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Behavior of PVA Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious

Composites under Static and Impact Flexural
Effects

ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING · SEPTEMBER 2013

Impact Factor: 1.3 · DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000691

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Erman Yiğit Tuncel Bekir Yılmaz Pekmezci

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 Behavior of PVA Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious
Composites under Static and Impact Flexural Effects
Hakan Nuri Atahan, Ph.D. 1; Bekir Yılmaz Pekmezci, Ph.D. 2; and Erman Yiğit Tuncel 3

Abstract: The effects of fiber volume fraction and matrix properties on the mechanical performance of 15-mm thick short cut PVA
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(polyvinyl alcohol) fiber-reinforced cementitious composites were investigated experimentally. Fiber volume ratios of mixtures varied
between 0.5 and 2.0% by volume. Two different water to cement ratios (w=c) have been used (0.25 and 0.35) for matrix production. Test
results have shown that both fiber content and matrix strength have significant effects on flexural behavior and impact resistance of these
composites. The combined effect of w=c and fiber volume fraction on impact resistance was more drastic compared with specific fracture
energies of composites determined under static loads. Especially under the effects of impact loads, higher values of w=c and increased PVA
fiber content significantly improved the energy absorption capacity of these composites. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000691.
© 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Cement; Composite materials; Water; Flexural strength; Fibers.
Author keywords: PVA fiber; Specific fracture energy; Impact resistance; Cementitious composites; Water to cement ratio; Fiber volume
fraction; Flexural behavior.

Introduction behavior of comparatively thinner cement-based elements. PVA

Conventional plain concrete is a quasi-brittle material that has low
tensile strength and strain capacity. It shows a brittle fracture under
either impact or static loadings. However, inclusion of various types
of fibers into its brittle nature provides a practical means of enhanc-
ing the ductility, strength, toughness and resistance to impact, ther-
mal shock, and spalling of this material (Nataraja et al. 2005; Nili
and Afroughsabet 2010a). Today, use of various types of short or
continuous (textile type) fibers in cementitious materials, which are
readily available in a wide range of raw materials from metallic to
plastic, is a common way of obtaining a transition from brittle to
ductile behavior of cementitious materials. Fiber reinforcement in
cementitious composites is a very effective way of controlling crack
propagation in the material under either mechanical or durability
effects. PVA fiber-reinforced cementitious material is also benefi-
cial for durability aspects in comparison to plain concrete with
the limitations of crack width of 100 μm after wet-dry or freeze-
thaw cycles (Yu et al. 2010; Sahmaran et al. 2009). Having high
tensile strength and strain capacity and showing a unique prop-
erty of strain hardening to limit crack width with multiple fine
cracks (Li and Kanda 1998), short cut PVA (polyvinyl alcohol)
fibers are acceptable materials for improving flexural and tensile
1
Associate Professor, İstanbul Technical Univ., Civil Engineering
Faculty, Building Materials Laboratory, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey
(corresponding author). E-mail: atahanh@itu.edu.tr
2
Assistant Professor, İstanbul Technical Univ., Civil Engineering
Faculty, Building Materials Laboratory, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey.
E-mail: pekmezcib1@itu.edu.tr
3
Research Assistant, İstanbul Technical Univ., Civil Engineering
Faculty, Building Materials Laboratory, Maslak, Istanbul 34469, Turkey.
E-mail: tuncele@itu.edu.tr
Note. This manuscript was submitted on January 31, 2012; approved on
September 18, 2012; published online on September 22, 2012. Discussion
period open until March 1, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, Vol. 25, No. 10, October 1, 2013. © ASCE, ISSN 0899-
1561/2013/10-1438-1445/$25.00.
fiber-reinforced composites have been experimented on for a bet-
ter understanding of their behavior, and developments have been
continuing for the use of these materials in structural elements
(Shimizu et al. 2004; Li and Kanda 1998). Specially designed PVA
fiber composites—engineered cementitious composites (ECC)—
have been studied during the last few decades (Li 2003). From the
point of view of unique pseudostrain hardening behavior with sev-
eral percentage tensile strain (3–7%), these materials are designed
by the micromechanical principles (Li 2003; Li and Leung 1992).
To attain the desired properties, understanding the properties of
fiber, matrix, and the interface between the fiber and matrix is
crucial. The behavior of fiber-reinforced composites under flexural
or tensile loads is directly related to fiber type, amount and geom-
etry, and the properties of the matrix surrounding fibers, such as
strength and maximum aggregate size (Li and Kanda 1998). The
failure of fiber-reinforced cementitious materials greatly depends
on fiber matrix interactions and slip characteristics between the
fiber and cementitious matrix. The failure can be a result of a
mechanism of fiber pull out or fiber fracture. The behavior of
fiber matrix interaction and slip characteristics may differ owing
to loading rates (Bindiganavile and Banthia 2005). Its behavior
under short duration dynamic loads is different from that dis-
played under static loads (Mohammadi et al. 2009; Nili and
Afroughsabet 2010a, b).
The use of synthetic and glass fibers in cementitious precast
elements is widespread. Cladding of buildings, including high rises
using these composites, is also a recognized method among archi-
tects (Brookes and Meijs 2008). Use of these composite elements
in such applications, on the other hand, requires relatively thinner
elements. Cladding elements are considered with their architectural
properties to be protecting the building from noise, temperature,
and weather disturbances such as rain and snow (Enfedaque et al.
2011). They are not considered to be a structural element. Because
they cover the whole building, the cladding elements are the ma-
terials that face the dynamic and durability effects born of the outer
environment. Well-designed cladding systems can have positive

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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1438-1445.

 attributes that benefit the structure such as possible load mitigation Experimental Study
and distribution (Starr and Krauthammer 2005). Moreover, during
recent years, vandalism and terrorist attacks, wind gusts, machine For determining the effects of fiber volume fraction and matrix
dynamics, and earthquakes have been the primary reasons to in- properties on the mechanical performance under static and impact
loading of PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) fiber-reinforced cementitious
vestigate and improve the properties of cladding panels against
composites, the following works were performed. The properties of
impact effects. Although the impact resistance of glass and steel
materials used, mixture design, and tests performed are given in the
fiber-reinforced cement-based composites have been studied in the
subsequent paragraphs.
literature extensively (Pan et al. 2001; Habel and Gauvreau 2009;
Mohammadi et al. 2009; Nili and Afroughsabet 2010a, b; Nataraja
et al. 2005; Toutanji et al. 1998), few tests have been performed Materials
with geopolymer matrix to determine the impact resistance of PVA For the design of PVA (polyvinyl alcohol) fiber-reinforced cemen-
fiber-reinforced construction composites. It is reported that the titious composites, RSC 15-type PVA fibers 8 mm long and 40 μ in
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addition of a high volume fraction of PVA fiber changes the impact diameter were used. The fibers were supplied by Kuraray Co., Ltd.
failure mode of geopolymer from a brittle pattern to a ductile one, Based on the manufacturer’s declaration; the tensile strength and
resulting in an increase in impact toughness (Yunsheng et al. 2008). modulus of elasticity of fibers were 1.4 and 35 GPa, respectively.
Fibers are used to improve the mechanical behavior of concrete For the matrix mixture of the PVA-reinforced elements, CEM I 52.5
under impact effects (Pan et al. 2001; Habel and Gauvreau 2009; R type white portland cement with a specific gravity of 3.16 g=cm3
Mohammadi et al. 2009; Nili and Afroughsabet 2010a, b; Nataraja and 0–250 μ siliceous sand with a specific gravity of 2.64 g=cm3
were used. To attain similar workability properties among differ-
et al. 2005; Toutanji et al. 1998).
ent mixtures, a polycarboxylate-based high range water reducer
ECC, which is micromechanically designed and produced with
(HRWR) was also used. Mineral admixtures or any air entraining
PVA fibers, is designed under static effects, and most of the exper-
admixture was not used in the mixtures.
imental works are done considering static loads. PVA-reinforced
cement-based composites could also be produced without con-
sidering the micromechanical design approaches for practical ap- Mixture Properties and Sample Preparation
plications either. The mechanical properties of the PVA-reinforced The volumetric ratios of PVA fibers in the mixtures were selected
cement-based materials yield different values than expected under as 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0%. For determining the effect of matrix
static and impact effects. In this experimental study, the behavior strength on mechanical properties of the composite, two different
of 15-mm thick PVA fiber-reinforced cementitious materials with water to cement ratios (w=c ¼ 0.25 and w=c ¼ 0.35) were selected
two different matrix properties were investigated. The influences for matrix mixture design. In this way, eight different mixtures
of fiber volume fraction with different matrix properties on static have been produced. The details of mixture proportions are given
and impact loading test results were obtained. Because the funda- in Table 1. Because no mixtures without PVA fibers were produced
mental object of adding fibers in cementitious materials is to within the context of this research, for the comparison of the impact
and specific flexural energy test results against the mixtures without
improve its ductility and energy absorption capacity, specific
fibers, the results obtained from another study (Bogazkesen 2011)
fracture energies of these composites under static flexural loads
in the same laboratory having similar mixture properties are used.
and impact resistance by means of absorbed energy has been
In that experimental study, water to cementitious material ratios
systematically studied. were selected as 0.20 and 0.35, and no fibers were included in the
mixtures. Properties of these mixtures are given in Table 2. All
mixes were prepared in a 10-L capacity laboratory mixer with ver-
Table 1. Mixture Properties of Cement-Based PVA Composites tical rotation axis by forced mixing. Workability was kept constant.
Depending on the water to cement ratio and PVA fiber content,
PVA fiber a polycarboxylate-based high range water reducer (HRWR) was
Water/
Mixture Cement Water Cement Sand Volume HRWR added to the mixes for satisfactory compaction. Because 8-mm
number kg=m3 kg=m3 Ratio kg=m3 kg=m3 (%) kg=m3 long and 40-μ diameter PVA fiber content has a significant effect
1 1,000 250 0.25 855 26.0 2.0 35 on increasing water demand of mixtures, the amount of HRWR was
2 868 19.5 1.5 35 increased by increasing PVA content in unit volume. After prepar-
3 894 13.0 1.0 30 ing each mixture, fresh mixes were cast into 350 × 600 × 15 mm
4 908 6.5 0.5 25 plate and 70 × 70 × 70 mm cube molds. All specimens were kept
5 350 0.35 695 26.0 2.0 2.5 in their molds for 24 h in the laboratory environment. After de-
6 700 19.5 1.5 2.5 molding, all the samples were stored in lime-saturated water with
7 717 13.0 1.0 2.0 a constant temperature of 23
2°C until the testing days. One day
8 733 6.5 0.5 1.5
before the tests started, 350 × 600 × 15 mm plate samples were cut

Table 2. Mixture Properties of Cementitious Mixtures without PVA Fibers

Water/ PVA fiber
Mixture Cement Ground granulated Water Cement Nano silica HRWR
number kg=m3 blastfurnace slag kg=m3 kg=m3 Ratio Sand kg=m3 kg=m3 Volume (%) kg=m3 kg=m3
9 500 500 200 0.20 1,140 — 0.0 20 10
10 350 0.35 740 — 0.0 1.3
Note: Data from Bogazkesen (2011).

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 using a diamond saw into 350 × 50 × 15 mm dimensions. These Table 3. Average, Standard Deviation, and Covariance Values of Test
beam samples were used for flexural and Charpy impact tests, Results
whereas the cube samples were tested for mixture compression Fiber volume fraction
Water to Coefficient
strength properties.
cement ratio 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% of variation
Compressive strength
Tests Performed Average (MPa) (three samples)
0.25 87.4 78.9 77.8 81.4 −8.06
Compressive strength, flexural behavior, and impact resistance of 0.35 61.9 62.2 70.8 75.0
PVA composites were determined. Specific fracture energies were
also determined by flexure tests. Tests were performed on the 28th Standard deviation (MPa)
day after casting. The tests for the determination of specific fracture 0.25 1.81 0.85 1.48 0.65 —
energy were performed in accordance with the recommendation 0.35 3.15 2.62 3.13 1.23 —
of the RILEM 50-FMC Technical Committee using a closed-loop Flexural strength
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testing machine (Instron 5500R). Flexural properties of PVA fiber- Average (MPa) (five samples)
reinforced cement-based composite samples were determined using 0.25 9.9 9.6 10.5 9.9 −0.02
simple beam four-point loading in which the span length was 0.35 7.7 8.1 8.1 9.7
selected to be 300 mm. The specific fracture energy (W f ) was cal- Standard deviation (MPa)
culated based on the area under the load-deflection curve of the 0.25 1.55 1.24 1.40 0.71 —
specimens. Especially because PVA fiber-reinforced mixtures hav- 0.35 3.08 1.60 1.27 2.00 —
ing higher water to cement ratio and fiber contents higher than 1%
First cracking strength
have shown relatively more ductile behavior compared with the
Average (MPa) (five samples)
other mixtures, flexural tests were finalized when the deflection at 0.25 9.9 8.9 10.1 9.1 −0.09
midpoint had approximately reached 12 mm. The Charpy impact 0.35 7.7 8.0 8.0 8.6
test method was used to obtain the impact resistance of the sample
sand to obtain the effects of PVA fiber content and matrix strength Standard deviation (MPa)
on the impact energy absorption capacity of PVA reinforced 0.25 1.55 2.13 0.78 0.72 —
0.35 3.08 1.65 1.30 1.65 —
cement-based composites. In the Charpy test, the specimens were
supported in test configurations. The machine was the pendulum Specific fracture energy (under static flexural load)
type of Charpy test configuration. The specimens were fractured Average (kN=m) (five samples)
in one blow, and the fracture energy was calculated from the 0.25 0.419 0.754 2.207 2.798 1.46
amplitude of the pendulum swing. The fractured surfaces of the 0.35 0.486 1.131 3.056 4.205
samples were observed and pictured through an SEM to evaluate Standard deviation (MPa)
the failure mode of fibers, which is an important parameter for the 0.25 0.069 0.068 0.194 0.285 —
evaluation of energy absorption. For each property, the average 0.35 0.089 0.247 0.444 0.345 —
values, number of specimens tested, standard deviation, and covari-
Charpy impact energy
ance values are given in Table 3. Average (kN=m) (three samples)
0.25 6.3 6.4 6.6 8.0 2.04
0.35 6.5 7.7 10.8 14.7
Test Results and Discussion Standard deviation (MPa)
0.25 0.76 0.32 0.30 1.01 —
Compressive, flexural, and Charpy impact tests were performed
0.35 0.07 0.23 0.60 0.83 —
on PVA fiber-reinforced cement-based composites. Moreover, the
observations made on the SEM micrographs are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
• For the mixtures having a water to cement ratio of 0.35,
increasing PVA volume fraction has a positive effect on the
Compressive Strength Test Results
compressive strength of composites, i.e., as the PVA volume
Compressive test results obtained from 70 × 70 × 70 mm cube fraction increases, the compressive strength increases. For
samples which were cured in a 23°C lime-saturated water tank these mixtures, the increment in compressive strength by
for 28 days are given in Fig. 1. Each column of the bar graph shown increasing PVA fiber content from 0.5 to 2.0% is significant.
in Fig. 1 represents the compressive strength test results of three The increment is approximately 21%. From Fig. 1, it can be
samples. Based on this figure, the compressive strength values concluded that mixtures having a water to cement ratio of 0.35,
of mixtures varied between approximately 60 and 90 MPa, depend- especially mixtures having PVA fiber volume fractions of
ing on the mixture properties. In general, as expected, the influence higher than 1%, can resist higher compressive loads. Because
of a water to cement ratio effect is evident. As the water to cement the shear forces are generated under uniaxial compression
ratios of mixtures decreases from 0.35 to 0.25, compressive loads, PVA fibers can act as numerous tiny reinforcements
strength increases regardless of the PVA content. However, that against shear forces and hold the shear plains together. As
increment in compressive strength is more pronounced for compo- a consequence, providing good compaction, a PVA volume
sites having less PVA volume fractions. For example, the compres- ratio of 1.5–2% would enhance the compressive strength of
sive strength difference between the 0.5% PVA content mixtures these composites.
having w=c ratios of 0.25 and 0.35 is approximately 41%. On • For mixtures having a water to cement ratio of 0.25,
the other hand, this difference for the 2.0% PVA content mixtures increasing the PVA volume fraction has a negative effect on
is only 9%. This systematic alteration of compressive strength test the compressive strength of composites. For these mixtures,
results is caused by two reasons: as the PVA volume fraction increases from 0.5 to 2.0%, the

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Fig. 1. Compressive tests results
compressive strength decreases approximately 7%. The decre-
ment in compressive strength from 0.5% PVA content mixtures
to 1.0 and 1.5% PVA mixtures are 10 and 11%, respectively.
Decreasing water to cement ratios of mixtures from 0.35 to
0.25 significantly affected the viscosity of the mortar phase.
As a consequence of high viscosity of 0.25 w=c mixtures,
dispersion of PVA fibers in the mortar matrix was not perfect.
Because of that complication, inadequately homogeneous
distribution of PVA fibers probably acted as imperfections,
resulting in the reduction of compressive strength of the
composites.
Flexural Test Results
The first cracking strength and flexural strength of beam samples
are shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. These figures show the
effect of water to cement ratios is as significant as expected. From
Fig. 2, it can be concluded that for a given water to cement ratio, the
amount of the PVA fiber volume fraction has no significant effect
on the first cracking strength of beam samples. The first cracking
strength of different PVA fiber content composites having water to
cement ratios of 0.35 and 0.25 varies between 7.7 and 8.6 MPa, and
9.1 and 10.1 MPa, respectively. Fig. 3 shows that similar conclu-
sions can be drawn for the flexural strength values of beam sam-
ples. The samples having a water to cement ratio of 0.35 and PVA
fiber volume fraction of 2.0%, however, can be separated from that
conclusion. Compared with the lower PVA fiber content mixtures
(0.5, 1.0, and 1.5%) having w=c ratio of 0.35, the flexural strength
of this mixture (PVA content of 2.0%) is increased approximately
Fig. 2. First cracking strength of flexural test samples
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Fig. 3. Flexural strength results of mixtures
20%. No systematic trends can be seen for the flexural strength
values for mixtures having a water to cement ratio of 0.25 (Fig. 3).
The purpose of using fibers in cementitious materials is to make
a transition from brittle to ductile behavior. The measure of this
transition is the energy that is absorbed by the sample during its
loading period. The specific fracture energies (W f ) that were cal-
culated based on the area under the load-deflection curve of the
specimens are given in Fig. 4. Based on this figure, it can be con-
cluded that the effect of the amount of PVA fiber volume fractions
on energy absorption capacity of composites is highly significant.
By increasing PVA fiber content from 0.5 to 2.0%, the specific
fracture energy is increased by approximately 9 and 7 times for
the mixtures having water to cement ratios of 0.35 and 0.25,
respectively. In this study, all the mixtures contain PVA fibers.
To compare the specific fracture energies of these samples with
the samples not containing PVA fibers (plain mixtures), the test
results obtained from another study (Bogazkesen 2011) in the same
laboratory having similar water to cement ratio mixtures are used
(Table 2). In this study, the specific fracture energies of plain mix-
tures are calculated as 125 and 91 N=m for the mixtures having
water to cement ratios of 0.20 and 0.35, respectively. Considering
these results, compared with the plain mixtures, the specific frac-
ture energy can be improved approximately between 20 and
45 times by using PVA fibers, depending on the matrix strength
properties. In Fig. 4, the effect of the water to cement ratio on the
fracture energy is also clearly shown. This effect, however, is not
significant for mixtures having 0.5% PVA fibers. On the other
hand, for mixtures having 1.0% or more PVA fibers, the effect of
Fig. 4. Specific fracture energies of mixtures
 w=c ratios on absorbed energy is more pronounced. One of the
observations that should be highlighted in Fig. 4 is that higher
energies are obtained from mixtures having a water to cement ratio
of 0.35; i.e., for a given PVA fiber volume fraction, the higher
the water to cement ratio, the higher the energy absorbed by the
composite. For lower water to cement ratio mixtures, the matrix
strength is higher. As a result of the improved interfacial character-
istics between the matrix and fibers, fibers tend to rupture instead of
being pulled out from the matrix. This rupture behavior of material
limits the energy absorption capacity of the composite depending
on its matrix properties. On the other hand, Figs. 2 and 3 show
improved interfacial characteristics between the matrix and fibers
in low w=c mixtures increase the flexural and the first cracking
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strengths of mixtures compared with high w=c ratio ones. As a con-
sequence, fiber content and matrix strength should be optimized
in accordance with the desired performance. For higher energy ab-
sorption capacities, the matrix strength should not be so high that
the fibers are allowed to be pulled out from the matrix. Figs. 5 and 6
show the relationships between the load (N) and midspan deflec-
tion of samples having water to cement ratios of 0.25 and 0.35,
Fig. 5. Typical load-deflection curves of mixtures having w=c ratio
of 0.25
Fig. 6. Typical load-deflection curves of mixtures having w=c ratio
of 0.35
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J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1438-1445.
respectively. In each figure, only one representative graph is shown
for each PVA fiber volume fraction ratio. As these figures show, the
peak loads are higher for lower water to cement ratio mixtures;
however, much higher midspan deflections can be reached for
higher water to cement ratio mixtures. From Figs. 5 and 6, the
effect of fiber volume content and matrix strength (w=c) on load-
deflection performance of the composite is clearly shown as well as
in Fig. 4.
Impact Energy Absorption
Fig. 7 shows the relationship between the fiber volume fraction and
absorbed impact energy capacities of composites having water to
cement ratios of 0.25 and 0.35. For a comparison of the results be-
tween the energies absorbed under static loads and impact loads,
specific fracture energies are also inserted into Fig. 7. To compare
the specific fracture energies of these samples with the samples
not containing PVA fibers (plain mixtures), the results obtained by
Bogazkesen (2011) are used. In this study, the absorbed impact
energies of plain mixtures are found to be 5.9 and 5.3 kN=m
for the mixtures having water to cement ratios of 0.20 and 0.35,
respectively. From the point of view of absorbed impact energies,
the effect of the water to cement ratio is a crucial factor. For the
mixtures having a water to cement ratio of 0.25, the effect of PVA
fiber content between 0.5 and 1.5% is insignificant. For these mix-
tures compared with the plain mixtures, the increase in absorbed
impact energy with the use of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0% PVA fibers
are 7, 8, 11, and 36%, respectively. On the other hand, for the mix-
tures having a water to cement ratio of 0.35, compared with its
own plain mixtures, the increment in absorbed impact energy for
the same fiber contents are 23, 45, 104, and 177%, respectively.
In explaining this behavior, similar conclusions can be drawn as
those of the flexural test results. For higher water to cement ratio
mixtures, the matrix strength is lower. As a result of the weaker
interfacial characteristics compared with lower w=c mixtures,
fibers tend to slip out of the matrix instead of rupturing without
absorbing energy. Fig. 7 shows that the effect of matrix strength is
more significant for the absorption of impact energies than the
absorption of specific fracture energy, which is determined under
static flexural loads.
PVA reinforced composites, which are referred to as engineered
cementitious composites (ECC) in literature, have some special
design characteristics. From the point of view of engineering ap-
plications, pseudostrain hardening behavior of these composites is
one of the unique properties that engineers should get the benefit of.
Fig. 7. Comparison of absorbed energies of mixtures under impact and
static flexural loading
 provide lime for fly ash hydration. Consequently, as long as water
demand is satisfied from the external environment, the hydration
of the matrix will continue. As discussed previously, because the
energy absorption capacities of these composites are very sensitive
to the interfacial properties between the matrix and fiber, designers
(a) (b) should also consider the importance of the materials’ mixture prop-
erties. Fig. 7 shows this is more crucial for impact loads.

Observations on Fractured Surfaces

After static and dynamic loading tests, the view of fractured sur-
faces of the samples having water to cement ratios of 0.25 and
(c) (d) 0.35 with a fiber volume fraction of 2.0% are given in Fig. 8. These
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Fig. 8. Photos of 2% PVA fiber composites: (a, c) after flexural test;
(b, d) after Charpy impact test
However, the strain hardening property of these composites is re-
lated to the properties of fiber, matrix, and the interface between
the fiber and matrix. In literature, to optimize the workability and
mechanical characteristics of these composites, high amounts of
fly ash is being used in their mixtures. For high-volume fly ash
mixtures, especially when they are used in external parts of the
buildings where these elements are directly exposed to external
environment, the alteration in matrix strength with time may be
significant. Fly ash requires water and lime to be hydrated. The
amount of cement that is used in these mixtures is enough to
pictures show that the amount of pulled-out fibers are different for
static and impact loading samples. The amount of pulled-out fibers
are much more on the fractured surfaces of impact loaded samples.
This result shows that the failure mechanism of fibers is different
under static and impact loading. The SEM micrographs of fractured
surfaces of 0.5 and 2.0% PVA composite samples after static and
impact loading tests are presented in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively,
for the mixtures having w=c ratio of 0.25 and 0.35. Figs. 9(a and b)
show that when the w=c ratio is 0.25 and the fiber content is 0.5%,
no significant difference can be observed between the fractured
surfaces of the samples after static and dynamic loading tests. This
result can be attributed to the low PVA fiber content of the mixtures.
However, when the fiber content is 2.0% [Figs. 9(c and d)], the
fibers are much more visible and higher in amount for both test
samples. In Fig. 10, on the other hand, the mixtures having a water
to cement ratio of 0.35 can be seen. Comparing this figure with the

Fig. 9. SEM micrographs of fractured surfaces of (a) 0.5% PVA sample after flexural test; (b) 0.5% PVA sample after Charpy impact test;
(c) 2.0% PVA sample after flexural test; (d) 2.0% PVA sample after Charpy impact test. Note: (w=c ¼ 0.25)

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Fig. 10. SEM micrographs of fractured surfaces of (a) 0.5% PVA samples after flexural test; (b) 0.5% PVA samples after Charpy impact test;
(c) 2.0% PVA samples after flexural test; (d) 2.0% PVA samples after Charpy impact test. Note: (w=c ¼ 0.35)

Fig. 11. Higher magnification SEM micrographs of fractured surfaces showing bond failure of fibers of 2.0% PVA mixtures after Charpy impact tests

1444 / JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING © ASCE / OCTOBER 2013

J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2013.25:1438-1445.

 micrographs presented in Fig. 9, the amount and pulled-out lengths
of PVA fibers are considerably higher especially for the mixtures
having PVA fiber content of 2.0%. This result can be attributed to
the weaker interfacial bonding properties between the PVA fibers
and matrix when the w=c ratio is 0.35. In Fig. 11, after Charpy
impact tests, bond failure of PVA fibers under higher magnifica-
tions are presented. In general, it can be concluded that a higher
w=c ratio induces higher energy absorption values especially for
the composites produced with a comparatively higher fiber volume
fraction. The increase in energy absorption could be related to the
amount of total fiber and pulled-out fiber content during loading.
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Conclusions
Within the limits of this experimental work, the following conclud-
ing remarks can be drawn:
• Providing good compaction and dispersion of fibers, increasing
PVA volume fraction has a positive effect on the compressive
strength of composites, i.e., as the PVA volume fraction in-
creases, the compressive strength increases.
• Because the shear forces are generated under uniaxial compres-
sion loads, PVA fibers can act as numerous tiny reinforcements
against shear forces and hold shear plains together.
• For a given water to cement ratio, the amount of PVA fiber
volume fraction has no significant effect on the first cracking
strength of beam samples.
• Compared with the plain mixtures, depending on the matrix
strength properties, the specific fracture energy can be improved
approximately between 20 and 45 times by using 2% volume
fraction ratio PVA fibers.
• Within the limits defined in this study, for a given PVA fiber
volume fraction, the higher the water to cement ratio, the higher
the energy absorbed with static and impact loading by the
composite.
• Fiber content and matrix strength should be optimized in accor-
dance with the desired performance. Under flexural loads,
higher peak loads are reached for lower water to cement ratio
mixtures. On the other hand, higher midspan deflections can be
reached for higher water to cement ratio mixtures.
• The effect of matrix strength is more significant on absorption of
impact energy than specific fracture energy, which is determined
under static loads.
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