SAN3601 B0 LS05 Chapter 4

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
CHAPTER 4
STRAIN ENERGY ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
CONTENTS PAGE
4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 167

4.2 INTRODUCTION TO STRAIN ENERGY ANALYSIS ..................................................................... 168
4.3 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT AXIAL STRESS ................................................................... 169
4.4 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING STRESS .............................................................................. 170
4.5 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR STRESS ................................................................................... 179
4.6 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSIONAL STRESS ......................................................................... 180
4.7 IN GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................... 181
4.8 FIRST THEOREM OF CASTIGLIANO ............................................................................................. 182
4.9 DIRECT STRESS ................................................................................................................................... 185
4.10 SECOND THEOREM OF CASTIGLIANO .................................................................................... 207
4.11 REDUNDANT STRUCTURES: APPLICATION OF CASTIGLIANO II .................................. 211
4.12 STRAIN ENERGY IN BENDING: CASTIGLIANO II ................................................................. 225
4.13 TEMPERATURE CHANGE, SHRINKAGE, SETTLEMENT ..................................................... 229
4.14 COMBINED EFFECT OF DIRECT STRESS, BENDING, SHEAR AND .................................. 231
TORSION.......................................................................................................................................................... 231
4.15 STRUCTURES WITH DIRECT STRESS AND BENDING ......................................................... 234
4.16 TUTORIAL ........................................................................................................................................ 239
SAN3601 -166 - CHAPTER 4

4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
In this chapter you will learn the following:

 the strain energy method using examples
 Castigliano’s first and second theorems
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

 Distinguish between different equations for determining strain due to direct axial
stress, bending stress, shear stress and torsional stress, and a combination of these
stresses, in pin-jointed frames, beams and portal frames.
 Find the forces in the members of structurally indeterminate pin-jointed frames and
portal frames using Castigliano’s first and second theorems.
 Find the forces in pin-jointed frames and portal frames due to temperature changes,
shrinkage (expansion) of the members or settlement of the supports.
 Calculate the vertical and horizontal deflection of structures due to applied loading.

4.2 INTRODUCTION TO STRAIN ENERGY ANALYSIS
When a load is applied to a structure, each member of the structure is strained an amount
proportional to the stress it carries. The strain may be due to one or more kinds of stress:
 direct axial stress (tensile or compressive)

 bending stress
 shear stress
 torsional stress
The result of these strains will be to distort the structure slightly, causing displacement of
the points of application of the external loads.
The displacement of these points means that external work has been done on the structure.
(External work = Average force × Distance)
The amount of energy stored in a structure under a given loading system is defined as the
strain energy of the structure.
External work done = Internal work stored

= Increase in internal energy
= Strain energy
The expression for strain energy provides an extra equation required to solve redundant
structures (i.e. statically indeterminate structures).

4.3 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO DIRECT AXIAL STRESS
Consider a bar of cross-sectional area A, length l, subject to an external force F. The force is
applied gradually with an initial value of zero and increased in proportional value to the
strain. The average value of the load = 1/2  the maximum value of the load.
Extension
Work done

Load
 F
F
(a) (b)
Figure 4.1
F
Change in length   where E = Young’s modulus
AE
Strain energy stored in bar = Work done
= Average force  Distance moved
F F
Strain energy U = 
2 AE
F2 
i.e. U =
2AE
If there are a number of members in a structure (struts and ties):
F2 
Total strain energy due to direct stress  = 
2AE

4.4 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING STRESS

M
M
x

Figure 4.2
Consider an element of beam, length x, to which an external moment M is gradually

applied, causing a rotation as shown in the figure.
x = R Equation (1)
f E M
From the theory of bending = =
y R I
1 M
 =
R EI
x
From Equation (1)  =
R
M
= x
EI
Strain energy stored in element = Work done
= Average moment  Angle turned through

M M
=  x
2 EI
M2
Strain energy U = x
2 EI
Total strain energy in beam due to bending stress

U =  dU
0

M2
U = 0 2 EI dx
If there are a number of members subject to bending in a structure:

M2
Total strain energy due to bending stress =   dx
0
2 EI
Example 4.1
Find the strain energy in a simply supported beam of span L carrying a central point load W.
EI = constant. Also find the deflection at the point load.
B
A C
x
L
L
/2 /2

Solution
Consider portion A-B
Wx
M =
2
2 W 2 x2
M =
4
L
2
M 2 dx
Strain energy in A-B = 
0
2 EI
L
L
1 W 2 dx
2
W  x3  2
2 EI 0 4
= =
8 EI  3  0
W 2 L3
=
192 EI
Consider portion B-C
Wx  L  WL Wx W
M  W x       L  x
2  2 2 2 2
W2
M2   L  x 2
4
L
M 2 dx
Strain energy in B-C = 
L 2 EI
2
L
1 W2 W 2 L3
 
2 EI L 4
 
2
= L x dx
192 EI
2
(Alternatively: due to symmetry

W 2 L3 
SE in B-C = SE in A-B = 
192 EI 
2  W 2 L3
 Strain energy in whole beam =
192 EI
W 2 L3
=
96EI
Deflection at the point load
External work done = Average load x Distance moved
W
= 
2
But strain energy = External work done
W 2 L3
W =
96EI
WL3
giving  =
48EI
Example 4.2
Compare the strain energies due to bending of a uniform beam of span L, with a central point
load W, if
(a) both ends are fully restrained
(b) one end is fully restrained and the other end is simply supported

Solution
(a) Both ends restrained
W
A B C
L L
/2 /2
Bending moment diagram
Find deflection at B
MOHR II
B = Intercept of carried tangents at A and B at B
M
= Moment of diagram between A and B about B
EI
1  1 WL L 1 L 1 WL L 5 L 
=          
EI  2 8 4 3 4 2 8 4 12 
WL3
B =  (i.e. deflection is downward)
192 EI
2 3 2 3
1 1 W L  W L
Strain energy U = W =
2 2 192 EI 384 EI

(b) One end fully restrained, other end simply supported.
A B C
L L
/2 /2
R
RL +
= WL
Find R
Point C does not deflect, i.e. intercept of carried tangents at A and C at C = 0.
MOHR II
0 = Intercept of tangents at A and C at C
M
= Moment of diagram between A and C about C
EI
1 2 L 1 WL L  L L 
=  RL  L       
2 3 2 2 2  3 2
5
which gives R = W
16

Find deflection at B
B = Intercept of carried tangents at A and B at B
M
= Moment of diagram between A and B about B
EI
1 5 L L 1 5 L L 1 WL L L 
  WL     WL       
2 3 2 2 2 3 
=
EI  32 2 4 2 32
7 WL3
=  
2 384 EI
3
7 WL
Strain energy U = W = 
1
2 4 384 EI
Comparing the strain energy in (a) and (b), we find that
7
Strain energy in (b) =  strain energy in (a)
4

Example 4.3
Sketch the bending moment diagram for the structure A-B-C-D. Calculate the energy stored
in the structure and therefore the vertical displacement of point D due to the gradually applied
load of 60 kN. Consider strain energy due to bending only. E = 210 GPa, IAB = 96  106
mm4 , IBC = ICD = 48  106 mm4.
4m
150
A B
2m
D
VA = 60 kN C
60 kN
1,5 m
150
Bending moment
x1 90 diagram (kNm)
x2
90
x3
MC = MB = -60  1.5 = -90 kNm

MA = -60  2.5 = -150 kNm
M2
Total strain energy Utotal = 
2 EI
For A-B (origin at A): Mx 1 = -150 + 60x1 kNm

4
150  60 x 2 dx  10 6 kNm
U AB = 
0
2 E  96
4
22 500  3 600 x 2  18000 x
 
0
2 E  96
 10 6 dx
  11400  10 6
6
10 4
 22 500 x  1 200 x 3 9 000 x 2 0
 kNm
192 E 96 E
For B-C (origin at B): Mx 2 = 90 kNm
2
902 dx  10 6 kNm
U BC =  2E  48
0

1
96 E

8 100 x 0 
2

16200  10 6
96 E
For C-D (origin at D): Mx 3 = 60x 3
1, 5
3 600 x 2 dx
U CD = 
0
2 E  48
4 050  10 6

1
96 E
1 200 x 3   1, 5
0

96 E
U total 
10 6
192 E

11 400  16 200  4 050 
31 650  10 6
  1.570kNm
96  210  10 6
But: External work done = Total strain energy
60
  1.570kNm
2
1.570  10 6
 mm
30
  52.3 mm downwards 

4.5 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR STRESS
It can similarly be shown that

S2
U= k
0
2GA
dx
where k = shape factor
(Note: Shear stress is not uniform over a cross-section, and to allow for this a shape factor k
is introduced.)
S = gradually applied shear force

A = area over which shear force acts
G = modulus of rigidity
 = length

4.6 STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO TORSIONAL STRESS
It can similarly be shown that

T2
U= 0 2GJ dx
where J = polar moment of inertia for circular sections
T = torsional moment
G = modulus of rigidity
 = length
If the cross-section of the member under consideration is a shape other than circular or
tubular, the equation above is modified.
For example, for a rectangular member with dimensions h > b

T 2L
U= 0 2Cb3hG dx
where
hb3 16 b b 4 
C=   3.336 1  
16  3 h  12h 4 

4.7 IN GENERAL
Total strain energy
   
F2 M2 S2 T2
U total = 0 2EA 0 2 EI 0 2GA 0 2GJ dx
dx  dx  k dx 
In pin-jointed frames generally only the first term is important.

In beams and portal frames generally only the second term is important.

4.8 FIRST THEOREM OF CASTIGLIANO
Consider an elastic structural member carrying gradually applied loads W1 W2 W3 W4 ... as

shown, the deflection under each load being y1 y2 y3 y4 ...
(It is assumed that the reactions do no work. If there are displacements at the reactions,
they do work and must be considered as loads.)
W1 W2 W3 W4
y1 y2 y3 y4
y1 y2 y4

y3
Figure 4.3
External work done by the loads gradually applied is
1
U = (W1y1 + W2y2 + W3y3 + W4y4 ...) Equation (1)
2
Now say load W3 is increased by W3, causing y1 y2 y3 y4 ... to be increased by

y1 y2 y3 y4 ..., respectively.
The increase in external work done is
1
U = W1y1 + W2y2 + W3y3 + W4y4 ......... + W3 y3
2
(Note: W1 W2 W4 ... have already been fully applied.

1
 Increase in work = W1y1 etc., not W1y1 ...)
2

W3 y3 is of the second order of smallness and therefore negligible.
 U = W1y1 + W2y2 + W3y3 + W4y4 Equation (2)
Now assume the member unloaded and W1 W2 (W3 + W3) W4 ... applied gradually.
The final deflections will be as before:

(y1 + y1) , (y2 + y2) , (y3 + y3) , (y4 + y4) ...
Now total work done

1
= [W1 (y1 + y1) + W2 (y2 + y2] + (W3 + W3)(y3 + y3) + W4 (y4 + y4)...]
2
1 1
= (W1y1 + W2y2 + W3y3 + W4y4 + ...) + (W1y1 + W2y2 + W3y3 + W4y4 ...)
2 2
1 1
+ W3y3 + W3 y3
2 2
1 1
= U+ U + W3y3
2 2
But total work done = U + U
1 1
 U + U = U + U + W3y3
2 2
U
i.e. y3 =
W3
U
In the limit: y3 =
W3
U U U
Similarly y1 = y2 = y4 = ------- etc.
W1 W2 W4

U
In general terms: yw =
W
The first theorem of Castigliano can now be stated as follows:
The displacement of the point of application of any load along the line of action of that
load equals the partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy in the structure
with respect to that load.
Similarly, in general terms  M  U

M
The rotation of the point of application of any moment, in the direction of that moment,
equals the partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy in the structure with
respect to that moment.

4.9 DIRECT STRESS
DEFLECTION OF STRUCTURES: APPLICATION OF CASTIGLIANO I
The deflection of a joint in a statically determinate pin-jointed frame due to an external

loading system can now be found.
Consider a statically determinate pin-jointed frame subject to an external loading system.

Apply an imaginary (dummy) load P at the relative joint (say A) in the direction of the
required deflection at this point.
Let Fw = force in chosen member due to external loading system
Let Fp = force in chosen member due to load P only
i.e. Fp = fpP where fp = force in member when P = 1
Total force in any member = Fw + Fp
= Fw + fpP
Strain energy for whole structure
F2 L
U =  (see section 4.2)
2AE
= 
 FW  f P P L
2
2AE
U
But by Castigliano I:  =
p

2 FW  f P P L  f p
i.e. A = 
2 AE
FW f P L Pf p2 L
=  
AE AE
FW f P L
But P = 0  A = 
AE
where  = deflection of point of application of dummy load P in the direction of P
Fw = force in members due to external loading
fw = force in members due to unit load acting at point of application of

dummy load P in the direction of the required deflection
A = area of member
L = length of member
E = Young’s modulus
Note: Instead of the areas of the members of a frame being given, it is sometimes stated that
all tension members are stressed to a given value (say 120 MPa) and all compression
members to a given stress (say 60 MPa). Then, if the load system is known, the sign of the
F
force in each member can be determined. The term in the above expression must then be
A
replaced by the given stress with the appropriate sign.
Similarly, for beam deflections
L
MW mp dx
A = 
0
EI
where A = deflection at A
Mw = moment due to external loading system

mp = moment due to unit load at A in the direction of the required deflection

EI = rotational stiffness (or flexural rigidity)
Example 4.4
A parallel chord truss is loaded as shown in the figure below. The tension members all have
an area of 25 cm2 and the compression members all have an area of 37.5 cm2.
Calculate (a) the vertical deflection of point P

(b) the horizontal deflection of point P
EI = 210 MPa
50 kN 100 kN 100 kN
1 2 3 4
10 12 14 1,8
16 17
9 11 13 15 m
5 P 6 7 8
2.5 m 2.5 m 2.5 m 2.5 m
(a) Vertical displacement of P

Step 1 Find the forces F in the members due to the loading.
50 100 100
-156.25 -243.16 -243.16 -190.97
-156.25 -190.97
112.5 kN 137.5 kN

Step 2 Apply unit load at P acting vertically down and calculate the force fp in all
members.
-1,04 -0.69 -0.69 -0,35
+1.04 +0.35
1
0.75 0.25
Step 3 Tabulate as follows:
Notes (1) Compression = - Tension = +
(2) E is constant and can be introduced after the summation.

Member Length L Area A Fw (kN) fp Fw fp L
(cm) (cm2) A
1 250 37.5 -156.25 -1.04 +1084

2 250 37.5 -243.16 -0.69 +1119
3 250 37.5 -243.16 -0.69 +1119
4 250 37.5 -190.97 -0.35 +446
5 250 25 0 0 0
6 250 25 +156.25 +1.04 +1625
7 250 25 +190.97 +0.35 +668
8 250 25 0 0 0
9 180 37.5 -112.5 -0.75 +405
10 308 25 +192.64 +1.28 +3038
11 180 37.5 -112.5 +0.25 -135
12 308 25 +107.03 -0.43 -567
13 180 37.5 -100 0 0
14 308 25 +64.22 +0.43 +340
15 180 37.5 -137.5 -0.25 +165
16 308 25 +235.32 +0.43 +1247
17 180 37.5 -137.5 -0.25 +165
FW f P Lcm
  +10719

A cm 2 
Converting to kN and m units and introducing E:
10 719 102
p =  FW f P L  m  0.0051 m
EA 210 106 104
Vertical deflection of point P = 5.1 mm (down)

(b) Horizontal deflection of P
Assume the horizontal displacement is to the left.  Apply unit (dummy) load at P in that
direction.
Step 1 Find forces Fw in the members due to the loading as before.
Step 2 Apply unit load at P acting as shown and calculate forces fp in all members.
P
1
1 +1 +1 +1
Step 3 Tabulate as follows:
Member Length L Area A Fw (kN) fp FW f P L


A
(cm) (cm2)
6 250 25 +156.25 +1 +1 562.5

7 250 25 +190.97 +1 +1 909.7
8 250 25 0 +1 0
FW f P Lcm
  +3 472.2

A cm 2 
Converting to kN and m units and introducing E:
2
FW f P L 3 472.2 10
p = Σ  m  0.00165 m
EA 210 106 104
Horizontal displacement of point P = 1.65 mm (to left)

Example 4.5
Calculate the vertical deflection under the load for the frame shown, which is pinned to the
supports at A and B. All members are 1 300 mm2 in area and E = 200 kN/mm2.
E
100 kN
(32 )
C
(1) D
(3)
HA HB (=150/3 )
A
(=150/3 ) B
(150) (250)
1m 1m 3m
Solution
The lengths of members and the reactions at A and B are calculated and are shown in
brackets in the above figure.
The forces in the members (Fw) are calculated using the method of resolution of forces at a
joint.
Joint A
F V = 0 Fsin = 150

H

Joint B
F1
F2
 H = 0 F1sin
V = 0 250 + F1cos = F2
250
Joint D
F
V = 0 Fsin = 400

H V = 0 H = Fcos
=
400
Joint E
 V = 0 4002 cos - 100 = Fsin


F 400
4002 100
F=500 kN
(Note: Check by resolving forces at C)

The forces in the members due to the external loading system can now be shown on the frame
(Forces Fw).
1
Place unit dummy load at E. The forces in the frame due to the dummy load =  Fw and
100
are shown in brackets.

E
100 kN
(1) Frame showing forces

(-4) Fw and (fp) in members
-400
D
Tabulate as follows:
Member Length (m) Area (cm2) Fw (kN) fp FW fp L
A
A-C 2 13 + 300 +3 + 600 = 46.15
3 3 13
B-C 2 13 + 300 +3 + 600 = 46.15

3 3 13
B-D 3 13 -400 -4 + 1600 3 = 213.17

13
C-D 1 13 -400 -4 + 1600 = 123.08
13
C-E 5 13 +500 +5 12500 = 961.54
13
D-E 3 2 13 400 2 4 2 + 9600 2 = 1 044.18
13
FW f P Lcm
  +2 434.27

A cm 2 
FW f p L 2 434.27
y = Σ  m  0.1217m
AE 200 106 104
Vertical deflection of E = 121.7 mm (down)

Example 4.6
The frame shown is supported at A and C and a load of 10 kN acts down at B. An upward
force R is applied at E so that there is no vertical deflection at this point. Calculate the value
of R. The members of the frame all have the same cross-sectional area and are made of the
same material.
R
D
E F
A C
B
10 kN
3m 3m
Solution
R forms part of the external loading system. Calculate deflection at joint E and equate to
zero. The unknown lengths are shown in brackets in the above figure.

Forces in members due to external loading Forces in members due to unit load at E as
system (Fw): shown:
R 1
D F D F
+R +1
A C
B A B C
10 kN
Joint D F2 Joint D
F2
 1
/2
F1 F1
R
(5- /2) 
V = 0 V = 0
R 1 5
F1 cos  = 5- F1 cos  = F1 =
2 2 8
4 R
F1 = 5-
5 2
H = 0
F1 = 25  5 R 3
4 8 F2 = F1 sin  F2 =
8
H = 0
F2 = F1 Sin 

F2 = 25  5 R
4 8 5
3

F2 = 15  3 R
4 8

Member Length Fw (kN) fp Fw fp L

s (m)
- 5 R  
1 4
A-D 4 + - 5 R = R-10
2 2 2
- 5 R  
1 4
C-F 4 + - 5 R = R-10
2 2 2
B-A 3 0 0 0
B-C 3 0 0 0
B-D 5 
 25 4  5 8 R  -
5 25 4  5R 8  258  125R 64  625 32
8
B-F 5 
 25 4  5 8 R  -
5 25 4  5R 8 258   125R 64  625 32
8
E-D 3 
 15 4  3 8 R  
3  4 8 8  
- 15  3R 9   27R  135
64 32
8
E-F 3 
 15 4  3 8 R  
3  4 8 8  
- 15  3R 9   27R  135
64 32
8
B-E 4 +R 1 R41 = 4R
43R 135
 Fw fp L = 
4 2
1 1  43R  135
E =  Fw fp L =  
AE AE  4 2 
But E = 0
1  43R  135  0
  
AE  4 2 
135  4
R kN
43  2
12
R = 6 kN = 6.28 kN
43

BENDING: BEAMS AND PORTAL FRAMES
We have seen that
L
MW mp
A = 
0
EI
dx (see 4.8)
Example 4.7
Calculate the vertical and horizontal displacements of point A on the crane loaded as shown
below and therefore the resultant displacement of A. The crane is made of an I-section for
which Ixx = 1522 cm4. E = 210 000 MPa.
A
4m
B 45
20 kN
3.4 m
Solution
Downward deflection of A
s A A
s
x x
B 20kN s y B 1
x
y
C x = scos45 = s/2
C
y = scos45 = s/2
8
208 Place unit load at A

Tabulate as follows: (hogging bending moment = -)
Member Mw (kNm) m Mwm Mwm dx

20s s 4
640
20 x   +10s2
A-B
 10s ds 
2
2 3
2 0
 8 3, 4
B-C 20 8 +160
 160dy  160  3,4
0
1
EI 
 MW m
1  640 
=   160  3,4
EI  3 
213 1  544
V = 3 m  0.237m
21107 1522 108
V = 237 mm
Horizontal displacement of A
A s A 1
y
20
B B
y1
C C
(As before) Place unit load at A

Member Mw (kNm) m Mwm Mwm dx
20s s 4
640
20 x   +10s2
A-B
 10s ds 
2
2 3
2 0
 
 160  20 
20 8  8  y1
3 ,4
B-C 160 + 20 8y1 8 y1 dy
0
 871
1
EI 
 MW m
1  640 
=   871
EI  3 
213 13  871
H = m  0,339 m
21  10 7  1522  10 8
H = 339 mm
Resultant deflection H = 339
V = 237 R
R = 237 2
  339
2
R = 413.6 mm
Example 4.8
Calculate the horizontal displacement of point D in the figure shown below.

2m
B C
2m
4m D P
A
A
EI = constant
Solution
P
1
P 2P
1 2
Place unit load at D
Member s = 0 at Limit of s Mp m Mm
D-C D 0-2 -Ps -s Ps2

C-B C 0-2 -2P -2 4P
A-B A 0-4 2P - Ps 2-s 4P - 4Ps + Ps2
U 1
p =
EI 
 M p mds
P
over whole structure

2 2 4
EI p   Ps ds   4 Pds   4 P  4 Ps  Ps ds

2 2
0 0 0
 
4
2
 4s2 s3 
 4 P s0  P 4 s 
3
 Ps 3  
2
0  2 3 0
 8 P 3  8 P  16 P  32 P  64 P 3
 16 P
16 P
p 
EI
Example 4.9
Calculate VA, VB and MA for the beam shown below, using strain energy methods. EI is
constant. 10 kN
50 kN/m
MA C
A
10m 2m
VA VB
Solution
Mmdx
VB does not deflect.   0
EI
10 kN
MA =2620-10VB 10
x
MA
C C
A x x1 A x x1
10 m 2m 10 m 2m
VA=600-VB VB 1
1
External loading Unit (dummy) load i.l.o. VB
Find MA and VA in terms of VB and loading system.

MA = 0 MA + 10 VB = 50 x 10 x 5 + 10 x 12
MA = 2620 - 10 VB
V = 0 VA = 510 - VB
Calculate Mw and m and tabulate. Hogging BM is as follows:

Member x = 0 at limits Mw (kN) m Mmdx
510  VB x  2 620  10VB  50 x

2 1 000
A-B A 0-10 -x +10 VB  200
3
2
(See below)
C-B C 0-2 -10x 1 0 0
1 000
Mmdx = VB  200
3
Member A-B
10 10
 Mmdx   510  V 
1
B x  2620  10VB  25x 2   x  10dx
EI 0 0
1000
 VB  200,5 obtained after lengthy arithmetic
3
 0 for zero deflection of VB
VB  200,5 kN
V A  309 ,5 kN
M A  615 kNm
Example 4.10
Calculate H and MA for the structure shown.
B
EI is constant. HB = H
3m
0,25 m 5 kN
C
4m
MA
HA = H A
VA
Solution
Mmdx
HB does not deflect,    = 0
EI
B HB = H B 1
x 5 kN x
x1 x1
C
0,25
m
HA = H A
A
VA
External loading Unit (dummy) load i.l.o. HB
Calculate Mw and m and tabulate

Member x = 0 at limits Mw m Mwmdx
3
B-C B 0-3 HBx 1.x
3
 x3 
0 H B x dx  H B  3   9 H B
2
7
 5 
C-A C 3-7 Hbx1 - 3
4
1.x1
  H
3
B x12  x1  dx1
4 
7
 H B x13  5x12 
 
 3 8 3
H  245  45
 B 343  27     25
3  8 
316 H B
  25
3
316H B
  M W mdx = 9HB + - 25
3
343H B
=  25
3

1  343H B 
  25 = 0 for zero deflection of HB
EI  3 
75
i.e. HB = HB = 0.219 kN
343
5
MA = 0 MA - 7HB + = 0 giving MA = 0.281 kNm
4
Example 4.11
Draw the bending moment diagram 40 kN C

for the portal frame loaded as
shown. EI = constant
E
B
25 m
10 m
D
A
10 m 10 m
Solution
The horizontal reactions (HA = HD = H) do not deflect

Mm
 dx = 0
EI

s
y=0.65
40 kN C
x = 0.85
12,5
12.5
25
B 25 m 15
10 m 20
s
s D 1 1
A HD= H
HA = H
10 m 10 m
20 20 D
External loading Unit (dummy) load i.l.o. H

VA = VD = 20 kN
HA = HD = H
Calculate MW and m and tabulate as follows:
Mem s=0 Limits Mw m Mwm

-ber at
A-B A 0-10 -Hs -1,s +Hs2
B-E B 0-12.5 +20x - H(10+y) -(165-10H-0.6Hs)(10+0.6s)
= 20(0.8s)-H(10+0.6s) = -160s + 100H + 12Hs
= 16s - 10H - 0.6Hs -1(10+0.6s) - 9.6s2 + 0.36 Hs2
E-C B 12.5-25 +20x-H(10+y)-40 (x-10) -(165-10H-0.6Hs-325+400)
= 20(0.8s)-H(10+0.6s) (10+0.6s)
- 40(0.8s-10) = -80s + 100H + 12Hs-4000
= 16s-10H-0.6Hs-32s + 9.6s2 + 0.366 Hs2
+400 -1(10+0.6s)
D-C D 0-25 -Hs -1,s +Hs2
EIH = 0

10 12 ,5
 Hs ds   160s  100H  12 Hs  9,6s  0,36 Hs 2 ds 

2 2
0 0
25 25
  80s  100H  12 Hs  4000  9,6s 

 0,36 Hs ds   Hs 2 ds  0
2 2
12 ,50 0
Lengthy arithmetic gives
13 666.66 H = 43 750
i.e. H = 3.2 kN
80
C
80
56
Free BM
40  20/4 = 200 kNm
32
200
32
B
144
A D
Bending moment diagram (kN)

4.10 SECOND THEOREM OF CASTIGLIANO
Strain energy can also be used to find the forces in redundant members of imperfect frames
(i.e. frames with redundant members), provided the deflection, or lack of fit, of the redundant
member is known.
Consider a statically determinate frame A-C-B-D as shown in figure (a) below.
L

C
(a)
A B
K
L

C (b)
R
B1
A R
K B
increase in length of
Figure 4.4
Distance A-B = L and member A-K is not connected where it crosses C-D. In figure (a) it is
also not yet connected at B.

Suppose member A-K of length L -  and cross-sectional area A was strained to connect at B.
Then both the frame and member A-K would be strained, and forces will be induced in all
members. The new frame is shown in figure (b). Let the force in A-K be = R.
R
A
Increaseinlength KB1
For member AK : E = =
Orginallength L  
R L   
 KB1 =
AE
R L   
The final length of member is A-B1 =  L    +
AE
BB1 = L - A-B1
 RL R 
= L -  L     
 AE AE 
R
Since  is very small and E very large, the term may be neglected.
AE
 RL 
 BB1 = L L   
 AE 
RL
i.e. BB1 = 
AE
But, from Castigliano I, if a force R were applied at B in the direction of A
U0
BB1 =
R

U0 RL
 
R AE
Where U0 = strain energy in original frame (figure (a))
By putting in the extra member A-K, the strain energy increases by an amount UAK where
R 2  L  
UAK =
2 AE

Again is negligible compared to L/E
E
R 2L
 UAK =
2AE
Differentiating partially with respect to R
UAK RL

R AE
The total strain energy in the redundant structure ACB1D = Utotal = U0 + UAK
Utotal U0 UAK

 
R R R
Utotal RL RL
i.e.  
R AE AE
Utotal
i.e. 
R

The second theorem of Castigliano can now be stated as follows:
The partial differential coefficient of the total strain energy of a redundant structure
with respect to the force in the redundant member equals the initial lack of fit of the
member.

4.11 REDUNDANT STRUCTURES: APPLICATION OF CASTIGLIANO II
Consider any plane frame A-B-C-D with one redundant member, carrying a load W at C as
shown in (a) of the figure below.
B A B
A B A
1
1
C
C C
D D D
(a)
W (b) W
(c)
Figure 4.5
Assume A-C is the redundant member and is too short by an amount . When A-C is
removed, the frame becomes statically determinate as shown in figure (b). Let the force in
any one member (say A-B) of the frame in figure (b) = F0.
Now remove load W and apply unit load in place of the redundant member, as shown in
figure (c). Let the force in any one member (say A-B) of the frame in figure (c) = f.
Then, total force in any one member (say A-B) of the redundant frame = FD + fR (where R is
the actual force in the redundant member).
 Strain energy in the chosen member (A-B) =

 FD  fR2 L
2AE
Total strain energy in redundant frame

U total 
 FD  fR  L
2
2AE
U total 2 FD  fR  Lf

R 2AE
F fL f 2 RL
  D 
AE AE
U total
From Castigliano II: 
R
FD fL f 2L
   R 
AE AE
FD fL

i. e. R  AE
f 2L

AE
For  = 0
FD fL

R AE
f 2L

AE
The procedure for determining the forces in a singly redundant plane frame can now be
formulated as follows:
Step 1 Remove any one member and determine the forces in the statically determinate frame
F0.
Step 2 Remove the external loading, apply unit load in place of the member removed and
determine the forces f in the frame.
2
F fL f L
Step 3 Calculate D and for each member and summate in tabular form. Use the
AE AE

normal sign convention.
Step 4 Calculate the force in the selected member.
FD fL

R= AE
f 2 RL

AE
Step 5 Find the forces in all the other members from F0 + f R for each member.
Similarly, it can be shown that in members subject to bending moments only
L
MW mdx

EI
R L
0
m2 dx
0 EI
where R could be a redundant reaction

 could be a sinking support.

Example 4.12
The plane frame shown in the figure is pin-jointed throughout. All bars are of the same
material and have a constant length:cross-sectional area ratio. Determine the loads in the
members of the frame due to the given loading.
1,5 1,5 1,5

B C D
A
50 kN 100 kN
E F
G H
J K
Solution
Step 1 Remove redundant member B-F and calculate the forces F0 in the frame as shown in
figure (a) below.
Step 2 Remove external loading and replace B-F with unit load. Calculate the forces f in the
frame as shown in figure (b).
Step 3 Summation as shown in the table.
Step 4 Find R.
Step 5 Calculate the forces in the members as shown in the last column of the table.

Note: Take tension negative
Take compression positive
1
50 B 50 C 100 D A B 2 C D
A
1
502 502 1002
50 1
100 1
50 E F 100 E F
150
G H G H
150
J K J K
0 150
(a) Redundant member B-F (b) External loads removed. Unit load in
removed. Calculate F0. place of redundant member. Find f.

Member F0 (kN) f F0f f2 fR F0 + fR
(kN)
A-B -50 0 0 -50
1 50 1
  
B-C -50 2 2 2 -25 -75
C-D -100 0 0 -100
1 100 1
 
E-F +100 2 2 2 -25 +75.0
G-H 0 0 0 0
1 1

B-E 0 2 0 2 -25 -25.0
E-G 0 0 0 0
G-J 0 0 0 0
1 50 1
 
C-F +50 2 2 2 -25 +25.0
F-H +150 0 0 +150
H-K +150 0 0 +150
A-E 50 2 0 0 +70.71
B-F 0 -1 0 1 +35.36 +35.36
E-C 50 2 -1 50 2 1 +35.36 -35.36

G-F 0 0 0 0
J-H 0 0 0 0
F-D 100 2 0 0 +141.42
= 100 2 =4
= 141.42
FD fL

R 2
AE   0 no lack of fit 
f L

AE
 141,42
2
R   35,36 kN
4

Now the fR and F0 + fR columns in the table can be completed.
L
(Note: and E are constant for all members and cancel out.)
A
Example 4.13
The frame shown in the figure has members with cross-sectional areas as follows:
A-B = D-C = 3 cm2

Remaining members = 1 cm2
Use the method of strain energy as applied to redundant frames to find the forces in the
members.
A D
B C
0,8m
10 kN 20 kN
Solution
Step 1 Remove redundant member B-D and calculate the forces F0 in the frame as shown in
figure (a) below.
Step 2 Remove external loading and replace B-D with unit load. Calculate forces f in frame
as shown in figure (b).
Step 4 Find R.
Step 5 Calculate forces in members.

A A
A
D
1
1 A
10 20 A
1
A
B C C
B
10 kN 20 kN
(a) (b)
Redundant member removed and Loads removed. Redundant member
F0 found. replaced by unit load and f found.
Tabulate (tension negative)

Member Length Area F0 f F0 fL f 2L fR F0 + fR
(m) (cm2) (kN) A A (kN)
A-B 0.6 3 -10 3 -1.2 9 +0.82 -9.18

+
5 125
B-C 0.8 1 0 4 0 64 +1.09 +1.09
+
5 125
C-D 0.6 3 -20 3 2.4 9 +0.82 -19.18
+
5 125
D-B 1.0 1 0 -1 0 1 -1.36 -1.36
A-C 1.0 1 0 -1 0 1 -1.36 -1.36
 = -3.6  = 2.656
FD fL

R AE  0  3,6  1,36 kN
2
f 2,656

AE
Now find F0 + fR and complete the last column of the table.

Example 4.14
By treating the reaction at C as a redundant reaction, calculate the force in each member of
L
the pin-jointed frame shown in the figure. Note: for all members is the same.
AE
50 kN F
45
B
45
45 45
45 E
D
C-D = D-E = A-B = E-F

Solution
Step 1 Remove the redundant reaction at C and find the forces in all members due to the
external load of 50 kN.
50
L B L
A
VF=
L 90 L
C D E
VE=0
2L
MF = 0: 50  = HE  L
2
100
HE = = 50 2
2

50 50
H = 0: HE = HF + HF = 50 2 - HF = 25 2
2 2
Joint F
F H = 0
25 2
FBF
 25 2 FBF=50
2
FBF VF
50
V= 0 VF = VF = 25 2
2
Frame as a whole V = 0 : VE + VF = 25 2
VE = 25 2 - 25 2 = 0
Step 2
Remove external load and replace redundant reaction at C with unit load. Calculate forces f.
F HF = 2
2 2
VF = 2
A (L) B
(L)
2
2 2 2 2
1 3
C HE = 2
(L) D (L) E
1 VE = 1
MF = 0 1(2L) = HEL HE = 2
H = 0  HF = 2
Joint F FFB = 2 2 VF = 2
V = 0 VE + 1 = VF = 2 VE = 1

Joint E
H = 0
FEB
FEB =1
2
E
2 FEB = 2
FED
H = 0
1 FEB + 2 = F
ED
2
FED = 3
Joint A
A V = 0
FAB
FAD 2
 FAD  2
FAD 2 2
H = 0
2 2
FAB =  FAB  2
2 2
Joint D
V = 0
FDB
FDB 2
 FDB  2
2 2
1 3
D

L
Note: = constant and need not be tabulated. Take tension = negative.
AE
Member F0 (kN) f F0 f f2 fR F0 + f R (kN)

A-B 0 +2 0 4 +33 +33
A-C 0 + 2 0 2 +16.5 2 +23.3
A-D +50 - 2 -50 2 2 -16.5 2 +26.7
C-D 0 -1 0 1 -16.5 -16.5
B-D -50 + 2 -50 2 2 +16.5 2 -26.7
B-E 0 + 2 0 2 +16.5 2 +23.3
B-F -50 +2 2 -100 2 8 +33 2 -3.3
D-E +50 2 -3 -150 2 9 -49.5 +21.2
F0 f = -350 2 30 = 
Step 4 Find R.
L
From Castigliano II: ( cancelled out)
AE
  F0 f
R
f 2
There is no settlement of support C,   = 0
i.e. R 

 350 2   16,5 kN
30
Step 5 Complete columns 6 and 7 of the table. The force in each member is given in
column 7.

Example 4.15
Three bars A-D, B-D and C-D meet in a pin joint at D. At A, B and C they are pinned to a
rigid support as shown in the figure. A-D, B-D and C-D have cross-sectional areas of 2 cm2,
2 cm2 and 6 cm2, respectively. A-B-C-D forms a rectangle. If a force of 15 kN acts at D as
shown, use strain energy to find the forces in the bars. State whether they are compressive or
tensile.
A
B
C D
2m 13 3
15 kN 2
Solution
Step 1 Take member B-D as redundant, remove B-D and find forces in members A-D and
C-D.
Step 2 Remove the external load and let the unit load act in redundant member as shown.
A A
B
1 1
15
C D C D
15
Step
kN1 Step 2

Step 3 Tabulate as follows. Take tension as positive.
Member Area Length F0 f F0 fL f 2L fR F0 + fR

A
(cm2) (m) (kN) A (kN)
 3  3  3
D-A 2 3 +15 13  45    9 13   -5.3 +9.71
13  2   2
D-B 2 13 0 +1 0  13  +6.3 +6.36

1 
 2 
6
D-C 6 2 0  2 0 4  2 -3.54 -3.54
13 13  6 
 =  45  3 2.944 = 
 
13  2 
Step 4 Find R.
From Castigliano II
FD fL

R AE
2
f

AE
For no lack of fit  = 0
F0 fL

R  A (Note: E cancels out)
2
f L

A
 45 3 
   
 13 2 
R  6,36 kN
2,944
Step 5 The last two columns can now be completed.
Note: Conversion factors for area and length are the same top and bottom; therefore they
cancel out.
4.12 STRAIN ENERGY IN BENDING: CASTIGLIANO II
From previous sections, it has been shown that
L
MW mdx

EI
R L
0
(see section 4.10)
m2 dx
0 EI
Example 4.16
A rectangular portal frame A-B-C-D is loaded as shown below. The distance between A and
D increases by 10 mm on application of the load. E = 200 GPa. Draw the bending moment
diagram for the loaded frame.
60 kN/m
E
B C
x2 x3
2m 2m
IAB = ICD = 22  106 mm4
IBC = 44  106 mm4
A x1 x4
H D H
VA VD
Solution
MA = 0 4VD = 60  2  1 VD = 30 kN
VA = 90 kN
Take H as the redundant

M W mdx
  
Castigliano II: H EI
2
m dx

EI

60 kN/m
B C B C
x2 E x3
E
x1 x4
A D D
1 1
90 30
Remove redundancy and Apply unit (dummy) load.
apply loading. Find Mw. Find m.

Tabulate as below (kN & m units)
Section x = 0 limits Mw m 1 MW m m2 dx
at EI  EI
dx  EI
10 6 10 6
5
A-B A 0-5 0 -1x1
22 E
0

22 E 0
x12 dx
10 6  125
  
22 E  3 
2 2
60 x 2 10 6 10 6
  
106
44 E 0
B-E B 0-2 90 x  -5 5 90 x2  30 x22 dx2 25x 2 dx
2 44 E
44 E 0
2
 3x 2 x 2  10 6
25
6
10
 150  2  2  
44 E  2 3 
0
22 E
10
  250
22 E
2
10 6 106 10 6
2
C-E C 0-2 30x3 -5
44 E 44 E 
5 303  dx3
0 44 E 0
25dx 3
10 6
 150 
10 6
25
22 E
22 E
5
10 6 10 6
D-C D 0-5 0 -1x4 0
x
2
22 E 4 dx 4
22 E 0
10 6  125
  
22 E  3 
10 6 10 6  400 
  400   
22 E 22 E  3 
6
 10 6   2  10  400
 10  10 3   400 10
H 22 E  22  200  10 6
10 6  400  10 6  400
 
22 E  3  22  200  10 6  3
 2.67kN
The bending moment diagram can now be drawn.
MB = -2.67  5 = -13.35 kNm

MC = -13.35 kNm

ME = 30  2 - 13.35 = 46.65 kNm
90
Maximum free moment occurs at = 1.5 m from B
60
 60  1.5 2
Maximum free moment = 90  1.5 - -13.35
2
= 54.15 kNm
16.67
13.35 13.35
1.5 54.15
m
Bending moment diagram (kN)

4.13 TEMPERATURE CHANGE, SHRINKAGE, SETTLEMENT
4.13.1 Pin-jointed frames
FL
As the expression is the extension of a bar of length L, cross-sectional area A, of a
EA
material with Young’s modulus E, under action of force F, this could be replaced by the
extension due to any other effect, e.g. temperature change.
e=Lt where L = length of member

 = coefficient of linear expansion
t = change in temperature
4.13.2 Rigid frames
Remove the redundancies to allow the structure to move freely, thus determining the lack of
fit. Use Castigliano to obtain the values of the redundancies.
V
V = th H
th
h h
M M
H H
h =
(a) Remove redundancies H and M (b) Remove redundancies H and V

U U
 t  th
H V
Figure 4.6: Temperature change

 
H
M
V
Figure 4.7: Settlement of support

4.14 COMBINED EFFECT OF DIRECT STRESS, BENDING, SHEAR AND
TORSION
In general, where we have computed
F 2 M2 S2 T2
U  dx   dx   k dx   dx
2 EA 2 EI 2GA 2GJ
U
and , we have ignored strain energy due to
P
(1) bending, torsion and shear in pinned frames
(2) direct stress, torsion and shear in beams and rigid frames
The figure below shows a cranked beam in which bending, shear and torsion occur
simultaneously.
C 1m D
2m
A 1
/2 kN/m downward
B
Elevation
1
/2 kN/m
A
B D
C
Plan
Figure 4.8: Beam with bending shear and torsion

One example will be done in order to compare the effect of various types of stress on a
structure.
Example 4.17
Find the vertical deflection of point A in the structure shown below.
10 kN A 1m Given:
B
I = 3 000 cm4
A = 40 cm2
(W) =30kN 2m k = 2.4 = shape factor (shear)
E = 210 kN/mm2
C
G = 80 kN/mm2
Solution
U FL FW L S S W M M
W   ds   k  ds
W EI  W GA  W EI  W
The thrusts, shears and bending moments in A-B-C will be W

10 A B 10 kNm W
10 W
1m
W = 30 2m W
10 kNm
10 kN
W -20
W Thrust Shear Bending
(1) Thrust
F FL F
Member A-B F = -10 0 0
W EA W
L FL F 2W
Member B-C F = -W  1 
W EA W EI

2W 60
W  0  W 
EA EA
 0.071mm
(2) Shear
S SL
Member A-B S = -W  1 k
W GA
S SL S
Member B-C S = 10 0 k 0
W GA W
2,4W 72
W 
S = GA GA
 0.225mm
(3) Bending
M M M
1 1
1
 S 0 EI W ds  EI 0 Ws ds
2
Member AB M = - WS
W
Origin at A
1
30  S 3  10
W    
EI  3  0 EI
M M M
L 2
1
Member BC M = W -10s
W
1 0 EI W ds  EI 0 W  105ds
Origin at B
W 
1
EI
 1
Ws  5s 2 0 
1
EI
2W  20  40
EI
10  40 50
Total  W  
EI EI
 7.937mm
Total  = 8.233 mm
Thrust contributes 0.86%; shear contributes 2.73%; bending contributes 96.41%

4.15 STRUCTURES WITH DIRECT STRESS AND BENDING
Two examples of this type of structure will be given.
Example 4.18
In the structure shown in the figure, the pinned brace is made 2 mm too short and is forced
into place. Find the forces and moments in the members. The following data is given:
Areas A-B = 50 cm2
C
A-C = 5cm2
IAB = 5 000 cm4 R
3m
E = 200 kN/mm2
B
A
2m 2m
10 kN
4m
Solution
A-C = 5 m
Let R, the tension in A-C be the redundancy.
Then U    0.002m.
R
Considering the effects of direct stress and bending
U FL F M M
   ds  0.002
R EA R EI R

(1) Direct stress
F F
Member A-C F  R  1 F R
R R
FL F R 5 10 4 R
 
EA R E  5  10 4 E
Member A-B F  0.8R F   0.8F F  0.64 R

R R
FL F 0.64 R  4 5.12 R  10 2 512 R

  
EA R E  50  10 4 E E
(2) Bending
M M
Member A-D M  0.6 Rs  0.6s M  0.36 Rs 2
R R
(origin at A)
2
M M 0.36 R  s 3 
L 2
0.36 Rs 2
0 EI R ds  0 EI ds   
EI  3  0
0.12 R
 8
EI
0.96 R

EI
Member D-B
M
M  0.6 Rs  10s  2  0.6s
R
M
M  0.36 Rs 2  6s 2  12s
R


M M
4
0.36Rs 2

 6s 2  12s
0 EI R ds  
2
EI
ds
4 4 4
0.36 R  s 3  6  s3  12  s 2 
        
EI  3  2 EI  3  2 EI  2  2
0.12 R 2 6
  56   56   12
EI EI EI
6.72 R 40
 
EI EI
U 0.96 R 6.72 R 40
E 10 4 R  512 R   
R I I I
7.68R 40
 1 0512 R  
I I
7.68R 40
 1 0512 R  8

5000  10 5000  10 8
 10 512 R  153 600 R  800 000
U
E  E  10 512 R  153 600 R  800 000
R
0.002  200  10 6  10 512 R  153 600 R  800 000
giving R = 7.32 kN
4.39
5.86
5.86
4.39
2.42 kNm
4.39
5.86 5.86
A 2m 2m B
5.61
10 kN

Reactions and forces in members
V = 0 VB + 4.39 - 10 = 0 VB = 5.61 kN
MB = 0 MB + 5.86  3 - 10  2 = 0
MB = 20 - 17.58 = 2.42 kNm
Example 4.19 (The king-posted beam)
Find the compressive force in the strut C-D of the king-posted timber beam shown in the
figure.
W
L L
/2 /2
C
A B

Area CD = a
D
Area AD, BD = A
Solution
W
x
R
R
Let the strut be the redundant member.
U
Then  0 (no lack of fit)
R

WR M x M Rx 2 Wx 2
Beam M x  x  M  
2 R 2 R 4 4
Strut F  R F  1F F  R  tan 

R R 2
Ties
R F cos ec
F cos ec 
2 R 2
F R  cos ec
F  cos ec  sec  
R 2 2 2
R cos ec  sec 
2

8

2 2  Rx 2 Wx 2  R tan   R cos ec 2  sec  

E T I 0  4
0     dx   2  
4  2aE s  8 AE s 

1  Rx 3 Wx 3  2 R tan  R cos ec 2  sec 
   0
2 E T I  3 3  0 2aE s 4 AE s
1  R 3 W 3  R tan  R cos ec 2  sec 
    0
2 E T I  24 24  2aE s 4 AE s
which gives
W 2
48E T I
R
cos ec  sec  tan 
2
2
 
4AE s 2aE s 48E T I

4.16 TUTORIAL
(1) Calculate the horizontal displacement of point C in the truss below. E = 210 GPa,
A = 5 000 mm2 for all members.
160 kN
43m
1 2 3 4 B
A 15
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
5 6 7
C
1.5 m 33 m 1.5 m
(2) The wall crane shown in the figure has to carry a load of 50 kN hanging from point D.
All the members have the same cross-sectional area, i.e. 2 500 mm2. Member A-B is
2 m in length. Using strain energy methods, determine the deflection of point C in
magnitude and direction.
D
A
30
50 kN
A
60
90
C
60
B

(3) The pin-jointed frame shown in the figure carries a single vertical load P as shown.
All the members of the frame are made of the same material and have the same length
and cross-sectional area. Prove that joint C deflects 8.2 off the vertical.
600 600 600 600

C
(4) The figure shows a loaded plane frame with pin joints. Calculate the magnitude and
direction of the displacement of the node E under load.
Cross-sectional area of the tension members = 100 mm2 and cross-sectional area of
the remaining members = 200 mm2. E = 200 GPa.
10 kN
D
60
60
90
C
60
60
A B

(5) Calculate the vertical displacement of joint D and the horizontal displacement of joint
C for the truss shown in the figure. The cross-sectional areas of the members are 3
000 mm2 for those in compression and 1 200 mm2 for those in tension. E = 200
kN/mm2.
B
D C
A
4m 4m
20 kN
(6) Use strain energy methods to determine the force in the redundant member F-C of the
frame shown below. All members are 20 cm2 cross-sectional area except F-G, which
is 40 cm2. E = constant = 207 kN/mm2.
F G
2m
A D
B C
15 kN
32m
(7) Find the force in the redundant member A-C of the frame shown below. The areas of
all members = 100 cm2. EI = 207 kN/mm2.
B C
90 kN
14,4 m
A D
14,4 m

(8) Use the first theorem of Castigliano to determine the deflection at B on the simply
supported beam A-D shown below.
20 kN
1 kN/m
A
2m B C 1,5 m D
6m
(9)
(a) Member A-B-C shown in the figure has a moment of inertia of 5 000 cm4 and E = 21
x 104 MPa. Use strain energy to find the downward deflection of C as a result of
bending in
(i) portion A-B
(ii) portion B-C
What is the total downward deflection?
(b) Use strain energy to find the horizontal deflection of C as a result of bending.
(Note: Horizontal deflection as a result of bending in A-B will be negligible.)
B
A 30
40 kN
4m 4m

(10)
(a) A cantilever 10 m long carries a point mass of 6 000 kg at the end and a uniformly
distributed load throughout of 20 kN/m. If the beam has a moment of inertia of
150 000 cm4 and E = 21 x 107 kN/m2, use strain energy to find the deflection at the
end of the beam.
(b) Find the total strain energy of the beam.
(11) Find the upward deflection of B in the frame shown below. The frame has a stiff joint
at C and is encastré at D. The frame carries a load W at A. EI for C-D is twice EI
for A-C and B-C.
B C A
L
L
/2 /2
W
2L
(12) Use strain energy to find the forces in the members in the figure below.
(Hint: Take A-D as redundant.) The areas of the members are
A A-D = 2 cm2
B-D = 2 cm2
1,5 m C-D = 5 cm2
B
1,5 m
C D
3m
5 kN
(13)
(a) Use strain energy to find the horizontal reactions at A and D of the portal frame
shown below.
(b) Draw the bending moment diagram for the portal frame. EI = constant.
30 kN/m
B E
C
6m
A D
4.5 m 2.3 m
(14) Draw the bending moment diagram for the frame shown. Joint B is a stiff joint and
EI = constant.
50 kN B
D 3m
A C
2m 2m
4m 4m

(15) Using strain energy methods, calculate the value of the horizontal and vertical
reactions at A for the frame shown in the figure and draw dimensioned shear force
and bending moment diagrams.
4m 12 m
B 10 kN/m C
D
(2I) (2I)
8m (I)
(16) The frame shown in the figure is made of steel (E = 200 kN/mm2). The cross-
sectional area of the diagonals is 1 000 mm2 and that of the other members 2 000
mm2. During construction, member A-D was found to be 1 mm too short and had to
be forced into place. Calculate the magnitude and nature of the force developed in
each member due to this misfit.
3m
A B
4m
C D

(17) The members of the pin-jointed frame shown in the figure are all 3 m long. The
tension members have a cross-sectional area of 1 500 mm2 and the compression
members have a cross-sectional area of 3 000 mm2. Determine the vertical deflection
at C and also the horizontal movement on the rollers at D. E = 200 GPa.
A A
C
60
30
D 100kN
(18) The truss shown in the figure is simply supported at A and B. The tie A-B is stressed
so that the deflection at C is 0. Calculate the magnitude of the tensile force that has to
be supplied in tie A-B.
20 kN
C
1m
D 1m
A B
3m 3m

(19) Use energy methods to calculate the vertical and horizontal deflection of point C for
member A-B-C shown in the figure. Member A-B-C has and I value of 6 500 cm4
and E = 210  103 MPa.
A
10 kN/m 40 kN
30
B C
1.5m 1.5 m
(20) Calculate the reactions at A and B for the pin-jointed frame shown in the figure. Then
find the magnitude and the direction of the deflection of joint E. All struts in the
frame have a cross-sectional area of 100 mm2 and all the ties a cross-sectional area of
50 mm2. E = 210 GPa.
A C
2m
B D E
2m 2m
10 kN 10 kN

(21)
(a) Determine whether or not the pin-jointed frame shown in the figure is statically
determinate.
(b) Determine the forces in each of the members of the frame and state whether they are
tensile or compressive. All the members have the same cross-sectional area and are
made of the same material.
20 kN
A 30
E 600 B
8m
(22) A propped cantilever A-B carries a load of 3 kN/m over its full span of 6 m. The
upward reaction of the prop at B is 5 kN and end A is firmly fixed. Calculate the
deflection at B and draw fully dimensioned bending moment and shear force diagrams
for the structure. E = 200 GN/m2 ; I = 200  106 mm4.


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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

STRAIN ENERGY ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

4.1 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ...................................................................................................................... 167

SAN3601 -166 - CHAPTER 4

In this chapter you will learn the following:

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

SAN3601 -167 - CHAPTER 4

 direct axial stress (tensile or compressive)

External work done = Internal work stored

SAN3601 -168 - CHAPTER 4

Strain energy stored in bar = Work done

= Average force  Distance moved

If there are a number of members in a structure (struts and ties):

SAN3601 -169 - CHAPTER 4

Consider an element of beam, length x, to which an external moment M is gradually

x = R Equation (1)

= Average moment  Angle turned through

SAN3601 -170 - CHAPTER 4

Total strain energy in beam due to bending stress

If there are a number of members subject to bending in a structure:

SAN3601 -171 - CHAPTER 4

Consider portion B-C

(Alternatively: due to symmetry

SAN3601 -172 - CHAPTER 4

Deflection at the point load

External work done = Average load x Distance moved

But strain energy = External work done

(a) both ends are fully restrained

SAN3601 -173 - CHAPTER 4

Bending moment diagram

B = Intercept of carried tangents at A and B at B

SAN3601 -174 - CHAPTER 4

Point C does not deflect, i.e. intercept of carried tangents at A and C at C = 0.

SAN3601 -175 - CHAPTER 4

B = Intercept of carried tangents at A and B at B

Comparing the strain energy in (a) and (b), we find that

SAN3601 -176 - CHAPTER 4

MC = MB = -60  1.5 = -90 kNm

For A-B (origin at A): Mx 1 = -150 + 60x1 kNm

SAN3601 -177 - CHAPTER 4

For B-C (origin at B): Mx 2 = 90 kNm

For C-D (origin at D): Mx 3 = 60x 3

But: External work done = Total strain energy

SAN3601 -178 - CHAPTER 4

It can similarly be shown that

where k = shape factor

S = gradually applied shear force

SAN3601 -179 - CHAPTER 4

It can similarly be shown that

SAN3601 -180 - CHAPTER 4

In pin-jointed frames generally only the first term is important.

SAN3601 -181 - CHAPTER 4

Consider an elastic structural member carrying gradually applied loads W1 W2 W3 W4 ... as

y1 y2 y4

Now say load W3 is increased by W3, causing y1 y2 y3 y4 ... to be increased by

The increase in external work done is

(Note: W1 W2 W4 ... have already been fully applied.

SAN3601 -182 - CHAPTER 4

 U = W1y1 + W2y2 + W3y3 + W4y4 Equation (2)

The final deflections will be as before:

Now total work done

SAN3601 -183 - CHAPTER 4

The first theorem of Castigliano can now be stated as follows:

Similarly, in general terms  M  U