3.

TERTIARY STRUCTURE - Pertains to the overall 3D shape of a

polypeptide by a pattern of folding driven by the non-specific
NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN
hydrophobic interactions.
BIO. 1 REVIEWER (Semi-Final)
4. QUATERNARY STRUCTURE - Is the arrangement of multiple folded
protein or coiling protein molecules in a multi-subunit complex.

EXAMPLES OF PROTEIN FUNCTIONS

MACROMOLECULES
 ANTIBODY (AB) - Y-shaped proteins that help in protecting the
 Are made up of hundreds or thousands of atoms. body by fighting antigens.

BIOLOGICAL POLYMERS  ENZYMES - Biomolecules that speed up the chemical reaction in

the cells.
 Are chains of repeating units of monomers linked together.
 MESSENGER - Proteins that transmit signals to coordinate
4 TYPES OF MACROMOLECULES (found in the living system)
biological processes.
1. Proteins
 STRUCTURAL COMPONENT - Types of protein that provides
2. Carbohydrates structure and support for cell.

3. Lipids  TRANSPORT/STORAGE - Binds and carry molecules within the

cells and throughout the body.
4. Nucleic acids
PROTEINS CARBOHYDRATES
 Are the most abundant organic found in any living organism. It
 Refers to a class of molecules ranging from small sugar subunits to
comes from the Greek work “Proteos” meaning “First Place”. It is
large polypeptides.
a Biological polymer constructed from amino acids as its
monomer. MONOSACCHARIDES
7 MAJOR CLASSES OF PROTEINS  Simple sugar which consists of one sugar unit. Serve as starting
materials for the construction of other organic molecules such as
1. STRUCTURAL PROTEIN - Fibers that makes up the tendons and
fats.
ligaments.
COMMON EXAMPLES OF MONO
2. STORAGE PROTEIN - The main substance of egg white.
 GLUCOSE- The most important fuel sugar for the cells as this is
3. CONTRACTILE PROTEIN - Proteins that provide muscular movement.
an instant source of energy.
4. DEFENSIVE PROTEIN - Includes antibodies that promote production
 GALACTOSE - The same atomic composition as glucose but with
against foreign bodies.
different structures.
5. TRANSPORT PROTEINS - The iron-containing protein in the blood that
 FRUCTOSE - The sweetest sugar found un fruits.
transport oxygen from the lungs to the other parts of the body.

6. SIGNAL PROTEIN - It is a hormones that helps coordinate body DISACCHARIDES (C12H22O11)

activities.
 Complex sugars made up of two molecules chemically joined
7. ENZYMES - It serves the chemical catalyst that changes the rate of the together.
chemical reactions.
EXAMPLES OF DISACCHARIDES

 MALTOSE - Is made up of two glucoses.

 20 amino acids in the human body. We are capable of making 11
 SUCROSE - A common table sugar from the combination of
but the other 9 must be consumed.
glucose and fructose.

POLYSACCHARIDES (C6H10O5)
9 ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS
 Complex sugars made up of chains and/or branches of
1. Histidine monosaccharides.

2. Isoleucine EXAMPLES OF POLY

3. Leucine  STARCH - Is a plant carbohydrates storage that is composed

entirely of glucose molecules.
4. Lysine
 GLYCOGEN - An animal carbohydrate storage and can be easily
5. Methionine broken down into glucose molecules when needed.

6. Phenylalanine  CELLULOSE - The cell wall of plants and is highly insoluble.

7. Threonine  CHITIN - A structural polysaccharide found in the outer coverings

of crustaceans and insects for protection and support.
8. Tryptophan
LIPIDS
9. Valine
 This organic molecule came from the Greek word “Lipos” which
AMINO ACID means “Fat”.

 Has hydrogen atom, amino group, carboxyl group (-COOH), and R  These are substances that include fats and fat-like substances which
group. as phospholipids, waxes, steroids, and others.

 Are linked by a peptide bond also called the amide bond.  Composed of one molecule of glycerol and three fatty acids
molecules connected by ester bonds.
COVALENT CHEMICAL BOND
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
 Formed between molecules containing a carboxyl group with
another molecule containing the amine group.  To store and produce energy.

4 STRUCTURES OF PROTEINS  Serve as insulating materials to prevent heat loss and protection
against extreme cold.
1. PRIMARY STRUCTURE - Shows the sequence of amino acids forming
polypeptide chains.  Serve as a solvent for fat-soluble vitamins and hormones.

2. SECONDARY STRUCTURE - A highly regular local sub-structure that  Prevent water loss in the skin.
can take the form of an alpha helix or a beta strand.
INSOLUBLE FORMS 2. PINOCYTOSIS - “Cellular Drinking”. Is a non-specific process in
which the cell takes in whatever solutes that are dissolved in the liquid it
 Ether envelopes.

 Chloroform 3. RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS - Is an extremely selective

process of importing materials into the cell.
2 TYPES OF FATTY ACIDS

1. SATURATED - Are solid at room temperature and mostly found in

animals. AUTOTROPHS
2. UNSATURATED - The liquid state at room temperature and are mostly  Has the capacity to release the energy from the same molecule that
found in plants. they have created to power up.

EXAMPLES OF UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS HETEROTROPHS

 Palmitoleic Acids  It cannot produce its own food, instead taking nutrition from other
sources of organic carbon.
 Oleic Acids
ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
 Linoleic Acids
 Is the energy currency used throughout the cell and it provides
 Trans Fat energy for the cell to do work.
 Cis Fat  It composed of Phosphate groups (Has 3 Phosphates), Ribose, and
Adenine.
 Omega - 3 Fatty Acids

OTHER EXAMPLES OF LIPIDS PHOSPHATES BONDS

 Sometimes called high-energy because of the release of energy by

 WAXES - Are solid at room temperature because they have a high
hydrolysis.
melting point.

 TRIGLYCERIDES - They contain three fatty acids attached to HIGH-ENERGY

each glycerol molecule, fat, and oil.
 Is a misleading because the release of energy during hydrolysis of
 PHOSPHOLIPIDS - Are a major component of all cell ATP comes from the chemical change to a step of low free energy.
membranes as they can form lipid bilayers.
TRIPHOSPHATE TAIL
 SPHINGOLIPIDS - Are specifically found in the brain, lungs, and
nerve tissues.  Is comparable to a compressed spring.

 STEROIDS - Are lipids with a carbon skeleton of four fused rings. PROCESSES OF CELL RESPIRATION

NUCLEIC ACIDS  GLYCOLYSIS (1st Stage) - is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to
extract energy for cellular metabolism. The process does not use oxygen
 These are organic compounds that serve as genetic information and is therefore anaerobic.
storage molecules.
 KREBS CYCLE/CITRIC ACID CYCLE (2nd Stage) - pyruvate will be
 Provides information to make proteins. transformed into an acetyl group that will be picked up and activated by a
carrier compound called coenzyme A (COA). The resulting compound is
NUCLEOTIDES called acetyl CoA.

 The monomer of nucleic acids, which are made up of five-carbon
sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogen base.
DOUBLE HELIX
 Arranged in two long strands that form a spiral.
 Its structure is comparable to a ladder. With the base pairs forming
the ladder’s rungs and the sugar and phosphate molecules forming
the vertical side pieces of the ladder.
2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) - a double-stranded helix
molecule. Serves as a pattern for duplicating the sequence of bases.
 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) - is essential for protein synthesis.
It usually consists of a single polynucleotide strand.
 ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (Last Stage) - is a series of electron
transporters embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane that shuttles
electrons from NADH and FADH, to molecular oxygen. In the process,
protons are pumped from the mitochondrial matrix to the inter membrane
space, and oxygen is reduced to form water.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
 is a process of producing energy without oxygen. It is less efficient
than aerobic respiration, but still important for organisms that live
in environments where oxygen is not available.
ANAEROBIC FERMENTATION
 is a metabolic process that occurs in the absence of oxygen, where
organic compounds, such as glucose, are broken down by micro
organisms, such as bacteria and yeast, to produce energy in the
form of ATP.

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS IN BLOOD CELLS ALCOHOL FERMENTATION

1. Hypertonic  NADH donates its electrons to a derivative of pyruvate to produce
ethanol as an end product.
2. Isotonic

3. Hypotonic
LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION

 the NADH transfer its electron directly to pyruvate to form lactate

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
as a by- product.
 Is defined as a process that involves the movement of molecules
from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher
concentration.

ENDOCYTOSIS

 Is a cellular process by which a cell internalizes any material from

the external environment.

EXOCYTOSIS

 Is when materials are exported out of the cell via secretory vesicles.

TYPES OF ENDOCYTOSIS

1. PHAGOCYTOSIS - “Cellular Eating”. The newly-formed phagosome

then fuses with a lysosome whose hydrolytic enzymes digest the “food”
inside.