ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

→ Gk: endo,”within” + krino, “to secrete”, exo “outside” HORMONES

→ Composed of endocrine glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones that General Characteristics
elicit a response to target tissues or effectors

STABILITY COMMUNICATION DISTRIBUTION

Endocrine System Functions
1. Metabolism ● size & stability Hormones only act Free (detach from
2. Control of food intake and digestion (the bigger the size, on specific target bind proteins) vs.
3. Tissue development the greater stability; tissues Bound
4. Ion regulation and the smaller the Hormone(attached
5. Water balance size, the lesser to a binding protein)
stability)
6. Heart rate and blood pressure
regulation
● Stability &
7. Control of blood glucose and other duration of effect
nutrients ( the greater
8. Control of Reproductive functions stability, the longer
9. Uterine contraction and milk release duration of effect;
10. Immune System regulation and the lesser
stability, the shorter
duration of effect)
PRINCIPLES OF CHEMICAL COMMUNICATION

Chemical Nature

Classes of Chemical Messengers

1. Autocrine Chemical Messenger
➔ Stimulates the cell that originally Pattern of Hormones Secretion
secreted it (or nearby cells) or same
cell type
➔ Examples:
● Eicosanoids
● Messengers from WBC’s
2. Paracrine Chemical Messenger
➔ Acts as local messengers
➔ Affects nearby tissue of different cell
types
➔ Do not enter the circulation; secreted
into the extracellular fluid
➔ Examples:
● Histamine
WBC→ blood vessels to vasodilate CONTROL OF HUMAN SECRETION
3. Neurotransmitter 1) HUMORAL STIMULI
➔ Secreted by neurons into a synaptic cleft - Blood-borne chemicals
➔ Affects postsynaptic neurons or target directly stimulate or
organs inhibit the release of
➔ Can be considered paracrine messengers some hormones
➔ Examples:
● Acetylcholine
● Epinephrine
● Norepinephrine
4. Endocrine Chemical Messenger(Hormones)
➔ Secreted by glands into the bloodstream
➔ Affects cells that are distant from the
source 2) NEURAL STIMULI
➔ Examples: - Neurotransmitters
● Insulin directly stimulate or
● Epinephrine inhibit the cell that
● Estrogen produces that hormone

3) HORMONAL STIMULI
 ● Tropic hormone - a hormone stimulates the release of 2. Water-soluble hormones bind to MEMBRANE-BOUND
another hormone RECEPTORS
● Inhibiting hormone - a hormone that prevent that secretion ⇒polar and cannot pass through cell membrane
of another hormone ⇒ found in the cell membrane
⇒ include: protein hormones, peptide hormones, amino acid derivative
hormones
⇒ usually are free hormones
⇒ short life span

ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

PITUITARY GLAND
➔ Known as the “master gland”, hypophysis
➔ Rests in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
➔ Connected to the base of the brain through the infundibulum
➔ Has 2 lobes:
● Posterior Pituitary Gland (Neurohypophysis)
● Anterior Pituitary Gland (Adenohypophysis)

Regulation of hormone levels in the blood

HYPOTHALAMIC - PITUITARY GLAND AXIS

- Hypothalamus regulates the pituitary gland through:
→ Posterior: Neurotransmitters delivered through the
hypothalamohypophysial tract
→ Anterior: Hormones delivered through the
hypothalamohypophysial portal system
HORMONE RECEPTORS - Hormones from the hypothalamus
Important Concepts ● Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone(GHRH)
➔ Hormones exert their actions by - Target Tissue: Anterior pituitary cells
binding to target cell proteins - Increased growth hormones secretion
called receptors ● Growth Hormone Inhibiting Homone (GHIH) commonly
➔ A hormone can stimulate only called Somatostatin
the cells that have the - Target tissue: Anterior pituitary cells
receptor for that hormone. The - Decreased growth hormone secretion
specific portion of each receptor ● Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone (TRH)
molecule where a hormone - Target tissue: Anterior pituitary cells
binds is called a receptor site, - Increased thyroid-stimulating hormone secretion
and the shape and chemical characteristics of each receptor site ● Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH)
allow only a specific type of hormone to bind to it. - Target tissue: Anterior pituitary cells that secretes
➔ The tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type of adrenocorticotropic hormone
receptor, and not to others, is called specificity. - Increased adrenocorticotropic hormone secretion
CLASSES OF RECEPTORS ● Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
1. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to NUCLEAR RECEPTORS - Target tissue: Anterior pituitary cells that secrete
⇒ non-polar and can easily pass through luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating
cell membrane hormone
⇒ found in the nucleus - Increased secretion of luteinizing hormone and
⇒ includes: streid hormones, thyroid hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone
fatty acid derivative hormones ● Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) commonly called
⇒ need binding proteins dopamine
⇒ Life span: few days to weeks - Target tissue: Anterior pituitary cells that secrete
prolactin
- Decreased prolactin secretion
 1. Posterior Pituitary (NEUROHYPOPHYSIS) ⇒ located below the thalamus and above your pituitary gland.
⇒ does not synthesize hormones but only stores and releases 1. The hypothalamohypophysial tract connects the
⇒ Hormones: hypothalamus and posterior pituitary.
1) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) ● Neurohormones are produced in hypothalamic
- A.k.a. Vasopressin neurons.
- Binds to membrane bound receptors ● The neurohormones move down the axons of the
- Increases water reabsorption by kidneys → less water urine tract and are secreted from the posterior pituitary.
- Causes vasoconstriction 2. The hypothalamohypophysial portal system connects the
- Secretion depends on osmolality and volume of blood hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary.
2) Oxytocin ● Neurohormones are produced in hypothalamic
- Binds to membrane bound receptors neurons.
- Causes contraction of the uterus and milk letdown from the ● Through the portal system, the neurohormones
female breasts (mammary glands) during breastfeeding inhibit or stimulate hormone production in the
- Release is stimulated by: anterior pituitary.
● Stretching of the uterus
● Stretching of the cervix THYROID GLAND
● Nipple stimulation ⇒ Located in the neck
⇒ composed of two lobes connected by and isthmus
2. Anterior Pituitary (ADENOHYPOPHYSIS)
⇒ one of the largest endocrine glands
⇒ synthesizes its own hormones but secretion is regulated by ⇒ highly vascularized
hypothalamic hormones
⇒ secretes 3 hormones
⇒ Majority are tropic hormones (stimulate the release of other ● 90% T3 and T4
hormones)
● 10% Calcitonin
⇒ Hormones
1) Growth Hormone(GH)
- A.k.a somatotropin
- Binds to membrane bound receptors
- Stimulates growth in most tissues
- Determines person’s height
- Regulated by:
● Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone(GHRH)
● Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone (GHIH)
- Stimulated by deep sleep and glucose levels
2) Prolactin(PRL)
- Binds to membrane bound receptors
- Important role in milk production in females
- Unknown role in males 1) Thyroid Hormones
- Regulated by: - T4(tertraiodothyronine/Thyroxine) → T3( Triodothyronine)
● Prolactin Inhibiting Hormone (PIH) a.k.a dopamine - Bind to nuclear receptors
3) Thyroid Stimulating Hormone - Regulate the body’s metabolism
- A.k.a. Thyrotropin - Regulated by Thyroid Stimulating Hormone and Thyro-
- Binds to membrane bound receptors tropin Releasing Hormone
- Stimulates the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones - Have a negative feedback effect on the hypothalamus and
from the thyroid gland pituitary gland
- Regulated by: - Lack of thyroid hormones: Hypothyroidism
● Thyrotropin Releasing Hormone(TRH) from the - Excess of thyroid hormones :Hyperthyroidism
Hypothalamus
● Negative feedback from thyroid hormones 2) Calcitonin
4) Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) - Secreted by the parafollicular cells
- Binds to membrane bound receptors bound receptors on the - Bind to membrane bound receptor
adrenal cortex - Lowers blood Ca++ levels through inhibition of osteoclastic
- Can also bind and stimulate melanocytes activity
- Stimulates cortisol release from the adrenal cortex - Secretion depends upon Ca++ blood levels
- Stimulated by the environmental stress PARATHYROID GLAND
5) Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone ⇒ embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid
- ⇒ 4 separate glands
6) Gonadotropins ⇒ Has 2 cell types:
- Lutenizing Hormone (LH) ● Chief cells that secrete
- Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) parathyroid hormone
- Binds to membrane bound receptors ● Oxyphil cells
- Stimulate the production of sperm cells and egg cells
- Aid in the production of estrogen, progesterone, and Parathyroid Hormone
testosterone - Increases blood calcium levels
- Regulated by: through
● Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH) ● Increasing active Vitamin D →
increased Ca++ absorption in the
HYPOTHALAMUS(The Relationship of the Pituitary Gland intestines
to the Brain)
 ● Binding to osteoblasts → stimulate osteoclastic activity
● Decreasing Ca++ excretion in urine
- Greater role in blood calcium regulation that calcitonin
- Secretion depends on blood Ca++ levels
ADRENAL GLAND
⇒ a.k.a. Suprarenal glands
⇒ located above the superior pole of each
kidney
⇒ Division:
● Adrenal Cortex
➢ Zona Glomerulosa
➢ Zona Fasciculata
➢ Zona Reticularis
● Adrenal Medulla
1. ADRENAL MEDULLA
PANCREAS HORMONES
HORMONES
1) Insulin
➔ Secretes 2 hormones:
- regulates blood glucose levels
➔ Binds to membrane bound receptors
- after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is secreted
➔ Major component of sympathetic nervous system response
- extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen
➔ Easily metabolized and broken down in the blood
- Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
➔ Stimulated by sympathetic neurons
2. ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES 2) Glucagon
1) Mineralocorticoids(Aldosterone) - regulates blood glucose levels
- Secreted by the zona glomerulosa - between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is secreted
- Bind to nuclear receptors - glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into glucose
- Regulates ion balance in the blood by increasing sodium - Target tissues: liver
reabsorption and potassium excretion in the kidneys Insulin Abnormalities
- Stimulated by low blood pressure Diabetes mellitus:
- Regulated by ACTH (and CRH) → Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
2) Glucocorticoids(Cortisol) → Symptoms: exaggerated appetite,excess urine, dehydration, thirst,
- Secreted by the zona fasciculata fatigue
- Bind to nuclear receptors → Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections required)
- Increases breakdown of lipids and proteins to be used as → Type II: insulin independent, often found in obese people, can
alternative energy sources be treated with diet but can turn into type I
- Decrease inflammation and immune response Regulation of Insulin Secretion
- Regulated by ACTH (and CRH) through a negative Pancreatic secretion is partially under humoral control so the hormone-secreting
feedback response cells can directly respond to low blood glucose levels.
3) Androgens The following factors which increases insulin secretion:
- Secreted by the zona reticularis 1. Hyperglycemia, or elevated blood levels of glucose, directly stimulates
- Bind to nuclear receptors insulin secretion from pancreatic β (beta) cells.
- Contributes to the development of secondary sex 2. Certain amino acids also stimulate insulin secretion by acting directly on
pancreatic β cells.
characteristics in males and sex drives in females
3. Parasympathetic stimulation associated with food intake acts with
- Effects are negligible compared to androgens from the elevated blood glucose levels.
testes 4. Gastrointestinal hormones involved with regulating digestion, such as
- Regulated by ACTH (and CRH) gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin.
Thus, insulin secretion tends to increase after a meal, it is when glucose and
PANCREAS amino acid levels in the blood are at their highest. Insulin secretion also
⇒ Has both exocrine portion and an decreases under a different set of conditions, it is when glucose and amino acid
endocrine portion: levels in the blood are at their lowest.
- The exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes digestive The following factors in which insulin secretion decreases:
enzymes. 1. Hypoglycemia, or low blood levels of glucose, directly slows insulin
- The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of pancreatic secretion.
islets (islets of Langerhans), which are dispersed throughout 2. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is inhibitory to insulin
the exocrine portion of the pancreas. secretion. This helps prevent a rapid fall in blood glucose levels. Because
⇒The islets consist of three cell types, each of which secretes a separate most tissues, except nervous tissue, require insulin to take up glucose,
sympathetic stimulation maintains blood glucose levels in a normal range
hormone. These three hormones regulate the blood levels of nutrients,
during periods of physical activity or excitement. This response is
especially glucose. important for supplying a constant level of glucose to the brain for normal
● Alpha cells secrete glucagon nervous system function.
● Beta cells secrete insulin 3. Somatostatin inhibits both insulin and glucagon secretion, but the factors
● Delta cells secrete somatostatin. that regulate somatostatin secretion are not clear. It can be released in
response to food intake, in which case somatostatin may prevent the
oversecretion of insulin.
4. During periods of fasting, when blood glucose levels are low, the rate of
insulin secretion declines.
Regulation of Glucagon Secretion
Low blood glucose levels stimulate glucagon secretion, and high blood glucose
levels inhibit it. Certain amino acids and sympathetic stimulation also increases
it.Thus, regulation of glucagon secretion happens after a high-protein meal,
wherein amino acids increase both insulin and glucagon secretion.
TESTES ● Disruptions in GH secretion from anterior
⇒ reproductive organ in males that produces sperm pituitary
⇒ Secretes testosterone
● Responsible for growth and
● 2 possible disruptions in GH secretion:
development of male 1. Hyposecretion of GH leading to
reproductive organs reduced growth
● Muscle enlargement 2. Hypersecretion of GH leading to
● Body Hair
● Voice Changes
excessive growth.
● Sexual drive ● Pituitary dwarfism - chronic hyposecretion, or
⇒ Regulated by LH and FSH (and insufficient secretion, of GH in infants and
GnRH) through negative feedback children.
OVARIES - Insufficient amounts of GH delay bone
⇒ Reproductive organ in females that produce oocytes growth, resulting in short stature.
⇒ Secretes etrogen and progesterone However, bones have normal shape and
● Responsible for growth and
development of female
people with this condition exhibit normal
reproductive organs intelligence.
● Regulation of menstrual cycle - 2 types:
⇒ Regulated by LH and FSH (and GnRH) 1. Hyposecretion of GH and
through negative feedback
other anterior pituitary
hormones
THYMUS 2. Hyposecretion of GH alone
⇒ endocrine gland located in the upper
portion of the thoracic cavity
● Gigantism - chronic hypersecretion of GH
⇒ Secretes thymosin before the epiphyseal plates have ossified
● Aids in the maturation of T cells causes exaggerated and prolonged growth in
⇒ Important in early life and involutes long bones.
during adolescence
- Individuals affected with this disease
PINEAL GLAND have grown to be 8 feet tall or more.
⇒ small pinecone-shaped structure located superior and posterior to the ● Acromegaly - in adults, chronic GH levels
thalamus
⇒ produces melatonin
- Increased diameter of the fingers, toes,
● Important role in starting hands and feet; the deposition of heavy
puberty bony ridges above the eyes; and a
● Inhibits GnRH prominent jaw.
● Responsible for
regulating sleep-wake
- The influence of GH on soft tissues
cycle results in bulbous or broad nose, and
enlarge tongue, thickened skin, and
Clinical impacts sparse subcutaneous adipose tissue.
- Nerves are compressed → proliferation of
An Estrogen Receptor Antagonist Is Used to Treat connective tissue
and Prevent Breast Cancer - It leads to diabetes mellitus and severe
● Adjuvant therapy atherosclerosis.
- Ex. Hormonal therapy ● Treatment for chronic hypersecretion of GH
- It is employed after primary therapy (e.g. often involves the surgical removal or
surgery and chemotherapy) are irradiation of a GH-producing tumor.
completed.
- Most common is the Estrogen Diabete Mellitus
Receptor Antagonist - Results primarily from the inadequate secretion
- Tamoxifen - primary estrogen receptors of insulin or the inability of tissues to respond to
antagonist used for estrogen receptors insulin.
positive. It binds estrogen receptors and ● Type 1 diabetes mellitus
blocks the stimulatory actions of - Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
estrogen on breast epithelial cells. It the (IDDM)
only SERM approved as a hormonal - Affect proximately 5-10% of people with
agent for prevention of breast cancer. diabetes mellitus and results from
diminished insulin secretion.
Growth Hormone and Growth Disorders - Develops as a result of autoimmune
destruction of pancreatic islets
 - Most commonly developed in young
people.
- Heredity may play role
- Initiation of pancreatic islet destruction
may involve a viral infection of the
pancreas.
● Type 2 diabetes mellitus
- Noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
(NIDDM)
- Inability of tissue to respond to insulin.
- Develops in people older than 40-45
years old.
- People who have this disease have a
reduced number of functional receptors
for insulin, or one or more of enzymes
activated by the insulin receptors are
defective. Thus glucose uptake by cells
is very slow that results in elevated
blood glucose after meals.
- Symptoms:
➢ obesity/overweight
➢ Increase urine production
➢ Lethargy, fatigue and periods of
irritability
➢ Recurrent injury and infection