PH 112: Introduction to Quantum Physics

Particle in a box
Sunita.srivsatava@phy.iitb.ac.in

Lecture 09: 29-05-2023

Sunita Srivastava
Ext. : 7572
Email : Sunita.srivastava@iitb.ac.in
 Particle in a finite potential box

Reference
1. Serway ; Chapter 6, page 210.
2. “Quantum Mechanics Concepts and applications”
By N. Zettili Page 234-239
Comparison of finite (a)sym potential wells
Particle in a one-dimensional finite potential box
Particle in a one-dimensional finite potential box
V = Vo V = Vo
V ( x ) = 0 for 0  x  L
I II III
= Vo for x  0 or x  L
V =0
x=0 x=L
How to solve the TISE to find the 𝜙𝑛 𝑥 values ?

We have two choices here . Either we assume E<Vo or E>Vo.

Let’s start with E<Vo (bound states)

𝑑2 𝜙1 𝑥 2𝑚 𝐸 − 𝑉0
I 2
+ 2
𝜙1 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ

𝑑2 𝜙2 𝑥 2𝑚𝐸
II 2
+ 2
𝜙2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ

𝑑2 𝜙3 𝑥 2𝑚 𝐸 − 𝑉0
III 2
+ 2
𝜙3 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 ℏ
Particle in a one-dimensional finite potential box
For Region I
𝑑 2 𝜙1 𝑥 2𝑚 𝐸 − 𝑉0
I + 𝜙1 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

2𝑚
If we define, 𝐸 − 𝑉0 = 𝜆2
ℏ2

𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜆𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝜆𝑥

2𝑚
Instead let us define 𝑉0 − 𝐸 = 𝛼 2
ℏ2

Here the LHS is a positive quantity. This implies 𝜆 = ±𝑖𝛼

In terms of 𝛼 , 𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝜆𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝜆𝑥 becomes,

𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝛼𝑥
By applying boundary condition, we solved for the coefficients in last
class. Express all constants in terms of 𝐴.

𝐷=𝐴
𝛼
𝐶= 𝐴
𝑘
𝛼
𝐴 sin 𝑘𝐿 + 𝐴 cos 𝑘𝐿 = 𝐻𝑒 −𝛼𝐿
𝑘
𝛼
𝐴𝑘 cos(𝑘𝐿) − 𝐴𝑘 sin 𝑘𝐿 = −𝛼𝐻𝑒 −𝛼𝐿
𝑘

Divide last eqn by second last.

𝛼 cos(𝑘𝐿) − 𝑘 sin 𝑘𝐿 𝛼
=− = −f k = f(E)
𝛼 sin(𝑘𝐿) + 𝑘 cos 𝑘𝐿 𝑘
Th = f(E)
 = f(E)

𝛼
=−
𝑘
Energy Eigen Values

Also, we know
Energy Eigen Values

Using ; and

2
𝑘𝐿 α 𝑘𝑜 𝐿/2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = = −1
2 𝑘 𝑘𝐿/2

and 𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝑜 𝐿/2
2
-cot = −1
2 𝑘𝐿/2
Graphical intersection of LHS and RHS is the estimate of the allowed energy
states.
 Energy Eigen Values

2 2
𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝑜 𝐿/2 𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝑜 𝐿/2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = −1 and -cot = −1
2 𝑘𝐿/2 2 𝑘𝐿/2

• LHS is a trigonometric function and RHS is a function , f(k), variable “k”.

• Solutions are given by points where f(k) intersects the trigonometric function.
• Solution form a discrete set.
• The number of solutions depends of L and hence on 𝑉𝑜 .

• At least one bound state will be present no matter howsoever small 𝑽𝒐 .

• The deeper and broader the well, greater the number of bound states.
Alternate method to solve SE for eigen values begins
Energy Eigen Values
2 2
𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝑜 𝐿/2 𝑘𝐿 𝑘𝑜 𝐿/2
𝑡𝑎𝑛 = −1 and -cot = −1
2 𝑘𝐿/2 2 𝑘𝐿/2

In General, β𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 β𝑛 = 𝑅 2 − β𝑛 2 For even states

−β𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑡 β𝑛 = 𝑅 2 − β𝑛 2 For odd states

2 𝐿2
𝑘𝑛 𝑚𝐸𝑛 𝐿2 2 𝑘𝑜2 𝐿2 𝑚𝑉𝑜 𝐿2
Where β𝑛 2 = = and 𝑅 =
4
=
2ħ2
4 2ħ2

• LHS is a trigonometric function and RHS consists of a circle of radius R.

• Solutions are given by points where circle intersects the trigonometric function.
• Solution form a discrete set.
• The number of solutions depends of R and hence on 𝑉𝑜 .
 𝑚𝑉𝑜 𝐿2
Energy Eigen Values 2
𝑅 =
2ħ2
2
2 𝑚𝐸𝑛 𝐿
β𝑛 =
2ħ2

𝜷𝒏

• At least one bound state will be present no matter howsoever small 𝑽𝒐 .

• The deeper and broader the well, the larger the value of R, and hence
the greater the number of bound states.
 Energy Eigen Values
𝜋 𝜋 2 2ħ2
1. 0 < R < or 0 < 𝑉𝑜 < One (even) bound state for n = 0
2 2 𝑚𝐿2

Two bound states for

𝜋 𝜋 2 2ħ2 2 2ħ
2
2. < R < π or < 𝑉𝑜 < 𝜋 n = 0 (even),
2 2 𝑚𝐿2 2𝑚𝐿2
n = 1 (odd)

The states consists of a set of alternating even and odd states.

 Energy Eigen Values
𝑛𝜋 𝜋 2 2ħ2
3. For “n” allowed states R= and 𝑉𝑜 = 𝑛2
2 2 𝑚𝐿2
π2 ħ2
4. For limiting case 𝑉𝑜 ∞; β𝑛 =
𝑛𝜋 𝐸𝑛 =
2𝑚𝐿2
𝑛2
2
n = 1, 2, 3…

𝜷𝒏

At large 𝑉𝑜 , energy expression is similar to that for the

infinite potential well.
Alternate method to solve SE for eigen values ends
 𝐸 ≪ 𝑉0

𝐸 𝐸𝑝

Home work: Work out the condition for cot (kL/2) function.

https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/BoundStatesOfAFinitePotentialWell/
𝑉0 0

𝑉0 = 0 𝑘𝑜 𝑘

The broader and deeper potential well will have greater number of
bound states
General properties of Wave functions
▪ There is a non zero probability of 𝝋𝟏 𝒙 𝝓𝟐 𝒙 𝝋𝟑 𝒙
𝑨𝒆𝜶𝒙 𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒙 + 𝑫 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒌𝒙 𝑯𝒆−𝜶𝒙
finding the particle in Region I and III
▪ Lowest energy state is always above
the bottom of the potential and is
symmetric.
▪ Wider/shallow potential results in
lower energies of the quantum states.
[HUP].

▪ The probability decays exponentially but

it is non- zero. Classically, this is forbidden.

Penetration of the wave function in the classically forbidden region has

immense practical consequences (NSOM, near field scanning optical
microscopy).
Wave functions and Penetration depth
The exponential “tails” of the wave function

Penetration length

Penetration length is proportional to

Planck’s constant

Effective dimension of
the potential well

Approximate Energy

Energy states of finite well is smaller than infinite well.

Quantum Tunneling 𝝋𝟏 𝒙 𝝓𝟐 𝒙 𝝋𝟑 𝒙
𝑨𝒆𝜶𝒙 𝑪 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒙 + 𝑫 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒌𝒙 𝑯𝒆−𝜶𝒙
I 𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝛼𝑥 , for x < 0

III 𝜑3 𝑥 = 𝐻𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 , for x > L

Non-zero wave function in classically

forbidden region is a purely quantum
mechanical effect.

Quantum mechanics allows tunneling

between classically forbidden regions.

This follows from the boundary condition

of 𝜑 𝑥 and its derivative to be
continuous.
Quantum Tunneling
𝛼𝑥
For X < 0, 𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝝋𝟏 𝒙 = 𝑨𝒆𝜶𝒙 𝝋𝟑 𝒙 = 𝑯𝒆−𝜶𝒙
−𝛼𝑥
For X > L, 𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒
2𝑚
𝛼2 = 𝑉 −𝐸
ℏ2 0
Note,

𝑉0 ∞ 𝛼 ∞

𝐸 𝑉0 𝛼 0

The penetration depth/leakage of the wave function is depends on estimate of 𝛼.

Penetration length is proportional to Planck’s constant

Penetration length

2𝑚
𝛼2 = 2
𝑉0 − 𝐸
ℏ

ℏ2
δ𝑛 ~ ~ℏ
2𝑚 𝑉0 −𝐸

The phenomena of wave function leakage is visible for

quantum systems
Comparison of finite and infinite potential wells
Particle in a finite potential box (E> 𝑉𝑜 )
 E
Case E > 𝑉𝑜
V = Vo V = Vo
𝑑2 𝜙1 𝑥 2𝑚 𝐸 − 𝑉0
I + 𝜙1 𝑥 = 0 I II III
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
V =0
𝑑2 𝜙2 𝑥 2𝑚𝐸
I + 𝜙 𝑥 =0 x=0 x=L
I 𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2 2

𝑑2 𝜙3 𝑥 2𝑚 𝐸 − 𝑉0
II + 𝜙3 𝑥 = 0
I 𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2

Easy to check the solution in all three regime are oscillatory wave
function with varying amplitude.

https://demonstrations.wolfram.com/BoundStatesOfAFinitePotentialWell/
Summary Finite box potential

• Energy is quantized same as infinite box potential and non-zero ground state energy.
• Non-zero probability in the classically forbidden region.
• At least one bound state exits for any small Vo.
• In the limit of large Vo , eigen solutions tends towards infinite box potential.
• The energies for same “n” are lower as compared to infinite box potential ( due to
leaking of the wave function).
• Wave functions are exponentially decaying for particle with E< V, in case region of
finite potential.
• In case of E> V, the wave functions are oscillatory in nature. The wave number, k, are
different in regions depending on the value of V.
Step Potential (E> 𝑉𝑜 )
Step potential E

𝑉 𝑥 =0 ∀𝑥 ≤ 0 V =0 V = Vo
= 𝑉0 ∀𝑥 >0
I II
Consider, E > 𝑽𝟎 x=0

Classically, there will be total transmission of all particles and particle will have
kinetic energy E - 𝑉0. This is a simple scattering problem in 1-D.

Quantum mechanically, the dynamics is regulated by SE.

2𝑚𝐸 ,
𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘1 𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘1 𝑥 ,where 𝑘12 = X<0
ℏ2

2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉𝑜 ) ,X>0
𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖 𝑘2 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘2 𝑥 ,where 𝑘22 =
ℏ2
1. Since there is no incidence from the right side, in
𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝑘2𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 −𝑖𝑘2𝑥 𝐷=0
𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖𝑘E2𝑥

2. Boundary conditions
(a) 𝜑𝐼 0 = 𝜑𝐼𝐼 0 𝐴+𝐵 =C
(b) 𝜑𝐼′ 0 = 𝜑𝐼𝐼
′
0 𝑖𝑘1 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑖𝑘2 𝐶

Add Divide
𝐶 𝑘2 𝐶 2𝑘1
𝐴= 1+ =
2 𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘1 + 𝑘2

Subtract
𝐶 𝑘2 Divide 𝐵 𝑘 − 𝑘
𝐵= 1− =
1 2
2 𝑘1 𝐴 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
 𝑘1 −𝑘2
The wave functions; 𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1𝑥 + 𝑘1 +𝑘2
𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1𝑥 ,X<0
in terms of A 2𝑘1
𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝑘2𝑥 ,X<0
𝑘1 + 𝑘2
• This implies that the probability of the particle being reflected is non-
zero. However classically this is forbidden.

• This effect is attributed to wave like behavior of particles.

𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘1𝑥 represents the incident wave

𝑘1 −𝑘2
𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1 𝑥 represents the reflected wave
𝑘1 +𝑘2

E
2𝑘1
𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝑘2𝑥 represents the transmitted wave.
𝑘1 +𝑘2
Probability Density, E > 𝑽𝟎

𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘1𝑥 represents the incident wave

𝑘1 −𝑘2
𝐴 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘1𝑥 represents the reflected wave
𝑘1 +𝑘2

2𝑘1
𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝑘2 𝑥 represents the transmitted wave.
𝑘1 +𝑘2

E
Step Potential (E= 𝑉𝑜 )
Case E = Vo
2𝑚𝐸
𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘1𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘1𝑥 ,where 𝑘12 = ℏ2
,X<0

2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉𝑜 ) ,X>0
𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖 𝑘2𝑥 ,where 𝑘22 = ℏ2

B=A

C=2A

𝜑1 𝑥 = 2𝐴𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑘1 𝑥 , X < 0

𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 2A ; x>0
Probability current density
ћ 𝜕𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 𝜕𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡
𝐽(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
2𝑖𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

J (x,t) is the current associated with charge density ρ

Derivation provided in lecture notes

𝜕ρ 𝜕𝐽
+ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

Change in charge is associated with current escaping/entering the volume.

Charge density in electromagnetism is equivalent to probability density in Quantum

Mechanics.
Probability Current density (E>V)

The current density/flux is defined as :

ћ 𝜕𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 𝜕𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡
𝐽= 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
2𝑖𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

2𝑚𝐸
𝜑1 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘1𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘1𝑥 ,where 𝑘12 = ℏ2
,X<0

2𝑚(𝐸−𝑉𝑜 ) ,X>0
𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 𝑖 𝑘2 𝑥
+ 𝐷𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘2 𝑥 ,where 𝑘22 =
ℏ2
Transmission and Reflection coefficients
Reflection coefficient,
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑅= =
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

Transmission coefficient,
𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑇= =
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

To estimate the reflection and transmission coefficient, we should the

wave function in the appropriate region.

𝑘1 − 𝑘2 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 2𝑘1
𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝑘1 𝑥
+ 𝑒 1 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 =𝐴 𝑒 𝑖𝑘2 𝑥
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
Transmission and Reflection coefficients

Using the correct wave function for different region and the equation below :
iћ 𝜕Ψ∗ (𝑥) ∗ 𝜕Ψ 𝑥
The current density/flux is defined as : j = Ψ 𝑥 −Ψ (𝑥)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

ћ 𝑘1 2
𝑗𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴
𝑚
−ћ 𝑘1
𝑗𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐵2
𝑚
ћ 𝑘2 2
𝑗𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐶
𝑚
Transmission and Reflection coefficients, E > 𝑽𝟎
2 2
𝑘1 − 𝑘2 1−к
𝑅= =
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 1+к
𝑘2 𝑽𝒐
where к = = 𝟏−
4𝑘1 𝑘2 4к 𝑘𝟏 𝑬
𝑇= 2
= 2
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 1+к

• For small value of E, T decreases.

• For E = 𝑽𝟎 , T = 0 and R =1.

• For E >>> 𝑽𝟎 , к ~1, hence R = 0 and T =1.

• Particles with very high energies, the potential step is so weak that it
produces no noticeable effect on their motion.
Probability Current density

The rate at which the incident particles approach the barrier is

The rate at which they are reflected is

and the rate at which they move forward is

ћ 𝑘1 ћ 𝑘2 2
2 2 𝑗𝑥>0 = 𝐶
𝑗𝑥<0 = [𝐴 - 𝐵 ]
𝑚 𝑚
Conversation of Probability Current

ћ 𝑘1 2- 2] ћ 𝑘2 2
𝑗𝑥<0 = [𝐴 𝐵 𝑗𝑥>0 = 𝐶
𝑚 𝑚

These two currents density should be same.

ћ 𝑘1 𝐵2 2 ћ 𝑘1 𝑘1 − 𝑘2 2 2
[1- ] 𝑨 = [1- 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ] 𝑨
𝑚 𝑨2 𝑚

ћ 𝑘1 𝟒𝑘1 𝑘2 2
= [ ] 𝑨
𝑚 (𝑘1 +𝑘2 )𝟐

ћ𝑘2 𝟒𝒌𝟐𝟏 2
= [ ] 𝑨
𝑚 (𝑘1 +𝑘2 )𝟐
ћ𝑘2 2
= 𝑪
𝑚

Conservation of probability current holds

Recap ( Step Potential Well, E>𝑽𝒐 )
Supplementary Information begins
Continuity equations

Schrodinger Equation for 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)

𝜕𝜓(𝑥,𝑡) ћ2 𝜕2 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡
𝑖ћ = − + 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 (1)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

Schrodinger Equation for 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 [𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞1]

𝜕𝜓∗(𝑥,𝑡) ћ2 𝜕2 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡
−𝑖ћ = − + 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 (2)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

Multiply 1 by 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡) and 2 by 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)

𝜕𝜓(𝑥,𝑡) ћ2 𝜕2 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡
𝑖ћ𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡) = − 𝜓∗ (𝑥, 𝑡) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑥, 𝑡)𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 (3)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
 𝜕𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡 ћ2 𝜕2 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡
−𝑖ћ𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 = − 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑉 𝑥 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 (4)
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2

Subtract eq 3 from eq 4

𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓∗(𝑥,𝑡) ћ2 𝜕2 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕2 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡

𝑖ћ 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = − 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) (5)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

Since
𝜕𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡
= 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓∗(𝑥,𝑡)
𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕2 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕2 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡

= + 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 - - 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕2 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕2 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡
= 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 - 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓∗(𝑥,𝑡) 𝜕2 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕2 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡

𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 - 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

(6)
 From eqn 5

𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓∗(𝑥,𝑡) ћ2 𝜕2 𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕2 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡

𝑖ћ 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡) = − 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓(𝑥, 𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡 ћ2 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡

𝑖ћ = − 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
𝜕𝑡 2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡 ћ2 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝑥,𝑡 𝜕𝜓∗ 𝑥,𝑡

𝑖ћ + 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 =0
𝜕𝑡 2𝑖𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

ρ = 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 = probability
 𝜕ρ 𝜕𝐽
+ =0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥

J (x,t) is the current associated with charge density ρ

ћ 𝜕𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡 𝜕𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡
𝐽= 𝜓 ∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 − 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑡
2𝑖𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
Supplementary Information ends
Step Potential Case II: E<V0

(Ex:7.4; Serway)
Step Potential Case II: E<V0

I 2𝑚𝐸 V =0 V = Vo
𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘 2 =
ℏ2 E < V0

2𝑚 I II
−𝛼𝑥 𝛼𝑥 2
II 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐷𝑒 ; 𝛼 = 2 𝑉0 − 𝐸
ℏ
x=0
1. Since 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 → 0 as 𝑥 → ∞ 𝐷=0

2. Boundary conditions ;
(a) 𝜑𝐼 0 = 𝜑𝐼𝐼 0 𝐴+𝐵 =C

(b) 𝜑𝐼′ 0 = 𝜑𝐼𝐼

′
0 𝑖𝑘 𝐴 − 𝐵 = −𝛼𝐶
Finding the coefficients
Trick: Put 𝑘1 = 𝑘 and 𝑘2 = 𝑖𝛼

𝐶 2𝑘1 𝐶 2𝑘
= =
𝐴 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝐴 𝑘 + 𝑖𝛼

and and

𝐵 𝑘 − 𝑖𝛼
𝐵 𝑘1 − 𝑘2 =
= 𝐴 𝑘 + 𝑖𝛼
𝐴 𝑘1 + 𝑘2
E > V0 E < V0
Wave Functions (E < 𝑉0 )
2𝑚
𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘 2 =
2𝑚𝐸 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 ; 𝛼 2 = 2
𝑉0 − 𝐸
ℏ2 ℏ

𝑷𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝑪 2 𝑒 −𝟐𝛼𝑥

~ 𝐶𝑒 −𝛼𝑥

• However, 𝐶 ≠ 0 means that the particle penetrates into region II, which again is classically
forbidden (E< Vo).

• Wave function rapidly approaches zero beyond 𝑥 = 1Τ𝛼 .

• The probability density is appreciable only near 𝑥 = 0, in the range.

ℏ
Penetration depth = 1Τ𝛼 =
2𝑚(𝑉0 −𝐸)
Reflection coefficients (E <Vo)
2𝑚
𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘 2 =
2𝑚𝐸 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 ; 𝛼 2 = 2
𝑉0 − 𝐸
ℏ2 ℏ

𝐶 2𝑘 𝐵 𝑘−𝑖𝛼 V =0 V = Vo
= and = E < V0
𝐴 𝑘+𝑖𝛼 𝐴 𝑘+𝑖𝛼
I II
ћ 𝑘1 2
𝑗𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴
𝑚 x=0
ћ 𝑘1 2
𝑗𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝐵
𝑚
𝐵 2 𝑘−𝑖𝛼 𝑘+𝑖𝛼
• Reflection coefficient ; 𝑅 = = =1
𝐴 𝑘+𝑖𝛼 𝑘−𝑖𝛼

• The Reflection Coefficient = 1, implying that the probability

of reflection is 100%.

The de Broglie wave is “totally reflected”

Transmission coefficients (E <Vo)
• Since φII x = Ce−αx
iћ 𝜕𝛹 ∗ (𝑥) ∗ 𝜕𝛹 𝑥
𝐽𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 = 𝛹 𝑥 −𝛹 (𝑥) =0
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑

Transmission coefficient, 𝑇 = = =0
𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐽𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡

• No transmission current or probability flow due to existing wave

function across the potential step.
• However, 𝐶 ≠ 0 means that the particle penetrates into region II, which

again is classically forbidden (E< Vo).

• No power transmission or energy transfer across the potential step.

Yet the probability of finding the particle is non-zero in region II.
Trying to measure the energy in region II
So one may say that the particle is predominantly localized within the length 𝛥𝑥.

Uncertainty principle then requires that,

𝛥𝑝 ~ ℏΤ2𝛥𝑥 ~ 2𝑚(𝑉0 − 𝐸)

Uncertainty in the energy of the particle,

𝛥𝑝 2
𝛥𝐸 = ~ 𝑉0 − 𝐸
2𝑚

This implies near boundary x > 0, E ~ E + 𝑉0 − 𝐸 ≥ 𝑉0 .

HUP helps to understand the situation with negative kinetic energy.

So, it is impossible to determine whether the energy of the particle is less than or greater than
the barrier.
Summary (Step Potential)
Potential Barrier: Step of finite width
Potential Barrier: Step of finite width

𝑉 𝑥 = 0 ∀𝑥 ≤ 0
= 𝑉0 ∀ 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
=0 ∀𝑥 ≥𝐿

• Potential Barrier is the opposite of potential well.

• Consider particle coming from left and moving

towards the potential barrier in right direction.

• Region I and Region III : total energy is

E = kinetic energy of the particle.

• Region II, the kinetic energy is E- 𝑉0 .

Potential Barrier: Classical Particle

E > 𝑽𝟎

• All particles will pass through the barrier.

• Kinetic energy in region II, will be less due to the potential barrier.

E < 𝑽𝟎

• All particles will be reflected back.

Potential Barrier: Quantum particle (E<V0 & E>V0 )

𝑉 𝑥 = 0 ∀𝑥 ≤ 0
= 𝑉0 ∀ 0 < 𝑥 < 𝐿
=0 ∀𝑥 ≥𝐿

𝑖𝑘𝑥 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 2 2𝑚𝐸

I 𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 + 𝐵𝑒 ; 𝑘 = 2
ℏ
2𝑚𝐸
𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘2 = 2
ℏ

−𝛼𝑥 𝛼𝑥
2𝑚
2
II 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐷𝑒 ; 𝛼 = 2 𝑉0 − 𝐸
ℏ
−𝑖𝑘 ′ 𝑥 𝑖𝑘 ′ 𝑥 ′ 2
2𝑚
𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 + 𝐷𝑒 ; 𝑘 = 2 𝐸 − 𝑉0
ℏ
2𝑚𝐸
III 𝜑𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑖𝑘𝑥
𝑥 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐺𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
; 𝑘 = 2
ℏ2
𝑖𝑘𝑥 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 2
2𝑚𝐸
𝜑𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐺𝑒 ; 𝑘 =
ℏ2
Potential step of finite width E<V0 & E>V0
1. 𝜑𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐺𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝐺 = 0
𝜑𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐺𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝐺 = 0
2. 𝜑𝐼 0 = 𝜑𝐼𝐼 0 yields 𝐴 + 𝐵 = C + D
𝐴+𝐵 =C+D
3. 𝜑𝐼′ 0 = 𝜑𝐼𝐼
′
0 yields 𝑖𝑘 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝛼 𝐷 − 𝐶
𝑘 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝑘′ 𝐷 − 𝐶

4. 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝐿 = 𝜑𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐿 yields 𝐶𝑒 −𝛼𝐿 + 𝐷𝑒 𝛼𝐿 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝐿

′𝐿 ′𝐿
𝐶𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑖𝑘 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝐿
′ ′
5. 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝐿 = 𝜑𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐿 yields 𝛼(𝐷𝑒 𝛼𝐿 − 𝐶𝑒 −𝛼𝐿 ) = 𝑖𝑘𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝐿
′𝐿 ′
𝑘 ′ (𝐷𝑒 𝑖𝑘 − 𝐶𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝐿 ) = 𝑘𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝐿
If we solve the 4 equations, in either case, we can get the ratios
𝐵Τ𝐴 , 𝐶 Τ𝐴 , 𝐷 Τ𝐴 , 𝐹 Τ𝐴
The wavefunctions: E>V0 & E<V0

E>V0 E<V0
E

2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚𝐸
𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘 2 = ℏ2
𝜑𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 ; 𝑘 2 = ℏ2

′ ′ 2𝑚 2𝑚
𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝑖𝑘 𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑖𝑘 𝑥 ; 𝑘′ 2 = 2 𝐸 − 𝑉0 𝜑𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐶𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 + 𝐷𝑒 𝛼𝑥 ; 𝛼 2 = 𝑉 −𝐸
ℏ ℏ2 0
𝜑𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐺𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝐺 = 0 𝜑𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥 = 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐺𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 , 𝐺 = 0