SUMMARY

IN

METHODS OF RESEARCH

2023
Module 1

Research using the simplest definition, is looking for an answer to query

using the most logical and valid methods. Research is conducted in various
settings: classrooms, laboratories, barangays, and even foreign cultures. We can
simply define research as a systematic and refined technique of thinking,
employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures to obtain a more
adequate solution to a problem. It starts with a problem; collection of data; analysis
of facts, which are critical and researching decisions based on actual observations.
The main purpose and goal of research is the preservation and improvement of the
quality of human life. A good research has some characteristics; it must be
systematic, controlled, empirical, analytical, employs hypotheses, employs
qualitative or statistical, methods, it is an original work, it is done by expert, it is
accurate investigation, observation, observation and description, it is a patient and
unhurried activity, it requires an effort making capacity, and lastly, it requires
courage

Research and problem-solving are not always the same; each have distinctive
characteristics and differs from each other. Not all problem-solving can be
considered as a research problem. In broader sense, a research problem is more
rigorous and larger in scope.

Research has been defined as “the process of gathering data or information

to solve a particular or specific problem in a scientific manner. Research is a key to
progress. There can be no progress without research in almost if not all human
endeavors. Research is carried out for the purpose of advancement of human life.
The main or principal purpose and goal of research is the preservation and
improvement of the quality of human life. All kinds of research are directed toward
this end.

A good research gathers new knowledge or data from primary or firsthand

sources. Research is expert, systematic and accurate investigation. Research is
logical and objective, applying every possible test to verify the data collected and
procedures employed. Research is patient and unhurried. Nonetheless, research is
carefully recorded and reported.

The difference between research and problem-solving is that a research may

not be a problem, only interest in answering a question or query, while in problem
solving, there should always be a problem to be solved. Research is more rigorous
and broader in scope compared to problem-solving. Although research may
involve problem solving but this is not the sole aim of research, on the other hand,
problem-solving does not always involve research.

Research is classified according to their distinctive features. According to

purpose we can classify research as predictive or prognostic research, directive
research, and illuminative research. According to goal, we can classify them as
basic or pure research and applied research. According to levels of investigation,
research is classified as exploratory research, descriptive research, and
experimental research. According to the type of analysis, research can be in
analytical approach or holistic approach. According to scope, under this category is
action research. Based on the choice of answers to problems, research can be an
evaluation research or developmental research. According to statistical content,
research can be quantitative or non-quantitative research. Lastly, we can classify
research according to time element; under this category of research are historical
research, descriptive research, and experimental research. Other types and kinds of
research are named according to the area or field of study.

Module 2
 A hypothesis is a tentative conclusion or answer to a specific question raised
at the beginning of the investigation. It is an educated guess about the answer to a
specific question. On the other hand, an assumption is a self-evident truth which is
based upon a known fact or phenomenon. The functions of a hypothesis in a
research are that: it introduces the thinking of the researcher, it structures the next
stage of the research report , it identifies the characteristics of the researcher, it
brings the research to a deeper analysis of the variables of the study, it identifies
what the research hopes and contemplates of the study, and finally , it helps the
researcher provide the format of the presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the
data gathered in the study. The characteristics of a good hypothesis can be
summarized as: it should be testable, and it should state type of analysis between
variable, weather relationships of differences. Generally, the types of hypotheses
are research and statistical hypothesis. On the other hand, it is usual to see two
ways of stating the hypothesis as they are discussed in books. These are the null
and alternative forms. One of the most important aspects of a hypothesis is a
variable. Variables are characteristics possessed by an object, a situation, a person,
or a group of people. Variables are classified as quantitative and qualitative. It
cannot be considered as quantitative variable if it can be measured numerically like
age, intelligent quotient, number of years in service scores in examination, grade
point, number hours in slept, temperature degrees, height, weight and the like. On
the contrary, a qualitative variable is a variable that cannot be measured
quantitively or cannot be expressed numerically such as sex, civil status,
educational attainment, grief, stress, amount of depression, type of surgery,
personality, level of management, tenure of service and the like.

A research problem is the focus of a research investigation. A research

problem is exactly that a problem that someone would like to research. A problem
can be anything that a person finds unsatisfactory, or unsettling, a difficulty of
some sort of, a state of affair that needs to be changed, anything that is not working
as well as it might. On the other hand, a thesis or dissertation is a documented
submitted in support of candidate of professional qualification presenting the
authors research and findings. Thesis writing also involves the choice of a
problem. This stage is difficult but quite challenging and stimulating. A good
problem that a researcher should consider is it must be of great interest on the part
of the researcher, it should possess novelty, and also it should invite more complex
designing a good problem also must be time bounded and finally, a good problem
does not carry ethical or more impediments. The statement of the problem can be
expressed either general or specific. Basically, every research starts with a problem
or problems. On the other hand, after selecting the theme or topic to write on, the
researcher considers the title of the research and criterion measurers exist for
presenting a good one.

A research is the focus of a research investigation. A research problem is

exactly- that a problem that someone would like to research. A problem can be
anything that persons find unsatisfactory, or settling, a difficult of some of a state
of affair that needs to be changed, anything that is not working as well as it might.
Problems involved areas of concern to researchers, condition they want to improve,
difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for which they seek answers.

Thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for

an academic or professional qualification presenting the author’s research and
findings. In writing the research report, students find it difficult to find a good
topic or problem. Problems may arise anywhere, there are so many problems
around us, some problems are easy to solve but problems in research require time
and intensive effort. The characteristics of a good problem are, it should be great
interest to the researcher, it should be useful for the concerned people in a
particular field. Further characteristic of a good problem is that, it possesses
novelty. A good problem is one that it can be completed in the allotted time
desired. Finally, a good problem does not carry ethical and moral impediments.

The statement of the problem can be stated generally or specifically. There

are two ways of stating the research problem, it could be written in question form
or topical form pending on the nature of research. Usually business research uses
topical form while the rest uses question form in stating their research problem.

After the selection of theme or the topic to write on, researcher considers the
title of the research and what criterion measures exist for presenting a good one.
After writing the title of the research based on criterion measures, it is necessary to
formulate the hypothesis of our research or thesis. A hypothesis is an educated
guess about the answer to a scientific question. It is then the most specific
statement of the problem. It differs from an assumption is presumed to be true and
need not to be verified. It is based on facts and known phenomenon. The
hypothesis services many functions is a research study. The main function of the
hypothesis is to guide the researcher in designing his study. A good hypothesis is,
it should be reasonable and it should state the type of analysis between the
variable, whether differences or relationships. Hypothesis generally are classified
as research and statistical hypothesis, but commonly used hypothesis is the
statistical hypothesis. Under hypothesis is the null and alternative hypothesis.

Aside from the problem or the topic of the research and the hypothesis, it is
very important to consider the variables used in research. Variables are the
important aspects of hypothesis. A hypothesis cannot be formed if the variable of
the study is not isolated or not separable. Variables are the characteristics
possessed by an object, or group of people. These variables can be classified as
qualitative variable. These can be further classified as independent and dependent
variables.

Module 3

The methods of research as a part the research proposal consist of three

parts- subjects, procedures, and data analysis. The subject section describes the
population from which the investigation will select the sample. The procedure part
describes the research plan on how the researcher will undertake the investigation,
what data are needed and what data- gathering instruments will be employed. The
methodology of data analysis should be described clearly and specific so that the
reader will know precisely what is planned. We can categorize the methods of
research as qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative method of research is data free
while the latter one is not data free. Another type of research method is historical
method, descriptive method which includes case studies surveys, developmental
studies, follow- up studies, documentary analysis, trend analysis, and correlational
studies. Aside from these methods is experimental method, ex- post facto research
or casual comparative method, action research, and alternative forms of research.

Alternative research methods were carried due to the uncertain relevance of

western methodologies in studying unique to our culture. This is a new trend
especially in social sciences to break away from the strict standardized procedures
of western origin to give a way for a more natural, authentic and indigenous but
cogently scientific study of human behavior. Under this type of research methods
is participatory research method, indigenous research method and ethnographic
research method. At the end of your research will dictate the kinds of research
methodologies you will use to underpin your work and methods you will use in
order to collect data.

The methods of research consist of three- parts- subjects, procedure, and

data analysis. The subjects described the population, procedures part describes the
research plan, how the researcher will undertake the investigation, what data are
needed and what data- gathering instrument will employed. The methodology of
data analysis should be described clearly and be specific so that the reader will
know precisely what is planned.

The methods of researcher or the methodology is usually place in chapter 3

of the researcher proposal. There are different types of research methods used in
research depending on the type of research undertaken. Historical research or
historical method of research is a systematic process of searching the facts and then
using the information to synthesize, describes analyze and interpret the past. On
the other hand, descriptive methods of research described what is. It involves
description, recording, analysis, and interpretation of the present nature,
composition or process of phenomena. This type of method includes case studies,
surveys, developmental studies, follow- up studies, trend analysis, and
correlational studies. The next type of research method is the experimental method
of research. This method is the most prestigious method of advancing scientific
knowledge. This type of research seeks to answer question about the caution.

Other research method used in research is the ex-post facto or casual

comparative method. In this method, the researcher investigates the problem by
studying the variable in retrospect. While action research is said to be an applied
research carried out by practitioners in order to improved local practitioners.

For more than a decade now, distinguished Filipino researchers have

devoted substantial efforts in exploring alternative research method. This is due to
the uncertain relevance of the western methodologies in studying social behavior
unique to our culture. There is now a trend most specially in social sciences to
break away from the strict standardized procedure of western origin to give way
for a more natural, authentic, and indigenous but cogently scientific study of
human behavior. These methods include participatory research method, indigenous
method, and ethnographic research methods.
Module 4

Theory as defined by Kerlinger (1973) is “asset of interrelated constructs

(concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of
phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of
explaining and predicting the phenomena.” In search of the theory, you gather
information mostly from related literature. You consult books, journals, magazines,
these and dissertations, and other sources for this theory.

The theoretical frameworks indicate all the constructs (concepts),

definitions, and propositions that relate to research problem. The theoretical
framework becomes the basis of the research problem. It explains the phenomena
upon which the thesis investigation hopes to fill the vacuum in the stream of
knowledge.

The practice of constructing theoretical framework is to cite different

theories, models, and paradigms related to problem and hypothesis. The other way
of constructing theoretical framework is to modify or reconstruct the theory into
general framework containing the variable and relationships for the purpose of the
research undertaken.

Conceptual framework is a mental image or perception anchored on the

theoretical framework. The conceptual framework is drawn from the review of
related literature and studies. It should clarify the relationship between and among
major variables of the study. It should be illustrated further in drawing a
conceptual paradigm. A paradigm is a research perspective or view that holds
about what research goals and methods should be paradigm as “a pattern, example,
or model.”

The review of related literature is the major process that leads to past theory.
The source of information that can provide and be used for review of literature is
library. The sources of related studies usually are laws, department orders,
memoranda, and circulars established and promulgated by duly constituted
authority for observance and compliance which are directly related to the present
study. These are written and positive rules prescribed under the authority of the
state.

The key term should be substantially and clearly defined according to how
they are utilized in the study in order to facilitate understanding of the problem.
The definition of terms/ variables maybe either lexical/ conceptual or operational
or both. Operational definition expresses the meaning of terms / variables are used
in a particular field of study.
Module 5

Sampling may be defined as measuring portion of something and then

making a general statement about the whole thing. The process which involves
taking a part of the population, making observations on the representative groups,
making observations on these groups, and then generalizing the findings to the
bigger population is termed sampling. Regardless of the specific techniques used in
selecting a sample, the steps used in sampling include: identification of the
population, determination of the required sample size, and selection of the sample.

The sampling techniques that may be employed in research are as follows:

(1) Random sampling is a method of selecting a sample size from a universe such
that each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the
sample and all possible combinations of size have an equal chance of being
selected as the sample. Tis is the most systematic technique for getting sample
units at random. (2) the Random Table contains columns of digits that have been
mechanically generated usually by a computer, to assure a random order. (3)
Lottery Sampling is called the fishbowl technique by Fox (1969), this procedure
can be applied by first assigning numbers of the participants of your population
assembling them in a sampling frame. (4) Another type for selecting members of a
sample that allows only one chance and a “system” to determine membership in
the sample. (5) Stratified sampling is defined as a strategy for selecting samples in
such a way that specific sub- groups (strata) will have a sufficient number of
representatives within the sample to provide sample numbers for sub- analysis of
the numbers of these sub- groups. (6) Cluster sampling occurs when you select the
members of your sample in clusters rather that in using separate individuals
(Vockell, 1983). It is sampling in which groups, not individuals are randomly
selected. (7) in non-random sampling, the sample is not proportion of the
population and there is no system in selecting sample. The selection depends upon
the situation. Under this sampling, technique are purposive/ deliberate sampling,
quota sampling, and convenience sampling.

Module 6

Methods of data collection involve three steps. The first is the pre- collection
activity where the researchers agrees on goals, target data, definitions and what
method to be used. Next step is the actual collection of data, and finally, is the
presentation of findings.

A data collection of numbers, quantities, facts, or records used as a basis for

drawing conclusions or making inferences. Data are what research is searching for
and which are subject to analysis, statistical procedures, and interpretation on the
other hand can be classified into three sources, the primary, secondary and tertiary
sources of information. The data for quantitative and qualitative research is
collected from direct observations, tests, survey questionnaires and interviews.
Researchers refer to these as data collection devices and procedures as instruments.
The several ways of collecting data among which are the clerical tools such
interview method, empirical observation method, registration method, testing
method, experimental method, and library method. Other ways of collecting data
can be done through mechanical devices, thermometer, cameras, etc.

Data presentation is very important in research, it is a process of organizing

data logical, sequential, and meaningful categories and classifications to make
them amenable to the study and interpretation. Data can be presented in tabular
form, graphical form, and textual presentation of data.

In every thesis or study aside from presenting the data into a logical
manageable way a researcher always documents all the ideas and concepts cited in
the study. Documentation is very important in order not to plagiarize the work or
idea of another person. The term documentation is generally used for the gathering
and recording of information, especially to establish or provide evidence and the
most common are footnotes and endnotes.

Data, plural for datum, are a collection of numbers, quantities facts, or

records, used as a basis for drawing conclusions or making inferences. A formal
data collection process is necessary as it ensures that the data gathered are both
defined and accurate and that subsequent decision based on arguments embodies in
the findings are valid. The process provides both a baseline from which to measure
and in certain cases a target on what to improve. Data are just numerical figures
unless interpreted to become information. Sources of information can be classified
as primary, secondary, and tertiary sources.

The data for quantitative and qualitative research are collected direct
observation, tests and survey questionnaire and interviews. Researchers refers to
these data collection devices and procedures as instruments.

Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and

meaningful categories and classifications to make them amenable to the study and
interpretation. Analysis and presentation put data into proper order and categories
reducing them into forms that are intelligible and interpretable so that relationships
between the research specific questions and their intended answers can be
established. There are three ways of presenting the data: textual, tabular, and
graphical.

Module 7

Carter and Baker (2010) describe bibliography as twofold scholarly

discipline. It is an organized listing of books and systematic description of books
as physical objects. A bibliography gives a reviewer an idea of how much and what
quality of background research you did for your project. The task of compiling an
annotated bibliography will help the researcher think about the relevance and
quality of the material on a topic. In writing the bibliography it follows certain
standards and rules in order to present it systematically.

Footnote and bibliography are both part of referencing. Footnotes are what
you need when you cite a quote or some information that you have gotten form
other source while a bibliography is a summary of all references in an alphabetical
list (surname first).

A “quotation” is the exact word or words that a person speaks. Quoting the
word of another person is not an easy task; it should follow a certain format or
style. The first line of each entry with in your list should be on the left margin.
Subsequent lines should be independent five spaces from the margin. All reference
should be doubled- spaced. Capitalized only the first word of a title or subtitle of a
work. Italicize title of book and journals.

Quotation can be cited in different ways such as in- text quotations, short
quotations, and long quotations. The reference list of a bibliography should appear
at the end of the essay or thesis. It provides the information necessary for a reader
to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the essay. Each source, you cite in the
essay must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list
must be cited in your text. It is good to understand the difference between a direct
quotation and an indirect one. A direct quotation is the words you hear from
someone speaking, and an indirect quotation, which are the words that someone
uses to describes another speaker.

A good researcher should possess good values in order to have a successful

work. That is, a good researcher should possess the right and desirable qualities in
order to succeed in his researches. It cannot be denied that a researcher must be
intelligent enough. The basic qualities of a researcher are intelligence, honesty,
curiosity and initiative, enough knowledge, and good in oral and written.

In evaluating the research report, a good researcher should consider many

factors in writing the different parts of research report. There are guidelines or
checklist to be considered in evaluating a thesis or dissertation. In writing the title,
it should be clear and concise, while the statement of the problem, it should be
clearly stated, properly defined, significant questions should be clearly stated,
properly defined, significant questions should be clearly stated. In the
methodology, the research design should be described and relevant variables
should be recognized. The data-gathering instrument should be appropriate to the
type of research being studied. The validity and reliability should be established
and statistical treatment should be appropriate also. The results or data analysis
should be appropriate table and figures. The textual discussion should be clear and
concise, also the analysis of data relationships should be logical and perceptive,
and finally, statistically analysis should be accurately interpreted.

Module 8

The third part of the research report is the research methodology, in this
chapter, the researchers write the approach used such as whether the study is
descriptive, historical, experimental, ex-post facto or participatory. Here, you
explain why you employ such approach. This chapter includes the research
instrument, the statistical treatment of data, the sampling procedure used and the
locale and respondents of the study.

The fourth part of the research report is the presentation and interpretation of
findings. This portion of the research report presents the findings and discussions
concerning the research report. The thesis is expected to discuss why such results
came out. In this part, the present findings may confirm or reject those of the past.
The results in this section have been obtained using the data analysis presented
either in tabular form, graphical or textual presentation. In this manner, tables,
graphs, and other graphic devices maximize the lucidity of the presentation. In
most research reports, the presentation of data and analysis are integrated with the
interpretation and discussion.

The last chapter of the research report is the summary, conclusions, and
recommendations. In most research, the summary puts together the highlights of
the important findings of the investigation. The conclusions have been judged by
all researchers as one of the most difficult to write. After having finished your
study and after written the research report up to the summary, still you find
drawing the conclusions far from being written. The conclusion is an abstraction
drawn from the summary of findings and it is tied to the questions being
investigated. The recommendation and implication on the other hand, allows the
researcher for free thinking for the reason that as long as there is logical link
between the data, conclusions and suggestions for further research end this chapter.

Module 9
 The research student who is contemplating on an investigation on an
investigation must be of sure necessity to write a proposal. The dictionary defines a
proposal as “a proposing, or setting forth for consideration, something proposed,
an offer, a proposition, a scheme, a plan, a bid, or the like”. The research proposal
is, the plan for an intended investigation.

Before writing proposal, you should have a thorough and complete review of
literature and studies. The theory that you gather from related literature will assist
the researcher with a great deal in writing the proposal. With an intensive review of
related literature, the researcher will have better chances of being able to identify
and state the problem, delimit the cope, and gather methods and procedures for
your own data collection and analysis.

The research abstract is a concise summary of a larger project that concisely

describes the content and scope of the project that concisely describes the content
and scope of the project and identifies the projects’ objective, its methodology,
findings, and conclusions. Or intended results. The abstract is the description of
your thesis/ dissertation and not a description of our topic. Since abstracts are
generally very short, it’s important that you do not get bogged down in a summary
of the entire background of your topic.

Aside from the research abstract, the research proposal also contains
appendices. The place for the appendices is placed after the bibliography. These
are supplementary materials used in the preparation of the thesis/ dissertation,
these includes questionnaire, letter to authority to conduct the study and its
approval, letter to the respondents/ participants of the investigation, supporting
documents, e.g. the Constitution, laws, department circular, and memoranda as
legal basis, illustrative materials like the map or facility where the study was
conducted and the tabulations and computations of data in the research study.
Appendix is listed by capital letter with the corresponding caption.