Introduction to Psychology

Biopsychology
Cells in the Nervous System

• Glial cells provide

physical and metabolic
support to neurons,
including neuronal
insulation and
communication, and
nutrient and waste
transport
• Neurons (right) act as
interconnected
information processors
Neuron Structure
Neuron Structure: Synapses, Neurotransmitters, and Receptors

• The synapse is the space

between two neurons and site of
communication
• Neurotransmitters are chemical
messengers that bind to
receptors on the next neuron
• Receptors, proteins on the cell
surface where neurotransmitters
attach, vary in shape, with
different shapes “matching”
different neurotransmitters
How Neurons Communicate: Resting Potential

At resting potential, Na+ is more highly concentrated outside the cell in the
extracellular fluid, whereas K+ is more highly concentrated near the membrane in
the cytoplasm or intracellular fluid. Other molecules, such as chloride ions and
negatively charged proteins (brown squares), contribute to a positive net charge in
the extracellular fluid and a negative net charge in the intracellular fluid.
How Neurons Communicate: Action Potential

During the action

potential, the
electrical charge
across the membrane
changes dramatically
How Neurons Communicate: Reuptake

Reuptake involves
moving a
neurotransmitter from
the synapse back into
the axon terminal from
which it was released
Psychoactive Drugs

• Psychoactive drugs correct neurotransmitter imbalances

• Agonists mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and, thus, strengthen its effects
• Antagonists block the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor
The Nervous System

• The central nervous system (CNS)

consists of the brain and
spinal cord
• The peripheral
nervous system (PNS)
is comprised of the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems
Central and Peripheral Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System

• The somatic nervous system transmits sensory and motor signals to

and from the central nervous system
• The autonomic nervous system controls the function of our organs and
glands, and can be divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions
• Sympathetic activation prepares us for fight or flight
• Parasympathetic activation is associated with normal functioning under relaxed
conditions
PNS: the
Autonomic
Nervous System
The Endocrine System

• The endocrine system consists of a series of glands that

produce chemical substances known as hormones
• Hormones regulate behaviors such as aggression, mating, and
parenting of individuals
• Hormones influence behavior, and behavior can sometimes
influence hormone concentrations
• The study of psychology and the endocrine system is called
behavioral endocrinology
The Parts of the Endocrine System
The Brain: Lateralization

• Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body

• There is some specialization of function, especially language
• The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural
fibers known as the corpus callosum, that allows the two
hemispheres to communicate with each other
The Brain: Plasticity

The brain’s ability to change, adapt, and reorganize itself is

called brain plasticity
Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain
Forebrain: The Lobes of the Brain

The forebrain is divided into four lobes.

Forebrain: The Frontal Lobe

• Contains the motor cortex (below) involved in planning and

coordinating movement
• Contains the prefrontal cortex responsible for higher-level
cognitive functioning
• Contains Broca’s area essential for language production
Forebrain: The Parietal Lobe

• Contains the somatosensory

cortex which processes
sensory information
• Organized topographically,
which means that spatial
relationships that exist in
the body are maintained on
the surface of the
somatosensory cortex
Forebrain: The Temporal Lobe

• Contains the auditory cortex which processes auditory

information and Wernicke’s area (below) which is important
for speech comprehension
• Also associated with memory and emotion
Forebrain: The Occipital Lobe

• Contains the primary visual cortex, which interprets visual

information
• Organized retinotopically, which means there is a close
relationship between the position of an object in a person’s
visual field and the position of that object’s representation on
the cortex
Forebrain: Thalamus

The thalamus serves

as the relay center of
the brain where most
senses are routed for
processing
Forebrain: The Limbic System

• Amygdala: structure involved in our experience of emotion

and tying emotional meaning to our memories
• Hippocampus: structure associated with learning and
memory
• Hypothalamus: structure that regulates sexual
motivation and behavior and a number of homeostatic processes;
serves as an interface between the nervous system and the
endocrine system
Midbrain

• The substantia nigra (Latin for “black

substance”) and the ventral
tegmental area (VTA) contain cell
bodies that produce the
neurotransmitter dopamine, and are
critical for movement.
• The reticular formation is centered in the
midbrain and is important in
regulating the sleep/wake cycle,
arousal, alertness, and motor activity.
Hindbrain

• The medulla controls the automatic processes of the autonomic

nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart
rate
• The pons connects the brain and spinal cord
• The cerebellum controls balance, coordination, movement, and
motor skills
Brain Imaging Techniques

• Computerized tomography (CT) scan

• Electroencephalography (EEG)
• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Positron emission tomography (PET) scan
Nature or Nurture?

Do your genetics and biology dictate your personality and

behavior, or is it your environment and how you were raised?
Tools to explore this debate:
• Adoption study
• Twin studies
• Quantitative genetics
Human Genetics

The theory of evolution by natural selection says

that organisms that are better suited for their environment will
survive and reproduce
Genetic variety contributes to a species’ adaptation to its
environment
• Mutation: sudden, permanent change in a gene
Gene Environment Interactions

• The range of reaction: genes set definite

limits on potential, and environment
determines how much of that potential is
achieved
• Genetic environmental correlation
• Our genes influence our environment, and
our environment influences the
expression of our genes
• Epigenetics studies how the same gene
can lead to different results
The Epigenome

• The human genome is the DNA instructions for building the

proteins that carry out a variety of functions in a cell
• The epigenome is made up of chemical compounds and
proteins that attach to DNA and turn genes on or off,
controlling the production of proteins in particular cells
• The epigenome can be altered through various experiences
and environments
Practice Question

• Imagine you are on an airplane preparing to jump out for

your first-ever experience skydiving
• Which nervous systems would be involved, and in what way?
How would your endocrine system react?
• What role would the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain play
in your skydiving experience?
Quick Review

• What are the basic structures of a neuron and the function of

each structure?
• How do messages travel through the neuron?
• What is the role of the nervous system and endocrine
systems?
• What are the parts of the brain?
• How do nature, nurture, and epigenetics influence personality
and behavior?