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CHAPTER 2
Multiple Choice
1. The first step of the scientific process is a(n) __________.
A. prediction
B. hypothesis
C. experiment
D. peer review
E. observation
Answer: E
Section: 2.1
Level: Easy
Bloom’s Level: Remembering
2. A(n) _____ is a possible explanation for what is observed that is based on some
previous knowledge.
A. peer review
B. prediction
C. hypothesis
D. theory
E. anecdote
Answer: C
Section: 2.1
Level: Easy
Bloom’s Level: Remembering
3. Which of the following lists the steps of the scientific process in the correct order?
A. observe, create a testable prediction, form a hypothesis, experiment, support or refute
the hypothesis
B. observe, form a hypothesis, create a testable prediction, experiment, support or refute
the hypothesis
C. form a hypothesis, create a testable prediction, observe, experiment, support or refute
the hypothesis
D. create a testable prediction, form a hypothesis, observe, experiment, support or refute
the hypothesis
E. None of the above are correct.
Answer: B
Section: 2.1
Level: Easy
Bloom’s Level: Remembering
9. Which of the following ensures that only quality scientific studies that have been well
controlled and avoid bias appear in scientific journals?
A. peer review
B. funding agencies
C. an independent variable
D. anecdotal evidence
E. the scientist responsible for the experiment
Answer: A
Section: 2.1
Level: Easy
Bloom’s Level: Understanding
11. A(n) ______ is a hypothesis that has been widely accepted and extensively and
rigorously tested.
A. theory
B. fact
C. explanation
D. definition
E. proof
Answer: A
Section: 2.1
Level: Easy
Bloom’s Level: Remembering
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If this is the correct reading, however, it is obvious that Ptolemy considered them as
substantially the same people, as he places the towns of Bremenium and Curia among them
generally, without distinguishing to which tribe each belonged, and the terminations are the
same. Inscriptions mentioning the god of the Gadeni have been found at Reesingham and at
Old Penrith, within the territory of the Brigantes. On the other hand, an inscription to the
goddess Brigantia has been found at Middlebie, within the territory of the Selgovæ.
64. This seems to be the town mentioned by Bede, Ec. Hist. B. i. c. 12, ‘Orientalis (sinus)
habet in medio sui urbem Giudi.’
65. Trimontium has been identified with the Eildon hills in Roxburghshire, owing simply to
the resemblance of the form of the hill with a station supposed to be called the Three
Mountains; but it is more probable that the syllable Tri represents the Welsh Tre or Tref, and
that it is a rendering of Trefmynydd, or the Town on the Mountain. To place it at the Eildon
hills is to do great violence to Ptolemy’s text.
66. The first of our historians to make use of Ptolemy was Hector Boece, but he placed his
names too far north. He puts the Brigantes in Galloway, and the Novantes in Kintyre, and
hence their towns are placed in Argyll instead of Wigtown. The Ulm edition of 1486, which is
a very inaccurate one, was apparently the edition used by Boece, and in it the name
Rerigonium is misprinted Beregonium. Boece applied the name to the vitrified remains, the
correct name of which was Dunmhicuisneachan, the fort of the sons of Uisneach, now
corrupted into Dunmacsniochan, and thus arose one of the spurious traditions created by
Boece’s History.
67. In some of the editions this name is Vanduara, and is considered by Chalmers to have
been Paisley, and he has been followed by all subsequent writers. His reasons are very
inconclusive, viz. that there are said to have been Roman remains at Paisley, and that Vanduara
is probably derived from the Welsh Gwendwr or White water, and the river at Paisley is called
the White Cart. But rivers do not change their names. If it had ever been called Gwendwr, it
would have borne the name still; and to rest the identity of Vanduara with Paisley upon a mere
conjectural etymology is the reverse of satisfactory. The best editions give Vandogara as the
form of the name, which obviously connects it with Vindogara or the bay of Ayr; and
Ptolemy’s position corresponds very closely with Loudon Hill on the river Irvine, where there
is a Roman camp. What confirms this identity is, that the towns in the territory of the
Damnonii appear afterwards to have been all connected with Roman roads, and there are the
remains of a Roman road leading from this camp to Carstairs.
68. All editions agree in placing Devana in the interior of the country, at a distance of at
least thirty miles from the coast. Its identity with the sea-port of Aberdeen rests upon the
authority of Richard of Cirencester alone.
69. Mr. Burton, in stating his disbelief in the genuineness of Richard and its results, adds,
among other things to be abandoned, ‘the celebrated Winged Camp; the Pteroton Stratopedon
can no longer remain at Burghead in Moray, though a water tank there has become a Roman
bath to help in its identification, and it must go back to Edinburgh or some other of its old
sites.’—(Vol. i. p. 62.) He is, however, mistaken in supposing that its identification rests upon
Richard. Ptolemy is in reality the authority for Alata Castra and its position on the shore of the
Moray Firth.
It is of course absurd to recognise Roman remains there at that early period, but there can be
no question that a native strength existed on that headland. See Proc. Ant. Soc. vol. iv. p. 321,
for an account of the remains.
70. The only authorities for the events in the reign of Antoninus are two short passages.
One, the passage of Pausanias, referred to in Note 63, and the other of Julius Capitolinus, who
says (De Anton. Pio, 5), ‘Per legatos suos plurima bella gessit. Nam et Britannos per Lollium
Urbicum legatum vicit, alio muro cespiticio submotis barbaris ducto.’ The expression
‘submotis barbaris’ proves that this wall now formed the boundary between the barbarian or
independent tribes and the Roman province. It is analogous to the expression used by Aelius
Spartianus of ‘qui barbaros Romanosque divideret,’ in stating the building of Hadrian’s wall. It
does not necessarily imply an actual driving north of the people, but only the extension of the
province, so that the part hostile to the Roman power came to be farther removed.
Chalmers has treated the Roman wars in Scotland very strangely. His narrative of the actions
of Lollius Urbicus extends over seventy closely printed pages; while for all this the actual
authority is comprised within exactly fourteen words of Julius Capitolinus. The campaigns of
Severus, by far more important, occupy just six pages; and yet for these we have the detailed
narrative of two independent historians.
71. The principal stations on the wall were at the following places—viz., West Kilpatrick,
Duntocher, Castlehill, East Kilpatrick, Bemulie, Kirkintilloch, Auchindavy, Barhill,
Westerwood, Castlecary, and Rough Castle; and as they are in general constructed partly of
stone, and some of them connected with baths and more elaborate works, they are probably to
be attributed to a later age. See a paper by David Milne Home, Esq., in the Trans. Roy. Soc.
vol. xxvii. part i. p. 39, for the latest account of the wall.
72. Et adversus Britannos quidem Calphurnius Agricola missus est.—(Capitolin. Mar. Aur.
8.)
73. In Britannia, in Germania, et in Dacia imperium ejus recusantibus provincialibus, quae
omnia ista per duces sedata sunt.—(Lamprid. Comm. c. 13. Conf. Dion. 72. 8.)
74. Dio, 75, 76, 77; Herodian, iii. 7; Capitolin. Clod. Alb. c. 9; Eutropius, viii. 18.
75. From Magh, a plain. The same word seems to enter into the name Vacomagi.
76. Colonel Gurwood’s Speeches of the Duke of Wellington, vol. ii. p. 729.
77. At Habitancum, a station on Watling Street, on the south bank of the Rede, inscriptions
have been found showing that Severus restored the gate and repaired the walls of the station.
See Bruce’s Roman Wall, p. 384.
78. These camps are as follows—viz., Wardykes, near Keithock; Raedykes, near
Stonehaven; Normandykes, on the Dee; and Raedykes, on the Ythan.
79. The account of the campaigns of Severus, and of the state of the hostile nations at the
time, is given at length in the two independent narratives of Dio (as abridged by Xiphiline) and
Herodian, and therefore rests upon peculiarly firm ground. A great deal too much has been
made of the Mæatæ by previous historians. It has been stated, as if it were a name in general
use and applied to the tribes between the walls during the whole period of the Roman
occupation of Britain; but the fact is that the Mæatæ are mentioned by Dio alone, and on this
occasion only. We never hear of them before or after. Innes and Chalmers talk of the Mæatæ or
Midland Britons (that fatal or of historians implying an identity assumed but not proved), as if
there were some analogy between the names. There is none. The term Midland Britons
nowhere occurs, and the root of the name Mæatæ is probably the word for a plain, nearly the
same in Welsh and Gaelic—Maes, Magh. That both nations were in Caledonia is plain,
independently of the position that the wall alluded to by Dio is the wall between the Forth and
the Clyde, for Dio styles them both ‘the inhabitants of that part of Britain which is hostile to
us,’ that is, extra-provincial. Moreover, Dio’s expression ‘advanced into Caledonia,’ is the
equivalent of Herodian’s, ‘he passed beyond the rivers and fortresses that defended the Roman
territory.’ That Severus constructed roads and built bridges is emphatically stated by both Dio
and Herodian, and it is to him alone that the classical historians attribute such works in Britain.
80. The Horesti are mentioned in the inscription noticed in chap. i., Note 52. The other
inscription is as follows—‘In H.D.D. Baioli et vexillarii Collegio Victoriensium signiferorum
Genum de suo fecerunt viii. kal. Octobr. Presente et Albino Cos.’ which places it in 239.
81. That Severus built or had reconstructed a wall in Britain rests upon the direct authority
of Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Spartian, Orosius, and Eusebius. Spartian, who wrote in 280,
says (c. 18), ‘Britanniam, quod maximum ejus imperii decus est, muro per transversam
insulam ducto, utrimque ad finem oceani munivit.’ Unfortunately he does not give the length
of the wall, which would have indicated its position; but he also says (c. 22), ‘Post murum aut
vallum missum in Britannia, quum ad proximam mansionem rediret, non solum victor, sed
etiam in aeternum pace fundata;’ which shows that it was after his expedition into Caledonia;
and it is rather remarkable that at Cramond—the proxima mansio—behind the wall of
Antoninus, was found a medal of Severus, having on the reverse the inscription, ‘fundator
pacis.’ Aurelius Victor, who wrote 360, says, ‘His majora aggressus Britanniam quae ad ea
utilis erat, pulsis hostibus, muro munivit, per transversam insulam ducto, utrimque ad finem
oceani’ (De Caes. 20). And again: ‘Hic in Britannia vallum per triginta duo passuum millia a
mari ad mare deduxit’ (Epit. 40). And Eutropius, who wrote at the same time, says,
‘Novissimum bellum in Britannia habuit: utque receptas provincias omni securitate muniret,
vallum per 32 millia passuum a mari ad mare deduxit’ (viii. 19).
Both these writers place the construction of the vallum after the war, and if it was thirty-two
Roman miles in length, it can only have extended across the peninsula between the Forth and
the Clyde. Orosius, who wrote in 417, says, ‘Severus victor in Britannias defectu pene omnium
sociorum trahitur. Ubi magnis gravibusque praeliis saepe gestis, receptam partem insulae a
caeteris indomitis gentibus vallo distinguendam putavit. Itaque magnam fossam
firmissimumque vallum, crebris insuper turribus communitum, per centum triginta et duo
millia passuum a mari ad mare duxit.’ Eusebius, as reported by St. Jerome, says, ‘Severus in
Britannos bellum transfert, ubi, ut receptas provincias ab incursione barbarica faceret
securiores, vallum per 132 passuum millia a mari ad mare duxit.’
The length here given of 132 Roman miles is as inconsistent with the distance between the
Tyne and the Solway, as it is with that between the Forth and the Clyde. Horsley, who
considered that the earthen vallum between the Tyne and the Solway was the work of Hadrian,
and the murus or wall which runs parallel to it, the work of Severus, supposed that in the
original MS. of these writers the distance had been written LXXXII and that C had been written
by mistake for L, which would reduce the distance to eighty-two miles; but no MS. supports this
conjecture, and Mr. Bruce, in his work on the wall, clearly establishes that both are the work of
Hadrian.
It is inconceivable that our best historians should have gone so entirely against the direct
testimony of the older authorities. They have in this given too much weight to the opinion of
Bede, who first declared the remains of the wall between the Tyne and the Solway to be those
of Severus’s wall, for opinion it is only, and he was naturally biassed by the remains of the
northern rampart being always before his eyes. Nennius gives the native tradition before his
time when he quotes the passage from Eusebius, and adds, ‘et vocatur Britannico sermone
Guaul a Penguaul quae villa Scotici Cenail, Anglice vero Peneltun dicitur, usque ad ostium
fluminis Cluth et Cairpentaloch, quo murus ille finitur rustico opere;’ thus clearly placing the
wall between the Forth and Clyde.
Moreover, placing Severus’s wall between the Tyne and Solway involves the manifest
inconsistency, that, after penetrating almost to the end of the island, and making a peace, in
which territory was ceded to him, he abandoned the whole of his conquests, and withdrew the
frontier of the province to where it had been placed by Hadrian. Chalmers, who saw this
difficulty, supposes that he built the wall before he commenced his conquests; but this is
equally against the direct statement of the older authorities, that it was built after he had driven
back his enemies and concluded peace. Mr. Bruce has the pertinent remark that ‘if Severus
built the wall (between Tyne and Solway), we should expect to find frequent intimations of the
fact in the stations and mile castles. The truth, however, is that from Wallsend to Bowness we
do not meet with a single inscription belonging to the reign of Severus, while we meet with
several belonging to that of Hadrian’ (p. 382).
82. Aurel. Victor. de Caes. 39; Eutrop. ix. 21; Orosius, vii. 25.
83. Eumenius, Paneg. Const. c. 12. Eutrop. ix. 22.
84. Eumen. Pan. Const. Caes. c. 6. Mamert. Pan. Max. Herc. c. 11, 12.
85. Comp. Eumenius, ‘prolixo crine rutilantia,’ with Tacitus, ‘rutilae Caledoniam
habitantium comae.’
86. Non dico Caledonum aliorumque Pictorum silvas et paludes.—Eumen. c. 7.
87. Appian. Alex. Hist. Rom. Præf. 5. Eumen. Pan. Const. cc. 9-19.
88. Sunt in Gallia cum Aquitania et Britanniis decem et octo provinciae ... in Britannia,
Maxima Cæsariensis, Flavia, Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda.—Sextus Rufus Festus (360),
Brev. 6.
89. ‘Consulatu vero Constantii decies, terque Juliani, in Britanniis cum Scotorum
Pictorumque gentium ferarum excursus, rupta quiete condicta, loca limitibus vicina vastarent,
et implicaret formido provincias præteritarum cladium congerie fessas.’—Am. Mar. B. xx. c.
1. The sentence which follows—‘Hyemem agens apud Parisios Cæsar distractusque in
solicitudines varias, verebatur ire subsidio transmarinis; ut retulimus ante fecisse Constantem,’
etc.—implies that there had been a previous attack in 343, but as this part of Ammianus’s work
is lost, it is impossible to found upon it. The peace said to have been broken probably followed
it.
90. The early legends of Wales show that the seaboard of that district had been exposed at an
early period to the attacks of the Scots. Nennius, in giving the early settlements of the Scots in
Britain, says—‘Filii autem Liethan obtinuerunt in regione Demetorum’ (that is South Wales),
‘et in aliis regionibus, id est, Guir et Cetgueli, donec expulsi sunt a Cuneda et a filiis ejus ab
omnibus Britannicis regionibus.’ And again—‘Scotti autem de occidente et Picti de aquilone.’
And again—‘Mailcunus magnus rex apud Brittones regnabat, id est, in regione Guenedotæ’
(that is, North Wales), ‘quia atavus illius, id est, Cunedag cum filiis suis, quorum numerus octo
erat, venerat prius de parte sinistrali, id est, de regione quæ vocatur Manau Guotodin centum
quadraginta sex annis antequam Mailcun regnaret et Scottos cum ingentissima clade
expulerunt ab istis regionibus et nunquam reversi sunt iterum ad habitandum.’—Nennii Brit.
Hist.
91. Hoc tempore (364) ... Picti Saxonesque et Scoti et Attacotti Britannos ærumnis vexavere
continuis.—Ammian. Mar. xxvi. 4.
92. Illud tamen sufficiet dici, quod eo tempore Picti in duas gentes divisi, Dicalidonas et
Vecturiones, itidemque Attacotti, bellicosa hominum natio, et Scotti, per diversa vagantes,
multa populabantur.—Ammian. Mar. xxvii. 8, 9.
The ‘Caledonii’ of Dio we know were the most northerly of the two nations; and the
‘Dicalidonæ’ of Ammianus must have extended along the coast bounded by the Deucaledonian
Sea of Ptolemy.
93.
It has generally been supposed that the province had at this time only extended to the wall
between the Solway and the Tyne, and that Theodosius added the additional territory, which
now for the first time became a province under the name of Valentia. But the words of the
historian are directly opposed to this: ‘Recuperatamque provinciam, quæ in ditionem
concesserat hostium, ita reddiderat statui pristino.’—Am. Mar. B. xxviii. c. 3.
94. The Notitia Imperii, compiled subsequently to this expedition, has the following bodies
of Atecotti in the Roman army who were stationed in Gaul:—
Atecotti.
Atecotti juniores Gallieani.
Atecotti Honoriani seniores.
Atecotti Honoriani juniores.—
Not. Dig., ed. Böcking.
St. Jerome says that he saw in Gaul the Atticotts, a British nation, which implies that they
were inhabitants of Britain. He says (Adv. Her. ii.), ‘Quid loquar de cæteris nationibus, quum
ipse adolescentulus in Gallia viderim Atticotos, gentem Britannicam, humanis vesci carnibus.’
As St. Jerome says that he was then ‘adolescentulus,’ and was born in the year 340, it is
supposed that this could not have been later than 355; but this is a mistake arising from
overlooking the lax sense in which Jerome uses the word ‘adolescentulus,’ which he stretches
into very mature age. He uses the expressions of ‘puer’ and ‘adolescens’ for himself when he
was at least thirty years old. St. Jerome was in Gaul at only one period of his life, and that we
know from other circumstances must have been about the period of Theodosius’s conquest.
That the Atecotti were inhabitants of the district between the walls appears from the fact that
they only joined the invading tribes after the latter had been four years in possession of that
territory; and that no sooner was it again wrested from the invaders by Theodosius, than we
find them enlisted in the Roman army.
95. The three bodies of infantry were the Victores Juniores Britanniciani, the Primani
Juniores, and Secundani Juniores. The six bodies of cavalry, the Equites Catafractarii Juniores,
the Equites Scutarii Aureliaci, the Equites Honoriani Seniores, the Equites Stablesiani, the
Equites Syri, and the Equites Taifali. The Equites Catafractarii were stationed at Morbium,
supposed by Horsley to be Templeburgh on the south bank of the river Don. The provinces are
twice given in the Notitia, and the order is the same in both—Maxima Cæsariensis, Valentia,
Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, Flavia Cæsariensis. The position usually assigned to these
provinces rests entirely upon the authority of the spurious Richard of Cirencester, and involves
the supposition that when Constantine divided the provinces into four, he substituted the name
of Maxima Cæsariensis for that of Lower Britain, and divided Upper Britain into three
provinces, forming the district of Wales into a separate province called Britannia Secunda; but
if the order in the Notitia is geographical, and proceeds from north to south, Maxima
Cæsariensis is the most northerly, then Valentia and Britannia Prima extend across the island
from west to east. Then south of them Britannia Secunda, and farther south Flavia Cæsariensis;
and thus, before Valentia was formed, Maxima Cæsariensis and Britannia Prima would
represent what had been Lower Britain, and the Dux Britanniæ would command the troops
within it; Britannia Secunda and Flavia Cæsariensis what had been Upper Britain, and the
Comes tractus maritimi, the troops within it. The new province would be formed in the west to
meet the invasion in a new quarter from a new people, the Scots; and a new commander, the
Comes Britanniarum, or Count of the two Britannias, would be placed there to protect the
western frontier.
96. Incursantes Pictos et Scotos Maximus strenue superavit.—Prosper. Aquit. Gratian. iv.
97.
98. Of the four bodies of Attecotti in the Roman army, the first two were those probably
enrolled by Theodosius, and seen by St. Jerome in Gaul. The two last, which are termed
Honoriani, must, from their name, have been enrolled by Stilicho, the minister of Honorius.
Orosius called the latter ‘Barbari ... qui quondam in fœdus recepti atque in militiam adlecti
Honoriaci vocabantur’ (Oros. vii. 40). Thus, on the two occasions in which the territory
between the walls was recovered, Attecotti were enrolled in the Roman army. They were
Barbari who ravaged Britain, when the Barbarians occupied this part of the province. They
were ‘in fœdus recepti et in militiam adlecti’ when the Romans recovered it—a combination
only applicable to the half-provincial half-independent tribes between the walls; and they were
probably the same people whom Ptolemy called the Ottedeni and Gadeni, who extended from
the southern wall to the Firth of Forth. The same word seems to enter into the composition of
the names Ottedeni and Attecotti.
99. The army is mentioned in Britain in 406. Stilicho was consul the preceding year. The
Notitia Imperii refers to a state of matters after Theodosius, for the province of Valentia is
mentioned, and the army there described must have been in Britain at this time.
100. Adversus hos Constantinus Constantem filium suum, proh dolor! ex monacho Cæsarem
factum, cum barbaris quibusdam, qui quondam in fœdus recepti atque in militiam adlecti,
Honoriaci vocabantur, in Hespanias misit.—Orosius, vii. 40.
101. This account of the usurpation of Constantine, and its consequences, is taken from
Zosimus and Olympiodorus, two contemporary historians. The opinion generally entertained
that the Roman troops returned to Britain after the year 410 rests upon no direct authority, and
is opposed to the testimony of those contemporary historians. Mr. Bruce, in his Roman Wall,
makes the pertinent remark (43): ‘The series of coins found in the stations of the north of
England, and in the camps and Roman cities of the south, extends from the earlier reigns of the
Empire down to the times of Arcadius and Honorius, and then ceases. Any legion coming later
must have been destitute of treasure.’
The mistake has arisen from the false chronology of the invasions of the Scots and Picts, and
of the assistance of the Romans in repelling them, applied to the narrative of Gildas. No dates
are given in the work of Gildas; but if the mind is disabused of preconceived conceptions in
this respect, it is impossible to compare Gildas’s narrative with the notices of the legion sent by
Stilicho, and of the army which elected Constantine, the attack which followed, and the
repelling of the invaders by the provincial Britons, without seeing the absolute identity of the
events.
The following comparison will show this more clearly:—
Roman and Greek Authors. Narrative of Gildas.
383 Maximus revolts. Revolt of Maximus, who withdraws the army with the
387 Withdraws Roman army from Britain. youth from Britain.
396 A legion sent by Stilicho, who drive back Picts and First devastation of Picts and Scots. Britons apply for
Scots, and garrison wall. assistance. A legion sent, who build northern wall.
402 Legion withdrawn. Legion withdrawn.
Second devastation of Picts and Scots.
Britons again apply for assistance.
406 A Roman army in Britain — stationed ‘per lineam Roman troops sent, who fortify southern wall.
valli.’
407 Constantine withdraws Roman army. Roman troops withdrawn, ‘never to return.’
Picts seize up to wall.
Break through wall and ravage.
409 Gerontius invites Barbarians. Provincials take courage and repel them.
Honorius frees province.
Provincials raise and repel invaders. Vortigern invites Saxons.
CHAPTER III.