3rd Quarter General Biology 2

Homeostasis
Homeostasis, from the Greek words for “same” and “steady,” refers to any process that living things use to
actively maintain fairly stable conditions necessary for survival. Similar processes dynamically maintain steady-state
conditions in the Earth’s environment. Homeostasis has found useful applications in the social sciences. It refers to
how a person under conflicting stresses and motivations can maintain a stable psychological condition.

Importance of Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the tendency of a system to maintain internal stability. It is essential to life in higher animals.
When the external temperature rises, the human body responds by forming perspiration to maintain core temperature
of 98.6 F, at which the body functions best. All of the organ systems of the body work together to maintain
homeostasis of the organism. If homeostasis fails, death or disease may result.
In the human body, the endocrine and nervous systems control homeostasis. The organs and organ systems
provide feedback to the brain. The body maintains homeostasis through maintaining temperature, balancing pH,
maintaining a balance between electrolytes and water, respiration and maintaining blood pressure.
In the cold, plants may drop their leaves, insulate themselves with dead leaves or hairs. They can prevent
water loss through transpiration, by closing pores called stomata. Also, plants absorb water from the soil and use it to
maintain internal balance. They have naturally adapted to extreme heat in a way that they simply embrace the sunlight
and temperature in desert plants.

Homeostasis in some animals

Cold-blooded animals cannot generate their own body heat, but they do regulate it by changing their
environment. Alligators and other reptiles often lie in the sun to warm themselves. On the other hand, they cool off by
taking a dip in the water, moving into the side of a rock or crawling into a burrow in the ground. Birds are “Warm-
blooded “and hence have to internally regulate their body temperature. Submerging exposed skin helps birds to
dissipate their body heat to the cooler water around them. They use less energy to maintain a constant body
temperature because of the structure of the arteries and veins in their legs. Cats and dogs maintain homeostasis by
panting, sweating, or changing their fur while camels turn to selective brain cooling when it is subjected to heat stress.
Earthworms are able to maintain homeostasis by finding the moisture they require to survive by being able to crawl
and dig burrows deeper into the ground. This explains why earthworms are frequently seen above ground on soggy
lawns, in wet weather, particularly at night when the dew condenses.

Homeostasis in plants
When environment conditions change, plants have certain structures that allow them to maintain homeostasis
and live. When water becomes unavailable, plants close their stomata within the leaves to keep water from
evaporating out. Plants may lose their leaves in the cold or cover themselves in dead leaves or hairs for insulation. By
closing stomata, plants can stop the loss of water. Plants have evolved to tolerate high temperatures by simply
embracing the sunlight and temperature. Plants need the water they take from the soil to keep their internal systems in
balance. Plant cells have rigid walls that contain organs that regulate homeostasis. They respond to it by gradually
altering its growth rate or its direction of growth.

Negative and positive feedback mechanisms

Each mechanism of the body like temperature, blood pressure, and levels of specific nutrients has to be in the
optimum range so that the body can function properly. The feedback loop contains two major forms: (1) positive
feedback and (2) negative feedback. They work to maintain body equilibrium under different conditions.
Examples of Negative Feedback: Human body temperature, Human blood pressure, Human metabolism,
Regulation of blood sugar in humans, and Production of human red blood cells (erythropoiesis).

Examples of Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting (healing process)

Menstrual Cycle, Labor and Childbirth, Nursing, digestion, ripening of fruit, and
nerve signaling. In the case of childbirth, the growth of the baby eventually
causes the uterine walls to expand, which are reflected by the stretch receptors.
This stretching will trigger the secretion of oxytocin hormones that activate the
uterine muscles and it causes the reduction in the space of the uterus. It causes
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more stretching of the uterus and consequently more contractions will happen until the original stimulus (fetus) is
removed (i.e., birth)

Respiration
In animals, gas exchange follows the same general pattern as in plants. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move by
diffusion across moist membranes. In simple animals, the exchange occurs directly with the environment. But with
complex animals, such as mammals, the exchange occurs between the environment and the blood.
Breathing uses chemical and mechanical processes to bring oxygen to every cell of the body and to get rid of
carbon dioxide. Our body needs oxygen to obtain energy to fuel all our living processes. Carbon dioxide is a waste
product of that process. When you inhale (breathe in), air enters your lungs, and oxygen from that air moves to your
blood. At the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste gas, moves from your blood to the lungs and is exhaled (breathed
out). This process, called gas exchange, is essential to life. Oxygenated air, taken in during inhalation, circulates in the
bloodstream on the surface of the lungs, and carbon dioxide is expelled from the blood into the lungs and exhaled
during exhalation.
Insects transport oxygen throughout their bodies through tiny openings in the body walls called spiracles.
Some birds, like mammals in general, have lungs, which are primarily specialized organs for gas exchange. Fish
exchange gas by drawing oxygenated water through their mouths and pumping it over their gills
Circulation
The circulatory system of a fish and the human circulatory system differs. The heart of the fish has a single
circulatory system rather than a double circulatory system having two chambers rather than four chambers with one
ventricle and one atrium rather than two ventricles and two atria and only deoxygenated blood flows through the fish
heart.

Digestion
Digestion begins even before you put food into your mouth. When you feel hungry, your body sends a
message to your brain that it is time to eat. Sights and smells influence your body’s preparedness for food. Smelling
food sends a message to your brain. Your brain then tells the mouth to get ready, and you start to salivate in
preparation for a delicious meal. Food is mechanically broken down into smaller parts; some foods are also broken
down chemically and food is transported to another organ. Macromolecules are chemically broken down into simpler
molecules and they are absorbed into the circulatory system. Then excreted by the body as waste.
Marine invertebrates through food that is suspended in water by utilizing their body parts to propel water
toward a feeding structure to sort through the food. A hydra, for example, has a central cavity that holds prey: the
cavity is lined by a layer of specialized cells that secrete digestive enzymes to break down the prey's tissues. These
cells then absorb the smaller particles and finally digest them, in much the same way that protists do.

Plant Response
Venus flytrap, is probably the most classic and the meanest carnivorous plant of all. The leaves of this
carnivorous plant are characterized by having stiff sensitive hairs. If by any chance, these hairs are touched, the two
lobes of the leaves will snap shut, trapping anything inside. Sundew, also known to be the “master of sticky fly paper
“, the Sundew Drosera is an insect trap that captures its prey with its numerous sticky hairs. These hairs produce
digestive enzymes (like proteases and phosphatases) that are sweet, however. tend to degrade the trapped prey. Pitcher
plant low-growing plant is characterized by having hairy pitfall traps with two kinds of leaves: the carnivorous pitcher
leaves and the non-carnivorous ones. Butterwort is a small herbaceous plant famous for its flowers pollinated by
hummingbirds. The leaves of these plants are covered in short sticky hairs that secrete enzymes and acids that can
dissolve and degrade their prey.

In response to stimulus
Makahiya plant or Mimosa pudica is well known for its rapid plant movement. Leaves of the sensitive plant
protect themselves from predators and environmental conditions by folding in response to touch. our touch acts as a
stimulus for the plant and it closes its leaves in return. Some chemicals are released from the stem when we touch the
plant. These chemicals force water to move out of the cell leading to the loss of turgor pressure. As a result, leaves
droop.

Plant growth and Development

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 The apical meristem, also known as the “growing tip,” is an undifferentiated meristematic tissue found in the
buds and growing tips of roots in plants. Its main function is to trigger the growth of new cells in young seedlings at
the tips of roots and shoots and forming buds.

Lateral meristems are cells found at the margins of stems and roots. They are an essential component in the
process of the stems and roots expanding in width and diameter. The bases of young leaves and internodes are both
locations that contain intercalary meristems.

Primary growth is a result of rapidly-dividing cells in the apical meristems at the shoot tip and root tip.
Subsequent cell elongation also contributes to primary growth. The growth of shoots and roots during primary growth
enables plants to continuously seek water (roots) or sunlight (shoots).

Secondary growth is characterized by an increase in thickness or girth of the plant. It is caused by cell division
in the lateral meristem. Herbaceous plants mostly undergo primary growth, with little secondary growth or increase in
thickness

Skeletal System
A skeletal system is necessary to support the body, protect internal organs, and allow for the movement of an
organism. There are three different skeleton designs that fulfill these functions: hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton, and
endoskeleton.
A hydrostatic skeleton is a skeleton formed by a fluid-filled compartment within the body, called the coelom.
The organs of the coelom are supported by the aqueous fluid, which also resists external compression. This
compartment is under hydrostatic pressure because of the fluid and supports the other organs of the organism. This
type of skeletal system is found in soft-bodied animals such as sea anemones, earthworms, Cnidaria, and other
invertebrates.
An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that consists of a hard encasement on the surface of an organism. For
example, the shells of crabs and insects are exoskeletons. This skeleton type provides defense against predators,
supports the body, and allows for movement through the contraction of attached muscles.
An endoskeleton is a skeleton that consists of hard, mineralized structures located within the soft tissue of
organisms. An example of a primitive endoskeletal structure is the spicules of sponges. The bones of vertebrates are
composed of tissues, whereas sponges have no true tissues. Endoskeletons provide support for the body, protect
internal organs, and allow for movement through contraction of muscles attached to the skeleton.

Nervous System
Brain
Midbrain: The top part of the brainstem is crucial for regulating eye movements.
Pons: The middle portion of the brainstem coordinates facial movements, hearing and balance.
Medulla oblongata: The bottom part of the brainstem helps regulate your breathing, heart rhythms, blood
pressure and swallowing.

Your hypothalamus, a structure deep in your brain, acts as your body's smart control coordinating center. Its
main function is to keep your body in a stable state called homeostasis. It does its job by directly influencing your
autonomic nervous system or by managing hormones.

Reproduction
Double fertilization
double fertilization, in flowering plant reproduction, the fusion of the egg and sperm and the simultaneous fusion of a
second sperm and two polar nuclei that ultimately results in the formation of the endosperm (the food-storage tissue)
of the seed. This is called double fertilization because the true fertilization (fusion of a sperm with an egg) is
accompanied by another fusion process (that of a sperm with the polar nuclei) that resembles fertilization. Double
fertilization of this type is unique to flowering plants (angiosperms) and is responsible for the formation of both the
embryo and its potential food source in the seed.

Genetics
Two of the chromosomes (the X and the Y chromosome) determine your sex as male or female when you are
born. They are called sex chromosomes: Females have 2 X chromosomes. Males have 1 X and 1 Y chromosome.

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 The terms Genotype and phenotype may sound similar, but there is a huge difference between genotype and
phenotype.

The genotype is a set of genes in DNA responsible for unique traits or characteristics, while the phenotype is
the physical appearance or characteristic of an organism.
Genotype: The letters that make up the individual. Ex. TT or Tt

Phenotype refers to an individual's observable traits, such as height, eye color and blood type while A
genotype is a scoring of the type of variant present at a given location (i.e., a locus) in the genome.
Phenotype: The physical characteristics of the particular trait. Ex. Tall or short

The genotypic ratio is the ratio depicting the different genotypes of the offspring from a test cross. It
represents the pattern of offspring distribution according to genotype, which is the genetic constitution determining the
phenotype of an organism.
What is the genotypic ratio of AA and AA?
Zygotic genotypes occur in characteristic ratios, according to the genotypes of the parents. produces an
expected genotypic ratio of 1:2:1 among AA, Aa, & aa genotypes.

A phenotypic ratio is a quantitative relation between phenotypes showing the number of times the frequency
of one phenotype correlates with another. When a researcher would like to obtain the gene expression for generations
of an organism, they use the phenotypic ratio obtained from a test cross.
The phenotypic ratio definition is the ratio of different phenotypes present in the offspring of a cross. Ratios
are numerical comparisons. For example, if someone had three apples and two oranges, the ratio of apples to oranges
would be 3:2.

Another example showing genotypic and phenotypic ratio in a cross between Tt and Tt is shown below.

The Punnett square is a square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding
experiment. It is a chart that allows you to easily determine the expected percentage of different genotypes in the
offspring of two parents.

Below is a good example of Punnett squares. The seed Color in Common Pea Plant- First of all, the famous
pea plant under discussion here is Pisium sativum. The creation of true-breeding homozygous plants for both the
alleles was possible because of Mendell.

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 Dominant and recessive genes. The most common interaction between alleles is a dominant/recessive
relationship. An allele of a gene is said to be dominant when it effectively overrules the other (recessive) allele. Eye
colour and blood groups are both examples of dominant/recessive gene relationships.

What is the difference between dominant and recessive traits? Dominant traits are always expressed when the
connected allele is dominant, even if only one copy of the dominant trait exists. Recessive traits are expressed only if
both the connected alleles are recessive.

Dominant trait: Signified by capital letter-Ex. T. If the traits you are using are dominant or recessive, this trait
will "overpower" the recessive trait and will be expressed. Ex. Tt

Recessive trait: Signified by small case letter-Ex. t. An organism with a recessive allele for a particular
form of a trait will have that form only when the dominant allele for the trait is not present.

Homozygous: Has same letters. Ex. TT or tt (same alleles for trait)

Heterozygous: Has different letters. Ex. Tt (different alleles for trait)

Gamete: sex cells. Represented by letter N (meaning they are haploid-containing half the chromosomes

The results of monohybrid crosses performed by Mendel using various characters of garden peas
Seed shape: F2 ratio of 2.96:1 Pod shape: F2 ratio of 2.95:1
Seed color: F2 ratio of 3.01:1 Pod color: F2 ratio of 2.82:1
Flower location: F2 ratio of 3.14:1 Flower color: F2 ratio of 3.15:1

Terminologies used
P generation: The parental generation (Usually the first one in a genetic cross)
F1 generation: The first generation of offspring from P generation (means first filial: Latin for "son")
F2 generation: The second generation of offspring from P generation (means first filial: Latin for "son")

Monohybrid Cross: Also known as a Single-Factor Cross. Only one trait is used in the genetic cross.

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Ex. T=Tall, t=short. Example: Tt x Tt

Dihybrid Cross: Also known as a Two-factor Cross. Two trait are used in the genetic cross.
Ex. T=Tall, t=short & B=Black fur, b=white fur. Example TtBb x TTBB

Incomplete Dominance: One allele is not completely dominant over the other. There is a blending with
the heterozygous offspring. E.g. RR=Red, Rr=Pink, and rr=white

Co-dominance: Both alleles contribute to the phenotype. Offspring will have combination of two alleles.
E.g. RR=Red hair, Rr=Roan (mix of red and white hairs-almost looks pink), and rr=white

Sex-linked trait: Genes located on the sex-chromosomes called sex-linked genes. Usually found on the
X chromosome. X-linked alleles are always expressed in males because males have only one X chromosome.

Sex-linked gene (the sex of the individual influences the expression of the sex-linked genes)

Sex linkage refers to when a gene controlling a characteristic is located on a sex chromosome (X or Y)
The Y chromosome is much shorter than the X chromosome and contains only a few genes
The X chromosome is longer and contains many genes not present on the Y chromosomes
Hence, sex-linked conditions are usually X-linked - as very few genes exist on the shorter Y chromosome

The following trends always hold true for X-linked conditions:

Only females can be carriers (a heterozygote for a recessive disease condition), males cannot be heterozygous carriers

Males will always inherit an X-linked trait from their mother (they inherit a Y chromosome from their father)
Sex-linked traits appear more often in males than in females since the recessive allele on the X chromosome will
always produce the trait in a male.

Females cannot inherit an X-linked recessive condition from an unaffected father (must receive his dominant allele)

Red-green colour blindness and haemophilia are both examples of X-linked recessive conditions
Consequently, they are both far more common in males than in females (males cannot mask the trait as a carrier).
Color blindness is caused by a mutation of the genes that produced red and green light- sensitive proteins in the X
chromosome. When a carrier mother marries a man with normal vision, the probability of having color blind sons will
be 50% while daughters will all be normal.

Red-green colour blindness is a genetic disorder whereby an individual fails to discriminate between red and
green hues. This condition is caused by a mutation to the red or green retinal photoreceptors, which are located on the
X chromosome.

Molecular Structure of DNA and RNA

Differences Between DNA and RNA Molecules
There are also several differences between DNA and RNA molecules. These are:
1. Type of Sugar
The 5-carbon sugar found in DNA is deoxyribose, whereas RNA contains the sugar ribose.

2. Nitrogenous Bases
DNA contains the bases cytosine, guanine, adenine, and thymine, whereas RNA contains cytosine, guanine,
adenine, and uracil.

3. Base Pairing
Base pairing is slightly different in DNA and RNA molecules. The base pairs in DNA molecules are:
Adenine (A) – Thymine (T)
Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G)

Whereas the base pairs in RNA molecules are:

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 Adenine (A) – Uracil (U)
Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G)

4. Strand Number
DNA is a double-stranded molecule; RNA is a single-stranded molecule.

Nucleotide
A nucleotide is the basic building block of nucleic acids (RNA and DNA). A nucleotide consists of a sugar
molecule (either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA) attached to a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base.
The bases used in DNA are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T).

DNA Replication
DNA replication in prokaryotes and eukaryotes occurs before the division of cells. In prokaryotic cells, there is
only one point of origin, replication occurs in two opposing directions at the same time, and takes place in the cell
cytoplasm. Eukaryotic cells on the other hand, have multiple points of origin, and use unidirectional replication within
the nucleus of the cell.

DNA replication is a process where a single molecule of DNA is duplicated to result in two identical DNA
molecules. The genome's DNA is copied in cells during DNA replication. It is called as semiconservative replication
in which the replication occurs in all known cells. DNA ligase is used in both DNA repair and DNA replication
Complementary Sequence: Since DNA has two strands, every DNA sequence has a complementary sequence
running parallel. In the complementary sequence, Adenine (A) is always paired with Thymine (T), and Cytosine (C) is
always paired with Guanine (G).
DNA polymerase produces a nucleotide that is complementary to the template strand in order to fill a gap in
single-stranded DNA.

For example, a strand of DNA with a nucleotide sequence of AGTCATGA will have a complementary strand with
the sequence TCAGTACT

Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering (also called genetic modification) is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter
the DNA makeup of an organism. This may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of
DNA or adding a new segment of DNA.
Genetic engineering, the artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid
molecules in order to modify an organism or population of organisms. The term genetic engineering is generally used
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to refer to methods of recombinant DNA technology, which emerged from basic research in microbial genetics. The
techniques employed in genetic engineering have led to the production of medically important products, including
human insulin, human growth hormone, and hepatitis B vaccine, as well as to the development of genetically modified
organisms such as disease-resistant plants.
The processes of genetic engineering: DNA Extraction, Gene Cloning, Gene Design, Transformation, and
Backcross Breeding. The technique is used to separate protein fragments based on size is polyacrylamide gel
electrophoresis. Electrophoresis refers to the separation of DNA fragments.

DNA, RNA and protein synthesis

1. DNA replication
Each time a cell divides, each of its double strands of DNA splits into two single strands. Each of these single strands
acts as a template for a new strand of complementary DNA. As a result, each new cell has its own complete genome.
This process is known as DNA replication. Replication is controlled by the Watson-Crick pairing of the bases in the
template strand with incoming deoxynucleoside triphosphates, and is directed by DNA polymerase enzymes. It is a
complex process, particularly in eukaryotes, involving an array of enzymes. DNA ligase is used in both DNA repair
and DNA replication.

2. Transcription
Transcription is the process by which DNA is copied (transcribed) to mRNA, which carries the information needed for
protein synthesis. Transcription takes place in two broad steps. First, pre-messenger RNA is formed, with the
involvement of RNA polymerase enzymes. The process relies on Watson-Crick base pairing, and the resultant single
strand of RNA is the reverse-complement of the original DNA sequence. The pre-messenger RNA is then "edited" to
produce the desired mRNA molecule in a process called RNA splicing.

3. Translation
The mRNA formed in transcription is transported out of the nucleus, into the cytoplasm, to the ribosome (the cell's
protein synthesis factory). Here, it directs protein synthesis. Messenger RNA is not directly involved in protein
synthesis - transfer RNA (tRNA) is required for this. The process by which mRNA directs protein synthesis with the
assistance of tRNA is called translation.

A restriction enzyme cutting sequences of DNA

They recognize and bind to specific sequences of DNA, called restriction sites. Each restriction enzyme recognizes
just one or a few restriction sites. When it finds its target sequence, a restriction enzyme will make a double-stranded
cut in the DNA molecule. To produce transgenic bacteria that make insulin, the use a restriction enzyme to cut out the
insulin gene from human DNA is the first step.

Restriction enzyme - cleaves DNA sequences at sequence-specific sites, producing DNA fragments with a known
sequence at each end.

Recombinant DNA Technology

Recombinant DNA technology involves using enzymes and various laboratory techniques to manipulate and
isolate DNA segments of interest. This method can be used to combine (or splice) DNA from different species or to
create genes with new functions. The resulting copies are often referred to as recombinant DNA.

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 Recombinant DNA is produced by joining of two or more DNA fragments originating from different
organisms. rDNA technology is a vital in biotechnology, which uses organisms or their parts to create beneficial goods
and processes. It has made it possible to sequence and analyze the human genome, leading to the discovery of new
genes and the identification of genetic mutations that cause disease. It is seen in bioremediation, which involves the
use of microorganisms that are genetically modified to break down pollutants in the environment.

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