PART 1: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 4. Genetics is the study of genes and heredity. e.
cs is the study of genes and heredity. e.
What is Physics?
Physics is the scientific study of physical phenomena like
the motion of matter, energy, and force. It helps us to understand
the world around us. Physics is the most fundamental part of
science. It studies objects ranging from the very small using
quantum mechanics to the entire universe using general
relativity.
Phenomenon
Something that is observed to occur or to exist. It is
simply a fact or event that can be observed with the senses,
either directly or using equipment such as microscopes or
telescopes.
Natural science
Deal with the understanding and description of nature. It
is divided into biological and physical sciences.
Biological sciences
Deal with the study of living things whereas physical
sciences deal with the study of nonliving things.
1. Botany is the study of plants.
2. Zoology is the study of animals.
3. Cytology is the study of cells.
Optics is the study of the nature and behavior of light and
5. Morphology is the study of forms and structures of organisms. its passage through different media.
6. Physiology deals with the functions and activities of living f. Nuclear physics deals with the study of x-rays,
matter and of the physical and chemical phenomena involved. radioactivity, energy of nuclear particles, fission, and fusion.
7. Taxonomy is the study of classifications of living things.
8. Anatomy is a branch of morphology that deals with the Some facts about Physics
structure of organisms • Physics as a science originated as the study of natural
9. Embryology deals with embryos and their philosophy. It attempted to explain and describe nature.
development. The growth of physics as an experimental science was
10. Ornithology is a branch of zoology dealing with birds. considered to have started from the time of Galileo who
11. Parasitology deals with parasites and parasitism was called the father of experimental physics.
especially among animals. • Physics is often defined as the science of energy and
12. Microbiology deals especially with microscopic forms of matter. Energy and matter are so universal, that perhaps,
life. there is nothing that cannot be related to either energy
13. Ichthyology is a branch of zoology that deals with fishes. or matter.
14. Entomology is a branch of zoology that deals with
• Physics has a close relation with chemistry. To mention a
insects.
few, the laws of matter, energy or electricity are common
to both physics and chemistry.
Physical sciences
• Mathematics is a tool of physics. It is the language of
Deal with the study of nonliving things. Under physical
physics. It provides the argument, it states the
sciences are chemistry and physics.
conclusions, and it inspires many ideas.
1. Chemistry is the study of matter, its composition, the
• The practical value of physics is seen in engineering and
changes it undergoes, and the energy involved in its changes.
technology. Engineering and technology are applied
2. Physics the study of force, matter, and energy. It deals
physics.
with mechanics, heat, electromagnetism, wave motion, optics,
and nuclear physics. Under physics are mechanics, heat,
electromagnetism, wave motion, optics, and nuclear physics, to
name a few.
a. Mechanics refers to motion of objects and to the forces
acting upon objects that tend to cause or prevent motion.
b. Heat is concerned with the study of temperature and its
effect on the properties of matter.
c. Electromagnetism is the study of electricity and
magnetism which include electric and magnetic fields and their
interactions, the motion of electric charges through conductors,
and simple electric circuits.
d. Wave motion involves the transfer of energy by means of
a periodic disturbance through a medium.

PART 2: FUNADAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Experimental Science, Laws & Theories
Physics is an experimental science. It is a body of systematized
knowledge and developed according to the procedures of
scientific method.
Major Contributors in Physics:
1. Rutherford inferred the presence of nucleus as a dense mass
with positive charge and that the atom is made up mostly of
space.
2. Becquerel discovered the presence of radioactivity as
invisible energy from a radioactive uranium ore.
Radioactivity affects or exposes photographic
films.
3. Madame Curie discovered uranium used for
cancer therapy.
4. Pierre Curie assisted Madame Curie in studying
polonium.
5. Albert Einstein formulated the Theory of Relativity through
the famous equation E = mc2 where E is the amount of
energy expressed in ergs or gram centimeter^2/sec^2; m is
the amount of matter or mass expressed in grams; and c is a
constant equal to the velocity of light equal to 3.00 x 1010
cm/sec.
6. Benjamin Franklin described static electricity from lightning
to ground.
7. Charles Coulomb described the force between two charged
bodies as proportional to the product of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them, that its, Force = (kq1 q2)/D2 where force is in Newton,
charge q is in coulomb; distance D is in meters; and
electrostatic constant k is equal to 9.00 x 109
N-m2/coulomb2.
8. Alessandro Volta invented the first practical source of steady
current.
9. George Simon Ohm showed the relationship between
voltage, resistance and current. Ohm’s law states that the
potential difference across a resistor is equal to the product
of the current in it and its resistance.
10. Hans Christian Oersted showed how a current carrying wire
produced a magnetic field. It became the basis for producing
electromagnets.
11. Michael Faraday discovered the conversion of mechanical
energy to electrical energy.
12. Heinrich Lenz determined the direction of the induced
current.
13. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the Laws of Motion.
a First Law of Motion or Law of Inertia. An object is set to
motion if an outside force is applied and will continue
moving
unless an
outside
force is
applied to
it. Friction
due to the ground’s surface and the particles in the air
may account for force that will eventually allow a moving
object to stop.
b Second Law of Motion. Acceleration is directly
proportional to the net force acting on the body and
inversely proportional to its mass. c Third Law of Motion
or Law of Interaction. For every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction. This paved way to the invention of
jet propulsion, and rocket launching.
14. Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.
15. Heinrich Hertz explained the frequency of waves between
transmitter and receiver. Kilohertz defines the frequency of
radio waves.
16. James Clerk Maxwell explained electromagnetic waves.
17. Thomas Alva Edison invented the incandescent bulb.
Physics is a study of laws and theories that explain the structure
of the universe with reference to matter and energy of which it
consists of.
1. A LAW is a statement of what occurs in nature as found
by observation and experiment to be true. Examples are the (a)
Laws of Motion and the (b) Law of Gravity by Sir Isaac Newton.
2. A THEORY is an organized body of ideas as to the truth of
something usually derived from the study of several facts relating
to it but sometimes entirely a result of exercising the speculative
imagination. Examples are (a) the Theory of Relativity by Albert
Einstein and (b) Theory of Evolution by Charles Darwin.
A THEORY is a model that attempts to explain why or how
something happens.
A LAW simply describes what happens without attempting to
provide an explanation. Theories and laws can both be used to
predict the outcomes of related experiments.
(For example, the Law of Gravity states that objects attract other
objects based on their masses and distances from each other. It is
a law and not a theory because the Law of Gravity does not
explain why masses attract each other.)
Atomic Theory states that matter is made of atoms, and that
those atoms are themselves made up of smaller particles. The
interactions between the particles that make up the atoms
(particularly the electrons) are used to explain certain properties
of the substances. This is a theory because it explains why the
substances have the properties that they do.
In science, a theory is a model that:
• has never failed to explain a collection of related
observations.
• has never failed to successfully predict the outcomes of
related experiments.
For example, the theory of evolution has never failed to explain
the process of changes in organisms caused by factors that affect
the survivability of the species.

If a repeatable experiment contradicts a theory, and the
experiment passes the peer review process, the theory is deemed
to be wrong. If the theory is wrong, it must either be modified to
explain the new results or discarded completely.
Empirical means “making use of, or based on,
experience, trial and error, or experiment.”
How a Natural Phenomenon Becomes a Law
Once a certain phenomenon (meaning observable fact,
trend, or event) is observed, data are collected and analyzed and
from these a theory is formulated. The theory is verified by
experiment, tested, and retested. When the results of the tests
confirm the theory, then the theory ceases to be a theory, and it
becomes a law, a law of nature. This law is expressed symbolically
and is therefore amenable to the methods of mathematics.
Physics, therefore, leans on mathematics as its fundamental tool.
Sometimes, the results of experiments contradict the theory, so
the theory needs a revision to suit the results of the experiments.
PART 3: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Force, Matter, and Energy
Physics is the study of force, matter, and energy.
FORCE is a push or pull that can change the speed, direction of
motion, size, and shape of an object. (Example is striking a ball
with a bat, applying the brakes to make a car stop, pushing to
make a cart move,
and shaping a ball of clay.)
The FOUR BASIC FORCES IN NATURE:
a. Gravitational force is the force that attracts bodies
toward each other.
b. Electromagnetic forces are the forces of attraction and
repulsion of objects on one another.
c. Strong nuclear forces are the forces that bind protons
and neutrons together in the nucleus.
d. Weak nuclear forces are the forces that hold electrons,
neutrons, and other fundamental particles together.
The following are terms significantly related to the discussion of
force:
1. Motion is the change in position of a particular object
with respect to a reference object.
2. Gravity is the pull upon objects towards the center of the
earth.
3. Weight is the measure of the earth’s gravitational pull
upon an object.
4. Magnet is an object that attracts iron and some other
materials. It has north and south poles. Unlike poles attract each
other while like poles repel each other. The earth is a huge
magnet.
5. Compass is a device wherein its magnetic pointer is
attracted towards the poles.
6. Nuclear force is the force of attraction between electrons
and protons which accounts for the chemical reactions to take
place. Nuclear force is also due to expulsion or removal of
neutron from the nucleus thru bombardment of the nucleus
causing tremendous amount of energy to be released in the
atomic bomb.
7. Pressure is the amount of force exerted in a given area. a
Moving particles in the air create air pressure.
b Due to gravity, there are lesser particles in higher places;
hence there is a lower pressure in high places.
c Compressing air to occupy a smaller volume increases the
pressure exerted on the sides of the container.
10. Friction prevents the motion of bodies in contact with each
other. Smooth surfaces offer less friction than rough surfaces.
Thus, oil makes the surface of machines smooth for easy
operation.
MATTER is anything that has mass and occupies space.
The PHYSICAL PHASES OF MATTER are the physical states in
which matter occurs.
a. Solid matter has definite shape and volume; and the
particles are compact or rigid.
b. Liquid matter has indefinite shape but definite volume;
the particles are somewhat far from each other; and it
takes on the shape of container.
c. Gaseous matter has neither definite shape nor volume;
particles are very far apart; and take on the shape of
container.
d. Plasma is a hot ionized gas consisting of approximately
equal numbers of positively charged ions and negatively
charged electrons. The characteristics of plasmas are
significantly different from those of ordinary neutral
gases so that plasmas are considered a distinct "fourth
state of matter."
(Examples of forms of plasma include examples of forms of
plasma: lightning, aurorae, the excited lowpressure gas inside
neon signs and fluorescent lights, solar wind, welding arcs, the
Earth's ionosphere, stars (including the Sun), the tail of a comet,
interstellar gas
clouds, and a fireball of a nuclear explosion.)
THE PROPERTIES OF MATTER can either be extrinsic (can be
seen) or intrinsic (intangible) which include:
1. INERTIA OF AN OBJECT is the tendency of the object to resist
any change in its motion. It provides a way of defining mass.
The greater the mass of an object, the greater its tendency to
keep at a constant velocity, and
2. Therefore, MASS is often defined as the quantitative measure
of the inertia of an object. Simply defined, mass is the amount
of matter in a material.
3. VOLUME is the space occupied by the material.
a. The volume of a regular solid may be determined by
multiplying its length, width, and height.
 b. The volume of an irregular solid may be determined by
liquid displacement, as long as the solid does not dissolve
nor float in the given liquid.
4. DENSITY is the ratio of mass by volume.
5. BOILING POINT is an intrinsic property for liquid to become
gas at a certain temperature.
6. FREEZING POINT is an intrinsic property for liquids to solidify
at a certain temperature.
7. MELTING POINT is an intrinsic property for a solid to melt or
change to liquid at a given temperature.
8. CAPILLARITY is the tendency of liquid to rise in thin tubes.
9. ADHESION is that of unlike molecules attracting each other.
Example is chalk on black board and water on sides of a
container.
10. COHESION is that of like molecules attracting each other.
Example is the spherical shape of a drop of water and a
globule of liquid mercury.
11. POROSITY is the property of having many air spaces.
12. ELASTICITY is the ability to return to its original shape after
the stress is removed.
13. COMPRESSIBILITY is the ability of a gas to occupy a smaller
volume.
14. SURFACE TENSION is the force of attraction of molecules on
the surface.
15. CONDUCTIVITY is the property that allows energy like heat
and electricity to pass through.
16. DISSOLUBILITY (usually termed solubility) is the ability of a
solid to dissolve into a solution.
ENERGY is the capacity or ability to do work. It is a scalar quantity
with dimensions mass x length2 / time2 and possesses the
properties of mass according to the Theory of Relativity thru E =
mc2.
FORMS OF ENERGY
1. Mechanical energy is the energy of bodies while in motion or
at rest.
a. Kinetic energy is the energy of moving bodies. Example is
the water in the waterfalls.
b. Potential energy is the energy of a body due to its
position or shape.
I. Gravitational potential energy is the energy an
object has because of its vertical separation from
the earth’s surface. Example is the energy of the
book on the table.
II. Elastic potential energy is the energy stored in a
stretched or compressed spring.
III. Electric potential energy is the energy possessed
by electrons inside an atom.
2. Internal energy consists of:
a. Random kinetic energy of atoms and molecules, and
b. Chemical energy due to bonds and interactions between
atoms and molecules.
3. Chemical energy is the energy involved in chemical reactions.
4. Electrical energy is the flow of electrons through a conductor.
5. Electromagnetic energy is the energy of light waves, x-ray,
infrared, ultraviolet rays, and radio waves.
6. Sound energy is produced by vibrating bodies.
7. Nuclear energy is the energy caused by the movement of
neutron in and out of the nucleus. Energy transformation is a
process in which energy changes from one form to another.
FORMS OF ENERGY TRANSFER
1. Conduction is whereby energy passes through a
conductor. However, non-conductors (insulators) do not allow
energy to pass through. a Electricity passes through wires.
b Thermal energy passes through a metallic spoon.
c Rubber does not allow electricity to pass through.
2. Convection is the flow of energy in liquid or gas currents.
Warm air or liquid rises while cold air or liquid goes down. a Cool
air from the freezer moves down to cool the lower parts.
3. Radiation is whereby energy of rays moves through
space.
a. roasting
b. sunlight
SOURCES OF ENERGY
1. CONVENTIONAL SOURCES (prime or established) include:
a. Fossil fuels. Organic matter chemically changes at high
pressure and temperature through time to form
petroleum, coal, and natural gas. It is depletable; non-
renewable; natural production takes a long time; and
supply and price are controlled by oil-producing nations,
thus, creates economic imbalance.
I. Petroleum or crude oil produce engine fuels like
gasoline for motor vehicles; bunker oil for electric
power plants; LPG or liquefied petroleum gases for
cooking and heating purposes.
II. Coal provides fuel for electric power plants
III. Natural gases are used for cooking purposes b
Hydroelectric/hydrologic source. From water,
mechanical energy is provided through waterfalls or
waves, or the potential energy of water is collected in
reservoirs of dams. Mechanical energy of water turns
turbines in generators to produce electricity.
c Geothermal energy. The energy from the interior of the
earth is brought nearer the surface through hot springs.
From hot springs whose steam turns the turbine in a
generator to produce electricity, among the
disadvantages are thermal pollution within the area,
defoliation of plants, occasional radioactivity. d Nuclear
reaction. The fusion of light atoms or the fission of the
radioactive materials like uranium releases energy. Use
of radioactive uranium rods which generate a
tremendous amount of energy as it disintegrates or
decays, the energy is trained in boilers that turn the
turbines in a generator to produce electricity.
No pollution due to smog. Greatest disadvantage is
accidental leakage of radioactive materials which
dangerously cause mutation, cancer, an eventual death.
2. NON-CONVENTIONAL SOURCES (not yet fully
established; not widely used) are: a Direct solar energy for
solar panels to produce energy which can be stored in storage
batteries for use when the sun is no longer available; pollution
free; but limited by intermittent supply of sunlight. b Direct solar
energy for drying purposes.
c Direct solar energy for solar heaters, ovens, or cookers.
d Dendrothermal/Biomass. The solar energy trapped
during photosynthesis can serve as energy source as
fuels from plants like firewood, charcoal, and biogas.
Renewable because after consuming, trees may be
planted for replenishment. Charcoal or charcoal
briquettes may be made from incomplete combustion of
firewood, coconut shell, or agricultural wastes. Green
charcoal is not produced by combustion but is made
from decaying organic matter.
e Mini-hydroelectric plants for community or domestic
use.
f Wind-powered generator uses mechanical energy of the
wind to turn the turbines of a generator to produce
electricity.
g Biogas digestion. Anaerobic fermentation of organic
wastes such as animal or agricultural wastes produces
methane for fuel or for generating electricity.
USEFULNESS OF TRANSFORMED ENERGY
1. Solar cells harness solar energy and change it to
electricity to power computers and other appliances.
2. Hydroelectric plant facilitates mechanical energy of
water to turn the turbines of a generator and produces
electricity.
3. Dendrothermal plant uses the thermal energy of burning
of firewood or charcoal to fuel the boilers of electric plants.
4. Energy of moving wind may be used to mill grains in a
windmill.
5. Appliances may change electrical energy to thermal
energy as in stoves, ovens, toasters, flat irons, heaters, etc.
6. Appliances may change electricity to mechanical energy
as in electric fan, osterizer, eggbeater, coconut shredder, etc.
7. Appliances may change electricity into light and sound as
in the radio, TV, VHS, computers, etc.
8. Chemical energy of gasoline is transformed into
mechanical energy that enables motor vehicles to run.
9. Organic wastes like animal wastes and agricultural
wastes may be fermented to produce methane in a biogas
digester. Methane can be used as fuel in gas stoves.
PART 1: LABORATORY
PHYSICS SCIENCE PRACTICES
NOTE: To effectively apply the scientific method in a scientific
inquiry, the following physics science practices should be
observed.
1. Use representations and models to communicate scientific
phenomena and solve scientific problems
A model is any mental concept that can explain and
predict how something looks, works, is organized, or behaves.
Atomic theory is an example of a model. Accordingly, matter is
made up of atoms, which are consequently made up of protons,
neutrons, and electrons. The number, location, behavior, and
interactions of these sub-atomic particles explain and predict how
different types of matter behave.
2. Use mathematics appropriately
Physics is the representation of mathematics in nature. It
is impossible to understand physics without a solid understanding
of mathematics and how it relates to physics. This means having
an intuitive feel for how algebra works, and how it can be used to
relate quantities or functions to each other.
3. Engage in scientific questioning to extend thinking or to
guide investigations
Ultimately, the answer to almost any scientific question is
“maybe” or “it depends”. Scientists pose questions to understand
not just what happens, but the extent to which it happens, the
causes, and the limits beyond which outside factors become
dominant.
4. Plan and implement data collection strategies in relation to a
particular scientific question
Scientists do not “prove” things. Mathematicians and
lawyers prove that something must be true. Scientists collect data
in order to evaluate what happens under specific conditions, in
order to determine what is likely true based on the information
available. Data collection is important, because the more and
better the data, the more scientists can determine from it.
5. Perform data analysis and evaluation of evidence.
Just as data collection is important, analyzing data and
being able to draw meaningful conclusions is the other crucial
step to understanding natural phenomena. Scientists need to be
able to recognize patterns that actually exist within the data, and
to be free from the bias that comes from expecting a particular
result beforehand.
6. Work with scientific explanations and theories.
In science, there are no “correct” answers, only claims
and explanations. A scientific claim is any statement that is
believed to be true. In order to be accepted, a claim must be
verifiable based on evidence, and any claim or explanation must
be able to make successful predictions, which are also testable.
Science does not prove claims to be universally true or false;
science provides supporting evidence. Other scientists will accept
or believe a claim provided that there is sufficient evidence to
support it, and no evidence that directly contradicts it.
7. Connect and relate knowledge across various scales,
concepts, and representations in and across domains
If a scientific principle is true in one domain, scientists
must be able to consider that principle in other domains and
apply their understanding from one domain to the other. For
example, conservation of momentum is believed by physicists to
be universally true on every scale and in every domain, and it has
implications in the contexts of laboratory-scale experiments,
quantum mechanical behaviors at the atomic and sub-atomic
levels, and special relativity.
DESIGNING AND PERFORMING EXPERIMENTS
NOTE: Experiments are motivated by something you want to find
out, observe, or calculate. In any experiment, there is usually
something you are doing, and variables you are measuring or
observing.
Types of variables in an experiment
If someone asks what your independent, dependent, and
control variables are, the question simply means, “What did you
vary *pertains to+ (independent variable), what did you measure
[concerns the]
(dependent variable), and what did you keep constant
*refers to+ (control variables)?”
a. Independent variables are the conditions you are setting
up. These are the parameters that you specify when you set up
the experiment. Because you chose these values, they are
independent of what happens in the experiment. For example, if
you are dropping a ball from different heights to find out how
long it takes to hit the ground, you are choosing the heights, so
height is the independent variable.
b. Dependent variables are the things that happen in the
experiment. These are the numbers you measure, which are
dependent on what happens in the experiment. For example, if
you are dropping a ball from different heights to find out how
long it takes to hit the ground, you are measuring the time, which
depends on the height. This means time is the dependent
variable.
c. Control variables are the other things that could vary but
are being kept constant. These are usually parameters that could
be independent variables in other experiments but are kept
constant, so they do not affect the relationship between the
independent variable being tested and the dependent variable
being measured. For example, if you are dropping a ball from
different heights to find out how long it takes to hit the ground,
you want to make sure the wind is the same speed and direction
for each trial, so wind does not affect the outcome of the
experiment. This means wind speed and direction are control
variables.
NOTE: There are two types of experiments according to a
particular goal. They are the qualitative and quantitative
experiments.
a. Qualitative experiment is one in which the goal of your
experiment is to find out whether or not something happens at
all, you need to set up a situation in which the phenomenon you
want to observe can either happen or not, and then observe
whether or not it does. The only hard part is making sure the
conditions of your experiment do not have a bias whether the
phenomenon happens or not.
If you want to find out under what conditions something
happens, what you are really testing is whether or not it happens
under different sets of conditions that you can test. In this case,
you need to test three situations:
I. A situation in which you are sure the thing will happen,
[that is] to make sure you can observe it. This is your
positive control.
II. A situation in which you are sure the thing cannot
happen, [that is] to make sure your experiment can
produce a situation in which it doesn’t happen, and you
can observe its absence. This is your negative control.
III. A condition or situation that you want to test to see
whether or not the thing happens. The condition is your
independent variable, and whether or not the thing
happens is your dependent variable.
b. Quantitative Experiment is one in which the goal of your
experiment is to quantify (find a numerical relationship for) the
extent to which something happens (the dependent variable).
You need to figure out a set of conditions under which you can
measure the thing that happens.
Once you know that, you need to figure out how much you can
change the parameter you want to test (the independent
variable) and still be able to measure the result. This gives you
the highest and lowest values of your independent variable. Then
perform the experiment using a range of values for the
independent value that cover the range from the lowest to the
highest (or vice-versa).
FORMAL LABORATORY REPORTS
NOTE: A formal laboratory report serves the purpose of
communicating the results of your experiment to other scientists
outside of your laboratory or institution. It is a significant
undertaking. Some college professors require students to write
their lab reports in journal article format.
And the format of a formal journal article-style report is as
follows:
[Each experiment should have the title and date the experiment
was performed written at the top.]
Title page
The title page is like a cover page to the laboratory
report. It includes the title of the experiment, the author’s name,
any laboratory partners’ names, and the date the laboratory was
performed. Experiment Title
Often the experiment title is given to you, but if it isn’t,
you will need to create one. The title basically states what is done
in the laboratory. It should be a descriptive sentence fragment
(usually without a verb) that gives some information about the
purpose of the experiment. It should be about ten words or less
and describe the major point of the experiment. For search
purposes, lab report titles should begin with a key word instead
of an article such as “A,” “An,” or “The.”
Abstract
This is the most important part of your report. An
abstract, written in present tense, is a (maximum) 200- word
executive summary of everything about your experiment—the
procedure, results, analysis, and conclusions. In most scientific
journals, the abstracts are searchable via the internet, so it needs
to contain enough information to enable someone to find your
abstract, and after reading it, to know enough about your
experiment to determine whether or not to purchase a copy of
the full article. It also needs to be short enough that the person
doing the search won’t just say “Too Long” and move on to the
next abstract.
Because the abstract is a complete summary, it is always
best to wait to write it until you have already written the rest of
your report.
Introduction
The introduction is a short research paper on its own,
with citations. The introduction explains the purpose and
objectives of the experiment. A good way to approach this
section is to attempt to provide the reader with background,
discussing the “what” and “why” of the experiment. The
Introduction is also the place where the hypothesis is stated.
Beginning with a bit of prior knowledge on which the
experiment is based, you then try to explain the purpose of the
experiment and why it was conducted in a certain way. Often,
background information and purpose of the experiment will be
found in your science text. The introduction is usually the most
time-consuming part of the report to write.
Procedure (or Materials and Methods)
The procedure is a detailed description of exactly what is
done in order to take laboratory measurements.
It is written in paragraph form and in the past tense. In the case
of high school or even undergraduate college laboratory, most of
these procedures are well-known experiments with expected
results. In some cases, it might be helpful to include a diagram of
the experimental setup.
A labeled sketch of your experimental set-up is important
even if the experiment is simple. The sketch will serve to answer
many questions about how you set up the experiment and will
show most of the key equipment you used. All-important items
must be labeled, and all relevant dimensions must be shown.
Some explanation on the choices of the values used for
control and independent variables is likewise needed.
The procedure should be highly detailed so that another
scientist could reproduce the experimental methods in order to
obtain the same results and gain extra data.
Results (or Data and Observations)
Result is a section of the laboratory report in which all of
the data are presented in the experiment. Every quantity
specified in your procedure must be recorded. Take note that
only data you actually recorded, and measures should be
presented. Calculated values are presented in the Discussion
section. This section is also written in the third person and past
tense.
Introduce the data table. This means you need to
describe the important things someone should notice in the table
first, and then say something like “Data are shown in Table 1.”
Take note that all figures and tables in the report need to be
numbered consecutively.
Discussion
The Discussion section is where the author can logically
think through his data and interpret it. The purpose of this
section is to consider the results as to how they support the
original hypothesis or the previously stated objectives of the
laboratory. It is tempting to revert to using pronouns here but
writing it must be in the third person and avoid any opinions or
emotions.
If you get an unexpected result, here is where you explain
why you might have gotten errant data. Just explain what may
have gone wrong and the results you expected to get and why.
Discussion is essentially a long essay discussing your
results and what they mean. You need to introduce and present a
table with your calculated values and your uncertainty. After
presenting the table, you should discuss the results,
uncertainties, and sources of uncertainty in detail. If your results
relate to other experiments, you need to discuss the relationship
and include citations for those other experiments. Your
discussion needs to include all of the formulas that you used as
part of your discussion, but you do not need to show your work
for each calculation.
One (and only one) sample calculation for each separate
equation that you used. For example, if you calculated
acceleration for each of five data points, you would write down
the formula, and then choose one set of data to plug in and show
how you got the answer.
Conclusion
The Conclusion is often a single paragraph and is a brief
summation of what happened in the experiment, whether it
supported the hypothesis, and what that means. Any errors in the
experiment are briefly stated again, along with the expected
results. It mirrors the introduction section and includes the
findings and their implications. The conclusions should also
suggest how future experiments might follow up on or expand on
the current experiment.
Works Cited
As with a research paper, there need to include a complete list of
bibliography entries for the references the report cited in the
introduction and/or discussion sections.
PART 2: MEASUREMENT
Measurement is the process of getting the actual measure of an
object’s dimension or property by comparing it with something
that has been accepted as a standard unit. Every measured
quantity involves:
(a) a number or numeric – gives the number of times the unit is
contained in the quantity being measured. (b) a unit – gives the
size of the quantity used as the basis of comparison.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Note: There are actually two types of units of measurement. They
are the base unit and the derived unit.
1. Base unit is one that is not defined in terms of other units. It is
obtained by operating on fundamental quantities of different
systems of units, generally, but not necessarily, the mass (M),
length (L), and time (T).
Basic units of measures for length (L), mass (M), and time (T) for
SI system are:
a. Meter is the length that is equal to 1,650,763.73
wavelengths in vacuum of the orange-red light in krypton-86.
b. Kilogram is the unit of mass equal to the mass of the
international prototype of the kilogram (located in Sevres,
France).
c. Second equal to the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of
radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine
levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.
2. Derived unit is one that is defined in terms of base units. For
example, the SI unit for area is the square meter (m2) and the SI
unit for speed is meter per second (m/s). These are derived units.
TYPES OF QUANTITIES
1. Fundamental quantities are quantities whose measures
are expressed in terms of base units of measurement. They
cannot anymore be expressed in terms of other quantities. Both
the unit and the number give a precise meaning to the
measurement. Examples are length (m), mass (kg), time (sec),
electric current (A, ampere), temperature (K, Kelvin), amount of
substance (mole), luminous intensity (cd, candela)
2. Derived quantities are quantities with their
corresponding units which are combinations of fundamental
quantities. Examples are density, volume, speed, acceleration,
force, power, and kinetic energy.
CONVERSION OF UNITS
Although we mainly use SI units,
we occasionally need to convert quantities from one set of units
to another. It is easy to do this correctly, even in complicated
cases, with the aid of a trick involving “multiplying by one.”
For example, suppose we need to convert 100 feet into
the equivalent number of meters. From the conversion factor,
one foot = 0.3048 meter, we have
ACCURACY AND PRECISSION
NOTE: Science relies on making and interpreting measurements,
and the accuracy and precision of these measurements affect
what you can conclude from them. Accuracy
For a single measurement, accuracy refers to how close
the measurement is to the “correct” or accepted value.
For a group of measurements, it is how close the average
is to the accepted value.
Poor accuracy is often an indication of systematic error.
Precision
For a single measurement, precision refers to how finely
the measurement was made, that is, how many decimal places it
was measured to.
For a group of measurements, it is how close the
measurements are to each other. Poor precision tends to cause
larger random error.
The first set is both accurate (that is, the average is close
to the center) and precise (as the data points are all close to each
other.)
The second set is precise (meaning points are close to
each other), but not accurate (that is, the average is not close to
the correct value). This is an example of systematic error—some
problem with the experiment caused all of the measurements to
be off in the same direction.
The third set is accurate (the average is close to the
correct value), but not precise (the data points are not close to
each other). This is an example of random error—the
measurements are not biased in any particular direction, but
there are a lot of scatters.
The fourth set is neither accurate nor precise, which
means that there are significant random and systematic errors
present.
Types of Errors
1. Random errors are natural uncertainties in measurements
because of the limits of precision of the equipment used. These
are errors of judgment, or they may be due to fluctuating
conditions and small disturbances. Random errors are assumed
to be distributed around the actual value, without bias in either
direction. In other words, both positive and negative random
errors are equally probable.
Random errors are subject to the laws of probability and
hence it is advisable to take a large number of observations. The
arithmetic average of a number of observations is the most
probable value.
Random errors result from unpredictable or inevitable changes
during data measurement such as:
▪ electrical noise
▪ slight variation of temperature when the volume of gas is
measured.
▪ presence of wind when determining the period of a simple
pendulum
2. Systematic errors occur from specific problems in your
equipment or your procedure. In other words, they may be due
to calibration of instruments, personal habits, experimental
conditions, or imperfect technique.
 Systematic errors are often biased in one direction more
than another, and thus, are always of the same sign.
Poor accuracy is often an indication of
systematic error. For example, a warm steel ruler will give
measurement which tends to be less than the correct values.
UNCERTAINTY AND ERROR ANALYSIS
NOTE: In science, unlike mathematics, there is no such thing as an
exact answer. Ultimately, every quantity is limited by the
precision and accuracy of the measurements that it came from. If
you can only measure a quantity to within 10%, that means any
number that is derived from that measurement can’t be any
better than ±10%.
Error analysis is the practice of determining and communicating
the causes and extents of possible errors or uncertainty in your
results. Error analysis involves understanding and following the
uncertainty in your data from the initial measurement to the final
report.
The uncertainty of a measurement describes how different the
correct value is likely to be from the measured value.
For example, if a length was measured to be 22.336 cm, and the
uncertainty was 0.030 cm (meaning that the measurement is only
known to within ±0.030 cm), we could represent this
measurement as: (22.336 ± 0.030)
cm
Note that scientists use the word “error” to mean uncertainty.
This is different from the vernacular usage of “error” to mean a
mistake. When you discuss “sources of error” in an experiment,
you are explaining the uncertainty in your results, and where it
may have come from. “Sources of error” does not mean
“Potential mistakes you might have made.” This is similar to the
difference between scientific use of the word “theory” (“a model
that explains every observation that has ever been made”) as
opposed to vernacular use (“my own guess about what I think
might be going on”).
Uncertainty of a Single Measurement
Notes: If you are measuring a quantity that is not changing (such
as the mass or length of an object), you can measure it as many
times as you like and you should get exactly the same value every
time you measure it. This means you have only one data point.
When you have only one data point, you can often assume that
the standard uncertainty is the limit of how precisely you can
measure it (including any estimated digits). This will be your best
educated guess, based on how closely you think you actually
measured the quantity. This means you need to take
measurements as carefully and precisely as possible, because
every careless measurement needlessly increases the uncertainty
of the result. DIGITAL VERSUS ANALOG INSTRUMENT
Digital Measurements
The instrument which gives output that varies in discrete
steps and only has finite number of values is known as digital
instrument.
For digital equipment, if the reading is stable (not
changing), look up the published precision of the instrument in its
user’s manual. (For example, many balances used in high schools
have a readability of 0.01 g but are only precise to within ± 0.02
g.) If there is no published value (or the manual is not available),
assume the uncertainty is ± 1 in the last digit.
Analog Measurement
The instrument which gives output that varies
continuously as quantity to be measured is known as analog
instrument. Most of the analog instruments use pointer or dial
for indicating the magnitude of the measured quantity.
When making analog measurements, always estimate to
one extra digit beyond the finest markings on the equipment.
For example, in the diagram above, the graduated
cylinder is marked in 1 mL increments. When measuring volume
in this graduated cylinder, you would estimate and write down
the volume to the nearest 0.1 mL, as shown, that is, 32.0 ± 0.1
mL.
In the above experiment, you should record the volume
as 32.0 ± 0.1 mL. It would be inadequate to write the volume as
32 mL. (Note that the zero at the end of the reading of 32.0 mL is
not extra. It is necessary because you measured the volume to
the nearest 0.1 mL and not to the nearest 1 mL.)
When estimating, you can generally assume that the
estimated digit has an uncertainty of ±1. This means the
uncertainty of the measurement is usually ±1/10 of the finest
markings on the equipment. Here are some examples:
ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS
Just as you should never introduce uncertainty by
measuring carelessly, you should also never introduce uncertainty
by rounding carelessly. You should always keep all digits in the
calculator and round only at the end.
However, if for some reason you need to round off an
intermediate value, estimate how many significant figures your
answer will have, and carry at least two additional significant
figures (guard digits) through the calculation. When in doubt,
keep an extra digit or two. It is much better to have a couple of
extra digits than to lose significance because of rounding.
Rounding Off Numbers – Suppose we have a number with more
than n significant digits and we want to round it off to n
significant digits. We first discard all digits beyond the nth one. a
If the first digit discarded is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9, increase the last digit
by 1.
 b If the first digit discarded is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4, do not change
the last digit kept.
NOTE: Rounding off should not be done digit by digit. (Example,
round off 6.1247 to three significant digits.
The answer is 6.12)
Calculating with Rounded Numbers a When multiplying or
dividing rounded numbers, round the answer to the least
number of significant digits in any of the given data.
b When adding or subtracting rounded numbers, round the
answer to the same number of decimal places as there
are in the least accurate of the given.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Every measurement is an approximation. To say that a
peso bill is 6.6 cm in width means that the measurement was
closer to 6.6 cm than it was to 6.5 cm or 6.7 cm. This
measurement could be made with a scale whose closest markings
were centimeter marks – a scale with no divisions between those
for centimeters. The last digit in the measured quantity is an
estimate known as the doubtful digit. Significant digits are all of
the digits actually measured, including the doubtful digit. They
express the degree of accuracy of measurements.
Rules in Identifying the Number of Significant Digits 1. All non-
zero digits are significant.
2. Zeros are significant if they were obtained by actual
measurement and were found at the right end of a measured
number and after the decimal point. (13257.00)
3. Zeros are significant if they are found in between non-
zero digits. (205)
4. Zeros to the right of a non-zero digit but to the left of an
understood decimal point are not significant unless indicated as
significant (Only zeros with bar line are significant). (3500)
5. All zeros found at the right of a decimal point but to the
left of a non-zero digit are not significant. (.000567) 6. Exponents
in a scientific notation do not affect the number of significant
digits. (6.0 × 1023)
Notes: Significant figures are the digits in a number that are not
merely placeholders (i.e., the non-rounded part of the number.)
The proper use of significant figures is to tell which digits
are actually parts of the measurement when you record a
measurement or data point.
For example, if you record a length as 12 cm, the
significant figures indicate that the measurement was recorded to
the nearest 1 cm. If you record a length as 12.0 cm, the significant
figures indicate that the measurement was recorded to the
nearest 0.1 cm.
Rules for using Significant Figures
The first significant digit is where the
• 6.0 × 1023
• 3400. (Note the decimal point at the end)
Math with Significant Figures
Addition & Subtraction
When adding or subtracting rounded numbers, round the
answer to the same number of decimal places as there are in the
least accurate of the given numbers.
“measured” part of the number begins—the first digit that is not
Multiplication & Division
zero.
For multiplication, division, and just about everything else
The last significant digit is the last “measured” digit—the
(except for addition and subtraction, which we have already
last digit whose true value is known or accurately estimated
discussed), round your answer off to the same number of
(usually ±1).
significant digits as the number that has the fewest.
• If the number doesn’t have a decimal point, the last significant
For example, consider the problem 34.52 × 1.4 = 48.328.
digit will be the last digit that is not zero. • If the number does
In this problem, notice that the least significant term in
have a decimal point, the last significant digit will be the last
the problem (1.4) had 2 significant digits, and therefore, the
digit.
answer is (48) which also have 2 significant digits.
• If the number is in scientific notation, the above rules tell us
A silly (but correct) example of multiplication with
(correctly) that all of the digits before the “times” sign are
significant digits is: 147 × 1 = 100
significant.
Mixed Operations
For any measurement that does not have an explicitly
For mixed operations, keep all of the digits until you’re
stated uncertainty value, assume the uncertainty is
finished (so round-off errors don’t accumulate), but keep track of
±1 in the last significant digit.
the last significant digit in each step by putting a line over it (even
if it’s not a zero). Once you have your final answer, round it to the
In the following numbers, the significant figures have been
correct number of significant digits. Don’t forget to use the
underlined: • 13,000 • 0.0275
correct order of operations (PEMDAS)!
• 0.0150
• 6804.30500