Double circulatory system- one in which the blood flows through the heart twice for each circuit

of the body.

Single circulatory system- one in which the blood flows through the heart once for each circuit of
the body.

Transport- the movement of substances such as oxygen, nutrients, hormones, waste and heat
around the body.

The need for a transport system

All living animal cells need a supply of oxygen and nutrients to grow and survive.
● They also need to remove waste products so that these do not build up and become
toxic.
● Very small animals do not need a separate transport system, because all their cells are
surrounded by (or very close to) the environment in which they live.
● In single celled organisms, processes such as diffusion, osmosis, active transport,
endocytosis and exocytosis can supply everything the cell needs to import or export.
● These processes are also important in multicellular organisms, transporting substances
within and between individual cells.
● Diffusion will supply enough oxygen and nutrients to keep the cells alive.
● However, a larger animal with a complex anatomy will have more than 2 layers of cells.
● The distances between the cells and the outside of the body get greater.
● The diffusion distance becomes too long, and diffusion alone will be too slow to supply
all the requirements.

There are 3 main factors that influence the need for a transport system:
● Size
● Surface area to volume ratio
● Level of metabolic activity.

Size

The cells inside a large organism are further from its surface- the diffusion pathway is increased.
● The diffusion rate is reduced, and diffusion is too slow to supply all the requirements.
● Also, the outer layers of cells use up the supplies, so that less will reach the cells deep
inside the body.

Surface area to volume ratio

Small animals have a large surface area to volume ratio.

● The surface area refers to the total area of the organism that is exposed to the external
environment
 ● The volume refers to the total internal volume of the organism (total amount of space
inside the organism)
● As the surface area and volume of an organism increase (and therefore the overall ‘size’
of the organism increases), the surface area: volume ratio decreases
● This is because volume increases much more rapidly than surface area as size
increases
● This means that for each gram of tissue in their body they have a sufficient area of the
body surface through which exchange can occur.
● However, larger animals have a smaller surface area to volume ratio.
● This means that each gram of tissue has a smaller area of body surface for exchange.
● The amount of surface area available to absorb or remove substances becomes
relatively smaller.

Level of metabolic activity

Animals need energy from food, so they can move around.

● Releasing energy from food by aerobic respiration requires oxygen.
● If an animal is very active, its cells need good supplies of nutrients and oxygen to supply
the energy for movement.
● Animals that keep themselves warm, such as mammals, need even more energy.
● The metabolic demands of most multicellular animals are high (they need lots of oxygen
and food, they produce lots of waste products) so diffusion over the long distances is not
enough to supply the quantities needed.

Substances such as hormones or enzymes may be made in one place but needed in another.
● Food will be digested in one organ system, but needs to be transported to every cell for
use in respiration and other aspects of cell metabolism.
● Waste products of metabolism need to be removed from the cells and transported to
excretory organs.

Mass transport systems

● Larger organisms have evolved specialised mass flow transport systems that enable the
efficient transport of nutrients and waste
○ Mass flow is the bulk movement of materials. It is directed movement so involves
some sort of force
● In mass transport systems there is still some diffusion involved but only at specific
exchange sites at the start and end of the route travelled by the substances
○ The lungs are the exchange site of the gas exchange system
● Mass transport systems help to:
○ Bring substances quickly from one exchange site to another
○ Maintain the diffusion gradients at exchange sites and between cells and their
fluid surroundings
○ Ensure effective cell activity by keeping the immediate fluid environment of cells
within a suitable metabolic range
 Types of circulatory systems

Most large, multicellular animals have specialised

circulatory systems (transport systems) which carry gases
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste
products and hormones around the body. Most circulatory
systems have features in common:
● They have a liquid transport medium that
circulates around the system (blood)
● They have vessels that carry the transport
medium.
● They have a pumping mechanism to move the
fluid around the system.
When substances are transported in a mass of fluid with a mechanism for moving the fluid
around the body it is known as a mass transport system.
● Large, multicellular animals usually have either an open circulatory system or a closed
circulatory system.

Single closed circulatory system

Single closed circulatory systems are found in a number of groups including fish and annelid
worms.
● In single circulatory systems the blood flows through the heart and is
pumped out to travel all around the body before returning to the heart.
● The blood travels only once through the heart for each complete
circulation of the body.
● In a single closed circulation, the blood passes through two sets of
capillaries (microscopic blood vessels) before it returns to the heart.
● In the first, it exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide. In the second set
of capillaries, in the different organ systems, substances are
exchanged between the blood and the cells.
● As a result of passing through the two sets of very narrow vessels, the
blood pressure in the system drops considerably so the blood returns
to the heart quite slowly.
● This limits the efficiency of the exchange processes so the activity levels of animals with
single closed circulations tends to be relatively low.
● Fish are something of an exception. They have a relatively efficient single circulatory
system, which means they can be very active.
● They have a countercurrent gaseous exchange mechanism in their gills that allows them
to take a lot of oxygen from the water.
● Their body weight is supported by the water in which they live and they do not maintain
their own body temperature.
 ● This greatly reduces the metabolic demands on their bodies and, combined with their
efficient gaseous exchange, explains how fish can be so active with a single closed
circulatory system.

● Deoxygenated blood is pumped to the gills from the heart

● The gills are the exchange site where oxygen and carbon
dioxide are exchanged with the atmosphere and the blood
● The oxygenated blood flows from the gills to the rest of the body
○ It travels through the capillaries in organs, delivering
oxygen and nutrients
● The blood returns to the heart
● The heart only has one atrium and one ventricle
● The blood takes the following route:
● heart → gills → body → heart

Double closed circulatory systems

Birds and most mammals are very active land animals that maintain their own body
temperature.
● This is made possible in part by their double circulatory system.
● This is the most efficient system for transporting substances around the body.

It involves two separate circulations:

● Blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs to pick up oxygen and unload carbon
dioxide, and then returns to the heart.
● Blood flows through the heart and is pumped out to travel all around the body before
returning to the heart again.

In a double circulatory system, the blood travels twice through the heart for each circuit of the
body.
● Each circuit- to the lungs and to the body- only passes through one capillary network,
which means a relatively high pressure and fast flow of blood can be maintained.

● In mammals the blood passes throught the heart twice during a single circuit of the body
● As a result the mammalian heart has a left side and right side with a wall (septum)
dividing the two
○ The left side contains oxygenated blood and the right side contains
deoxygenated blood
● Blood in the right side of the heart leaves and travels to the lungs
● The blood returns to the left side of the heart before being pumped around the rest of the
body
● Once the blood has passed through all the other organs and tissues it returns to the right
side of the heart
 ○ In general, any blood that has just passed through an
organ goes straight back to the heart, not to another organ
○ The hepatic portal vein is the exception to this rule, it
allows blood from the gut to flow to the liver

● It is believed that a double circulatory system has evolved from the single
circulatory system as there are several benefits to a double circulatory
system
● When blood enters a capillary network the pressure and speed drops significantly
● In a single circulatory system, the blood has to pass through two capillary networks
before returning to the heart
● In a double circulatory system, the blood only passes through one capillary network
before returning to the heart
● As a result, the double circulation maintains higher blood pressure and average speed of
flow
○ This increased pressure and speed helps to maintain a steeper concentration
gradient which allows for the efficient exchange of nutrients and waste with the
surrounding tissues

Open and closed circulatory systems

● Circulatory systems are either open or closed
 ● In a closed circulatory system, blood is pumped around the body and is always
contained within a network of blood vessels
○ All vertebrates and many invertebrates have closed circulatory systems
● In an open circulatory system, blood is not contained within blood vessels but is pumped
directly into body cavities
○ Organisms such as arthropods and molluscs have open circulatory systems.
● Humans have a closed double circulatory system: in one complete circuit of the body
blood passes through the heart (the pump) twice
● The right side of the heart pumps blood deoxygenated blood to the lungs for gas
exchange; this is the pulmonary circulatory system
● Blood then returns to the left side of the heart, so that oxygenated blood can be pumped
efficiently (at high pressure) around the body; this is the systemic circulatory system

Circulatory system in insects

● Insects have one main blood vessel - the dorsal vessel
● The tubular heart in the abdomen pumps haemolymph (this is what blood in insects is
called) into the dorsal vessel
● The dorsal vessel delivers the haemolymph into the haemocoel (body cavity)
● Haemolymph surrounds the organs and eventually reenters the heart via one-way valves
called ostia
● Unlike the blood in a mammals circulatory system, the haemolymph is not specifically
directed towards any organs in an insect
● Insects are able to survive with this less efficient circulatory system because oxygen is
delivered directly to their tissues via tracheae (a system of tubes) that connect directly to
the outside

Open circulatory systems

Many animals, including insects, have an

open circulatory system.
● This means that the blood is not
always held within blood vessels.
● Instead, the blood fluid circulates
through the body cavity, so that the tissues
and cells are bathed directly in blood.
 ● In some animals, movements of the body help to circulate the blood- and without
movement the blood stops moving, so that the transport of oxygen and nutrients stops.

In other animals, such as insects, there is a muscular pumping organ much like a heart.
● The is a long muscular pumping organ much like a heart.
● This is a long muscular tube just under the dorsal (upper) surface of the body.
● Blood from the body enters the heart through pores called ostia.
● The heart then pumps the blood towards the head by peristalsis.
● At the forward end of the heart (nearest the head), the blood simply pours out into the
body cavity.
● This circulation can continue when the insect is at rest, but body movements may still
affect circulation.
Closed circulatory systems

In larger animals the blood stays entirely inside vessels- this

is a closed circulatory system.
● A separate fluid, called tissue fluid bathes the tissues
and cells.
● This has certain advantages over the open system.

Closed circulatory system- one in which the blood is held in

vessels.
Open- one in which the blood is not held in vessels.

Blood vessels

Blood flows through a series of vessels. Each is adapted to its

particular role in relation to its distance from the heart.
● All types of blood vessel have an inner layer or lining,
made of a single layer of cells, called the endothelium.
● This is a thin layer that is particularly smooth in order to reduce friction with the flowing
blood.
Circulation in humans is typical of a mammalian circulatory system.
● There are several different types of blood vessels in the body and
their structural composition is closely related to their function. Some
examples of different components utilised in some blood vessels are:

Arteries

Are vessels that carry blood

away from the heart- to the
tissues of the body.
● The blood is at a high
pressure, so the artery wall
 must be thick in order to withstand that pressure.
● The lumen is relatively small in order to maintain high pressure, and the inner wall is
folded to allow the lumen to expand as blood flow increases.

They carry oxygenated blood except in the

pulmonary artery, which carries deoxygenated
blood from the heart to the lungs, and (during
pregnancy) the umbilical artery, which carries
deoxygenated blood from the foetus to the
placenta.
● The blood in the arteries is under higher
pressure than the blood in the veins.

Structure of arteries

● Artery walls consist of three layers:

tunica adventitia/externa, tunica media
and tunica intima
○ The tunica intima is made up of
an endothelial layer, a layer of
connective tissue and a layer of elastic fibres
■ The endothelium is one cell thick and lines the lumen of all blood vessels.
It is very smooth and reduces friction for free blood flow
● The tunica media is made up of smooth muscle cells and a thick layer of elastic tissue
● Arteries have a thick tunica media
○ The layer of muscle cells strengthen the arteries so they can withstand high
pressure. It also enables them to contract and narrow the lumen for reduced
blood flow
○ The elastic tissue helps to maintain blood pressure in the arteries. It stretches
and recoils to even out any fluctuations in pressure
● The tunica adventitia covers the exterior of the artery and is mostly made up of collagen
○ Collagen is a strong protein protects blood vessels from damage by
over-stretching
● Arteries have a narrow lumen which helps to maintain a high blood pressure
● A pulse is present in arteries

Arterioles

Are small blood vessels that distribute blood from an artery to the capillaries.
● Arteriole walls contain a layer of smooth muscle. Contraction of this muscle will constrict
the diameter of the arteriole.
● This increases resistance to flow and reduces the rate of flow of blood.
 ● Constriction of the arteriole walls can be used to divert the flow of blood to regions of the
body that are demanding more oxygen.
● They have more smooth muscle and less elastin in their walls than arteries, as they have
little pulse surge, but can constrict or dilate to control the flow of blood into individual
organs.
● When the smooth muscle in the arteriole contracts it constricts the vessel and prevents
blood flowing into a capillary bed. This is vasoconstriction.
● When the smooth muscle in the wall of an arteriole relaxes, blood flows through into the
capillary bed. This is vasodilation.

Structure of arterioles
● Arterioles possess a muscular layer that means
they can contract and partially cut off blood flow to specific
organs
○ Eg. During exercise blood flow to the
stomach and intestine is reduced which allows for more
blood to reach the muscles
○ Unlike arteries, arterioles have a lower
proportion of elastic fibres and a large number of muscle
cells
○ The presence of muscle cells allows them
to contract and close their lumen to stop and regulate
blood flow

Capillaries

Are very small vessels with very thin walls.

 ● A large number of capillaries branch
between cells
○ Substances can diffuse between
the blood and cells quickly as there is a short
diffusion distance
○ White blood cells can combat
infection in affected tissues by squeezing
through the intercellular junctions in the capillary
walls

Veins

Are vessels that carry blood back to the heart.

● The blood is at a low pressure and the
walls do not need to be thick.
● They carry blood away from the cells of the body towards the heart and with two
exceptions, they carry deoxygenated blood.
● The pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart, and (during
pregnancy) the umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the foetus.
 ● The lumen of the vein is much larger
than that of an artery
○ A larger lumen helps to ensure
that blood returns to the heart at an adequate
speed
○ A large lumen reduces friction
between the blood and the endothelial layer of
the vein
○ The rate of blood flow is slower
in veins but a larger lumen means the volume
of blood delivered per unit of time is equal
● Veins contain valves
○ These prevent the backflow of
blood, helping return blood to the heart
● A pulse is absent in veins

Structure of venules
● Are small vessels that collect blood from capillaries into the veins.
○ They have few or no elastic fibres and a large lumen
○ As the blood is at low pressure after passing through the capillaries there is no
need for a muscular layer

Blood plasma and tissue fluid

Blood- the fluid used to transport materials around the body.

Blood is the fluid held in our blood vessels. It consists of a liquid

called plasma- the fluid portion of the blood- containing many
blood cells.
● Plasma is largely composed of water (95%) and because
water is a good solvent, many substances can dissolve in it,
allowing them to be transported around the body
● The plasma contains many dissolved substances,
including oxygen, carbon dioxide, minerals, glucose, amino
acids, hormones and the large plasma proteins including albumin (important for
maintaining the osmotic potential of the blood), fibrinogen (important in blood clotting)
and globulins (involved in transport and the immune system).
● The cells include the red blood cells (erythrocytes), various white blood cells (leucocytes)
and fragments called platelets.
● Platelets are fragments of large cells called megakaryocytes found in the red bone
marrow, and they are involved in the clotting mechanism of the blood.
● Tissue fluid is similar to blood plasma. But it does not contain most of the cells found in
blood, and neither does it contain plasma proteins.
● Tissue fluid is formed by plasma leaking from the capillaries.
 ● It surrounds the cells in the tissue, and supplies them with the oxygen and nutrients they
require.
● As blood plasma leaks from the capillary, it carries all the dissolved substances into the
tissue fluid.
● This movement is mass flow rather than diffusion.
● Waste products from cell metabolism will be carried back into the capillary as some of
the tissue returns to the capillary.

Blood is the main transport medium of the human circulatory system.

● The blood also contributes to maintenance of a steady body temperature and acts as a
buffer, minimising pH changes.

The substances dissolved in plasma can pass through the fenestrations in the capillary walls,
with the exception of the large plasma proteins.
● The plasma proteins, particularly albumin, have an osmotic effect. They give the blood in
the capillaries a relatively high solute potential (and so a relatively low water potential)
compared with the surrounding fluid.
● As a result, water has a tendency to move into the blood in the capillaries from the
surrounding fluid by osmosis.
● The tendency of water to move into the blood by osmosis is termed oncotic pressure and
it is about -3.3 kPa.

Tissue fluid formation

Tissue fluid is the fluid surrounding the cells

and tissues.

● How much liquid leaves the plasma to form tissue fluid depends on two opposing forces
○ Hydrostatic pressure
■ This is the pressure exerted by a fluid e.g. blood
○ Oncotic pressure
■ This is the osmotic pressure exerted by plasma proteins within a blood
vessel, it usually pulls water into the circulatory system
● When blood is at the arterial end of a capillary, the hydrostatic pressure is great enough
to force fluid out of the capillary
● Proteins remain in the blood as they are too large to pass through the pores in the
capillary wall
● The increased protein content creates a water potential gradient (osmotic pressure)
between the capillary and the tissue fluid
● The high hydrostatic pressure is greater than the osmotic pressure so the net movement
of water is out of the capillaries into the tissue fluid
● At the venous end of the capillary, the hydrostatic pressure within the capillary is reduced
● The water potential gradient between the capillary and the tissue fluid remains the same
as at the arterial end, so water begins to flow back into the capillary from the tissue fluid
● Overall, more fluid leaves the capillary than returns, leaving tissue fluid behind to bathe
cells
○ Roughly 90% of the fluid lost at the arterial end of the capillary is reabsorbed at
the venous end
○ The other 10% remains as tissue fluid and is eventually collected by lymph
vessels and returned to the circulatory system
● If blood pressure is high (hypertension) then the pressure at the arterial end is even
greater
○ This pushes more fluid out of the capillary and fluid begins to accumulate around
the tissues. This is called oedema

Lymph

Is the fluid held in the lymphatic system, which is a system

of tubes that returns excess tissue fluid to the blood system.
● Some of the tissue fluid does not return to the
capillaries.
● 10% of the liquid that leaves the blood vessels
drains into a system of blind-ended tubes called lymph
capillaries where it is known as a lymph.
● Lymph is similar in composition to plasma and tissue
flood but has less oxygen and fewer nutrients.
● It also contains fatty acids, which have been absorbed into the lymph from the villi of the
small intestine.
Formation of lymph
● Some tissue fluid reenters the capillaries while some enters the lymph capillaries
● The lymph capillaries are separate from the circulatory system
○ They have closed ends and large pores that allow large molecules to pass
through
● Larger molecules that are not able to pass through the capillary wall enter the lymphatic
system as lymph
○ Small valves in the vessel walls are the entry point to the lymphatic system
● The liquid moves along the larger vessels of this system by compression caused by
body movement. Any backflow is prevented by valves
○ This is why people who have been sedentary on planes can experience swollen
lower limbs
● The lymph eventually reenters the bloodstream through veins located close to the heart
● Any plasma proteins that have escaped from the blood are returned to the blood via the
lymph capillaries
○ If plasma proteins were not removed from tissue fluid they could lower the water
potential (of the tissue fluid) and prevent the reabsorption of water into the blood
in the capillaries
● After digestion lipids are transported from the intestines to the bloodstream by the lymph
system

The heart

The mammalian heart is a muscular pump. It is divided into 2 sides.

● The right side pumps the deoxygenated blood to the lungs to be oxygenated.
● The left side pumps the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.
● On both sides, the heart squeezes the blood, putting it under pressure.
● This pressure forces the blood along the arteries through the circulatory system.
 ● It is found in the chest, enclosed by the ribs and sternum.

External features of the heart

In humans, the heart lies just off-centre towards the left of the
chest cavity.
● The main part of the heart consists of firm, dark-red
muscle called cardiac muscle.
● Cardiac muscle- specialised muscle found in the walls
of the heart chambers.
● The cardiac muscle contracts and relaxes in a regular
rhythm. It does not get fatigued and need to rest like
skeletal muscle.
● There are 2 main pumping chambers- the ventricles.
● Above the ventricles there are two thin-walled
chambers- the atria. These are much smaller than the
ventricles.
● Lying over the surface of the heart are the coronary
arteries that supply oxygenated blood to the heart
muscle that it needs to keep contracting and relaxing all the time.
● Restricted blood flow to the heart muscle reduces the delivery of
oxygen and nutrients such as fatty acids and glucose.
● This may cause angina or a heart attack (myocardial infarction).
● At the top of the heart are a number of tubular blood vessels. These
are the veins that carry blood into the atria and the arteries that carry
blood away from the heart.
● The heart is surrounded by inelastic pericardial membranes, which
help prevent the heart from over-distending with blood.

● The left and right sides of

the heart are separated by a wall of muscular tissue,
called the septum.
● The portion of the septum which separates the
left and right atria is called the interatrial septum, while
the portion of the septum which separates the left and
right ventricles is called the interventricular septum
 ● Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium of the heart from the upper body and head in
the superior vena cava, and from the lower body in the inferior vena cava, at relatively
low pressure.
● The atria have thin muscular walls. As the blood flows in, slight pressure builds up until
the atrio-ventricular valve (the tricuspid valve) opens to let blood pass into the right
ventricle.
● When both the atrium and ventricle are filled with blood the atrium contracts, forcing all
the blood into the right ventricle and stretching the ventricle walls.
● As the right ventricle starts to contract, the tricuspid valve closes, preventing any
backflow of blood to the atrium.
● The tendinous cords make sure the valves are not turned inside out by the pressures
exerted when the ventricle contracts.
● The right ventricle contracts fully and pumps deoxygenated blood through the semilunar
valves into the pulmonary artery, which transports it to the capillary beds of the lungs.
● The semilunar valves prevent the backflow of blood into the heart.
● At the same time oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium from the
pulmonary vein. As pressure in the atrium builds the bicuspid valve opens between the
left atrium and the left ventricle so the ventricle also fills with oxygenated blood.
● When both the atrium and ventricle are full the atrium contracts, forcing all the
oxygenated blood into the left ventricle.

The left ventricle then contracts and pumps oxygenated blood through semilunar valves into the
aorta and around the body.
● As the ventricle contracts the tricuspid valve
closes, preventing any backflow of blood.
● The muscular wall of the left side of the heart is
much thicker than that of the right.
● The lungs are relatively close to the heart, and the
lungs are also much smaller than the rest of the
body so the right side of the heart has to pump the
blood a relatively short distance and only has to
overcome the resistance of the pulmonary
circulation.
● The left side has to produce sufficient force to overcome the resistance of the aorta and
the arterial systems of the whole body and move the blood under pressure to all the
extremities of the body.
● The septum is the inner dividing wall of the heart which prevents the mixing of
deoxygenated and oxygenated blood.
● The right and left side of the heart fill and empty together.

Print pg 192 194 kerboodle

 

Cardiac muscle (see Figure 4) consists of fibres that

branch, producing cross-bridges - shown in the centre of
the micrograph.
● These help to spread the stimulus around the heart,
and also ensure that the muscle can produce a squeezing
action rather than a simple reduction in length.
● There are numerous mitochondria between the
muscle fibrils (myofibrils) to supply energy for contraction.
● The muscle cells are separated by intercalated discs
(thick wavy blue line), which facilitate synchronised
contraction.
● Each cell has a nucleus and is divided into
contractile units called sarcomeres (marked by the thin blue
lines).

The cardiac cycle

The sequence of events in one full beat of the heart.

The role of the heart is to create pressure that pushes blood around the blood
vessels.
● The muscular walls of the 4 chambers must all contract in a
coordinated sequence, which allows the heart to fill with blood before
pumping it away.
● This coordinated sequence is known as the cardiac cycle.

The valves ensure that

blood flows in the
correct direction.
● They are
opened and closed by
changes in the blood
pressure in the various
chambers of the heart.
 ● Valves in the heart:
○ Open when
the pressure of blood
behind them is greater
than the pressure in front
of them
○ Close when
the pressure of blood in
front of them is greater
than the pressure behind
them
● The right atrium
and right ventricle are
separated by the
atrioventricular valve,
which is otherwise known
as the tricuspid valve
● The right ventricle
and the pulmonary artery
are separated by the pulmonary valve
● The left atrium and left ventricle are separated by the mitral
valve, which is otherwise known as the bicuspid valve
● The left ventricle and aorta are separated by the aortic valve
● There are two blood vessels bringing blood to the heart; the vena cava and pulmonary
vein
● There are two blood vessels taking blood away from the heart; the pulmonary artery and
aorta
● The contraction of the muscles in the wall of
the heart reduces the volume of the heart chambers
and increases the pressure of the blood within that
chamber
● When the pressure within a chamber/vessel
exceeds that in the next chamber/vessel the valves
are forced open and the blood moves through
● When the muscles in the wall of the heart
relax they recoil which increases the volume of the chamber/vessel
and decreases the pressure so that the valves close

Analysing the cardiac cycle

● There are several key points to keep in mind when analysing
the cardiac cycle
● The curves on the graph represent the pressure of the left
atria, aorta and the left ventricle
 ● The points at which the curves cross each other are
important because they indicate when valves open and close

Point A - both left atrium and left ventricle are relaxed

● Pressure sits at roughly 0 kPa

Between points A and B - atrial systole

● Left atria contracts and empties blood into the left
ventricle

Point B - beginning of the ventricular systole

● Left ventricular pressure increases
● AV valve shuts
● Pressure in the left atria drops as the left atrium expands

Point C - pressure in the left ventricle exceeds that in the aorta

● Aortic valve opens
● Blood enters the aorta

Point D - diastole
● Left ventricle has been emptied of blood
● Muscles in the walls of the left ventricle relax and pressure falls below that in aorta
● Aortic valve closes
● AV valve opens

Point E - expansion of the left ventricle

● There is a short period of time during which the left ventricle expands
● This increases the internal volume of the left ventricle which decreases the pressure


Pressure in the blood vessels

Blood enters the aorta and pulmonary artery in a rapid spurt,

but the tissues require blood to be delivered in an even flow (fig4.)
● The structure of the artery walls plays a large part in creating a
more even flow:


The need for coordination

Heart muscle or cardiac muscle

is unusual in that it can initiate its
own contraction
● Because of this property,
the heart muscle is
described as myogenic.
● The muscle will contract
and relax rhythmically
even if it is not connected
to the body.
● The muscles from the atria and the muscles from the ventricles each have their own
natural frequency of contraction.
● The atrial muscle tends to contract at a higher frequency than the ventricular muscle.
● This property of the muscle could cause inefficient pumping if the contractions of the
chambers are not synchronised - a condition known as fibrillation.
● So the heart needs a mechanism that can coordinate the contractions of all four
chambers.

Initiation and control of the heartbeat

At the top of the right atrium, near the point where the vena cava empties blood into the atrium,
is the sino-atrial node (SAN).
● This is a small patch of tissue that generates electrical activity.
● The SAN initiates a wave of excitation at regular intervals.
● In a human, this occurs 55-80 times a minute.
● The SAN is also known as the pacemaker.
● Control of the basic heartbeat is myogenic, which
means the heart will beat without any external
stimulus
● This intrinsic rhythm means the heart beats at
around 60 times per minute
● The sinoatrial node (SAN) is a group of cells in
the wall of the right atrium. The SAN initiates a
wave of depolarisation that causes the atria to
contract
● The Annulus fibrosus is a region of
non-conducting tissue which prevents the
depolarisation spreading straight to the ventricles
○ Instead, the depolarisation is carried to the atrioventricular node (AVN)
○ This is a region of conducting tissue between atria and ventricles
● After a slight delay, the AVN is stimulated and passes the stimulation along the bundle of
His
○ This delay means that the ventricles contract after the atria
● The bundle of His is a collection of conducting tissue in the septum (middle) of the heart.
The bundle of His divides into two conducting fibres, called Purkyne tissue, and carries
the wave of excitation along them
● The Purkyne fibres spread around the ventricles and initiate the depolarization of the
ventricles from the apex (bottom) of the heart
● This makes the ventricles contract and blood is forced out of the pulmonary artery and
aorta
The Sinoatrial node sends out a wave of excitation and this spreads across both atria, causing
atrial systole.
● Non-conducting tissue called the Annulus fibrosus prevents the excitation from
spreading to the ventricles and so this ensures that atria and ventricles don’t contract at
the same time.
● The Atrioventricular node then sends the wave of excitation to the ventricles after a short
delay of around 0.1 - 0.2 seconds, ensuring that the atria have time to empty their blood
into the ventricles.
● The Purkyne fibres conduct the excitation down the septum of the heart and to the apex,
before the excitation is carried upwards in the walls of the ventricles.
● This means that during ventricular systole, the blood contracts from its base and blood is
pushed upwards and outwards.

●  radycardia: a slow heart rhythm.

b
● ectopic heartbeat: an extra beat or an early beat of the ventricles.
● electrocardiogram: a trace that records the electrical activity of the heart.
● fibrillation: uncoordinated contraction of the atria and ventricles.
● myogenic muscle: muscle that can initiate its own contraction.
● Purkyne tissue: consists of specially adapted muscle fibres that conduct the wave of
excitation from the AVN down the septum to the ventricles.
● sino-atrial node (SAN): the heart's pacemaker. It is a small patch of tissue that sends out
waves of electrical excitation at regular intervals in order to initiate contractions.
● tachycardia: a rapid heart rhythm.

 ou can measure the spread of electrical excitation through

Y
the heart as a way of recording what happens as it contracts.
● This recording of the electrical activity of the heart is
called an electrocardiogram (ECG).
● An ECG doesn't directly measure the electrical
activity of your heart.
● It measures tiny electrical differences in your skin,
which result from the electrical activity of the heart.
● To pick up these tiny changes, electrodes are stuck
painlessly to clean skin to get the good contacts needed for
reliable results.
● The signal from each of the electrodes is fed into the
machine, which produces an ECG.
● ECGs are used to help diagnose heart problems.
● For example, if someone is having a heart attack,
recognisable changes take place in the electrical activity of
their heart, which can be used to diagnose the problem and
treat it correctly and fast.
 ● The P wave
○ Caused by the depolarisation of the atria, which results in
atrial contraction (systole)
● The QRS complex
○ Caused by the depolarisation of the ventricles, which
results in ventricular contraction (systole)
○ This is the largest wave because the ventricles have the
largest muscle mass
● The T wave
○ Caused by the repolarisation of the ventricles, which
results in ventricular relaxation (diastole)
● The U wave
○ Scientists are still uncertain of the cause of the U wave, some think it is caused
by the repolarisation of the Purkyne fibres

Cardiac output

● Cardiac output (CO) is the term used to describe the volume of

blood that is pumped by the heart (the left and right ventricle) per
unit of time
● An average adult has a cardiac output of roughly 4.7 litres of
blood per minute when at rest
● Individuals who are fitter often have higher cardiac outputs due to
having thicker and stronger ventricular muscles in their hearts
● Cardiac output increases when an individual is exercising
○ This is so that the blood supply can match the increased
metabolic demands of the cells
● The CO of an individual can be calculated using their heart rate
and stroke volume
● Heart rate is the number of times a heart beats per minute
○ This can also be described as the number of cardiac cycles per minute
● Stroke volume is the volume of blood pumped out of the left ventricle during one cardiac
cycle

Calculating cardiac output

● Cardiac output is found by multiplying the heart rate by the stroke volume:
Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume
● The equation can be rearranged to find the heart rate and stroke volume if required
○ Heart rate = cardiac output ÷ stroke volume
○ Stroke volume = cardiac output ÷ heart rate
Transport of oxygen

Affinity- a strong attraction

Dissociation- means releasing the oxygen from the oxyhaemoglobin

Haemoglobin

Oxygen is transported in the red blood cells (erythrocytes).

● These cells contain the protein haemoglobin.
● When haemoglobin takes up oxygen, it becomes
oxyhaemoglobin.
Haemoglobin + oxygen → oxyhaemoglobin
● Haemoglobin is a complex protein with four subunits.
● Each subunit consists of a polypeptide chain and a haem
(non-protein) group.
● The haem group contains a single iron ion in the form of
Fe2+.
● This iron ion can attract and hold an oxygen molecule.
● The haem group is said to have a high affinity (attraction)
for oxygen.
● As each haem group can hold one oxygen molecule,
each haemoglobin molecule can carry four oxygen molecules.
● It has been calculated that there are about 280 million molecules of haemoglobin in each
red blood cell - so a red blood cell can carry over a billion oxygen molecules.
● The binding of the first oxygen molecule results in a conformational change in the
structure of the haemoglobin molecule, making it easier for each successive oxygen
molecule to bind; this is cooperative binding
● The reverse of this process happens when oxygen dissociates in the tissues

Erythrocytes have a biconcave shape.
● This shape has a larger surface area than a simple disc structure or a sphere, increasing
the surface area available for diffusion of gases.
● It also helps them to pass through narrow capillaries.
● In adults, erythrocytes are formed continuously in the red bone marrow.
● By the time mature erythrocytes enter the circulation they have lost their nuclei, which
maximises the amount of haemoglobin that fits into the cells.
● It also limits their life, so they only last for about 120 days in the bloodstream.

Transport of oxygen

Oxygen is absorbed into the blood as it passes the alveoli in the lungs.
● Oxygen molecules diffusing into the blood plasma enter the red blood cells.
● Here they become associated with the haemoglobin.
● This means that the oxygen binds reversibly to the haemoglobin (see Figure 1).
 ● This takes the oxygen molecules out of solution and so maintains a steep concentration
gradient, allowing more oxygen to enter the blood from the lungs and diffuse into the
cells.
● The blood carries the oxygen from the lungs back to the heart, before travelling around
the body to supply the tissues. In the body tissues, cells need oxygen for aerobic
respiration.
● Therefore the oxyhaemoglobin must be able to release the oxygen. This is called
dissociation.

Carrying oxygen

When the erythrocytes enter the capillaries in the lungs, the oxygen levels in the cells are
relatively low.
● This makes a steep concentration gradient between the inside of the erythrocytes and
the air in the alveoli.
● Oxygen moves into the erythrocytes and binds with the haemoglobin.
● The arrangement of the haemoglobin molecule means that as soon as one oxygen
molecule binds to a haem group, the molecule changes shape, making it easier for the
next oxygen molecules to bind.
● This is known as positive cooperativity. Because the oxygen is bound to the
haemoglobin, the free oxygen concentration in the erythrocyte stays low, so a steep
diffusion gradient is maintained until all of the haemoglobin is saturated with oxygen.
● When the blood reaches the body tissues, the situation is reversed.
● The concentration of oxygen in the cytoplasm of the body cells is lower than in the
erythrocytes.
● As a result, oxygen moves out of the erythrocytes down a concentration gradient.
● Once the first oxygen molecule is released by the haemoglobin, the molecule again
changes shape and it becomes easier to remove the remaining oxygen molecules.
When you are not very active, only about 25% of the oxygen carried in your erythrocytes is
released into your body cells.
● The rest acts as a reservoir for when the demands of the body increase suddenly.

● The oxygen dissociation curve shows the rate at

which oxygen associates, and also dissociates,
with haemoglobin at different partial pressures of
oxygen (pO2)

○ Partial pressure of oxygen refers to the pressure exerted by oxygen within a

mixture of gases; it is a measure of oxygen concentration
○ Haemoglobin is referred to as being saturated when all of its oxygen binding sites
are taken up with oxygen; so when it contains four oxygen molecules
 ● The ease with which haemoglobin binds and dissociates with oxygen can be described
as its affinity for oxygen
○ When haemoglobin has a high affinity it binds easily and dissociates slowly
○ When haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen it binds slowly and dissociates
easily
● In other liquids, such as water, we would expect oxygen to becomes associated with
water, or to dissolve, at a constant rate, providing a straight line on a graph, but with
haemoglobin oxygen binds at different rates as the pO2 changes; hence the resulting
curve
○ It can be said that haemoglobin's affinity for oxygen changes at different partial
pressures of oxygen

Explaining the shape of the curve

● The curved shape of the oxygen dissociation curve for haemoglobin can be explained as
follows
○ Due to the shape of the haemoglobin molecule it is difficult for the first oxygen
molecule to bind to haemoglobin; this means that binding of the first oxygen
occurs slowly, explaining the relatively shallow curve at the bottom left corner of
the graph
○ After the first oxygen molecule binds to haemoglobin, the haemoglobin protein
changes shape, or conformation, making it easier for the next haemoglobin
molecules to bind; this speeds up binding of the remaining oxygen molecules and
explains the steeper part of the curve in the middle of the graph
■ The shape change of haemoglobin leading to easier oxygen binding is
known as cooperative binding
○ As the haemoglobin molecule approaches saturation it takes longer for the fourth
oxygen molecule to bind due to the shortage of remaining binding sites,
explaining the levelling off of the curve in the top right corner of the graph

Interpreting the curve

● When the curve is read from left to right, it provides information about the rate at which
haemoglobin binds to oxygen at different partial pressures of oxygen
○ At low pO2, in the bottom left corner of the graph, oxygen binds slowly to
haemoglobin; this means that haemoglobin cannot pick up oxygen and become
saturated as blood passes through the body's oxygen-depleted tissues
■ Haemoglobin has a low affinity for oxygen at low pO2, so saturation
percentage is low
○ At medium pO2, in the central region of the graph, oxygen binds more easily to
haemoglobin and saturation increases quickly; at this point on the graph a small
increase in pO2 causes a large increase in haemoglobin saturation
○ At high pO2, in the top right corner of the graph, oxygen binds easily to
haemoglobin; this means that haemoglobin can pick up oxygen and become
saturated as blood passes through the lungs
 ■ Haemoglobin has a high affinity for oxygen at high pO2, so saturation
percentage is high
■ Note that at this point on the graph increasing the pO2 by a large amount
only has a small effect on the percentage saturation of haemoglobin; this
is because most oxygen binding sites on haemoglobin are already
occupied
● When read from right to left, the curve provides information about the rate at which
haemoglobin dissociates with oxygen at different partial pressures of oxygen
○ In the lungs, where pO2 is high, there is very little dissociation of oxygen from
haemoglobin
○ At medium pO2, oxygen dissociates readily from haemoglobin, as shown by the
steep region of the curve; this region corresponds with the partial pressures of
oxygen present in the respiring tissues of the body, so ready release of oxygen is
important for cellular respiration
■ At this point on the graph a small decrease in pO2 causes a large
decrease in percentage saturation of haemoglobin, leading to easy
release of plenty of oxygen to the cells
○ At low pO2 dissociation slows again; there are few oxygen molecules left on the
binding sites, and the release of the final oxygen molecule becomes more
difficult, in a similar way to the slow binding of the first oxygen molecule

Effects of altitude
● The partial pressure of oxygen is lower at higher altitudes
● Species living at high altitudes have haemoglobin that is adapted to these conditions
● For example, llamas have haemoglobin that binds very readily to oxygen
● This is beneficial as it allows them to obtain a sufficient level of oxygen saturation in their
blood when the partial pressure of oxygen in the air is low

Fetal haemoglobin

Fetal haemoglobin is slightly different from adult haemoglobin

● Fetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult haemoglobin.
● If the blood of the fetus had the same affinity for oxygen asthe blood of the mother, then
little or no oxygen would be transferred to the blood of the fetus.
● Therefore, the haemoglobin dissociation curve for fetal haemoglobin is to the left of the
curve for adult haemoglobin.
● This is because fetal haemoglobin must be able to associate with oxygen in an
environment where the oxygen tension is low enough to make adult haemoglobin
release oxygen.
● In the placenta, where the oxygen tension is low, fetal haemoglobin will absorb oxygen
from the surrounding fluid.
● This reduces the oxygen tension even further. As a result, oxygen diffuses from the
mother's blood fluid into the placenta.
 ● This reduces the oxygen tension within the mother's blood, which, in turn, makes the
maternal haemoglobin release more oxygen (dissociation).

Transporting carbon dioxide

In the blood plasma this

reaction happens slowly.
● However, in the
cytoplasm of the red blood
cells there are high levels of
the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase.
● This enzyme
catalyses the reversible
reaction between carbon
dioxide and water to form
carbonic acid.
● The carbonic acid
then dissociates to form
hydrogen carbonate ions
and hydrogen ions.

 he negatively charged hydrogen carbonate ions

T
move out of the erythrocytes into the plasma by
diffusion down a concentration gradient and
negatively charged chloride ions move into the
erythrocytes, which maintains the electrical balance
of the cell. This is known as the chloride shift.

The effect of increasing

carbon dioxide
concentration

Blood entering respiring

tissues carries oxygen as
oxyhaemoglobin.
● The partial
pressure of oxygen in the
respiring tissues is lower
 than that in the lungs, because oxygen has been used in respiration.
● As a result, the oxyhaemoglobin begins to dissociate and releases oxygen to the tissues.
● This means that the haemoglobin is available to take up the hydrogen ions, forming
haemoglobinic acid.
● Where the tissues are very active there is more carbon dioxide released.
● This has a dramatic effect on the haemoglobin.

Formation of hydrogen carbonate ions

● Carbon dioxide diffuses from the plasma into red
blood cells
● Inside red blood cells carbon dioxide combines
with water to form H2CO3
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3
○ Red blood cells contain the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase which catalyses the reaction
between carbon dioxide and water
○ Without carbonic anhydrase this
reaction proceeds very slowly
○ The plasma contains very little carbonic
anhydrase hence H2CO3 forms more slowly in plasma
than in the cytoplasm of red blood cells
​ Carbonic acid dissociates readily into H+ and
HCO3- ions
H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3– + H+
● Hydrogen ions can combine with haemoglobin,
forming haemoglobinic acid and preventing the H+ ions
from lowering the pH of the red blood cell
○ Haemoglobin is said to act as a buffer in
this situation
● The hydrogen carbonate ions diffuse out of the
red blood cell into the blood plasma where they are
transported in solution

The Chloride shift

● The chloride shift is the movement of chloride
ions into red blood cells that occurs when hydrogen
carbonate ions are formed
● Hydrogen carbobate ions are formed by the
following process
○ Carbon dioxide diffuses into red blood cells
○ The enzyme carbonic anhydrase catalyses the combining of carbon dioxide and
water to form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
CO2 + H2O ⇌ H2CO3
 ○ Carbonic acid dissociates to form hydrogen carbonate ions and hydrogen ions
H2CO3 ⇌ HCO3- + H+

● Negatively charged hydrogencarbonate ions formed from the dissociation of carbonic

acid are transported out of red blood cells via a transport protein in the membrane
● To prevent an electrical imbalance, negatively charged chloride ions are transported into
the red blood cells via the same transport protein
○ If this did not occur then red blood cells would become positively charged as a
result of a buildup of hydrogen ions formed from the dissociation of carbonic acid