She Exemplar 1

Stage 2 Psychology Assessment Type 1: Investigations Folio
You’ve Matched with ‘Low Self-Esteem and Dating App Addiction’!
In a digitally mediated world, an increase in online dating was expected, particularly during the COVID-19
pandemic. Dating applications (apps) like Tinder, Bumble, and OkCupid have reported rapid surges in activity
since March 2020, with Tinder reaching a record-breaking 3 billion ‘swipes’ in just one day. 1 Although more
people than ever are on dating apps, there is a critical lack of research and public knowledge surrounding their
relationship with mental health.2 3 This report will describe how current psychological understanding can be
applied to explore better the effects of these dating apps and how the increasing usage of dating apps in COVID-19
times has influenced the necessity for further psychological knowledge.
One primary concern associated with dating applications is their effect on one’s self-image and self-worth. 4 Carl
Rogers, psychologist and founder of the Humanistic Theory, describes self-image as ‘how you see yourself’ and
self-worth as ‘how much you like yourself’.5 A 2016 study from the University of North Texas found that being
actively involved with Tinder, regardless of gender, was associated with body dissatisfaction, lower self-esteem,
and reliance on media to confirm one’s attractiveness.6 Self-esteem can be distinguished from self-worth in that it is
often circumstantial and can be short-term or chronic, while self-worth is more holistic and stable in changing
circumstances.7 Regardless, it cannot be confirmed whether using Tinder causes low self-esteem or if individuals
with low self-esteem are more likely to use Tinder due to insufficient data on the subject. 8 It could be a
bidirectional relationship; an individual with low self-esteem chooses to use Tinder for validation and doesn’t
receive much interest. In turn, their self-worth declines, and they become more dependent on receiving validation
and attention from their peers on the dating app to reassure themselves that they are attractive. 9 Dating applications
1
Fortune Editors (2021). Activity on dating apps has surged during the pandemic. [online] Fortune. Available at:
https://fortune.com/2021/02/12/covid-pandemic-online-dating-apps-usage-tinder-okcupid-bumble-meet-group/ [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
2
Fortune Editors (2021). Activity on dating apps has surged during the pandemic. [online] Fortune. Available at: https://fortune.com/2021/02/12/covid-
pandemic-online-dating-apps-usage-tinder-okcupid-bumble-meet-group/ [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
3
Holtzhausen, N., Fitzgerald, K., Thakur, I., Ashley, J., Rolfe, M. and Pit, S.W. (2020). Swipe-based dating applications use and its association with
mental health outcomes: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychology, 8(1). doi:10.1186/s40359-020-0373-1.
4
American Psychological Association (2016). Tinder: Swiping Self Esteem? https://www.apa.org. [online] 4 Aug. Available at:
https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2016/08/tinder-self-esteem [Accessed 26 Aug. 2022].
5
Gebert, K. and Green, D. (2021). SACE Stage 2 Psychology EssentialsWorkbook. 1st ed. Adelaide: Adelaide Tuition Centre.
6
7
Shafir, H. (2022). Self-Worth vs. Self-Esteem: Understanding the Differences. [online] Choosing Therapy. Available at:
https://www.choosingtherapy.com/self-worth-vs-self-esteem/ [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
8
9
operantly condition users into using the app more and more frequently through a schedule of reinforcement. 10
Interfaces like Tinder require users to swipe through many different profiles in the hope of ‘matching’ with another
individual. This is an example of a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement as users learn that if they ‘swipe’
enough times, they may be rewarded with a ‘match’ at some point.11 12 This occasional positive reinforcement,
regardless of how the ‘match’ turns out in the long term, encourages users to continue ‘swiping’ in the hope of
another dopamine release.13 While the exact number of individuals addicted to dating apps is unclear, the methods
used by online dating services to encourage returning users are all too similar to gambling and casino companies. 14
A study by the University of Western Sydney found that users of swipe-based dating applications reported higher
levels of anxiety, depression, and distress than non-users. 15 Although the causes of these detriments were not
determined in the study, external psychological knowledge may be applied to estimate leading factors for further
investigation. One such reasoning, as theorised by neuroscientist Mayim Bialik, is that users of dating apps are
provided with too many options for potential dates.16 Bialik claims, “dating apps make you feel like there’s always
someone out there who’s just a little bit better than the person you’re dating right now, or the possibility exists”. 17
David Greenfield, professor of psychiatry at the University of Connecticut School of Medicine, also emphasises
that “having endless choices [on dating apps] doesn’t make us happier – it makes us more stressed”. 18 These
comments can be associated with Alvin Toffler’s choice overload theory, which describes how people get
overwhelmed when presented with a large number of options to choose from.19 Having more options also means a
higher likelihood of dissatisfaction and regret with one’s decision, resulting in cognitive dissonance. 20 To avoid the
10
W, R. (2021). Why Dating Apps Are So Addictive. [online] Mental Health and Addictions Community. Available at: https://medium.com/mental-
health-and-addictions-community/why-dating-apps-are-so-addictive-9a4e95be76f1 [Accessed 22 Aug. 2022].
11
W, R. (2021). Why Dating Apps Are So Addictive. [online] Mental Health and Addictions Community. Available at: https://medium.com/mental-
health-and-addictions-community/why-dating-apps-are-so-addictive-9a4e95be76f1 [Accessed 22 Aug. 2022].
12
13
Dold, K. (2017). Dating App Addiction is Real. [online] www.vice.com. Available at: https://www.vice.com/en/article/qkxdkv/dating-app-addiction-
is-real [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
14
15
Holtzhausen, N., Fitzgerald, K., Thakur, I., Ashley, J., Rolfe, M. and Pit, S.W. (2020). Swipe-based dating applications use and its association with
mental health outcomes: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychology, 8(1). doi:10.1186/s40359-020-0373-1.
16
Bialik, M. (2018). Why Online Dating Is Bad For Us || Mayim Bialik - YouTube. [online] www.youtube.com. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XtkKiCVb7lk [Accessed 26 Aug. 2022].
17
18
19
Chernev, A., Böckenholt, U. and Goodman, J. (2015). Choice overload: A conceptual review and meta-analysis. Journal of Consumer Psychology,
25(2), pp.333–358. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.08.002.
20
25(2), pp.333–358. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.08.002.
effects of choice overload, psychologists recommend allowing time to ‘browse’ potential options without making a
final decision, treating your choices as non-reversible (even if they technically are), and practising gratitude
regularly.21 22 23 These practices prevent feelings of regret and dissatisfaction as decisions are more likely to have
been made with consideration, and the other options cannot be agonised over afterwards. 24 This understanding can
be applied when developing solutions for the anxiety and distress caused by dating apps if choice overload is a
contributing factor. Choice overload may be another factor in the addictiveness of dating apps. If users already feel
that someone ‘better’ is just one more ‘swipe’ away, the positive reinforcement of ‘matching’ would only fuel this
syndrome of too many choices. The application of psychological understanding surrounding causes of anxiety
and depression in dating application users will enable psychologists to develop and design solutions for
platforms and users to utilise.
The phenomenon of users experiencing low self-esteem following dating app usage has influenced recent research
into the bi-directional relationship between self-presentation and self-esteem.25 Self-presentation is an integral part
of online dating as users carefully construct profiles to represent themselves; accurately or not. 26 27 As individuals
attempt to portray their ‘ideal self’, they engage in selective self-presentation, which often results in
misrepresentation and inauthenticity.28 A 2021 dissertation by psychology candidate N.M Nazami of the Alliant
International University found that individuals with high self-esteem can virtually present themselves more
desirably and are generally more successful in obtaining ‘matches’ and dates.29 Individuals with low self-esteem do
not have the internal resources for self-presentation and have a significant fear of rejection. To minimise feelings of
21
25(2), pp.333–358. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.08.002.
22
Schwartz, B. (2009). The paradox of choice: Why more is less. HarperCollins.
23
Choi, J. and Fishbach, A. (2011) ‘Choice as an End versus a Means’, Journal of Marketing Research, 48(3), pp. 544–554. doi:
10.1509/jmkr.48.3.544.
24
25
Faesing, L. (2020). SWIPE FOR SELF-ESTEEM DECLINE? THE IMPACT OF USAGE, FREQUENCY, AND TYPE OF ONLINE DATING
APPLICATIONS ON SELF-ESTEEM Swipe for self-esteem decline? The impact of usage, frequency, and type of online dating applications on self-
esteem. [Bachelor Thesis] Available at: http://essay.utwente.nl/81546/1/Faesing_BA_BMS.pdf [Accessed 22 Aug. 2022].
26
27
Nizami, N.M. (2021). A Feminist Phenomenological Exploration: Young Adult Female Experiences of Self-Esteem, Self-Presentation, and
Autonomy Creating an Online Dating Identity on Dating Applications - ProQuest. [Dissertation] www.proquest.com. Available at:
https://www.proquest.com/openview/e98fd0f2c5dcdd6a231156f937c55af9/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y [Accessed 22 Aug. 2022].
28
29
Nizami, N.M. (2021). A Feminist Phenomenological Exploration: Young Adult Female Experiences of Self-Esteem, Self-Presentation, and Autonomy
Creating an Online Dating Identity on Dating Applications - ProQuest. [Dissertation] www.proquest.com. Available at:
rejection, these users utilise protective, indirect strategies like initiating fewer conversations and speaking with
fewer people.30 These individuals experience more significant physiological stress in response to rejection than
those with high self-esteem and are likelier to lower their self-worth.31 Some dating apps, like Bumble, have
incorporated ‘profile prompts’ to encourage users to share their personalities and reduce the emphasis on physical
appearance.32 However, high self-monitor individuals will still feel the same need to perfect their self-presentation
regardless of whether it’s an image or a written description of themselves. 33 This is a significant sociocultural factor
that has influenced psychology and its understanding of these compulsive behaviours, leading to more
psychological research. This research has influenced dating application companies to manipulate their users with a
modern method of operant conditioning through the variable ratio schedule of reinforcement.
Because conclusive, objective quantitative data is still limited at this stage, more experimental research must be
undertaken to scientifically support the qualitative findings of psychologists and social scientists thus far. It must be
considered that the information shared thus far in the report is predominantly subjective qualitative data as
individuals have been surveyed on their dating app usage, or psychologists have provided statements with educated
estimates on the impacts of dating apps. As the research in this area is still new, these are the leading sources of
information. The implications of dating apps on users must be taken more seriously to allow for more research
funding as user numbers skyrocket in the age of COVID-19.34 This research must look further into the precise
causes of the anxiety and depression stemming from these services to develop a strategy for handling the issue.
This is only possible through collaboration between psychologists and dating applications to obtain as much data as
possible about users’ habits on the app. Certified relationship counsellor and member of the British Psychological
Society, Sam Owen, recommends simply steering clear of online dating apps if you are predisposed to feelings of
depression or anxiety.35 However, targeting why exactly dating applications exacerbate these issues is vital. 36 In
30
31
32
Bumble (n.d.). Bumble - Get the Most Out of Bumble Prompts With These Tips | Bumble. [online] Bumble Buzz. Available at:
https://bumble.com/en/the-buzz/bumble-profile-prompts [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
33
34
https://fortune.com/2021/02/12/covid-pandemic-online-dating-apps-usage-tinder-okcupid-bumble-meet-group/ [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
35
Bonet, A. (2020). Here’s how to use dating apps without damaging your mental health. [online] Netdoctor. Available at:
https://www.netdoctor.co.uk/healthy-living/mental-health/a25934206/dating-apps-mental-health/ [Accessed 27 Sep. 2022].
36
conjunction with the new research, online dating servers must be held accountable if further evidence is found that
they harm human mental well-being. Individuals signing up for dating apps should be informed of the potential
harm it may have on them and provided with the appropriate internal and external tools to stay safe and healthy
while using them. Trent Petrie, professor of psychology at the University of North Texas, emphasises the
importance of keeping perspective when using a dating app and to “surround yourself with people who know you,
support you and value you for all your various qualities”.37 Biological anthropologist and chief scientific advisor for
‘Match’ recommends that dating app users practice positive self-affirmations to maintain high self-esteem and
recover from the inevitable rejections from dating apps.38
Although research is increasing on dating application addiction and its effects on self-esteem, more investigation is
needed into the causality, potential mitigation, and solutions to these issues. Those actively using online dating
services must be aware of their possible health implications and methods of maintaining good mental health while
employing them. Online dating companies must be held responsible for their users' mental health and well-being
and should work with psychologists to do so responsibly.
Word Count: 1418
37
Ducharme, J. (2018). How to Use Dating Apps Without Hurting Your Mental Health, According to Experts. [online] Time. Available at:
https://time.com/5356756/dating-apps-mental-health/ [Accessed 27 Sep. 2022].
38
Ducharme, J. (2018). How to Use Dating Apps Without Hurting Your Mental Health, According to Experts. [online] Time. Available at:
https://time.com/5356756/dating-apps-mental-health/ [Accessed 27 Sep. 2022].
Bibliography
Bumble (n.d.). Bumble - Get the Most Out of Bumble Prompts With These Tips | Bumble. [online] Bumble Buzz. Available at:
https://bumble.com/en/the-buzz/bumble-profile-prompts [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
Chernev, A., Böckenholt, U. and Goodman, J. (2015). Choice overload: A conceptual review and meta-analysis. Journal of Consumer
Psychology, 25(2), pp.333–358. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2014.08.002.
Cherry, K. (2022). Reinforcement Schedules and How They Work. [online] Verywell Mind. Available at:
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-schedule-of-reinforcement-2794864 [Accessed 29 Aug. 2022].
Choi, J. and Fishbach, A. (2011) ‘Choice as an End versus a Means’, Journal of Marketing Research, 48(3), pp. 544–554. doi:
10.1509/jmkr.48.3.544.
Dold, K. (2017). Dating App Addiction is Real. [online] www.vice.com. Available at: https://www.vice.com/en/article/qkxdkv/dating-
app-addiction-is-real [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
Faesing, L. (2020). SWIPE FOR SELF-ESTEEM DECLINE? THE IMPACT OF USAGE, FREQUENCY, AND TYPE OF ONLINE
DATING APPLICATIONS ON SELF-ESTEEM Swipe for self-esteem decline? The impact of usage, frequency, and type of online
dating applications on self-esteem. [Bachelor Thesis] Available at: http://essay.utwente.nl/81546/1/Faesing_BA_BMS.pdf [Accessed
22 Aug. 2022].
https://fortune.com/2021/02/12/covid-pandemic-online-dating-apps-usage-tinder-okcupid-bumble-meet-group/ [Accessed 5 Sep.
2022].
Gebert, K. and Green, D. (2021). SACE Stage 2 Psychology EssentialsWorkbook . 1st ed. Adelaide: Adelaide Tuition Centre.
Holtzhausen, N., Fitzgerald, K., Thakur, I., Ashley, J., Rolfe, M. and Pit, S.W. (2020). Swipe-based dating applications use and its
association with mental health outcomes: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychology, 8(1). doi:10.1186/s40359-020-0373-1.
Lee, S. (2016). The History of Online Dating From 1695 to Now. [online] HuffPost. Available at:
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/timeline-online-dating-fr_b_9228040 [Accessed 26 Aug. 2022].
Nizami, N.M. (2021). A Feminist Phenomenological Exploration: Young Adult Female Experiences of Self-Esteem, Self-Presentation,
and Autonomy Creating an Online Dating Identity on Dating Applications - ProQuest. [Dissertation] www.proquest.com. Available at:
https://www.proquest.com/openview/e98fd0f2c5dcdd6a231156f937c55af9/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y [Accessed 22
Aug. 2022].
Shafir, H. (2022). Self-Worth vs. Self-Esteem: Understanding the Differences. [online] Choosing Therapy. Available at:
https://www.choosingtherapy.com/self-worth-vs-self-esteem/ [Accessed 5 Sep. 2022].
Tufvesson, A. (2019). Are dating apps harming your mental health? [online] Bupa.com.au. Available at:
https://www.bupa.com.au/healthlink/mind-and-body/healthy-mind/technology-and-health/are-dating-apps-harming-your-mental-health
[Accessed 22 Aug. 2022].
W, R. (2021). Why Dating Apps Are So Addictive. [online] Mental Health and Addictions Community. Available at:
https://medium.com/mental-health-and-addictions-community/why-dating-apps-are-so-addictive-9a4e95be76f1 [Accessed 22 Aug.
2022].

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She Exemplar 1

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Stage 2 Psychology Assessment Type 1: Investigations Folio

You’ve Matched with ‘Low Self-Esteem and Dating App Addiction’!

times has influenced the necessity for further psychological knowledge.

platforms and users to utilise.

recover from the inevitable rejections from dating apps.38

and should work with psychologists to do so responsibly.

Word Count: 1418

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