sharon reactor, in order to produce an effluent suitable for
the following Anammox reactor are: pH 6.6–7.0, T = 30–40°C, HRT = 1 day, and no sludge
retention (Ahn, 2006). The combination of Sharon-Anammox process often saves 40%
aeration, and 100% carbon costs, when compared with the conventional
Box 7.2
Performance evaluation of Sharon-Anammox process (Jetten et al., 2000).
Jetten et al. (2000) conducted an experiment with combined Sharon-Anammox system, to treat reject
water from sludge digestion plant in The Netherlands. The system showed 94% ammonium removal
efficacy (Table 7.5), whereas total nitrogen removal performance was 91%. Such nitrogen removal
performances illustrate the possibilities of the combined system, for achieving higher nitrogen removal
CHAPTER 7
streams with an unfavorable carbon to nitrogen ratio. The main principle of this process is
dependent on the co-existence of aerobic ammonium oxidizers, and anaerobic Anammox
bacteria in a single reactor. This can be established under oxygen-limited conditions to avoid
inhibition of Anammox bacteria by oxygen, and to achieve appropriate conditions to obtain
partial nitrification.
In Canon process, ammonium oxidizers convert a part of the ammonium into nitrite; the
remaining ammonium is converted to nitrogen gas in presence of the produced nitrite, by
Anammox bacteria. The growth of nitrite oxidizing bacteria is usually lower in Canon reactor
under low concentration of dissolved oxygen, due to their lower affinity to oxygen compared
CHAPTER 7
concentrations (Güven et al, 2005).
Table 7.6 provides a comparative evaluation between the novel nitrogen removal routes, and
conventional nitrification-denitrification process.
Alum:
7.33
Sodium-aluminate:
7.34
Ferric chloride:
7.35
Lime:
7.36
The pH values (of wastewater) decrease if alum, sodium aluminate, and ferric chloride are
employed (Equation 7.33-7.35), whereas, addition of lime increases the pH values
(Equation 7.36). The optimum pH for alum and ferric chloride is 5.5-6; for lime the
optimum pH values are above 10.
Chemical dosing
Recirculation
metal (III) salts
or lime
Primary Secondary
Anoxic Aerobic
Settler Settler
Influent Effluent
CHAPTER 7
(b)Simultaneous precipitation: Chemicals are added at aerobic tank, and in the overflow of
the aeration tank to the final settler (Figure 7.14). The metal salts Fe(II) are added in the
aerobic tank where Fe(II) is oxidized to Fe (III), allowing precipitation of phosphorus.
Metal (III) salts are added in the overflow of the aeration tank to the final settler, in order
to prevent phosphorus limitation to the biomass. Lime can also be added at this point, as
lime dosing in the aeration tank can elevate wastewater pH, which in turn can cause
severe reduction of nitrification/ denitrification process.
Chemical dosing
Primary Secondary
Anoxic Aerobic
Settler Settler
Influent Effluent
Recirculation
Chemical dosing
metal (III) salts
or lime
Recirculation
Figure 7.16. Such process is operated at longer sludge age (45 days), to optimise
nitrification. Lower sludge production limits the accumulation of polyphosphate in the
sludge, and is removed chemically. An in-line "stripper" is provided by placing baffles at
the end of the anaerobic reactor compartment, which produces a quiescent zone in
which the sludge partly settles. The phosphate-rich supernatant is pumped from the
activated sludge tank, and precipitated in the sludge thickener (Loosdrecht et al., 1997).
CHAPTER 7
(a) Phoredox (A/O) and three stage Phoredox (A2/O) configuration: The Phoredox
(A/O) process includes an anaerobic zone, at the head of the aeration reactor (Figure
7.17a). The RAS is pumped from the clarifier to the anaerobic zone. The process has
RAS
(a)
Recycle
Influent
Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic Secondary Effluent
settler
RAS
(b)
Figure 7.17 Biological phosphorus removal configurations: (a) Phoredox (A/O); and (b)
three stage Phoredox (A2/O) configurations.
Recycle
RAS
(c) University of Cape Town (UCT), and modified UCT installations: The UCT processes
are modifications of three stage Phoredox (A2/O) configurations. In a UCT
configuration, RAS from the settler is transferred to the anoxic reactor. Such
configuration allows denitrification of the liquor, which is then recycled to the anaerobic
reactor for enhancing biological phosphorus removal (Figure 7.19a). In addition, the
nitrified liquor from the aerobic reactor is recycled to the anoxic reactor to achieve
denitrification, followed by recycling of the liquor to the anaerobic reactor.
Sometimes it is complicated to achieve the required denitrification rates in the anoxic
zone, that receives RAS and internal recycle flows rich with nitrate. Such problems can be
solved by the modified UCT process, which splits the anoxic zone into two stages. The
nitrate rich liquor from the aerobic zone is recycled to previous anoxic stage. The nitrate
rich RAS (from the settler) is also recycled to the first anoxic stage, for denitrification; the
denitrified liquor is transferred from the anoxic stage to the anaerobic reactor (Figure
7.19b), to enhance biological P removal.
(d)Sequencing batch reactor (SBR): SBR reactors, which employ sequential fill and draw
phases of wastewater (Chapter 6), can be used for the removal of nitrate and phosphorus,
from nitrate rich wastewater. The SBR reactors, for simultaneous removal of nitrate and
Influent Effluent
Secondary
Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic
settler
RAS
(a)
Recycle Recycle
RAS
(b)
Figure 7.19 (a) University of Cape Town (UCT); and (b) modified UCT installations.
CHAPTER 7
phosphorus removal in the subsequent anaerobic and aerobic phases. SBR reactors are
usually operated without primary sedimentation, so they often have a favorable BOD5: P
ratio, to maintain effluent P concentration of less than 1.0 mg/L during the settling
phase.
(e) Johannesburg (JHB) process. The JHB process includes transferring the RAS (from the
settler) to the anoxic reactor. Such configuration allows the production of mixed liquor
without nitrate, which is transferred to the anaerobic tank for triggering biological
phosphorus removal.
Recycle
Influent Effluent
Secondary
Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic settler
RAS
Anoxic
Table 7.7 Flow rates and residence times of Phoredox, UCT and sequencing batch
reactors, employed for the removal of phosphorus from wastewatera.
Phoredox/A/O process
ŸResidence time is shorter ŸNot applicable for hot regions
A2/O process ŸHigher denitrification rate is ŸDenitrification rate is incomplete
achieved ŸSludge bulking is observed
ŸSludge age is shorter
Modified Bardenpho ŸExcellent nitrogen removal is ŸIncomplete denitrification will affect
process achieved phosphorus removal
UCT ŸRecirculation of nitrate is ŸDenitrification utilization capacity is
inhibited inefficient
Modified UCT ŸAbsence of nitrate in the ŸInefficient denitrification capacity
anaerobic reactor utilization
Johannesburg ŸThe denitrification reactor is ŸIncomplete denitrification
efficiently utilized
Box 7.3
Performance evaluation of Pagla treatment plant, Bangladesh (Saha et al., 2012).
A study by Saha et al., (2012) reported wastewater profile, and characteristics of Pagla treatment plant,
Narayanganj, Bangladesh. Such treatment plant is a combination of conventional, and natural
technologies. Influent pH, NH4-N, NO3-N, P, and solids (across the plant) were measured as 7.24,
CHAPTER 7
57.69, 11.07, 4.06, and 124.72 mg/L respectively. The final effluent concentrations (from the treatment
plant) of such parameters were recorded as 7.80, 5.24, 8.35, 1.34, and 24.48 mg/L respectively.
Nitrification removal efficiencies were reported to be 91%; subsequently, lower NO3-N removals were
also recorded.
Solution
Step 1: Determine the growth rate of nitrifiers
From Equation (7.26):
Since the pH is greater than 7.2, the term [1- 0.833(6.2- pH)] is equal to the unity.
The design cell residence time is calculated by incorporating safety factor; as such, the design
cell residence time,
From Table 6.4 (Chapter 6), heterotrophic yield coefficient, Y= 0.6 kg VSS/ kg BOD5
and kd = 0.06 d-1
The design cell residence time (qc-design) is 9 d.
CHAPTER 7
The heterotrophic BOD removal rate, kg BOD5
removed/(kgMLVSS.d)
Step 7. Calculate F/M ratio
Assuming 85% BOD removal efficacy, the food to microorganism ratio can be computed as:
where k = BOD loading conversion factor for nitrification system, usually ranges between
1.1- 1.25.
Sludge to be wasted,
Influent Effluent
Aeration tank
Q = 4000 m3/d
V = 1040 m3/d Secondary
SBOD = 200 mg/L HRT = 0.26d clarifier
STKN = 50 mg/L O2 requirement = 1874 kg/d
CHAPTER 7
co-precipitation.
Barium Sulphate precipitation.
Cadmium Hydroxide precipitation at pH 10-11, co-precipitation with ferric
hydroxide.
Copper Hydroxide precipitation, sulphide precipitation.
Mercury Sulphide precipitation, alum co-precipitation, ferric hydroxide co-
precipitation, ion exchange.
Nickel Hydroxide precipitation at pH 10.
Zinc Hydroxide precipitation at pH 11.
CHAPTER 7
inhibition of anaerobic ammonium-oxidizing bacteria. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71,
1066-1071.
Haandel, A.and Lubbe, J. 2007. Handbook biological waste water treatment, design and optimization of
activated sludge systems, Quist publishing, Leidschendam, The Netherlands.
Have, C. T. and Kempen, V.R. 2004. Evaluation of reject water treatment-Sharon: effluent quality,
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U.S. Environmental protection agency, US EPA, 1975. Process design manual for nitrogen control. Office
of Technical Transfer, Washington, DC, USA.
U.S. Environmental protection agency, US EPA. 1993. Nitrogen Control Manual. Office of Research and
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Vlekke, G.J.F., Comeau, Y. and Oldham, W.K. 1988. Biological phosphate removal from wastewater with
oxygen or nitrate in sequencing batch reactors. Environ. Tech. Lett., 9, 791-796
Vymazal, J. 1995. Algae and Element Cycling in Wetlands. CRC press Inc.
Vymazal, J. 2007. Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands. Science of Total
Environment, 380, 48-65.
CHAPTER 8
Owing to substantial environmental pollution, and increasing concerns by the governments
and public, the industries slowly realized the necessity of controlling the quality and quantity
of the produced wastes. This shift of awareness formulated ‘total quality management’
concept, considering the overall quality of all the elements associated in industrial
production.
The shift of environmental management is eventually resulting stricter regulation on
dischargeable parameter concentration. For example, in India the dischargeable limit of
phenol (for petroleum industry) was 300 mg/L in 1968, which was drastically reduced to 1
mg/L in 1992. Subsequently, the number of parameters (of industrial effluents) to be
monitored is also increasing day by day, as substantial elements of these effluents are toxic.
To meet the stringent discharge criteria, pollution control technologies, for example: waste
exchange (between industries), and effluent treatment plants have been introduced. The
concept waste exchange allows waste swap/ trade between two industries; under this
criterion the generated waste by an industry is being employed by a different industry, as
source of raw materials. However, such concept cannot widely be implemented between
various industries, due to variation of raw materials. Considering these draw backs, effluent
treatment plants are attractive options for the industries, in terms of achieving the stringent
Table 8.1 Typical range of effluent concentration values for different industrial
wastewaters .
Wastewater treatment. Since the industrial effluents consist diverse range of pollutants, it is
required to pass these wastewaters through a combination of preliminary, primary,
secondary and tertiary processes (Chapters 4-7), to produce higher effluent quality. As the
industrial inputs and outputs differ from one industry to another, the treatment methods
also vary within the industries.
Table 8.2 illustrates the major characteristics of the effluents from different industries, along
with required treatment technologies. Subsequently, Table 8.3 illustrates common
advantages and disadvantages of the treatment processes, generally employed for industrial
wastewater treatment.
CHAPTER 8
and detergents
Cane Sugar Variable pH, higher BOD5 Neutralization, biological
treatment
Palm oil High BOD5, COD, solids, fats and Neutralization, coagulation,
lower pH flotation, and filtration
Pulp & Paper Variable pH, color, higher solids Settling, biological treatment, by-
products recovery using flotation
Oil fields and refineries High dissolved salts, BOD5, odor, Recovery of salts; acidification
phenol burning of alkaline sludge
Rubber Variable pH, suspended solid Aeration chlorination, sulfonation,
biological treatment
Petrochemical High COD, dissolved solids, Equalization-neutralization,
metals chemical coagulation,
settling/flotation,
biological oxidation
Detergents High in BOD5 and saponified Flotation, skimming, precipitation
soaps with CaCl2
Pesticides High organic, benzenering Activated-carbon adsorption,
structure, acids alkaline chlorination
Table 8.3 Advantages and risks of different treatment processes for industrial
wastewater treatment.
Treatment Advantage Risks
Screening Remove large suspended solids Blockage of screens; odor problems may
also arise
DAF System Remove oil and light particles Higher consumption of chemicals
Settling basins Shock loads are minimized BOD overloading can cause failure of the
CHAPTER 8
CETP
Industry 3 Industry 4
The advantages of CETP processes (for industrial effluent treatment) can be enlisted as:
Ÿ Capital and operational costs savings for small scale industries.
Ÿ Higher operational security.
Ÿ Enhanced treatment efficiencies at one central place.
Ÿ Efficient usage of land by the contributing industries.
Ÿ Addition of domestic waste can enhance nutrient availability, allowing a combined
treatment of industrial and domestic sewage.
Ÿ Allows more organized disposal of effluent.
Despite of such unique advantages, CETP systems have some disadvantages, as illustrated
below:
Ÿ Expansion of industries is not possible, if not considered during the design of CETP.
CHAPTER 8
Ÿ Possibilities of revealing secrets to the competitors.
Table 8.5 illustrates water quality analyses at three industrial clusters: Konabari-Kasimpur
(Gazipur), Fatullah and Enayatnagar (Narayangonj). At the investigated industrial clusters,
organic and nutrients were found to exceed the discharge limits; dissolved oxygen did not
also meet the required limits. It should be noted that wastewater sampling analyses of
individual industries exhibited significant pollutant levels, when compared with the values of
Table 8.5. Such discrepancy can be attributed to the possibilities of stormwater dilution (with
raw wastewater), when discharged from the industries. Subsequently, Table 8.6 illustrates
the main polluting industries within Dhaka with typical industrial pre-treatment processes.
Table 8.5 Water quality results for discharges from selected industrial clusters (DWASA,
2013).
CHAPTER 8
0.0071 1.2
CHAPTER 8
Tannery and textile industries are two major sources, responsible for aquatic environment
degradation in and around Dhaka. As such, sections 8.4 and 8.5 provide a brief overview and
possible treatment options of such wastewaters which can help the environmental engineers
of Bangladesh, in identifying appropriate treatment technologies.
tanning process, whereas, Table 8.8 shows general flow rate, and production of pollutants
during each stage.
Table 8.7 Chemical inputs for tanning process (Visvanathan, 2005).
Process Chemicals Tones/annum
Sodium chloride 622
Hydrated lime 1123
Sodium sulphide 445
Sulphuric acid 160
Soda ash 74
Bate 65
Calcium formate 40
Lactic acid 35
Sodium formate 26
Bactericide 19
Ammonium chloride 9
Tanolin 760
Syntans A and B 424
Dyes 77
D-1 oil 17
CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.3 Tannery wastewater discharge into open water channels in Bangladesh.
Box 8.1
Low cost treatment technologies to polish tannery wastewater treatment
in Bangladesh (Begum and Ahmmed, 2010).
A low cost tannery effluent treatment technology had been developed by department of chemical
engineering, BUET, Bangladesh. This system comprises of screening, aeration, coagulation,
sedimentation, drying bed, and incineration, as illustrated in Figure 8.4.
CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.4 Low cost tannery effluent treatment technology, developed by
department of chemical engineering, BUET.
The developed technology illustrated promising performances. Influent pH ranged between 3.45-3.96,
whereas, effluent pH increased up to 6.73-6.89. COD values dropped to 18-118 mg/L in the effluent
(influent concentration ranged between 2110-3335 mg/L). Total dissolved solids removal efficiencies
were also recorded as 98%. In general, the system produced effluent quality, that met wastewater
discharge criteria of Bangladesh, as indicated in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9 Wastewater discharge criteria for tanneries in Bangladesh (ECR, 1997).
pH Suspended solids Dissolved solids Sulfide Total chromium Oil and grease BOD5
mg/L mg/L mg/L (Cr) mg/L mg/L
6-9 150 2100 1 2 10 100
According to Table 8.10, despite physico-chemical process reduced the influent pollutant
concentrations, it could not meet wastewater discharge criteria in Bangladesh (Table 8.9). As such,
employing biological treatment process could fulfill the discharge criteria of tannery wastewater in
Bangladesh (Box 8.1).
environmental disposal.
Figure 8.5 indicates a possible approach, for the treatment of tannery effluent to discharge
criteria. As observed in Figure 8.5, the treatment of wastewater through the conventional
Total kjeldahl
COD BOD Solids Chrome S2-
nitrogen (TKN)
% mg/L % mg/L % mg/L % mg/L % mg/L % mg/L
Pretreatment
Grease removal 20- - - - - - - - - - - -
(dissolved air 40
flotation)
Sulphide oxidation 10 - - - - - - - - 10 - -
(liming and rinsing
liquors)
Chromium - - - - - - - 10 - - - -
precipitation
Primary treatment
Mixing + 25- - 25- - 50- - - 20- - - 25- -
sedimentation 35 35 70 30 35
Mixing + chemical 50- - 50- - 80- - - 2-5 - 2-10 40- -
treatment + 65 65 90 50
sedimentation
Mixing + chemical 55- - 55- - 80- - - 2-5 - 2-5 40- -
CHAPTER 8
treatment + 75 75 95 50
flotation
Biological treatment
Primary or 85- 200- 90- 20-60 90- 20- - <1 - <1 50 150
chemical + 95 400 97 98 50
extended aeration
Primary or 85- 200- 90- 20-60 90- 20- - <1 - <1 80- 30-
chemical + 95 400 97 98 50 90 60
extended aeration
with nitrification
and
denitrification
Primary or 80- 300- 85- 60- 85- 80- - <1 - <1 50 80
chemical + Aerated 90 500 95 100 90 120
facultative lagoons
Anaerobic 65- 500- 60- 150- 50- 100- - <2 - - 20- -
treatment 75 700 70 200 80 200 30
a
European Commission, 2001.
Box 8.3
Treatment of tannery wastewater in Bangladesh employing wetland
systems (Saeed et al., 2012).
A constructed wetland system has been employed by Saeed et al., (2012) to treat tannery wastewater in
Bangladesh which is the first of such application in this country. The wetland arrangements included a
vertical subsurface flow (VSSF) system, followed by a HSSF and a VSSF system established in,
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology campus, Dhaka, Bangladesh(Figure 8.6). The
arrangement of such hybrid systems has been illustrated in Figure 8.6. Wastewater was manually dosed
into the first VSSF system; wastewater flowed vertically and was transferred to the following HSSF
system under gravity action, where the flow was horizontal. The effluent of HSSF was transferred to the
last stage VSSF system under gravity, producing final effluent. The effluent quality of each wetland unit
was monitored (for a period of ten weeks) in the environmental engineering laboratory of the
department of civil engineering, Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology. Overall, the system
showed excellent pollutant removal performances. Influent COD and BOD (to the system) were 11500
mg/L and 4287 mg/L respectively, whereas effluent concentrations were 202 mg/L and 70 mg/L
CHAPTER 8
respectively. The system also achieved 86% NH4-N removal efficiencies, along with 87% PO4-P
removal. In general, these results demonstrate the possibilities of the implementation of wetland
systems in Bangladesh to provide necessary treatment of tannery wastewater prior to disposal.
VSSF
HSSF
VSSF
Figure 8.6 Hybrid wetland systems for tannery wastewater treatment in Bangladesh.
CHAPTER 8
seconds at 52-56°C.
Ÿ Dyeing. It is a process of imparting color to the fabric, with chemical pigments. In the
dyeing process, water is used to transfer dyes. The quantity of water required is
dependent on fiber types. For example, cotton requires large amount of water for
processing. Once the dyeing operation is over, treatment baths are drained, resulting
the production of salt and organic substances.
Ÿ Finishing. This process confirms the final chemical and mechanical properties to the
fabric, according to the specific requirements. Several finishing methods are often
employed to improve the drape, feel, antistatic, antisoiling, anti shrinking, water
repelling, and flame retardancy of the fabric.
Figure 8.7 shows a typical flow diagram of textile dyeing process, and a pictorial plate of
dyeing influent produced from these processes.
Treatment of textile pollutants. Table 8.12 indicates typical pollutant ranges in the
effluents of cotton processing mills. Subsequently, Table 8.13 illustrates typical pollutant
ranges in the effluent, generated from textile industries in Bangladesh (ECR, 1997).
(b)
Figure 8.7 (a) Typical dyeing processing diagram; and (b) raw dyeing influent from a local
factory in Bangladesh.
Most of the dyes, employed during the manufacturing process of textile industries contain
CHAPTER 8
organic compounds with functional groups, for example: carboxylic (–COOH), amine
(–NH2), and azo (–N=N–) groups. These dyes often resist aerobic degradation (Ong et al.,
2011); however, they can be converted to aromatic amines in anaerobic conditions,
followed by further degradation in aerobic environments (Brown and Hamburger, 1987;
Chung and Stevens, 1993). As such, a combination of anaerobic-aerobic processes can be
effective for the removal of dyes from textile effluents as illustrated in Figure 8.8.
Subsequently, Figure 8.9 shows a combination of anaerobic digester followed by aerobic
tanks, employed to treat dyeing wastewater in Bangladesh.
CHAPTER 8
The treatment of textile effluents through traditional process often demands excessive
chemical requirements, thereby increasing the operational costs. In addition, lack of
expertise often hinders smooth operation of these systems, to provide textile effluent
treatment in Bangladesh resulting in system failure. Considering these drawbacks, natural
treatment systems such as constructed wetlands can be effective (to provide treatment of
textile effluent). A few previous research studies (Bulc and Ojstrˇsek, 2008; Ong et al., 2011)
Box 8.4
CHAPTER 8
Two parallel lab-scale hybrid wetland systems were employed by Saeed and Sun (2013), to provide
treatment of textile wastewater in Bangladesh. These lab-scale systems were built on campus
(outdoors) at Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Each system
consisted of two treatment stages: a VSSF wetland, followed by a HSSF wetland, as shown in Figure
8.11. Locally available media such as: organic sugarcane bagasse and sylhet sand were used as the main
media in the lab-scale wetlands.
The systems were operated under high hydraulic loading (HL) ranges (566-5660 mm/d). The influent
NH4-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, BOD, and COD concentrations were 158, 28, 74, 2705, and 12625 mg/L
respectively. Overall NH4-N, NO2-N, NO3-N, BOD and COD removal efficiencies were 70, 86, 76, 97,
and 89% respectively. The systems were also efficient in color removal. Effluent pH, BOD5 and
suspended solids concentration fulfilled the discharge guidelines for textile effluents in Bangladesh
(Table 8.13). These findings illustrate the possibilities of employing wetland systems in Bangladesh to
treat textile wastewater (prior to disposal).
HSSF
CHAPTER 8
such operation, maintenance costs and land requirements, this section provides some
regression equations in Tables 8.14-8.17 for different treatment options. These studies were
carried out in Thailand by Singhirunnusorn and Stenstrom (2010). It should be noted that
aerated lagoons and waste stabilization ponds are natural treatment systems, that have been
discussed in details in Chapter 10 of this book.
Table 8.14 Regression equations for estimating preliminary costs.
System Capital cost O&M cost Land required
N Equation N Equation N Equation
Activated Sludge 6 Cc=0.0031Q0.881 4 Co=0.0529 + 1.31×10-5×F 4 L=1.467Q0.985
Oxidation Ditch 8 Cc=0.0017Q0.910 10 Co=0.0963 + 1.02×10-5×F 7 L=183.398Q0.513
Aerated Lagoons 11 Cc=0.0143Q0.681 8 Co=0.0607 + 3.31×10-6×F 6 L=9.876Q0.940
Waste 23 Cc=0.0004Q1.060 19 Co=0.018 + 4.03×10-6×F 11 L=127.736Q0.762
Stabilisation
Ponds
Where, Cc is capital costs (USD million); Q is design capacity (m3/d); Co is operations and
maintenance costs (USD million/year); F is actual flow rate (m3/d); L is land requirement
(m2); N is the number of case studies.
Table 8.18 provides future plan of DWASA about operation and maintenance costs of
different wastewater treatment plants to be constructed in and around Dhaka, for efficient
wastewater management. The costs are based on standard unit rate of $50/capita.
No. Catchment Treatment Population Influent flow rate Sewage treatment plant Sewerage
served plant served Daily Daily peak Receiving Capital O&M Treatment Capital O&M
location flow (m3/d) waters cost ($M) cost plant area costs cost
(m3/d) ($M/yr) (ha) ($M) ($M/yr)
Greater Dhaka
1 Savar Savar 400000 46000 69000 Dhaleswari $20M $0.40M/yr 5 $69M $1.38M/yr
2 Tongi/Gazipur Tongi 800000 92000 138000 Turag/Tongi $40M $0.80M/yr 10 $34M $0.68M/yr
Gazipur 400000 46000 69000 Khal $20M $0.40M/yr 5 $86M $1.72M/yr
3 Rupganj Purbachal 500000 57500 86250 Lakhya $25M $0.50M/yr 6 $72M $1.44M/yr
4 (Purbachal) Keraniganj 400000 46000 69000 Buriganga $20M $0.40M/yr 5 $59M $1.18M/yr
Keraniganj
DWASA service area
1 Dhaka North Uttara 1600000 184000 276000 Tongi Khal $80M $1.60M/yr 20 $57M $1.14M/yr
(Uttara)
2 Dhaka West Mirpur 2800000 322000 483000 Turag $140M $2.80M/yr 34 $86M $1.72M/yr
(Mirpur)
3 Dhaka East Dasherkandi 2400000 276000 414000 Balu River $80M $1.60M/yr 25 $122M $2,44M/yr
(Dasherkandi)
4 Rayerbazar Rayerbazar 1600000 184000 276000 Buriganga $80M $1.60M/yr 20 $67M $1.34M/yr
(Kamrangirchar)
5 Dhaka South Pagla 4200000 483000 724500 Buriganga $102M $2.00M/yr 51 $126M $2.52M/yr
(Pagla)
239
CHAPTER 8
Questions
1. What is the role of total quality management on achieving sustainable environment?
2. Why CETP process is preferable for small scale industries?
3. What is the main feature of wetland systems over traditional treatment technologies,
when employed for industrial wastewater treatment?
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 8
coagulants combination for the treatment of tannery effluents: A case study of Bangladesh. African Journal
of Environmental Science and Technology, 5(6), 409-419.
Ong, S. A., Ho, L.,Wong, Y., Dugil, D. L., Samad, H. 2011. Semi-batch operated constructed wetlands
planted with phragmites australis for treatment of dyeing wastewater. Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology, 6, 619 – 627.
Rusal M. G., Faisal I., Kamal K.M.M. 2006. Environmental pollution generated from process industries in
Bangladesh. J. Environ. Polut., 28(2), 44-161.
Saeed, T., Afrin, R., Muyeed, A., Sun, G. 2012. Treatment of tannery wastewater in a pilot-scale hybrid
constructed wetland system in Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 88, 1065–1073.
Saeed, T., Sun, G. 2013. A lab-scale study of constructed wetlands with sugarcane bagasse and sand media
for the treatment of textile wastewater. Bioresource Technology, 128, 438–447.
SEHD. 2002. Industrialization and Industrial Pollution, in: Gain, P. (eds,), Bangladesh: Environment
Facing the 21st Century. Society for Environment, Human and Development (SEHD), Bangladesh.
Singhirunnusorn, W., Stenstrom, M.K. 2010. A critical analysis of economic factors for diverse wastewater
treatment processes: case studies in Thailand. Sustain. Environ. Res., 20(4), 263-268.
Visvanathan, C. 2005. Industrial Waste Abatement and Management. Lecture notes, Asian Institute of
Technology, Thailand.
Sludge Management
Although the activated sludge process removes solids, organics and nutrients efficiently, it
also produces excess sludge, consisting higher fraction of biodegradable organic matter,
solids, and pathogens. These impurities must be removed prior to environmental disposal,
which is generally achieved through sludge treatment process (Figure 9.1).
This chapter provides a brief description of sludge characteristics, treatment processes, and
design approach, illustrated through sections 9.1-9.7.
CHAPTER 9
Primary and waste activated sludge 2.5-4
Primary and fixed film sludge 3-5
Aerobic digested sludge 1-2
Anaerobic digested sludge 6-12
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
The specific gravity of VSS is 1, and for FSS the specific gravity is 2.5. The specific gravity of
CHAPTER 9
activated sludge is 1.01-1.10, and for chemical sludge the value is 1.5-2.5 (Droste, 1997).
Specific resistance. The sludge produced from biological treatment plants generally
contains higher solids and water. Different treatment technologies are available for
dewatering such sludge. Specific resistance is a parameter, that is used to express the ease of
mechanical sludge. Typical values of specific resistance are 4-12 ´1013 m/kg for the activated
13 11
sludge, 3-30 ´ 10 m/kg for digested sludge, 3-10 ´ 10 m/kg for conditioned primary
11
sludge and 2-20 ´10 m/kg for conditioned digested sludge (Barnes et al., 1981).
Bound water. The water content in sludge exists in either free or bound water form. Bound
water is the water, that is bound physically or chemically to sludge particles. If the amount of
bound water is greater in sludge particles, greater energy is required to remove it.
Heukelekian and Weisberg (1956) determined bound water quantity to be 3g/g of dry
solids.
Particle size. Particle size of sludge is an important factor that determines sludge
The performance of gravity thickener for various types of solids has been summarized in
Table 9.4.
Table 9.4 Gravity thickener performance for sludge treatment.
CHAPTER 9
Example 9.2. Sludge volume reducing by thickening. A treatment plant consists of
primary treatment, followed by an activated sludge process. The primary and secondary
sludge is mixed and thickened in a gravity thickener. The characteristics of the wastewater
and sludge are:
Parameters Values
Influent solids 150 mg/L
Solids removal efficiency 50%
Wastewater characteristics Influent BOD 300 mg/L
BOD removal efficiency 25%
Effluent BOD 15 mg/L
Flow 15000 m3/d
Primary 6% solids
Sludge characteristics Secondary 0.7% solids
Thickened 5% solids
effluent
Total volume,
attach themselves to, or become entrapped in sludge solids, floating the solids to the surface.
The thickened sludge is skimmed off at the top of the tank; the liquid is removed near the
bottom, and is returned to the aeration tank.
The air-solids ratio (A/S ratio) is the most important factor, for designing a DAF system. An
A/S ratio of 0.0001 to 0.001 lb air/lb TSS is typically needed, to float flocculated biological
solids. Normal loading rates for waste activated sludge range within 10-20 kg solids/m2.d; a
DAF system usually produces 4% solids (Hammer, 1986).
Box 9.1
Anaerobic effluent clarification by DAF system (Ross and Valentine, 2008).
A beverage plant was having difficulty, in terms of meeting COD and TSS discharge permit from a high-
rate anaerobic process Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) (Figure 9.5). To meet the
environmental criteria, the authority selected DAF system for clarification, prior to sewer discharge.
CHAPTER 9
Figure 9.5 Anaerobic effluent in Figure 9.6 DAF clarifier with flocculation
flocculation tank (Ross and treating anaerobic tank effluent (Ross and
Valentine, 2008). Valentine, 2008).
Gravity belt thickening. This process is applicable for raw and digested sludge, with solids
content less than 2%. Figure 9.7 shows a diagram of gravity belt thickening process. In this
process, the sludge is conditioned with polymer, prior to the entrance into the system. The
conditioned sludge is squeezed by two moving belts, one at top and other at the bottom
(Figure 9.7). The pressure increases from feed to discharge end, and sludge is dewatered.
The liquid passes through porous cloths belt, which is collected in a trough below the belt
press. The solid cake is obtained at discharge end.
Figure 9.8 Operational arrangement of gravity belt thickening for sludge dewatering.
Low and high rate digesters. The classic low rate anaerobic digester (to accomplish
anaerobic degradation) comprises of four zones: (a) scum layer; (b) supernatant; (c)
digestion; and (d) stabilized sludge zone.
Ÿ Scum layer consists of biodegradable and non-degradable floating materials, such as:
CHAPTER 9
(a) (b)
Figure 9.10 (a) Single stage anaerobic digester; and (b) two stage high rate
anaerobic digesters.
CHAPTER 9
metals (eg. Hg, Cd, Zn, Cr, Ni, Na, Ca) can cause toxic effect to the organisms. Table 9.5
provides a brief list of toxic materials, that often inhibit anaerobic digestion.
Shock loading (addition of huge amount of sludge within a short period time) is harmful to
anaerobic digesters. Acid formers respond quickly to increased food supply and produce
increased amounts of acid. The methane formers cannot respond quickly; as such, acid
accumulates in the system, causing pH decrease. Once pH reaches below the tolerance level
of methane formers (i.e. 6.5-7.5), CH4 production is ceased. However, the alkalinity of the
digesting sludge is high because of CO2 solubilization produced by biological process, and
CHAPTER 9
subsequent conversion to HCO3- (Equation 9.9). Table 9.6 provides the optimal
9.10
9.11
Box 9.2
TPAD-TM anaerobic digester system in Iowa, USA (US EPA, 2006).
In order to enhance sludge treatment, volatile solids destruction and biogas production, the existing
anaerobic process was upgraded in the year 2002, in Waterloo city, Iowa, USA. The upgradation
included transformation of a single-stage mesophilic process, to a TPAD-TM (temperature phased
anaerobic digestion- thermophilic first stage, and mesophilic second stage) system through the
conversion of two of the six digesters into thermophilic digesters. The subsequent digesters were
CHAPTER 9
operated in the mesophilic range
In the newly upgraded system, the feed rate into the digester was slowed, followed by increase of
temperature from 35°C to 53°C over a period of 3 days. Such arrangements allowed organisms
stabilization. Once the first thermophilic digester was stabilized, the second was transitioned similarly.
This transition from mesophilic to thermophilic was important, for limiting the number of mesophilic
organisms that might survive in the thermophilic digester. During such transition, loading rate
limitation was also critical, to prevent digester overloading as the thermophilic organisms flourished.
The new system improved volatile solid reduction from 47% (in old system) to 64% (in new system).
Gas production increased to 0.18–0.21 m3, per kg of VS destroyed.
Heavy metals removal by anaerobic digestion. The removal of heavy metals (from
sludge) via anaerobic digestion is accomplished by four steps: solubilization of the heavy
metals, separation of the water phase, precipitation, and removal from the leachate.
activated sludge, retention time is 15-20 d, whereas, for mixture of primary and activated
sludge retention time is 20-25 d. The DO concentration in the suspension should be 1-2
mg/L; diffused air requirements for waste activated sludge are 20-35 L/min.m3.
Discharge
Pick-up or from
Pressure filtration. Pressure filtration includes a series of vertically held plates, which are
held rigidly in a frame, consisting of a fixed and moving end (Figure 9.14). The face of each
individual plate is mounted by a filter cloth, which contains the produced cake.
CHAPTER 9
In pressure filtration system, sludge is applied by batch mode through feed holes in trays
(along the press length). Pressures up to 16 kg/cm2 are applied to the sludge, to cause water
movement through the cloth; the solid cakes are retained on the surface of the filter cloth.
The drainage ports (at the bottom of each chamber) collect the filtrate, which is discharged.
The dewatering phase is complete when the filtrate flow (through the filter cloth) is ceased.
After each plate releases cake, they are pushed back for commencing the dewatering cycle.
Sludge drying bed. Sludge drying bed which is a natural dewatering process, removes
moisture content of the sludge by gravity and evaporation. A typical sludge bed consists of
sand (0.30-1.22 mm diameter), overlying on gravel (0.3-2.5 cm diameter) layer. The water
is drained through underdrain system, consisting perforated pipe. The collected water is
transferred to the main treatment plant for further polishing. The drying area is usually
partitioned into 6m width by 6-30 m length. Figure 9.16 indicates the engineering diagram
of sludge drying beds.
CHAPTER 9
(a) (b)
Figure 9.16 (a) Engineering cross-section of sludge drying bed; and (b) pictorial view of
drying bed.
In hot climate regions, large portion of sludge water (eg. 80%) percolates within a short time
(1-3 days), resulting in solid cake production with TSS concentration of 150-200 g/L
(Haandel and Lubbe, 2007) on drying beds. The remaining moisture is removed by
The drying period is 25 days, after which the sludge is removed for another application in the
drying bed. Calculate the yearly solids loading rate. Assume the specific gravity of the sludge
to be 1.02.
Solution
a. The volume of sludge per application, V
CHAPTER 9
Loading rate
Sludge volume
Equation (9.11):
CHAPTER 9
Step 5. Methane (CH4) and total gas (CH4+CO2) volume production per day
Employing Equation (9.10):
The volume of methane is 65-69% of the total gas volume. Assume 69% value.
Natural Treatment:
Ponds and Wetlands
Chapters 4-9 provide a brief discussion on pollutant removal mechanisms (from
wastewater), employing conventional treatment technologies. Apart from these
technologies, the treatment of wastewater can also be carried out via natural systems, such
as: wastewater stabilization ponds, and constructed wetlands (Figure 10.1). These natural
technologies primarily depend on naturally occurring energies such as wind, solar radiation
and biomass storage (Kadlec and Knight, 1996). Such properties of natural treatment
systems provide unique advantages over conventional technologies which require
significant input of fossil fuel energies.
Facultative ponds. In facultative ponds, both aerobic and anaerobic zones co-exist (Figure
10.2). The aerobic conditions in the upper portions of the pond are usually maintained by
O2 production from algae; in addition, atmospheric O2 penetration also provides minor
contribution for maintaining aerobic conditions.
The stagnant conditions of the sludge, along the bottom portion of the ponds prevent O2
transmission, thereby resulting anaerobic conditions. The aerobic zone is extended
downwards, due to wind and sunlight penetration. In contrast, calm conditions and weak
lighting cause rising of the anaerobic layer, towards the surface. As such, the middle portion
between aerobic and anaerobic zone is commonly referred as facultative zone, due to
fluctuating phenomena.
The products of anaerobic zones (i.e. organic acids and gases), are released and become
soluble food for aerobic organisms (in the aerobic zone). The common species of aerobic
zone include Beggiatoa alba, Sphaerotilus natans, Achromobacter, Alcaligenes, Flavobacterium
CHAPTER 10
etc. Subsequently, the solids produced in the aerobic zone settle to the bottom where they
die, providing food for the anaerobic organisms. The aerobic and anaerobic degradation of
organic matter produces nitrogen, phosphorus and carbon dioxide.
A special symbiotic relationship exists between the bacteria and algae in the aerobic zone, as
shown in Figure 10.2. Bacteria use O2 as an electron acceptor, to convert organics into stable
end products such as CO2, NO3-, and PO43-. Algae, with the help of sunlight, employ these
compounds as energy source, producing O2 as end product, which is again utilized by the
bacteria.
The photosynthetic activities of algae can cause diurnal variation of the DO concentration in
facultative ponds. The DO concentration rises after sunrise, due to photosynthetic activity;
the concentration reaches to a maximum level in the afternoon, followed by sharp decrease
during the night, when photosynthesis ceases and respiratory activities consume oxygen.
During day time, the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate provide more carbon dioxide for
the algae, leaving an excess of hydroxyl ions. As a result, the pH of the water can rise to above 9.
Typical organic loading in facultative ponds ranges within 22-67 kg BOD/ha.d; the
detention time varies within 25-180 d. Typical depths are within 1.2-2.5 m, with a surface
area of 4-60 ha (US EPA, 1983). Table 10.2 shows the variation of organic loading rates with
temperature.
Table 10.2 Loading rates for facultative ponds.
Box 10.1
CHAPTER 10
10.3
10.4
For the treatment of municipal wastewater, at least three ponds (of same size) are arranged
in series. In such cases, the first pond, referred as primary pond retains most of the incoming
solids, thus are heavily loaded. As such, primary ponds are often aerated, to hinder
development of anaerobic environment.
With regards to the mixing pattern in ponds, a wider range of dispersion occurs because of
reactor shape, size, wind action or aerators. As such, it is not pragmatic to consider complete
mixing of flow. Thirumurthi (1969) recommended that ponds be designed as dispersed flow
CHAPTER 10
reactors, assuming a non ideal flow pattern between CSTR and plug flow regime, by
proposing the use of pond dispersion numbers (df). The equations proposed by
Thirumurthi (1969) are demonstrated below:
10.5
10.6
10.8
Winter:
Step 2. Determine
Assume dispersion factor = 0.5, and (step 2), Kθ can be measured from Figure 10.3.
At summer,
At winter,
Assuming dispersion factor to be 0.5, Figure 10.3 can be employed for calculating
BOD removed =
O2 supplied =
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.5 Surface flow wetland systems for the treatment of wastewater.
In subsurface flow wetland systems wastewater flows beneath the media surface, where it
comes into contact with an inter-connected mesh of plants, media and attached biofilms.
Depending on the flow pattern, subsurface flow wetlands can further be classified into: (a)
vertical subsurface flow (VSSF); and (b) horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) wetlands.
VSSF wetlands employ packed media with plants, and wastewater flows vertically
downwards through the media (under the force of gravity ) towards outlet. The main media
is overlaid on large stones, to facilitate effluent drainage. The macrophytes (i.e. plants) are
usually planted in coarse sand, which provides the top surface.
(a)
CHAPTER 10
(b)
Figure 10.6 (a) Schematic diagram of VSSF systems; and (b) photograph of VSSF systems
(source: http://sustainableengineeringresearch.wordpress.com/experimental-projects/)
(a)
CHAPTER 10
(b)
Figure 10.7 (a) Schematic diagram of HSSF systems; and (b) photograph of HSSF
systems.
Table 10.4 indicates advantages and disadvantages of VSSF and HSSF wetland systems,
when employed for wastewater treatment.
Table 10.4 Advantages and disadvantages of VSSF and HSSF wetlands.
Sedge
Carex 14-32 --- --- 5-7.5 ---
*ppt= parts per thousand.
In Bangladesh the macrophyte species that can be employed in the wetland systems are listed
below (according to their types) (Saeed et al., 2014).
Ÿ Emergent macrophytes: Phragmites australis, Cyperus papyrus, Cyperus
difformis, Dracaena sanderiana, Hydrocotyle umbellate, Echinodorus cordifolius,
Colocasia esculenta, Caladium sp., Hymenocallis littoralis, Canna indica,
Alternanthera philoxeroides.
Apart from gravel, other types of media can also be used in wetland systems to enhance
pollutant removal mechanisms. Table 10.7 indicates different unconventional media, along
with pollutant removal efficacy (employing such media), in wetland systems.
e) predation and natural die-off that remove pathogens (Jayakumar and Dandigi, 2003).
The pollutants that can be removed from wastewater employing wetland systems include:
nitrogen, organics, phosphorus, solids, coliforms and metals.
Nitrogen (N). Major pathways of nitrogen transformations, which ultimately remove N
from the wastewater in constructed wetlands include: ammonification, biological
nitrification, denitrification, and plant uptake (Vymazal, 1995), as illustrated in Figure 10.9.
Ammonification involves conversion of organic nitrogen to NH4-N. In a constructed
wetland, this process decreases with depth, indicating that ammonification is faster in the
NH3
N2 fixation N2 NH2OH
N2O NO NO2
nitrate reduction
by assimilation
NO3
upper zone of the wetlands where the condition is aerobic, and slower in the lower zone
where the environment switches from facultative to obligate anaerobic conditions (Reddy
and Patrick, 1984). The ideal pH range for ammonification is 6.5-8.5 (Patrick and Wyatt,
1964; Vymazal, 1995). Ammonification proceeds faster at higher temperature, doubling
rate with temperature increase of 10˚C (Kadlec and Knight, 1996).
Nitrification and denitrification (Chapter 7) is the major nitrogen removal mechanisms in
subsurface flow wetland systems (Bachand and Horne, 2000; Reilly et al., 2000). The VSSF
systems are efficient in terms of converting NH4-N to NO3-N, due to predominant aerobic
conditions of such systems. The HSSF systems are capable of reducing NO3-N to N2 gas, as a
result of anoxic conditions inside the bed media. As such, a combination of VSSF, followed
by HSSF system is very effective, for achieving substantial N removal.
Presence of macrophytes is essential for wetlands, in terms of improving nitrogen removal
performances because they: (a) provide surfaces and oxygen for the growth of
microorganisms, enhancing nitrification (Langergraber, 2005); and (b) supply carbon
necessary to optimize denitrification process (Masi, 2008). Nitrogen uptake by plants differs
according to the system configurations, loading ranges, wastewater types and environmental
conditions; the contribution of plants, in terms of nitrogen removal had been reported
CHAPTER 10
within the range 0.5- 40.0% of the total nitrogen removal (Drizo et al., 1997; Shamir et al.,
2001; Healy and Cawley, 2002; Meers et al., 2008; Kantawanichkul et al., 2009). In addition,
plant biomass can also contribute to nitrogen removal; a research study by Shamir et al.,
(2001) reported 60% accumulation of total N in plant biomass. However, decaying plant
materials can also contribute to increase of nutrient concentration across the effluent
through leaching (Brodrick et al., 1988).
Minor nitrogen removal routes such as: ammonia volatilization and adsorption can also
contribute to nitrogen removal in wetland systems. Ammonia volatilization depends on pH
of wastewater; an increase of pH (above 9.3) can cause volatilization (WRc 1996).
Adsorption occurs through cation exchange, with detritus and inorganic sediments in
Box 10.2
Internal generation of carbon in VSSF wetland systems (Saeed and Sun, 2011 a; d).
A synthetic domestic wastewater was treated in five lab-scale VSSF wetland reactors, which had
Phragmites australis planted in different types of media: organic wood mulch, and mixture of gravel-
wood mulch media. The VSSF systems with organic mulch media exhibited higher nitrogen removal.
The total nitrogen removal varied within 72-97.8%, where as BOD removal efficiency ranged between
CHAPTER 10
24%-71%. Such higher denitrification rates could be attributed to the catering of organic carbon from
the organic mulch media (i.e. internal generatrion of carbon), thereby facilitating nitrogen removal
from wastewater. These findings illustrated the possibilities of simultaneous nitrification-
denitrification, and organics removal in a single wetland reactor.
Bacterial removal efficiency in wetlands is also a function of the inflow bacterial population,
which indicates that higher inflow populations fosters greater removal efficiencies (>90% for
coliforms, and >80% for fecal streptococcus without disinfection) (Kadlec and Knight,
1996). However, it should be noted that the effluent concentrations of bacterial populations
can never become zero (Kadlec and Knight, 1996) without disinfection, as majority of the
wetlands are exposed to wildlife.
Figure 10.10 shows a conceptual diagram of pollutant removal mechanisms, in VSSF and
HSSF systems. Subsequently, Table 10.8 summarises common pollutant removal routes in
wetland systems.
Tables 10.9-10.10 illustrate the pollutant removal efficacy of the wetland systems, employed
in different parts of the world (Vymazal et al., 2006).
beneficial for nitrification in constructed wetlands. Other research studies (Ruan et al., 2006;
Akratos and Tsihrintzis, 2007) also documented the negative impact of lower temperature,
on nitrogen and organics removal routes in treatment wetlands.
Box 10.3
Baffled constructed wetlands for municipal wastewater treatment in Bangladesh
(Saeed et al. 2014).
A three stage wetland system train was employed by Saeed et al. (2014) to provide treatment of
municipal wastewater in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The wetland train included a baffled VF wetland as the
first stage (Figure 10.11 a), followed by a second stage baffled HF wetland (Figure 10.11 b), and a final
CHAPTER 10
stage integrated SF- floating treatment wetland (Figure 10.11 c). Different types of organic and
inorganic media were employed in the systems, that were planted with nineteen macrophyte types. The
system was operated under hydraulic loading and seasonal variation. Wastewater sample analyses
across inlet-outlet (of the whole system) indicated substantial nitrogen and organics removal
performances. Incoming NH4-N, NO3-N, BOD5 and COD concentrations were 107.5, 115.5, 1903.0,
and 4048.0 mg/L respectively. Removal percentages of such pollutants were 82.3, 89.6, 97.0, and 94.4%
respectively. The wetland train also achieved 99.9% E. Coli removal percentages from municipal
wastewater. Such enhanced performances could be attributed to the flow direction by the baffle walls
(integrated inside the systems), through aerobic-anaerobic pockets of the media stimulating
biodegradation.
media
flow
baffle walls
influent
outlet
water table
flow effluent
media
baffle
walls
outlet
effluent
(a) (b)
CHAPTER 10
(c)
Figure 10.11 Pilot scale (a) baffled VF wetland; (b) baffled HF wetland; and (c)
pictorial plate of three stage wetland systems for the treatment of municipal
wastewater in Bangladesh.
10.10
In contrast to the Kickuth equation, complex wetland models (Mayo and Bigambo, 2005;
Akratos et al., 2009) are often not practical for the design of treatment wetlands, due to the
presence of many empirical relations. A complex model with many guessed parameters is
susceptible to inaccurate design outcome. As such, further development of wetland models
is desirable to overcome the inaccuracy of Kickuth equation, and the impracticality of
complex models.
A balanced approach between the simplistic kinetic approach, and complex mechanistic
models have been proposed by Saeed and Sun (2011b; c), for modelling nitrogen and
organics removal in wetland systems. In these studies, the authors combined Monod
kinetics with CSTR and plug flow pattern, for matching nitrogen and organics removal
performances in VSSF and HSSF wetland systems respectively. The following sections
describe such modeling approaches, to describe biodegradation routes of pollutants in
wetland systems.
CHAPTER 10
Modelling for VSSF systems. Monod kinetics, which contains the parameters of substrate
concentration (Cout), half saturation constant of limiting substrate (Chalf, mg/L) and
maximum volumetric pollutant removal rates (Kmax, g/m3/d), can be expressed as:
10.11
10.12
10.13
Equation (10.13) can be used to predict nitrogen and organics degradation in VSSF systems.
For the first step of NH4-N transformation (i.e. from NH4-N to NO2-N) during nitrification,
the half saturation constant value (Chalf for Nitrosomonas degradation) has been measured as
0.05 mg/L (Verstraete and Vaerenbergh, 1986). As such, 0.05 mg/L can be used as the Chalf
value in Equation (10.13) for nitrification. For NO3-N denitrification, half saturation nitrate
constant in the Monod kinetics has been reported as 0.14 mg/L (Wiesmann, 1994). For
heterotrophic biodegradable organics (BOD5) removal, half saturation degradation
constant is recommended as 60 mg/L for wastewater treatment (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003).
For COD, half saturation COD constant can be taken as 20 mg/L, as suggested by Vaccari et
al., (2006) for sewage treatment.
Figure 10.12 illustrates the correlation plot of Equation (10.13), for modelling nitrogen and
organics removal in nine VSSF wetland systems (Saeed and Sun, 2011 b; c), evaluated by
statistical parameter coefficient of determination (R2). As observed in Figure 10.12, Monod
kinetics with CSTR flow pattern showed closer interrelationship, for predicting nitrogen
and organics biodegradation routes in VSSF systems. The k value indicates Monod kinetic
rates (g/m2/d) of such reactions, determined from the slope of the plots.
Modelling for HSSF systems. For HSSF systems, the combination of Monod kinetics,
combined with plug flow pattern provided closer match, in terms of predicting nitrogen and
organics removal (Saeed and Sun, 2011 b). As such, Equation (10.11) can be rearranged in
the form of Equation (10.14), for developing Monod plug flow model.
10.14
CHAPTER 10
Applying the boundary conditions of idealized plug flow pattern in the above equation
yields:
10.15
Arranging Equation (10.15) in terms of areal maximum pollutant removal rates (K, g/m2/d)
yields equation (10.16), that expresses the combination of Monod kinetics with plug flow
pattern, to correlate inlet and outlet pollutant values across HSSF wetlands (Sun and Saeed,
2009; Saeed and Sun, 2011 b).
10.16
Equation (10.16) may be used to correlate inlet and outlet NO3-N, BOD5 and COD values in
CHAPTER 10
HF wetlands. The half saturation constant for these target pollutants can be used as 0.14, 60
and 20 mg/L respectively, as described previously.
Figure 10.13 expresses the correlation plot of Equation (10.16) in terms of matching
nitrogen and organics removal in three lab-scale HSSF systems, and 80 full-scale HSSF
systems in the UK (Saeed and Sun, 2011 b). As observed in Figure 10.13, Equation (10.16)
indicates closer match for predicting denitrification and organics removal (indicated by R2)
in HSSF systems.
buoyant mat structure (that floats on water column) with media to support the
macrophytes. The stems of the macrophytes remain above the water column (Figure 10.14),
whereas roots grow inside the water column extracting nutrients directly from water column.
Microbiological population is attached on the roots, forming a complicated network of roots
and biofilms. As wastewater passes through such network, biological removal of pollutants
occurs (along with nutrient uptake by the roots).
Floating treatment wetlands provide coverage above the water column (via floating mats
and macrophytes), thereby hindering the penetration of sunlight and growth of algae. A
minimum water depth of approximately 0.8–1.0 m (Headley and Tanner, 2012) is
recommended for employing floating treatment wetlands to encounter roots anchoring into
Species Source
Cyperus Giganteus Wetland
Cyperus papyrus Lake
Glyceria maxima Rivers and wetlands
Miscanthidium violaceum Lake
Panicum hemitomon Lake
CHAPTER 10
3781.
Coombes, C. 1990. Reed bed treatment systems in Anglian water. Constructed wetlands in water pollution
and control. IAWPRC, London, 223-234
Cooper, P.F., Job, G.D., Green, M.B. and Shutes, R.B.E. 1996. Reed Beds and Constructed Wetlands for
Wastewater Treatment. WRc publications, UK.
Davies, C.M. and Bavor, H.J. 2000. The fate of storm water associated bacteria in constructed wetland and
water pollution control pond systems. Journal of applied microbiology, 89, 349-360.
Dong, Z. and Sun, T. 2007. A potential new process for improving nitrogen removal in constructed
wetlands-Promoting coexistence of partial-nitrification and ANAMMOX. Ecological Engineering, 31(2),
69-78.
vertical flow constructed wetlands. Water Science & Technology, 48 (5), 25-34.
Langergraber, G. 2005. The role of plant uptake on the removal of organic matter and nutrients in
subsurface flow constructed wetlands: a simulation study. Water Science & Technology, 51(9), 213-223.
Liikanen, A., Puustinen, M., Koskiaho, J., Vaisanen, T., Martikainen, P. and Hartikainen, H. 2004.
Phosphorus removal in a wetland constructed on former arable land. J. Environ. Qual., 33, 1124-1132
Lin, S.D. 2007. Water and Wastewater Calculations Manual. Second Edition, The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc, USA.
Luderitz,V. and Gerlach, F. 2002. Phosphorus removal in different constructed wetlands. Acta Biotechnol,
22(1-2), 91-99.
Mara, D.D. 1976. Sewage Treatment in Hot Climates. Chichester, England: John Wiley and Sons.
Mara, D.D., Alabaster, G.P., Pearson, H.W., and Mills, S.W. 1992. Waste Stabilization Ponds: A Design
Manual for Eastern Africa. Lagoon Technology International Ltd, Leeds, England.
Saeed, T., Muyeed, A., Afrin, R., Rahman, H., and Sun, G. 2014. Pollutant removal from municipal
wastewater employing baffled subsurface flow and integrated surface flow-floating treatment wetlands.
Journal of Environmental Sciences, 26, 726–736.
Shamir, E., Thompson, T.L., Karpiscak, M.M., Freitas, R.J. and Zauderer, J. 2001. Nitrogen accumulation in
a constructed wetland for dairy wastewater treatment. Journal of the American water resources association,
37(2), 315-325.
Smith, M. P., and Kalin, M. 2000. Floating wetland vegetation covers for suspended solids removal. Paper
presented at Treatment Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement, Quebec 2000 Conference, Quebec,
Canada.
Wiesmann, U. 1994. Biological Nitrogen Removal from Wastewater. In. A. Fletcher (ed.) Advances in
Biochemical Engineering Biotechnology, Vol 51, 113-154. Springer-Verlag, Berlin and Heidelberg.
Williams, L.G. 1964. Relative strontium and calcium uptake by green algae, Science, 146, 1488.
Wood, R.B. and McAtamney, C.F. 1996. Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: the use of laterite
in the bed medium in phosphorus and heavy metal removal. Hydrobiologia, 340, 323-331.
Wu, Q.T., Gao, T., Zeng, S. and Chua, H. 2006. Plantz-biofilm oxidation ditch for in situ treatment of
polluted waters. Ecological Engineering, 28, 124–130.
WRc .1996. Reed Beds and Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Water Research Centre,
Swindon, UK.
Yalcuk, A. and Ugurlu, A. 2009. Comparison of horizontal and vertical constructed wetland systems for
landfill leachate treatment. Bioresource Technology, 100, 2521-2526.
CHAPTER 10
Water Pollution:
Analysis and Control
Water is considered to be polluted when it contains enough anthropogenic contaminants to
render it unfit for a specific beneficial use; such as drinking, recreation or fish propagation.
Water pollution occurs when pollutants are discharged directly or indirectly into the water
bodies (such as lakes, streams or rivers, oceans, aquifers) without adequate treatment to
remove harmful compounds. Water, because of its polar molecular structure, has a stronger
tendency to dissolve other substances than any other common solvent and hence referred to
as the universal solvent. Pure water is practically not found in natural conditions in water
bodies, it usually has something dissolved or suspended in it. It is only when these dissolved
or suspended substances go beyond a certain concentration in comparison with the water
quality standards for a particular beneficial use, the water is considered to be contaminated.
Although anthropogenic activity is the primary cause of water pollution, natural phenomena
such as storms, cyclones, algal blooms, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes can also cause a
major change in water quality and ecological status of water.
In many parts of the world, the introduction of pollutants from human activity has seriously
degraded water quality even to the extent of turning pristine streams to foul open sewers with
only a few life forms and fewer beneficial uses. Most of the rivers in urban areas in developing
countries are considered as end points for effluent discharge from industries. In Bangladesh,
industrial effluents from a cluster of industries in and around Dhaka in addition to untreated
domestic sewage from DWASA sewerage lines are indiscriminately polluting the rivers
surrounding the nation’s capital. The most severe deterioration occurs in the dry season,
when a decrease in river flow (sometimes tidally fluctuating) augments the effect of
pollution bringing down the dissolved oxygen level close to zero at certain reaches of these
rivers and thereby making the survival of fish almost impossible. The minimum requirement
of dissolved oxygen for healthy fish population is 5 – 8 mg/L.
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 The dumping of untreated industrial waste into the Turag River in Tongi. The
dark colored water shows how heavily the river has been contaminated with chemical
waste (Inset). (Photo source: The Daily Star, August 2, 2011, www.thedailystar.net).
In today’s world, the disease burden associated with polluted water has made it an issue of
global concern. In the past, epidemics of waterborne diseases such as cholera have been
Box 11.1
Water Pollution in historical times: “The Great Stink” in London
To understand how much waste can be assimilated by a water body, we need to know about
the type of pollutants and the manner in which they affect water quality. This chapter deals
first with major types of pollutants and their sources, placing the emphasis on categories of
pollutants found in domestic wastewaters. To understand the impact of human activities on
water quality, the fate of contaminants particularly oxygen-demanding wastes on rivers and
streams will be discussed in detail. This chapter will also focus on the characteristics of a
typical lake environment and how water pollutants affect these conditions.
materials can enter the water all along the stream as it flows through the area. Point source
pollution can be easier to deal with compared to nonpoint source pollution; point sources
can be readily identified and treatment plant may be installed to reduce pollution. The
regulatory agencies can monitor the effluents from the treatment plant from time to time and
may impose restrictions on effluent discharge. On the other hand, pollution from a non-
point source is difficult to control; the most effective way is to set appropriate restrictions on
landuse.
Figure 11.3 Non-point source pollution in Buriganga (Image source: The Daily Star,
www.thedailystar.net).
Oxygen-demanding wastes. Anything that can be oxidized in the receiving water with the
consumption of dissolved molecular oxygen is termed oxygen-demanding material. Oxygen
demanding materials are primarily from human waste and food residue. Food processing
and paper industries also produce oxygen-demanding wastes. As these wastes are oxidized, it
reduces the amount of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) available threatening fish and other aquatic
lives. In extreme cases as in anaerobic conditions, the higher forms of life (such as fish) may
be killed or driven off. Also, as the DO is depleted, undesirable odors, tastes and colors not
only reduce the acceptability of water for domestic supply but also reduce its attractiveness
for recreational use. The oxidation of certain inorganic compounds may also contribute to
the oxygen demand. There are several measures of oxygen demand. The two most
commonly used are the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biochemical Oxygen
CHAPTER 11
Demand (BOD) (see section 6.4). COD is the amount of oxygen needed to chemically
oxidize the wastes while BOD is the amount of oxygen needed to biologically oxidize the
waste. BOD has been traditionally used as the most important measure for the strength of
organic pollution. Conventional wastewater treatment reduces the amount of BOD in the
effluent but do not eliminate BOD completely.
Nutrients. Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are essential to the growth of living
things. But if they are present in excessive amounts, it causes some organisms to proliferate at
Box 11.2
The State of Buriganga river today
CHAPTER 11
Suspended solids. Organic or inorganic particles that are carried by the wastewater into
receiving waters are termed suspended solids. When the speed of the water is reduced by
flowing into a pool or a lake, many of these particles settle to the bottom as sediment. In
common usage, the word sediment also includes eroded soil particles which are being
carried by water even if they have not yet settled. Colloidal particles which do not settle
readily are the cause of turbidity found in many surface waters. Organic suspended solids
may also exert an oxygen demand. Inorganic suspended solids are discharged by some
industries but result mostly from soil erosion. As excessive sediment loads are deposited into
lakes and reservoirs, their usefulness is reduced. Even in rapidly flowing streams, sediments
can disrupt ecological habitats of many aquatic species. For domestic water supply, excessive
suspended solids necessitate water treatment at an increased cost.
Salts. All naturally occurring water contains some sort of salt; but the problem arises when
the concentration of salt goes beyond such a level which makes it unsuitable for a particular
purpose. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) is a very common and simple measure of salinity in
CHAPTER 11
water. As a rough approximation, freshwater can be considered to be water with less than
1500 mg/L TDS; brackish waters may have TDS values up to 5000 mg/L; saline waters are
those with concentrations above 5000 mg/L. According to Bangladesh Environmental
Conservation Rules (1997), drinking water has a permissible maximum contaminant level
of TDS of 1000 mg/L. High concentration of salts can also damage crops and cause soil
pollution, therefore for irrigation water the permissible level is 2100 mg/L. Industrial
Box 11.3
Water Pollution from Textile Dyeing Industries in Bangladesh
Figure Discharge of textile dyeing wastewater into a natural water body (Source:
Ahmed et al. 2012).
Textile is the top foreign exchange earning sector in Bangladesh, at the same time wastewater from
textile dyeing has also become the top polluter of water and soil resources in the country. In Bangladesh,
textile dying industries are grouped into red category that requires extensive Environmental Impact
CHAPTER 11
Assessment (EIA) and installation of treatment facilities to establish textile dyeing (GoB, 1997). But
most of the industries do not have a treatment plants and discharge untreated effluent with very high
pollution potential in water or on land. Some industries have physico-chemical and biological treatment
plants which can reduce BOD, COD and colour to some extent but extended aeration and high dose of
chemicals are required to reduce SS, BOD and COD to acceptable levels. On the other hand, the
dissolved solids in the effluent remain very high. Some industries dilute the effluent by adding fresh
water to meet the effluent quality standards but the total pollution loads discharged in the environment
bioaccumulate. All organics having similar properties are termed POP, Persisting Organic
Pollutants. POPs are prone to long-range transboundary atmospheric transport and
deposition and are likely to cause significant adverse human health or environmental effects
near to and distant from their sources. Government of Bangladesh has signed the Stockholm
Convention on POP on 23 May 2001. As a Party and signatory to the Convention,
Bangladesh is required to take actions to generate awareness of harmful consequences of
POPs, to reduce their releases, and their ultimate elimination. The Stockholm Convention
Box 11.4
Bioaccumulation of DDT
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton Fish eating bird
0.025 ppm
0.123 ppm 124 ppm
Small fish
1.04 ppm
Predatory fish
4.83 ppm
to accumulate in fatty tissue. The effect of this is that the organisms at higher trophic levels in the food
chain will have progressively increasing concentrations of DDT accumulated in their tissue. The
concentration in the body is the highest at the top of the food chain where the adverse effects will be
manifested. It was the adverse effect of DDT on the reproductive system of birds that focused attention
to this pesticide. DDT interfered with calcium metabolism of birds, resulting in eggs with shells that are
too thin to support the weight of the parent. This phenomenon in which the concentration of a chemical
increases at higher levels in the food chain is known as biomagnification.
Figure 11.4 (a) Thermal effluent having a temperature 8.7°C in excess of the ambient
water river water temperature being discharged in the Sitalakhya River by the
Siddhirganj 210 MW Power Plant in Narayanganj. (b) Thermal pollution from power
plants can be eliminated by using recirculation cooling towers or ponds.
repair). Sudden decrease in temperature may cause fish kills in significant proportions. Since
thermal effluents also reduce the amount of DO available; a river that may accept a certain
sewage load without much adverse effects, could have unacceptably low DO levels when a
power plant is added. Thermal pollution may be controlled by passing the heated water
through a cooling pond or a cooling tower after it leaves the condenser. The heat is dissipated
into the air and the water can then be either discharged to the river or pumped back to the
plant for reuse as cooling water (Figure 11.4 (b))
the industries and verify their compliance with the standards stated under the
Environmental Conservation Rules (ECR), 1997. It has the authority to cancel permits or
issue fines to the industries if they find them under violation of the standards. Table 11.2 and
11.3 show the standards for industrial and domestic effluent discharge to water bodies as
stated in the ECR, 1997.
consumption during a degradation process. This section describes the nature of different
oxygen demands exerted by organic matter and how we can estimate them.
Oxygen demand of organic matter. When biodegradable organic matter is released into a
body of water, microorganisms, especially bacteria, feed on the wastes, breaking it down into
simpler organic and inorganic substances using up oxygen in the process:
Box 11.5
Macroinvertebrates as Bioindicators of River Water Quality
The species most commonly used for the investigation of river water quality are the larger and more
easily visible invertebrate animals which colonize the substrate of all the rivers. Such animals are
collectively referred as macroinvertebrates, of which the main constituents are young aquatic stage of
certain insects. Within this bottom dwelling community, the sensitivity and tolerance to pollution varies
considerably from species to species. In 2006, a macroinvertebrate sampling programme was
more justifiable than 5 days, this value has become firmly entrenched.
Laboratory measurement of BOD5. In its simplest form, a BOD5 test would involve
putting a sample of waste into a stoppered bottle, measuring the concentration of dissolved
oxygen in the sample at the beginning of the test and again 5 days later. The difference in DO
would be the 5-day BOD. Light must be kept out of the bottle to keep algae from adding
oxygen by photosynthesis and the stopper is used to keep air from replenishing DO that has
been removed by biodegradation. To standardize the procedure, the test is run at a fixed
11.1
Figure 11.5 Bottles specifically designed for incubation of water samples for BOD
analysis. A flared mouth forms a water seal which prevents the drawing of air into the
bottle during incubation. The interior shape of the bottle is such that the entrained air is
sweeped out of the stopper opening. Glass stopper design uses a conical extension to
displace excess sample which further insures no air entrapment in the sample. (Krackeler
Scientific, Inc.).
11.4
11.5
Example 11.1. Unseeded 5-Day BOD Test. A standard 5-day BOD test is run using a mix
consisting of 3 parts distilled water and 1 part wastewater. The initial DO of the mix is 9.0
mg/L and the DO after 5 days is determined to be 1.0 mg/L. What is the BOD5?
Solution.
The dilution fraction, P = 1/4 = 0.25. Using Eq. (11.1), the 5-day BOD,
CHAPTER 11
Example 11.2. A Seeded BOD Test. A mixture consisting of 30 mL of waste and 240 mL
of seeded dilution water has an initial DO of 8.55 mg/L; after 5 days, it has a final DO of 2.40
mg/L. another bottle containing just the seeded dilution water has an initial DO of 8.75
mg/L and a final DO of 8.53 mg/L. What would be the 5-day BOD of the waste?
= 54 mg/L
Factors affecting BOD rate constant. As discussed in section 6.4, the BOD kinetics can be
described as a first-order reaction and the BOD reaction rate constant, k, is a factor that
indicates the rate of biodegradation of wastes in streams. As k increases, the rate at which DO
is consumed also increases. The magnitude of the reaction rate will depend on three factors:
(1) nature of the waste, (2) ability of organisms to utilize the waste and (3) temperature.
Not all naturally occurring organic compounds are degraded at equal rates. The complexity
of the hydrocarbon structure dictates the rate of degradation. Simple sugars and starches are
easily degraded and will, therefore, have a large BOD rate constant. On the other hand
cellulose degrades slowly and will have lower reaction rates. Table 11.5 shows a summary of
some typical BOD rate constants. The lower rate constants for treated sewage compared to
raw sewage result from the fact that easily degradable organics are more completely removed
than less readily degradable organics during wastewater treatment. Again, a particular group
of microorganism may be well suited to degrade certain kinds of organic matter. When such
organic matters are discharged in the receiving streams, this group of microorganism
generally thrives and dominates the microbial population. When BOD is determined in the
laboratory, it is important to have the microorganisms which have adapted to that particular
kind of waste so that rate constants become representative of actual conditions in the river.
Finally, temperature speeds up reaction rates like most biological processes. Ideally, BOD
rate constants should be experimentally determined for the temperature of the receiving
water. But the temperature can vary both temporally (with changing seasons) and spatially
(along different reaches of the river). Therefore, the standard practice is to determine BOD
at a certain temperature (which is 20°C) and adjust the rate constant for the temperature of
the receiving water using Eq. (6.17) (see section 6.4 for details).
Oxygen demand due to nitrification. Many organic compounds (e.g. proteins) contain
not only carbon but also nitrogen that can be oxidized by microorganisms resulting in the
consumption of molecular oxygen. The mechanisms and rate of this oxidation is different
from those of carbon oxidation. Therefore, to separate these processes, the oxygen demand
CHAPTER 11
Plants Animals
Fixation
Atmospheric
nitrogen Death,
N2 N2O excreta
Lightning
Denitrification
However, the process through which organic nitrogen is converted into Ammonia and then
to nitrite and nitrate (nitrification) is the main concern in this section. It appears that this
conversion happens sequentially and it is a matter of days before the rate of oxidation of
ammonia is sufficient enough to create a significant oxygen demand (see Figure 11.7).
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.8 illustrates the two oxygen demands as they may be exerted in a BOD experiment.
In typical municipal wastes, NBOD does not exert itself for at least 5-8 days, so most 5-day
BOD tests are not affected by nitrification. This lag period is due to the fact that the bacterial
population takes some time to reach a sufficient population for the amount of NBOD
exertion to be significant. This is true for untreated sewage. However, if there is a sufficient
number of nitrifying bacteria present as in treated sewage, NBOD may begin to be exerted
from the very onset (Figure 11.8) and confound measurements of BOD if only CBOD is
desired. Therefore, it is now an accepted practice to modify wastes in a way (using chemical
inhibitors) that will inhibit nitrification during that 5-day period. The rate constant for
nitrification is also affected by temperature and can be adjusted using Eq. (6.17).
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.8 Illustrating the carbonaceous and nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand.
Box 11.6
Oxygen-demanding wastes in Sitalakhya River
depleting the dissolved oxygen resources in the process. This process is called
deoxygenation. Streams and rivers can naturally assimilate biodegradable wastes to some
extent and thus recovering from the effect of pollution without significant or permanent
environmental damage. This capacity for self-purification depends on the strength and
volume of pollutants as wells as the discharge or flowrate of the rivers. It is commonly said
that "the solution to pollution is dilution”. The effects of dilution and the constant flushing
action of the flowing water are obvious factors involved in the waste assimilative capacity of a
stream. But not as obvious, but equally important, is the effect of oxygen transfer between the
air-water interface, a process termed as reaeration. Atmospheric oxygen is constantly being
dissolved through the air-water interface replenishing the DO in the water. Fast-flowing,
shallow, turbulent streams are reaerated more effectively than slow, deep, meandering
streams. This is because in turbulent, shallow streams, the water becomes well-mixed
throughout its depth and there is a constant renewal of air-water interface.
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.10 The dissolved oxygen sag curve showing the effect of oxygen-demanding
wastes on the DO levels in a stream or river.
Figure 11.11 Dilution of pollutants from a point source, such as a sewage treatment
plant, occurs within the mixing zone of the stream.
11.7
11.10
-1
where kd = deoxygenation coefficient at 20 °C (day )
k = BOD rate constant at 20 °C (day-1)
CHAPTER 11
mg/L
b. At a speed of 0.30 m/s, the time required for the waste to reach a distance 30,000 m
downstream would be
s = 1.54 days
11.12
CHAPTER 11
DO sag curve. As illustrated in Figure 11.10, the DO sag curve represents the resultant effect
of deoxygenation and reaeration. Therefore the equation describing the DO sag curve (or
the DO sag equation) is derived from the superposition of the equations describing
deoxygenation and reaeration. In practice, the DO sag equation is described using oxygen
deficit rather than dissolved oxygen concentration to make it easier to solve the integral that
results from the mass balance. The oxygen deficit (D) is defined by the amount by which the
actual dissolved oxygen concentration is less than the saturation value:
11.13
The saturation value of oxygen for a particular temperature and salinity is derived from Table
11.7. The term initial DO deficit is used to define the DO at the beginning of the sag curve
where the waste discharge mixes with the river. The initial deficit is calculated as the
difference between the saturated DO and the concentration of DO after mixing (Equation
11.7)
Table 11.7 Solubility of oxygen in water (mg/L) at 1 atm pressure.
Chloride concentration in water (mg/L)
Temperture(°C) 0 5000 10000 15000
0 14.62 13.73 12.89 12.10
5 12.77 12.02 11.32 10.66
10 11.29 10.66 10.06 9.49
15 10.08 9.54 9.03 8.54
20 9.09 8.62 8.17 7.75
CHAPTER 11
Therefore, combining the two equations (11.9) and (11.11) yields the following mass
balance equation which describes the rate of increase of the oxygen deficit:
Rate of increase of the deficit = Rate of deoxygenation - Rate of oxygenation (reaeration)
Integrating Eq. (11.14), the equation for the DO sag curve can be obtained (graphically
shown in Figure 11.12)
11.15
Eq. (11.15) is the classic Streeter-Phelps oxygen-sag equation first described in 1925. In this
equation, D0 is the initial DO deficit and t represents the time of travel in the stream from the
point of discharge to the point in question downstream.
If the stream has constant cross-sectional area, and it is traveling at a speed u, then time and
distance downstream are related by
x = ut 11.16
where x = distance downstream
u = stream velocity
t = elapsed time between discharge point and distance x downstream
And Eq. (11.15) can be rewritten as:
11.17
Subtracting the oxygen deficit, given by (11.15) or (11.17), from the saturation value DO,
gives DO as a function of time or distance downstream. A plot of this DO is given in Figure
11.12. As can be seen in the figure, the stretch of the river immediately downstream of the
discharge point (x = 0 or t = 0) oxygen is depleted at a faster rate than aeration can replace
CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.13 Pollution and self-purification of stream and changes in the aquatic
ecology by the disposal of sewage/industrial wastewater.
11.18
The maximum deficit can then be found by substituting the value obtained for the critical
time in Eq. (11.15).
Example 11.5 Oxygen Sag Curve. A municipal wastewater treatment plant discharges 0.2
m3/s of treated effluent having BOD5 of 50.0 mg/L and DO of 2 mg/L into a stream that has a
flow of 0.45 m3/s and a BOD5 of 2 mg/L and DO of 8 mg/L. The temperature of the river is
25°C. The deoxygenation constant kd is 0.23/day at 20°C. The stream has a depth of 2.6 m
and the average stream velocity is 0.2 m/s.
a. Find the critical distance downstream at which DO is a minimum.
b. Find the minimum DO.
CHAPTER 11
Solution:
The BOD and DO of effluent and stream can be found using Eq. (11.7)
mg/L
The saturation value of DO at 25°C is given as 8.26 mg/L (from Table 11.6), so the initial
deficit would be
= 2.06 mg/L
To estimate the reaeration constant we can use the O’Connor and Dobbin’s relationship
given in Eq. (11.12)
= 0.4 day-1
Adjusting the reaeration and deoxygenation constants for stream temperature (using Eq
6.17):
= 0.45 day-1
= 0.29 day-1
a. Using Eq. (11.18) we can find the time at which the deficit is maximum
= 2.45 days
= 7.78 mg/L
So the minimum value of DO will be the saturation value minus this maximum deficit:
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.14 At higher temperature the minimum DO is lowered and occurs at a location
closer to the discharge source.
curve. However in some cases the nitrogenous BOD may have similar impact on DO levels.
Nitrogenous BOD can be incorporated into the DO sag curve by adding an additional term
to Eq. (11.15):
11.19
an application of the DO sag equation for Buriganga river for multiple point sources.
Other factors affecting DO levels. The oxygen-sag curve is affected by a number of other
factors besides those already discussed. If there are large deposits of organic matter in river
sediments, they shall exert their own oxygen demand. These organic matters can be natural
deposits of leaves, dead aquatic plants or can be sludge deposits from wastewaters receiving
little or no treatment. Decomposition of these organic matters will utilize the oxygen
resources in the overlying water column and if their oxygen demand becomes significant,
they must be included in the water quality model. Algae and aquatic plants can add DO
during the daytime hours while photosynthesis is occurring, but deplete the DO at night for
respiration. The net effect is a diurnal variation in DO that can lead to elevated levels of DO
in the late afternoon and lower levels at night. Plant growth is usually highest in the summer
when flows are low and temperatures are high, so that large nighttime respiration
requirements can coincide with the worst cases of oxygen depletion from BOD exertion. To
properly model all of these effects and their interactions is an exceedingly difficult task.
Sophisticated water quality models, available commercially as software packages, rely on
computers to simulate all these interactions and can predict water quality parameters
relatively accurately. However, the simplified model presented above can serve as a first
approximation to reality.
Application of the DO curve in water quality management. The DO sag curve can be
used to assess the adequacy of water treatment facilities or to determine the location of an
effluent discharge outfall. DO standards are generally set to protect the aquatic species in a
river or to make the river useful for a particular purpose. For a known waste discharge and a
known set of river hydromorphological characteristics, the DO sag equation can be applied
to find the DO at the critical point. If this value is higher than the standard, then the river has
sufficient assimilation capacity. If this value goes below the standard then additional
management measures are required. Usually the environmental engineer operating the
treatment plant has control over two parameters, L0 and D0. By increasing the efficiency of
CHAPTER 11CHAPTER 11
the treatment process or by adding additional treatment steps, the BOD of the wastewater
can be reduced and thereby reducing L0. Often, the stream quality can be improved by
aerating the wastewater and bringing it close to saturation prior to discharge and thereby
reducing the initial DO deficit of the mixed stream (D0). If none of these work to meet the
standards, alternate options are to be sought and these include building structures across
rivers to promote aeration, looking for alternate outfall locations where dissolved oxygen
levels are higher etc.
into the lake by overland runoff and feeder streams, gradually accumulate in significant
amounts as sediment at the lake bottom. This makes the lake shallower and can alter the
ecological environment of the lake including a shift in aquatic species.
A knowledge of the lake systems is essential to understand the role of nutrients in
determining the lake water quality. This section describes the natural life-cycle of a lake and
the characteristics of a typical lake environment and how seasonal variations and nutrient
Box 11.7
Algal bloom in the Bay of Bengal and its human health implications
Using satellite measurements, such as the
Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS),
researchers can identify algal blooms in the
ocean all over the world and quantify algal
biomass from the color intensity. The figure
shows a CZCS image for the Bay of Bengal
taken in October, 1982 showing algal blooms
along the coast triggered by the nutrient
loading brought to the bay by the major rivers
and their tributaries. These annual algal
blooms are characteristic of coastal areas near
densely populated cities. Recent
investigations revealed that the emergence of
CHAPTER 11
loading can affect these characteristics. Emphasis will be given on the effect of phosphorus in
lakes and phosphorus loading management strategies because phosphorus is usually the
limiting nutrient in such environments.
Eutrophication and lake productivity. Eutrophication is a natural process in which lakes
gradually become shallower and more productive through the introduction and cycling of
nutrients. A lake's productivity may be determined by measuring the amount of algal growth
that can be sustained by the available nutrients. Most lakes start out geologically as deep,
cold, clear bodies of water. At this stage, they are called oligotrophic lakes. They usually have a
sand or rock bottom, very few nutrients, a very low level of productivity due to the scarcity of
nutrients and high levels of oxygen. Over the years, nutrients slowly accumulate and various
forms of aquatic lives appear. Silty sediments begin to form at the bottom as the lake passes
through a mesotrophic stage of existence. The eutrophic stage of a lake's life cycle is
characterized by a relatively shallow and warmer body of water, with enough nutrients to
support large populations of plants and diverse aquatic lives and relatively low levels of
oxygen. In a eutrophic lake, there are frequent algal blooms, as previously described, and at
certain times of the year the water at the bottom may be devoid of dissolved oxygen.
Although a more productive lake usually will have a higher fish population, the number of the
most desirable fish may decline. Table 11.8 summarizes the differences between
oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes. Further aging or eutrophication leads to what is called a
senescent lake, characterized by thick deposits of organic silts and very high nutrient levels.
Senescent lakes are very shallow, with much rooted emergent vegetation growing
The aging process of the lake is natural and inevitable and lake eutrophication, from the
oligotrophic through the senescent stages, takes many thousands of years. It is an
exceedingly slow process. But many people use the term eutrophication synonymously with
pollution in reference to lakes. To eliminate the ambiguity, the term cultural eutrophication
is often used in this regard. Cultural eutrophication is caused when human activity accelerates
these naturally occurring processes where excess nutrients are added from fertilizers or
sewage input leads to pollution. Similarly, damming a river leads to concentration of organic
matter upstream of the dam and can lead to enriched, lake-like conditions with increased
primary production. The Kaptai Lake located upstream of the Karnaphuli river in
Bangladesh is such a manmade lake.
Eutrophic lakes are necessarily polluted, but pollution contributes to eutrophication. Water
quality management in lakes is primarily concerned with slowing eutrophication to at least
the natural rate. This is generally accomplished by controlling phosphorus. To understand
why this is so, it is necessary to understand the factors contributing to algal growth and why
phosphorus is the limiting nutrient.
The role of phosphorus in eutrophication.There are many factors that control the rate of
primary production in a lake, including the availability of sunlight to power the
photosynthetic reactions and the concentration of nutrients required for growth.The
amount of light that can penetrate through the water to aid the photosynthesis reactions is
CHAPTER 11
related to the transparency of the water, which is in turn a function of the level of
eutrophication. An oligotrophic lake may allow sunlight to penetrate to considerable depths
(~ 100 m or more), while eutrophic lakes may be so murky that photosynthesis is limited to a
thin layer of water very near the surface. While the amount of sunlight available can be a
limiting factor in algal growth, it is not something that one would imagine controlling as a
way to slow eutrophication. Since nutrient stimulation by human activity is the prime cause
of cultural eutrophication, restricting the available nutrients to control cultural
For a first approximation, it takes about 7 times more nitrogen than phosphorus to produce a
given amount of algae. Accounting for variations in plant stoichiometry, however, N/P
ratios in a body of water over 20 generally indicate that phosphorus is the limiting nutrient,
whereas N/P ratios of 5 or less reflect nitrogen limited systems.
Of all the nutrients, only phosphorus is not readily available from the atmosphere or the
natural water supply. For this reason, phosphorus is deemed the limiting nutrient in lakes.
The amount of phosphorus controls the quantity of algal growth and therefore the
productivity of lakes. It typically takes only a concentration of about 0.02 mg/L of inorganic
phosphorus to cause algal blooms in a lake; the inorganic nitrogen concentration can be
more than 10 times that level. On the other hand, even with very high nitrogen levels, if
phosphorus concentrations are kept below 0.02 mg/L, excessive growths of algae usually do
CHAPTER 11
not occur.
There is a direct correlation between the phosphorus concentration and chlorophyll a, one
of the green pigments involved in photosynthesis and generally used as a proxy to algal
concentration in the water body. The empirical relationship is given by:
log (Chlorophyll a) = -1.09+1.46 log PT 11.20
11.22
CHAPTER 11
The settling rate vs is an empirically determined quantity that is difficult to predict with any
confidence. Thomann and Mueller (1987) suggest that lakes have a settling rate of
approximately 3-30 m/year.
Example 11.6. Phosphorus loading in a lake. Consider a lake with 200 × 106 m2 of surface
area for which the only source of phosphorus is the effluent from a wastewater treatment
plant. The effluent flow rate is 0.45 m3/s and its phosphorus concentration is 10.0 mg/L (=
= = 0.053 mg/L
This is above the 0.01 mg/L limit which is suggested as an acceptable concentration.
(b) To reach 0.01 mg/L, the total phosphorus loading must be
= = 0.94 g/s
The wastewater is currently contributing 5 g/s of phosphorus. There is need for 81 per cent
phosphorus removal.
Thermal stratification in lakes. Nutrients stimulate algal growth, and the subsequent
death and decay of that algae can lead to oxygen depletion. This oxygen depletion problem
can be exacerbated by certain physical characteristics of the lake such as thermal
stratification.
An important property of water is that density is greatest at approximately 4°C – water above
or below this temperature floats on water at 4°C. Also, warmer water floats on cooler water.
A lake warmed by the sun during the summer will tend to have a layer of warm water floating
on top of the denser, colder water below. Conversely, in the winter, if the lake's surface drops
below 4°C, it will create a layer of cold water that floats on top of the more dense, 4°C water
below. During the year, as the water body warms and cools seasonally, a changing
CHAPTER 11
temperature profile along the depth emerges. In winter, temperatures are relatively uniform
throughout the lake and any wind action can practically mix the lake water from top to
bottom. Progressing through Spring and Summer, the surface of the water starts to get
heated up and the density differences between surface water and the water nearer to the
bottom inhibit vertical mixing in the lake. As temperature increases, discontinuity becomes
more pronounced until the water body is fully stratified into three parts: a warm epilimnion
Figure 11.19 Thermal stratification of a lake showing winter and summer stratification
temperature profiles.
The extent of stratification in lakes can be quantified by their densiometric Froude number
(F):
11.23
Figure 11.20 Dissolved oxygen profiles under the conditions of the summer thermal
stratification for eutrophic and oligotrophic lakes.
As the seasons progress and winter approaches, the temperature of the epilimnion begins to
drop and the marked stratification of summer begins to disappear. Sometime in the fall, the
stratification will totally disappear, the temperature will become uniform with depth, and
wind action can cause complete mixing of the lake. Oxygen from the epilimnion becomes
mixed with the oxygen-poor hypolimnion and nutrients from the bottom are also get evenly
distributed throughout the lake. This phenomenon is termed as the fall overturn. Similarly, in
climates that are cold enough for the surface to drop below 4 °C, there will be a winter
stratification, followed by a spring overturn when the surface warms up enough to allow
complete mixing once again. Thus, temperate climate lakes have at least one, if not two cycles
of stratification and turnover every year. In winter, demands for oxygen decrease as
CHAPTER 11
metabolic rates decrease, while at the same time the capacity of water to hold oxygen
increases. Thus, even though winter stratification may occur, its effects tend not to be as
severe as those in the summer. The end results of such seasonal overturns are seasonal
blooms of phytoplankton, due to the replenishment of nutrients in autumn and increasing
temperatures and light levels in spring.
Water quality management in lakes. Since phosphorus is the limiting nutrient, the
primary objective of controlling the cultural eutrophication should be controlling the release
the saturation value of 10.0 mg/L. The deoxygenation rate coefficient kd is 0.30/day
and the reaeration rate coefficient kr is 0.90/day. The river is flowing at the speed of
48.0 miles per day. The only source of BOD on this river is this single outfall.
c. Find the critical distance downstream at which DO is a minimum.
d. Find the minimum DO.
e. If a wastewater treatment plant is to be built, what fraction of the BOD would
CHAPTER 11
Nathanson, J. R. 2000. Basic Envrironmental Technology, Water Supply, Waste Management and
Pollution Control. 3rd Edition, Prentice Hall Inc.
R. Jones and R. W. Bachmann. 1976. Prediction of Phosphorus and Chlorophyll Levels in Lakes, Journal of
the Water Pollution Control Federation, vol. 48. p. 2179.
Rahman, I. and Ahmed, M.F. 2010. Evaluation of the Performance of Saidabad Treatment Plant, Dhaka.
Spellerberg, I. F. 1991. Monitoring Ecological Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
CHAPTER 11
Decentralized
Wastewater Treatment
As observed in Chapter 3 of this book, most of the areas in and around Dhaka City do not
have sewerage networks, for transporting wastewater into Pagla treatment plant. In such
cases decentralized wastewater treatment (DWWT) system can be an attractive option for
wastewater disposal and treatment. DWWT systems provide on-site treatment of
wastewater, generated from individual domestic houses, residential areas, isolated
communities and industrial or institutional facilities/clusters. DWWT systems can be
managed individually, or be integrated with centralized sewage treatment systems.
Design and management of DWWT systems can be achieved at a fraction of cost, required
for typical centralized treatment plants (Chapters 4-9). Table 12.1 summarizes some salient
features of DWWT systems, over conventional centralized treatment technologies.
Box 12.1
Anaerobic baffled reactor for DWWT system.
Anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR) was developed by McCarty and co-workers at Stanford University,
and consists of several compartments (i.e. ranging between 3-16). The vertical baffles of a typical ABR
system direct the wastewater under and over the baffles, as it passes from the inlet to the outlet. Such
forced direction enhances contact between the wastewater and microorganisms of the sludge materials,
that settle on the bottom (of an ABR system). The over and underflow of the liquid also reduces
bacteria washout, allowing the ABR to retain active biological mass.
In an ABR system pollutants are generally removed from wastewater via anaerobic digestion (Figure
9.9- Chapter 9). As such, ABR is efficient in terms of organic and solids removal; however, the effluent
from an ABR may contain nitrogen, phosphorus and pathogenic microorganisms. To facilitate the
removal of these parameters, subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands should follow an ABR system in
a DWWT train (Figure 12.1). Figure 12.2 gives an operational diagram of a typical ABR unit.
CHAPTER 12
Table 12.3 Area requirement of a DWWT train with VF system as tertiary unit.
Component Wastewater volume Minimum recommended
m3 area (m2)
Septic tank 0.5
ABR 1.0
1.0
VF constructed wetland 3.75
Polishing pond or SF wetland 1.2
Total area 6.45 m2
Table 12.4 Area requirement of a DWWT train with VF system as tertiary unit.
Component Wastewater volume Minimum recommended
m3 area (m2)
Septic tank 0.5
ABR 1.0
1.0
HF constructed wetland 6.5
Polishing pond or SF wetland 1.2
Total area 9.2 m2
kinetics combined with CSTR/ plug flow pattern (Chapter 10) may calculate higher area
requirements for VF/ HF wetlands, to provide treatment of wastewater volume indicated in
the Tables 12.2-12.4. As such, the proposed area values in Tables 12.2-12.4 are conservative,
that wastewater can be distributed evenly over the media. Large stones may be placed on the
top of the media to allow even distribution of wastewater (inside the media), and to prevent
clogging. The outlet valve is generally placed at the bottom of the bed; large stones are placed
at the bottom to achieve homogenous wastewater distribution towards outlet. For HF
Box 12.2
Design of a DWWT system for a residential building of 200 population.
Step 3. Area of the septic tank and ABR for generated wastewater
The area of the septic tank can be calculated as (Table 12.2): 16 ´ 0.5m2 = 8m2
From Table 12.2, the required area of the ABR can be calculated as: 16 x´ 1.0m2 = 16m2
To achieve 24 hrs retention time, the volume of the ABR unit can be calculated as: Q ´ t
= 16m3/d ´ 1d = 16m3
Step 4. Determine sludge generation rate
Approximately 0.1 L/P/d may be considered as the generated sludge rate, for desludging interval of one
year. As such, sludge production volume can be calculated as: 200 ´ 0.1L/P/d = 20L/d
Sludge production in a year can be calculated as: 20L/d ´ 365d = 7300L = 7.3m3
anaerobic zones of VF and HF wetlands respectively (Chapter 10). However, if sufficient land is not
available for choosing option A, the engineer may restrict his/ her choice between options B and C,
depending on the influent wastewater characteristics.
(b) Maintenance of settler and ABR: Maintenance schedules of settler and ABR units are
summarized below.
Ÿ For settler desludging should be carried out yearly, or once in two years (depending
on incoming wastewater quality). For ABR unit desludging should be done after 2/3
CHAPTER 12
years.
Ÿ During desludging from settler and ABR units, some sludge should be left inside the
system for the continuation of biological removal mechanisms.
Box 12.3
Baffled HF wetland in a DWWT train of WaterAid, Bangladesh.
The wetland research team at Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology previously conducted
research on baffled wetland systems, to provide treatment of municipal wastewater (Box 10.3 - Chapter
10). Enhanced pollutant removal performances were observed in such systems (Saeed et al. 2014), due
to flow direction by the baffles throughout the media. The output of this research (i.e. baffled wetland)
has been implemented in a DWWT system train of WaterAid Bangladesh at Pachtola Colony, Khulna.
The DWWT system has been designed to serve 285 people, with a design incoming flow rate of 28.5
m3/d. The system train includes a settler as the first stage, followed by an ABR unit, a baffled HF wetland
and a SF wetland as the polishing stage. The baffled wetland has been employed to utilize the effect of
the total media (of HF system), and attached biofilms in a compact land area. The baffled HF wetland
includes two baffle walls (inside the system- Figure 12.3), to direct the flow downwards (i.e. anaerobic
zone) and upwards (i.e. aerobic zone) enhancing biodegradation.
influent
water table
flow baffle
walls effluent
media
CHAPTER 12
Notes:
1
Secondary treatment processes include activated sludge processes, trickling filters, rotating biological contactors, and
many stabilization pond systems. Secondary treatment should produce effluent in which both the BOD and TSS do not
exceed 30 mg/L.
2
Filtration means passing the effluent through natural undisturbed soil or filter media such as sand and/or anthracite.
3
Disinfection means the destruction, inactivation or removal of pathogenic microorganisms. It may be accomplished by
chlorination, or other chemical disinfectants, UV radiation or other processes.
4
The number of fecal coliform organisms should not exceed 14/100 mL in any sample.
5
The number of fecal coliform organisms should not exceed 800/100 mL in any sample.
Box 12.4
DWWT system at Bankers colony, Bhuj, Gujarat, India (CSE, 2013).
A DWWT system was employed at Bankers Colony, Bhuj, Gujarat by Hunnarshala Foundation in
collaboration with American India Foundation and Care today group in the year 2006. The system was
built on an area of 300 m2, with a design capacity of 300 kilo liters per day. The capital construction cost
was Indian Rs 14-15 lakhs; current maintenance cost is Rs 1-1.5 lakhs/year. The main objective of this
project was: (a) to provide wastewater treatment locally; and (b) to reuse treated effluent for
horticultural reuse.
The DWWT system includes a two chambered settler, an ABR system with nine chambers (last two
chambers are anaerobic filters), a planted filter and a polishing pond, arranged in series to form a
DWWT train. The effluent from the polishing pond is being reused; the remaining treated wastewater is
discharged into a storm water drain, that is linked with Hamirsar Lake.
Table 12.7 represents performance of the individual treatment unit of the DWWT train. As observed in
Table 12.7pollutant removal performances across the DWWT system is higher, with overall BOD and
COD reduction of 91% and 81% respectively. Subsequently, Figure 12.4 represents a pictorial view of
DWWT system at Bankers colony.
Table 12.7 Treatment performances of different units of DWWT train at Bankers colony.
Unit Settler inlet ABR inlet Planted filter inlet Polishing pond
pH 7.2 7.1 7 7
Suspended solids 1056 142 60 19
mg/L
CHAPTER 12
BOD 182 52 40 15
COD 260 101 90 49
CHAPTER 12
Appendix 373
Appendix B
Ratios of sewer hydraulic elements.
Full
Appendix 375
About the Book
This text book has been designed to cover the curricula of
undergraduate and postgraduate environmental engineering and
related courses, that are generally offered by the Civil and
Environmental Engineering Departments of the technological
universities in Bangladesh. The book is comprised of 12 chapters
covering a wide range of topics related to sanitation, wastewater
treatment, disposal and water pollution. Chapter 1 gives a brief
description on the importance of sanitation, wastewater
treatment and safe disposal, with an aim to provide the reader a
scope to think about the necessity of sustainable environmental
solutions for the country. Chapter 2 describes engineered
sanitation technologies in context of Bangladesh. Chapters 3-7
describe municipal wastewater transportation into treatment
plants, and different treatment stages for achieving safe disposal
criteria. Chapter 8 describes different approaches to provide
treatment of industrial wastewater. Chapter 9 includes a brief
description on sludge treatment (for safe disposal), generated
from wastewater treatment plants. Chapter 10 focuses on low-
cost natural treatment technologies, such as ponds and
constructed wetlands. Chapter 11 gives a brief description on the
factors associated with water pollution. Finally Chapter 12 gives
brief information and required guidelines for the construction,
operation and maintenance of decentralized wastewater
treatment systems.