CONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION - ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS WORK

 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT OVERVIEW
 ELEMENTS OF ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT
 CONDUCTING PATH
 VOLTAGE SOURCE
 LOAD
 ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT FACTS
 OPEN CIRCUIT
 CLOSED CIRCUIT
 SHORT CIRCUIT
 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD
 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS(IC)
 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
 CAPACITOR
 RESISTOR
 DIODE
 TRANSISTOR
 INDUCTOR
 RELAY
 QUARTZ CRYSTAL
 PROCEDURE FOR MAKING THE PCB
 SOLDERING
 CONCLUSION
 How Electronic Components Work
In this article we will provide an overview on electronic circuits. Then
we will provide more information on 7 different types of components. For each
type we'll discuss the composition, how it works, and the function &
significance of the component.

1. Capacitor
2. Resistor
3. Diode
4. Transistor
5. Inductor
6. Relay
7. Quartz Crystal

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT OVERVIEW:

An electronic circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric
current to perform various functions including signal amplification,
computation, and data transfer. It comprises several different components such
as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors, and diodes. Conductive wires or
traces are used to connect the components to each other. However, a circuit is
complete only if it starts and ends at the same point, forming a loop.

THE ELEMENTS OF AN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT

The complexity and the number of components in an electronic circuit
may change depending on its application. However, the simplest circuit consists
of three elements, including a conducting path, a voltage source, and a load.
Element 1: Conducting Path
The electric current flows through the conducting path. Though copper
wires are used in simple circuits, they are rapidly being replaced by conductive
traces. Conductive traces are nothing but copper sheets laminated onto a non-
conductive substrate. They are often used in small and complex circuits such as
Printed Circuit Boards (PCB).

Element 2: Voltage Source

The primary function of a circuit is to allow electric current to pass
through it safely. So, the first key element is the voltage source. It is a two-
terminal device such as a battery, generators or power systems that provide a
potential difference (voltage) between two points in the circuit so that current
can flow through it.

Element 3: Load
A load is an element in the circuit that consumes power to perform a
particular function. A light bulb is the simplest load. Complex circuits,
however, have different loads such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, and
transistors.

ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT FACTS

Fact 1: Open Circuit
As mentioned before, a circuit must always form a loop to allow the
current to flow through it. However, when it comes to an open circuit, the
current can’t flow as one or more components are disconnected either
intentionally (by using a switch) or accidentally (broken parts). In other words,
any circuit that does not form a loop is an open circuit.
Fact 2: Closed Circuit
A closed circuit is one that forms a loop without any interruptions. Thus,
it is the exact opposite of an open circuit. However, a complete circuit that
doesn’t perform any function is still a closed circuit. For example, a circuit
connected to a dead battery may not perform any work, but it is still a closed
circuit.
Fact 3: Short Circuit
In the case of short-circuit, a low-resistance connection forms between
two points in an electric circuit. As a result, the current tends to flow through
this newly formed connection rather than along the intended path. For example,
if there is a direct connection between the battery’s negative and positive
terminal, the current will flow through it rather than passing through the circuit.
However, short circuits usually lead to serious accidents as the current can flow
at dangerously high levels. Hence, a short circuit can damage electronic
equipment, cause batteries to explode, and even start a fire in commercial and
residential buildings.

Fact 4: Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)

Most electronic appliances require complex electronic circuits. That’s
why designers have to arrange tiny electronic components on a circuit board. It
comprises a plastic board with connecting copper tracks on one side and lots of
holes to affix the components. When the layout of a circuit board is printed
chemically onto a plastic board, it is called a printed circuit board or PCB.

Figure 1: Printed Circuit Board.

Fact 5: Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Though PCBs can offer a lot of advantages, most modern instruments
such as computers and mobiles require complex circuits, having thousands and
even millions of components. That’s where integrated circuits come in. They
are the tiny electronic circuits that can fit inside a small silicon chip. Jack Kilby
invented the first integrated circuit in 1958 at Texas Instruments. The sole
purpose of ICs is to increase the efficiency of the electronic devices, while
reducing their size and manufacturing cost. Over the years, integrated circuits
have become increasingly sophisticated as technology continues to evolve.
That’s why personal computers, laptops, mobiles phones, and other consumer
electronics are getting cheaper and better by the day.

Figure 2: Integrated Circuits.

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Thanks to modern technology, electronic circuit building process has
been completely automated, especially for building ICs and PCBs. The number
and arrangement of components in a circuit may vary depending on its
complexity. However, it is built using a small number of standard components.
The following components are used to construct electronic circuits.
 Component 1: Capacitor
Capacitors are widely used to build different types of electronic circuits.
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that can store energy
in an electric field electrostatically. In simple terms, it works as a small
rechargeable battery that stores electricity. However, unlike a battery, it can
charge and discharge in the split of a second.

Figure 3: Capacitors

A. Composition
Capacitors come in all shapes and sizes, but they usually have the same
primary components. There are two electrical conductors or plates separated by
a dielectric or insulator stacked between them. Plates are composed of
conducting material such as thin films of metal or aluminum foil. A dielectric,
on the other hand, is a non-conducting material such as glass, ceramic, plastic
film, air, paper, or mica. You can insert the two electrical connections
protruding from the plates to fix the capacitor in a circuit.
B. How Does It Work?
When you apply a voltage over the two plates or connect them to a
source, an electric field develops across the insulator, causing one plate to
accumulate positive charge while negative charge gets collected on the other.
The capacitor continues to hold its charge even if you disconnect it from the
source. The moment you connect it to a load, the stored energy will flow from
the capacitor to the load.
Capacitance is the amount of energy stored in a capacitor. The higher the
capacitance, the more energy it can store. You can increase the capacitance by
moving the plates closer to each other or increasing their size. Alternatively,
you can also enhance the insulation qualities to increase the capacitance.

C. Function and Significance

Though capacitors look like batteries, they can perform different types of
functions in a circuit such as blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass or smooth the output from a power supply. They are also used in
electric power transmission systems to stabilize voltage and power flow. One of
the most significant functions of a capacitor in the AC systems is power factor
correction, without which you can’t provide sufficient amount of starting torque
to single phase motors.
Filters Capacitor Applications
If you are using a microcontroller in a circuit to run a specific program,
you don’t want its voltage to drop as that will reset the controller. That’s why
designers use a capacitor. It can supply the microcontroller with the necessary
power for a split second to avoid a restart. In other words, it filters out the noise
on the power line and stabilizes the power supply.
Hold-Up Capacitor Applications
Unlike a battery, a capacitor releases its charge rapidly. That’s why it is
used to provide power to a circuit for a short while. Your camera batteries
charge the capacitor attached to the flash gun. When you take a flash
photograph, the capacitor releases its charge in a split second to generate a flash
of light.
Timer Capacitor Applications
In a resonant or time-dependent circuit, capacitors are used along with a
resistor or inductor as a timing element. The time required to charge and
discharge a capacitor determines the operation of the circuit.
Component 2: Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical device that resists the flow
of current. It is probably the simplest element in an electronic circuit. It is also
one of the most common components as resistance is an inherent element of
nearly all electronic circuits. They are usually color-coded.

Figure 4: Resistors

A. Composition
A resistor is not a fancy device at all because resistance is a natural
property possessed by almost all conductors. So, a resistor consists of a copper
wire wrapped around an insulating material such as a ceramic rod. The number
of turns and the thinness of copper wire are directly proportional to the
resistance. The higher the number of turns and thinner the wire, the higher the
resistance.
 You can also find resistors made of a spiral pattern of a carbon film.
Hence, the name carbon film resistors. They are designed for lower-power
circuits because carbon film resistors are not as precise as their wire-wound
counterparts. However, they are cheaper than wired resistors. Wire terminals are
attached to the both ends. As resistors are blind to the polarity in a circuit, the
current can flow through in either direction. So, there is no need to worry about
attaching them in a forward or a backward direction.
B. How Does It Work?
A resistor may not look like much. One may think it doesn’t do anything
except consume power. However, it performs a vital function: controlling the
voltage and the current in your circuit. In other words, resistors give you control
over the design of your circuit.
When electric current starts flowing through a wire, all the electrons start
moving in the same direction. It’s just like water flowing through a pipe. Less
amount of water will flow through a thin pipe because there is less room for its
movement.
Similarly, when the current passes through a thin wire in a resistor, it
becomes progressively harder for the electrons to wiggle through it. In short, the
number of electrons flowing through a resistor goes down as the length and
thinness of the wire increases.

C. Function and Significance

Resistors have plenty of applications, but the three most common ones
are managing current flow, dividing voltage, and resistor-capacitor networks.
Limiting the Flow of Current
If you don’t add resistors to a circuit, the current will flow at dangerously
high levels. It can overheat other components and possibly damage them. For
example, if you connect an LED directly to a battery, it would still work.
However, after some time the LED will heat up like a fireball. It will eventually
burn as LEDs are less tolerant to heat.
But, if you introduce a resistor in the circuit, it will reduce the flow of
current to an optimal level. Thus, you can keep the LED on longer without
overheating it.
Dividing Voltage
Resistors are also used to reduce the voltage to the desired level.
Sometimes, a particular part of a circuit such as a microcontroller may need a
lower voltage than the circuit itself. This is where a resistor comes in.
Let’s say your circuit runs off of a 12V battery. However, the
microcontroller needs only a 6V supply. So, to divide the voltage in half, all you
have to do is place two resistors of equal resistance value in series. The wire in
between the two resistors will have halved the voltage of your circuit where the
microcontroller can be attached. Using appropriate resistors, you can lower the
voltage within the circuit to any level.
Resistor-Capacitor Networks
Resistors are also used in combination with capacitors to build ICs that
contain resistor-capacitor arrays in a single chip. They are also known as RC
filters or RC networks. They are often used to suppress electromagnetic
Interference (EMI) or Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) in various
instruments, including input/output ports of computers and laptops, Local Area
Networks (LANs), and Wide Area Networks (WANs), among others. They are
also used in machine tools, switchgears, motor controllers, automated
equipment, industrial appliances, elevators, and escalators.

Component 3: Diode
A diode is a two-terminal device that allows electric current to flow in
only one direction. Thus, it is the electronic equivalent of a check valve or a one-
way street. It is commonly used to convert an Alternating Current (AC) into
a Direct Current (DC). It is made either of a semiconductor material
(semiconductor diode) or vacuum tube (vacuum tube diode). Today, however,
most diodes are made from semiconductor material, particularly silicon.

Figure 5: Diode

A. Composition
As mentioned earlier, there are two types of diodes: vacuum diodes and
semiconductor diodes. A vacuum diode consists of two electrodes (cathode and
anode) placed inside a sealed vacuum glass tube. A semiconductor diode
comprises p-type and n-type semiconductors. It is, therefore, known as a p-n
junction diode. It is usually made of silicon, but you can also use germanium or
selenium.
B. How Does It Work?
Vacuum Diode
When the cathode is heated by a filament, an invisible cloud of electrons,
called space charge, forms in the vacuum. Though electrons are emitted from
the cathode, the negative space charge repels them. As electrons can’t reach the
anode, no current flows through the circuit. However, when the anode is made
positive, the space charge vanishes. As a result, current starts flowing from the
cathode to the anode. Thus, electric current within the diode flows only from the
cathode to the anode and never from the anode to the cathode.
P-N Junction Diode
A p-n junction diode comprises p-type and n-type semiconductors of
silicon. The p-type semiconductor is usually doped with boron, leaving holes
(positive charge) in it. The n-type semiconductor, on the other hand, is doped
with antimony, adding a few extra electrons (negative charge) in it. So, electric
current can flow through both semiconductors.
When you put p-type and n-type blocks together, the extra electrons from
the n-type combine with the holes in the p-type, creating a depletion zone
without any free electrons or holes. In short, current can no longer pass through
the diode.
When you connect the battery’s negative terminal to the n-type silicon and the
positive terminal to p-type (forward-bias), current starts to flow as electrons and
holes can now move across the junction. However, if you reverse the terminals
(reverse-bias), no current flows through the diode because holes and electrons
are pushed away from each other, widening the depletion zone. So, just like a
vacuum diode, a junction diode can also allow current to pass in one direction
only.
C. Function and Significance
Though diodes are one of the simplest components in an electronic
circuit, they have unique applications across industries.
AC to DC Conversion
The most common and important application of a diode is the
rectification of AC power to DC power. Usually, a half-wave (single diode) or a
full-wave (four diodes) rectifier is used to convert AC power into DC power,
particularly in household power supply. When you pass AC power supply
through a diode, only half the AC waveform passes through it. As this voltage
pulse is used to charge the capacitor, it produces steady and continuous DC
currents without any ripples. Different combinations of diodes and capacitors
are also used to build various types of voltage multipliers to multiply a small
AC voltage into high DC outputs.
Bypass Diodes
Bypass diodes are often used to protect solar panels. When the current
from the rest of the cells passes through a damaged or dusty solar cell, it causes
overheating. As a result, the overall output power decreases, creating hot spots.
The diodes are connected parallel to the solar cells to protect them against this
overheating problem. This simple arrangement limits the voltage across the bad
solar cell while allowing the current to pass through undamaged cells to the
external circuit.
Voltage Spike Protection
When the power supply is suddenly interrupted, it produces a high
voltage in most inductive loads. This unexpected voltage spike can damage the
loads. However, you can protect expensive equipment by connecting a diode
across the inductive loads. Depending on the type of security, these diodes are
known by many names including snubber diode, flyback diode, suppression
diode, and freewheeling diode, among others.
Signal Demodulation
They are also used in the process of signal modulation because diodes can
remove the negative element of an AC signal efficiently. The diode rectifies the
carrier wave, turning it into DC. The audio signal is retrieved from the carrier
wave, a process called audio-frequency modulation. You can hear the audio
after some filtering and amplification. Hence, diodes are commonly found in
radios to extract the signal from the carrier wave.
Reverse Current Protection
Reversing polarities of a DC supply or incorrectly connecting the battery
can cause a substantial current to flow through a circuit. Such a reverse
connection can damage the connected load. That’s why a protective diode is
connected in series with the positive side of the battery terminal. The diode
becomes forward-biased in the case of correct polarity and the current flows
through the circuit. However, in the event of a wrong connection, it becomes
reverse-biased, blocking the current. Thus, it can protect your equipment from
potential damage.

Component 4: Transistor
One of the most crucial components of an electronic circuit, transistors have
revolutionized the field of electronics. These tiny semiconductor devices with
three terminals have been around for more than five decades now. They are
often used as amplifiers and switching devices. You can think of them as relays
without any moving parts because they can turn something ‘on’ or ‘off’ without
any movement.

Figure 6: Transistors
A. Composition
In the beginning, Germanium was used to build transistors which were
extremely temperature-sensitive. Today, however, they are made from Silicon, a
semiconductor material found in the sand because Silicon transistors are much
more temperature-tolerant and cheaper to manufacture. There are two different
types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT), NPN and PNP. Each transistor has
three pins called Base (b), collector (c), and emitter (e). NPN and PNP refer to
the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor.

B. How Does It Work?

When you sandwich a p-type silicon slab between two n-type bars, you
get an NPN transistor. The emitter is attached to one n-type, while the collector
is attached to the other. The base is attached to the p-type. The surplus holes in
the p-type silicon act as barriers, blocking the flow of the current. However, if
you apply a positive voltage to the base and the collector and negatively charge
the emitter, electrons start flowing from the emitter to the collector.
The arrangement and number of p-type and n-type blocks remain inverted in a
PNP transistor. In this type of transistor, one n-type is sandwiched between two
p-type blocks. As voltage allocation is different, a PNP transistor works
differently. An NPN transistor requires a positive voltage to the base, while a
PNP requires a negative voltage. In short, the current must flow away from the
base to turn a PNP transistor on.

C. Function and Significance

Transistors function as both, switches and amplifiers in most electronic
circuits. Designers often use a transistor as a switch because unlike a simple
switch, it can turn a small current into a much larger one. Though you can use a
simple switch in an ordinary circuit, an advanced circuit may need varying
amounts of currents at different stages.
Transistors in Hearing Aids
One of the most well-known applications of transistors is the hearing aid.
Usually, a small microphone in the hearing aid picks up the sound waves,
converting them into fluctuating electrical pulses or currents. When these
currents pass through a transistor, they are amplified. The amplified pulses then
pass through a speaker, converting them into sound waves once again. Thus,
you can hear a substantially louder version of the surrounding noise.
Transistors in Computers and Calculators
We all know that computers store and process information using the
binary language of “zero” and “one.” However, most people don’t know that
transistors play a critical role in making something called logic gates, which are
the backbones of computer programs. Transistors are often hooked up with
logic gates to build a unique piece of an arrangement called a flip-flop. In this
system, the transistor remains ‘on’ even if you remove the base current. It now
flips on or off whenever new current passes through it. Thus, a transistor can
store a zero when it’s off or a one when it’s on, which is the working principle
of computers.
Darlington Transistors
A Darlington transistor is made of two PNP or NPN polar junction
transistors placed together. It is named after its inventor Sidney Darlington. The
sole purpose of a Darlington transistor is to deliver a high current gain from a
low base current. You can find these transistors in instruments that require a
high current gain at a low frequency such as power regulators, display drivers,
motor controllers, light and touch sensors, alarm systems, and audio amplifiers.
IGBT and MOSFET Transistors
The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) transistors are often used
as amplifiers and switches in various instruments including electric cars, trains,
refrigerators, air-conditioners, and even stereo systems. On the other hand,
Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFET) are commonly
used in integrated circuits to control a device’s power levels or for storing data.
Component 5: Inductor
An inductor, also known as a reactor, is a passive component of a circuit
having two terminals. This device stores energy in its magnetic field, returning
it to the circuit whenever required. It was discovered that when two inductors
are placed side by side without touching, the magnetic field created by the first
inductor affects the second inductor. It was a crucial breakthrough that led to the
invention of the first transformers.

Figure 7: Inductors

A. Composition
It is probably the simplest component, comprising just a coil of copper
wire. The inductance is directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil.
Sometimes, however, the coil is wound around a ferromagnetic material such as
iron, laminated iron, and powdered iron to increase the inductance. The shape of
this core can also increase the inductance. Toroidal (donut-shaped) cores
provide better inductance compared to solenoidal (rod-shaped) cores for the
same number of turns. Unfortunately, it is difficult to join inductors in an
integrated circuit, so they are usually replaced by resistors.

B. How Does It Work?

Whenever the current passes through a wire, it creates a magnetic field.
However, the unique shape of the inductor leads to the creation of a much
stronger magnetic field. This powerful magnetic field, in turn, resists alternating
current, but it lets direct current flow through it. This magnetic field also stores
energy.
Take a simple circuit comprising a battery, a switch, and a bulb. The bulb
will glow brightly the moment you turn the switch on. Add an inductor to this
circuit. As soon you turn the switch on, the bulb changes from bright to dim. On
the other hand, when the switch is turned off, it becomes very bright, just for a
fraction of a second before turning off completely.
As you turn the switch on, the inductor starts using the electricity to
create a magnetic field, temporarily blocking the current flow. But, only DC
current passes through the inductor as soon as the magnetic field is complete.
That’s why the bulb changes from bright to dim. All this time, the inductor
stores some electrical energy in the form of magnetic field. So, when you turn
the switch off, the magnetic field keeps the current in the coil steady. Thus, the
bulb burns brightly for a while before turning off.

C. Function and Significance

Though inductors are useful, it is difficult to incorporate them into
electronic circuits due to their size. As they are bulkier compared to other
components, they add a lot of weight and occupy plenty of space. Hence they
are usually replaced by resistors in integrated circuits (ICs). Still, inductors have
a wide range of industrial applications.
Filters in Tuned Circuits
One of the most common applications of inductors is to select the desired
frequency in tuned circuits. They are used extensively with capacitors and
resistors, either in parallel or series, to create filters. The impedance of an
inductor increases as the frequency of signal increases. Thus, a stand-alone
inductor can only act as a low-pass filter. However, when you combine it with a
capacitor, you can create a notched filter because the impedance of a capacitor
decreases as the frequency of signal increase. So, you can use different
combinations of capacitors, inductors, and resistors to create various types of
filters. They are found in most electronics including televisions, desktop
computers, and radios.
Inductors as Chokes
If an alternate current flows through an inductor, it creates an opposite
current flow. Thus, it can convert an AC supply into a DC. In other words, it
chokes the AC supply but allows the DC to pass through it, hence the name
‘choke.’ Usually, they are found in power supply circuits that need to convert
AC supply to DC supply.
Ferrite Beads
A ferrite bead or ferrite choke is used to suppress high-frequency noise in
electronic circuits. Some of the common uses of ferrite beads include computer
cables, television cables, and mobile charge cables. These cables can,
sometimes, act as antennas, interloping with audio and video output of your
television and computer. So, inductors are used in ferrite beads to reduce such
radio frequency interference.
Inductors in Proximity Sensors
Most proximity sensors work on the principle of inductance. An inductive
proximity sensor comprises four parts including an inductor or coil, an
oscillator, a detection circuit and an output circuit. The oscillator generates a
fluctuating magnetic field. Whenever an object comes into the proximity of this
magnetic field, eddy currents start to build up, reducing the sensor’s magnetic
field.
The detection circuit determines the strength of the sensor, while output
circuit triggers the appropriate response. Inductive proximity sensors, also
called contactless sensors, are cherished for their reliability. They are used at
traffic lights to detect the traffic density and also as parking sensors in cars and
trucks.
Induction Motors
An induction motor is probably the most common example of the
application of inductors. Usually, in an induction motor, inductors are placed in
a fixed position. In other words, they are not allowed to align with the nearby
magnetic field. An AC power supply is used to create a rotating magnetic field
which then rotates the shaft. The power input controls the speed of rotation.
Hence, inductions motors are often used in fixed speed applications. The
induction motors are very reliable and robust because there is no direct contact
between the motor and the rotor.
Transformers
As mentioned earlier, the discovery of inductors led to the invention
of transformers, one of the fundamental components of power transmission
systems. You can create a transformer by combining the inductors of a shared
magnetic field. They are usually used to increase or decrease voltages of the
power lines to the desired level.
Energy Storage
Just like a capacitor, an inductor can also store energy. However, unlike a
capacitor, it can store energy for a limited time. As the energy is stored in a
magnetic field, it collapses as soon as the power supply is removed. Still,
inductors function as reliable energy storage device in switch mode power
supply such as desktop computers.

Component 6: Relay
A relay is an electromagnetic switch that can open and close circuits
electromechanically or electronically. You need a relatively small current to
operate a relay. Usually, they are used to regulate low currents in a control
circuit. However, you can also use relays to control high electric currents. A
relay is the electrical equivalent of a lever. You can switch it on with a small
current to turn on (or leverage) another circuit using large current. Relays are
either electromechanical relays or solid-state relays.

Figure 8: Relays

A. Composition
An Electromechanical Relay (EMR) comprises a frame, coil, armature,
spring, and contacts. The frame supports various parts of the relay. The
armature is the moving part of a relay switch. A coil (mostly copper wire),
wound around a metal rod generates a magnetic field that moves the armature.
Contacts are the conducting parts that open and close the circuit.
A Solid-State Relay (SSR) consists of an input circuit, a control circuit,
and an output circuit. The input circuit is the equivalent of a coil in an
electromechanical relay. The control circuit acts as a coupling device between
input and output circuits, while the output circuit performs the same function as
the contacts in an EMR. Solid-state relays are becoming increasingly popular as
they are cheaper, faster, and reliable compared to electromechanical relays.

B. How Does It Work?

Whether you are using an electromechanical relay or a solid-state relay, it
is either a Normally Closed (NC) or a Normally Opened (NO) relay. In case of
an NC relay, the contacts remain closed when there is no power supply.
However, in a NO relay, the contacts remain open when there is no power
supply. In short, whenever current flows through a relay, the contacts will either
open or close shut.
In an EMR, power supply energizes the relay coil, creating a magnetic
field. The magnetic coil attracts a ferrous plate mounted on the armature. When
the current stops, the armature is released into its resting position by spring
action. An EMR can also have single or multiple contacts within a single
package. If a circuit uses only one contact, it is called a Single Break (SB)
circuit. A Double Break Circuit (DB), on the other hand, comes with tow
contacts. Usually, single break relays are used to control low power devices
such as indicator lamps, while double break contacts are used to regulate high-
power devices such as solenoids.
When it comes to operating an SSR, you need to apply a voltage higher
than the specified pickup voltage of the relay to activate the input circuit. You
have to apply a voltage less than the stipulated minimum dropout voltage of the
relay to deactivate the input circuit. Control circuit transfers the signal from the
input circuit to the output circuit. The output circuit switches on the load or
performs the desired action.

C. Function and Significance

As they can control a high current circuit by a low current signal, most
control processes use relays as the primary protection and switching devices.
They can also detect fault and irregularities occurring in the power distribution
systems. Typical applications include telecommunication, automobiles, traffic
control systems, home appliances, and computers among others.
Protective Relays
Protective relays are used to trip or isolate a circuit if any irregularities
are detected. Sometimes, they can also set off alarms when a fault is detected.
Types of protection relays depend on their function. For example, an
overcurrent relay is designed to identify the current exceeding a predetermined
value. When such current is detected, the relay operates tripping a circuit
breaker to protect the equipment from potential damage.
A distance relay or impedance relay, on the other hand, can detect
abnormalities in the ratio of current and voltage rather than monitoring their
magnitude independently. It swarms into action when the V/I ratio falls below a
predetermined value. Usually, protective relays are used to protect equipment
such as motors, generators, and transformers, and so on.
Automatic Reclosing Relay
An automatic reclosing relay is designed to cause multiple reclosures of a
circuit breaker that is already tripped by a protective relaying. For example,
when there is a sudden voltage drop, the electrical circuit in your home may
experience several brief power outages. These outages occur because a
reclosing relay is trying to switch on the protective relay automatically. If it
succeeds the power supply will be restored. If not, there will be a complete
blackout.
Thermal Relays
The thermal effect of electrical energy is the working principle of a
thermal relay. In short, it can detect the rise the ambient temperature and switch
on or off a circuit accordingly. It consists of a bimetallic strip which heats up if
an overcurrent passes through it. The heated strip bends and closes the No
contact, tripping the circuit breaker. The most common application of thermal
relay is overload protection of electric motor.

Component 7. Quartz Crystal

Quartz crystals have several applications in the electronics industry.
However, they are mostly used as resonators in electronic circuits. Quartz is a
naturally occurring form of silicon. However, it is now produced synthetically
to meet the growing demand. It exhibits the piezoelectric effect. If you apply
physical pressure on one side, the resulting vibrations generate an AC voltage
across the crystal. Quartz crystal resonators are available in many sizes
according to the required applications.

Figure 9: Quartz Crystal

A. Composition
As mentioned earlier, quartz crystals are either synthetically
manufactured or occur naturally. They are often used to make crystal oscillators
to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency. Usually, the shape
of quartz crystals is hexagonal with pyramids at ends. However, for practical
purposes, they are cut into rectangular slabs. The most common types of cutting
formats include X cut, Y cut, and AT cut. This slab is placed between two metal
plates called holding plates. The outer shape of a quartz crystal or crystal
oscillator can be cylindrical, rectangular or square.

B. How Does It Work?

If you apply an alternating voltage to a crystal, it causes mechanical
vibrations. The cut and the size of the quartz crystal determine the resonant
frequency of these vibrations or oscillations. Thus, it generates a constant
signal. Quartz oscillators are cheap and easy to manufacture synthetically. They
are available in the range from a few KHz to a few MHz. As they have a higher
quality factor or Q factor, crystal oscillators are remarkably stable with respect
to time and temperature.

C. Function and Significance

The exceptionally high Q factor enables you to use quartz crystals and the
resonant element in oscillators as well as filters in electronic circuits. You can
find this highly reliable component in radio frequency applications, as oscillator
clock circuits in microprocessor boards, and as a timing element in digital
watches as well.
Quartz Watches
The problem with traditional coil spring watches is that you have to keep
winding the coil periodically. Pendulum watches, on the other hand, depend on
the force of gravity. Thus, they tell time differently at different sea levels and
altitudes due to changes in the gravitational force. The performance of quartz
watches, however, is not affected by any of these factors. Quartz watches are
battery-powered. Usually, a tiny crystal of quartz regulates the gears that control
the second, the minute, and the hour hands. As quartz watches use very little
energy, the battery can often last longer.
Filters
You can also use quartz crystals in an electronic circuit as filters. They
are often used to filter out unwanted signals in radios and microcontrollers.
Most basic filters consist of a single quartz crystal. However, advanced filters
may comprise more than one crystal to match the performance requirements.
These quartz crystal filters are far superior to the ones manufactured using LC
components.
 PROCEDURE FOR MAKING THE PCB

1. PREPARING OF LAYOUT:

With the diagram and all the components at hand, draw a complete layout
plan of the circuit on a sheet of a tracing paper. As a model, for laying the
circuit, a thermo Cole base may be used to hold components. Avoid over
crowding of components while making full space utilization. Keep the ground
line on the side of the PCB and the supply line on other side as far as possible.
When all the components have been mounted on the tracing paper sheet fixed
on a piece of thermo Cole base, take out a Sketch Pen for making in such a way
that all the connecting wires are equal in width, termination rounded off. Re-
draw it on a fresh paper if required.

2. PAINTING OF PCB:

The tracing so prepared has to be imposed over the copper printed circuit
board keeping in view that the component would be mounted from the non-clad
side of the board. Take a PCB lamination sheet and cur a piece of required size
of the board by using hacksaw file edges, put the copper clad sheet on the table
keeping side on the runway the dirt grease and oxide with a sand paper with its
marked side tracing the carbon paper and other side on top. Since the tracing
paper is transformed you can now reproduce a carbon point over a surface but
using ball pen on a hard pencil over the drawing on the transparent side. When
the carbon print has been obtained over the copper clad board drill ropes in the
board using a hand drill. The holes may be draw with 1/32 bit for component
leads and the carbon should be raised or wiped by mistake. Paint the Connecting
lines with the help of an ordinary paint. Edges should be scratched with tip of
razor blade.
3. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRINTED CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

After painting the board, it will be made by the cool air for sometime.
Now take a plastic tray and get some Fe Cl3 chemical powder. The ferric
chloride salt is then added with 500ml of water. The color of the solution is
pink. Color of the salt is in yellow. Now we add three to five drops of dilute
HCL or H2S04. This is necessary to quicken the process.

4. ETCHING OF PCB:

Now we take the painted copper clad board and dip it in the solution kept
in the tray. After 15 to 25 minutes we see the board, with only printed pattern
portion remaining in other places the copper coating is removed due to the
chemical action. Then the board is taken out and washes in water. After wash
the board by using thinner solution. Now a printed circuit has been formed on
the board.

Take fresh water and mix a few teaspoons of Fe CL3 add a few drops of
dilute HCL to it, as it speeds the etching process. Shake well immerse the PCB
in the solution for about 20 minutes occasionally altering the solution by giving
the seesaw reaction to the disk storing reduces the etching time. Observe the
changing color on the copper surface. Take out the PCB only when the
unpainted portion of the copper surface is completely dissolved in the solution
wash the PCB with the water. After the PCB is thoroughly washed remove the
paint by soft pieces of the cloth dipped in thinner or turpentine.

5. DRILLING OF HOLES:

Then take a drilling machine with 1/32 drill bit to make holes for the
incretion of the components use 1/18 drill bit for inset wires and other thick
components. Now the PCB is ready to use.

ADVNTAGES:
 1. Reliability in operation and low cost.

2. Space required becomes less.

DISADVANTAGES:

It can’t withstand larger weight such as transformer.

6. MATERIAL REQUIRED:

 Copper clad sheet [It is made of hylam or nylon board over which the
sheet of copper is pressed.]

 “Paint or “Nail polish” or even “PCB Ink”.

 Painting brush, tray.

 Ferric chloride solution and also few drop of dilute HCL or H2SO4.

 Thinner or kerosene or petrol.

 Cotton cloth.

 Trace paper.

SOLDERING

Solder is an alloy of tin and lead used for using metals relatively low
temperature about 260-315k the point where two metal conductors are to be
fused is heated and then solder is applied so that it can melt and cover the
connection. The reason for soldering connection is that it makes a good blend
between the joined metals.

Covering the joint completely is to prevent oxidation. The coating of

solder provides protection for practically an in definitive period of time. The
trick in soldering is to heat the joint, not the solder. When the joint is not
enough to melt the solder the cracks, forming a shifty cover without until the
solder has set, which takes only a few seconds. Either a soldering gun can be
used, rated at 25-10,000. The gun is convenient for the intermittent operation,
since it heats almost instantaneously when for press the trigger. The small
pencil iron of 25-4,000 is helpful or small connections where excessive heat can
cause damage. This precaution is particularly important when working on PCB
boards, where too much heat can soften the plastic form and loosen the printed
writing, a soldering iron for F&T devices should have the tip ground to
eliminate static charge.

The three grades of solder, generally used for electronics work are 40-60,
50-50, 60-40 solder. The 60-40 solders costs more but it melts at the lowest
temperature flows more freely takes less time to harder, and generally makes it
easier to do a soldering job.

In addition to the solder there must be flux to move any oxide film on the
metals being joined otherwise they cannot fuse. The flux enables the molten
solder to wet the metals so that the solder can stick. The two types are acid flux
and rosin flux.

Acid flux is more active in cleaning metals but is corrosive. Rosin flux is
always used for the light soldering work in making wire connection.
Conclusion:
Tiny electronic circuits are the foundation of all electronic equipment.
Reading about the various components of an electronic circuit will help us to
understand their function and significance.
The PCB layouts were prepared with almost care to incorporate the
circuits in a modular manner. The circuit is made as simple as to our
knowledge. Also components were selected keeping in mind their availability
and cost.

It was a very interesting process of developing the prototype, stage by

stage and testing the same. We have to go through fairly large pages of data
related to the components etc. It was a useful and fulfilling assignment to get
the task completed in time. This gave us a sense of satisfaction and
accomplishment.
 CLASS SCHEDULE FOR 7 DAYS
INTERNSHIP PROGRAM
DAYS DESCRIPTION ABOUT CLASS TIME

DAY 1  BASIC CLASS ABOUT RESISTORS, TYPES, 3

FUNCTIONS, USES, APPLICATIONS HOURS
 PRACTICAL DISPLAY OF TYPES OF
RESISTORS AND ITS CONSTRUCTIONS

DAY 2  RESISTORS APPLICATION PRACTICAL – 3

TESTER CONSTRUCTION, FUNCTION AND HOURS
USES
 BULBS ARE CONNECTED IN SERIES AND
PARALLEL EXPERIMENTS
 ROTARY TYPE FAN REGULATOR WIRING
 SUMS RELATED TO SERIES & PARALLEL
OF RESISTORS
 RESISTIVE TYPE LOADS USED IN
DOMESTIC
DAY 3  DC REGULATED POWER SUPPLY DESIGN 3
THEORY HOURS
 BASIC ABOUT UPS AND SMPS

DAY 4  BASIC COMPONENTS FUNCTIONS – 3

TRANSISTOR AS SWITCH, AMPLIFIER, HOURS
VOLTAGE DIVIDER, COMPARATOR, RAIN
DETECTOR PCB REAL TIME FUNCTIONS
EXPLANATION

DAY 5  EXPLANATION ABOUT PRINTED CIRCUIT 3

BOARD DESIGNS HOURS
 SCHEMATIC TO PCB (CAD) DESIGN

DAY 6  FABRICATION OF PRINTED CIRCUIT 3

BOARD HOURS

DAY 7  ASSEMBLING OF PCB PRACTICAL CLASS 3

 POWER SUPPLY PCB ASSEMBLING HOURS
 IMPORTANT VIDEO TUTORIAL LINKS:

1) Basic Electronic Parts and their Function

https://youtu.be/3xnsf3zBqSI

2) Capacitor and SMD Capacitor Codes Explained with Examples

https://youtu.be/pk9lbLOksE8

3) Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors Explained with Examples

https://youtu.be/Em5NVbbmqKA?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

4) Current, Voltage and Power Explained with Examples

https://youtu.be/ZXeyNsZ46oU?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

5) What is Resistor? Factors which affects Resistance and Characteristics

https://youtu.be/ZwDN5mFB1z8?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

6) Different Types of Resistors, Internal Structure and Applications

https://youtu.be/80JgLeUj1mQ?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

7) Resistor Color Codes Explained with Examples

https://youtu.be/5UdgvDjCNnU?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

8) SMD Resistor Coding Explained with Examples

https://youtu.be/O92xXaObA5Y?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

9) Resistors in Series and Parallel

https://youtu.be/06nb9j98iNc?list=PL4-EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe
10) How does capacitor work ?
https://youtu.be/laPppdADWpA?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

11) Capacitors in series and parallel

https://youtu.be/fKzMxSGW4Qs?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

12) Inductors Explained with Examples

https://youtu.be/m_S1ydW12ro?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

13) PN Junction Diode and V-I Characteristics Explained

https://youtu.be/o-Rya9KZYY4?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

14) SMD Components Codes

https://youtu.be/Fauk9eUyWPg?list=PL4-
EsxSPw_2upfXxdkTlcbf3FpKULlKKe

15) Basic Electronics | How & Why Electronics Components Tutorial | Step
by step Electronics
https://youtu.be/pGYP3QI-5uQ