Plant Growth and Development

https://byjus.com/biology/plant-growth-and-its-development/
Growth curve
http://eagri.org/eagri50/PPHY261/lec18.pdf
Regions of Growth
https://www.biologydiscussion.com/plant-physiology-2/growth-and-
development/growth-on-plants-factors-regions-and-pattern/40090
https://www.biologyonline.com/tutorials/plant-meristems-and-
growth
RGR, NAR and LAR in relation to biomass production
https://www.rseco.org/content/612-plant-biomass.html

Seed Germination
https://byjus.com/biology/seed-germination/
https://timesofagriculture.com/what-is-seed-and-seed-classes/

Partitioning of Assimilate in Plants

https://www.botanylibrary.com/transport/partitioning-of-assimilate-
in-plants-crop-plants-botany/15820#:~:text=Partitioning%20during
%20reproductive%20development%20is,depends%20on
%20genotype%20and%20environment.

Harvest index
A measurement of crop yield: the weight of a harvested product as a
percentage of the total plant weight of a crop.

Harvest index is defined as the pounds of grain divided by the total

pounds of above ground biomass (stover plus grain).
Harvest index = lbs of grain / (lbs stover + lbs grain)

For example, 175 bushel (175 bu x 56 lbs/bu = 9,800 lbs) corn yield and
a 4.5 ton (4.5 ton x 2,000 lbs/ton = 9,000 lbs) stover yield would result
in a harvest index of:

Harvest index = 9,800 lbs of grain / (9,000 lbs stover + 9,800 lbs grains)
= 0.52

Cereals are those crop which provide the edible seeds like rice, wheat ,
lentil is considered as cereals. These cereals are the rich source of
carbohydrates, provide many minerals, and also provide protein and as a
rich source of vitamins. Hence, for the better utilization of all of these,
the human body required a food in a proper dose. As with the passage of
time, the population is increasing day by day, food is required more and
hence yield of a crop is required in higher amount. The yield of a crop
can be basically depends upon many factors that may be endogenous
factors or exogenous factors. These factors are not same for all crops but
variation exists. A crop yield will be higher when its harvest index will
be higher. Harvest index is the major factor which affects the crop
production.

There are some major factors which almost effect on the production of
all crops that are:
Harvest index:

 It is usually known as the measurement of yield of a crop.

 It is the ratio of the total grain production of a crop to its
biomass. Usually the biomass of above ground is taken instead
of below ground biomass, because the below ground biomass
also includes the roots and the process of taken the root biomass
is difficult and during experiment, chances of error increases.
 Harvest index helps to measure the difference between the
potential and actual yield.
 It is the ratio between grain yield and plant yield.
 For each crop, it acts as an efficiency indicator. And it is
different for each crop.
 Harvest index is influenced by hereditary material as well as
different environmental factors.
Harvest index for different crops:
For each crop, harvest index vary and for production of a crop per
hectare on international basis, the value of H.I is fixed. Mostly, modern
cultivars have 0.45-0.6 range of harvest index. But usually, harvest
index vary from crop to crop. For example:

 Wheat have H.I about 4-0.5

 Maize have H.I about 4-0.5
 Sunflower have H.I approximately 3-0.4
 The harvest index of beans vary from 45-0.55
 lentils(masoor) have H.I about 45-0.55
sorghum (charri)have H.I about 4-0.6
Why crops have low harvest index :

There are some factors which causes the low harvest index and
ultimately lead to the low production of a crop.

 Use of non-specific variety for a specific area

 Distribution of seed rate
 Use of unapproved seed
 Late sowing of seeds
 Imperfect sowing method
 Plant population
 Attack of different type of diseases on different crops
 Attack of insects pest (sometimes may be host specific)
 Problem of weeds
 Decrease in plant protection
 Inappropriate fertilizer dose
 Non-availability of irrigation water
Conclusion:

Harvest index contain different genetic traits and variability exists in

these traits. Environmental factors also influences the harvest index and
ultimately yield of a crop. Thus, it can be used as selection criterion for
the productivity of a crop.

Phototropism & photoperiodism

https://byjus.com/biology/photoperiodism/

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/plant-biology/plant-
responses-to-light-cues/a/phototropism-photoperiodism

Thermoperiodic

The ability of plants to discriminate between day temperature (DT) and

night (NT) temperature is referred to as thermoperiodism.

The optimal temperatures for growth in dry weight during the vegetative
stage of pea, bean, tomato, cucumber, corn, oats, and wheat were
determined over the range of 15-35 C at a daylength of 12 h. Alternating
the day and night temperature with a spread of 10 C or 20 C did not
increase growth, as compared with giving the same optimal mean
temperature continuously. A high day temperature and lower night
temperature resulted in greater growth than a low day temperature and
higher night temperature for the same daily mean temperature. From a
detailed analysis of the growth of wheat, the higher rate of growth
obtained under a temperature regime of high day temperature was the
result of a higher rate of net photosynthesis. The leaf area ratio and other
morphological components of growth were similar whether the higher
temperature occurred during the day or night.


  thermoperiodicity, also called thermal periodicity, the growth or
flowering responses of plants to alternation of warm and cool
periods. Daily temperature fluctuations produce dramatic effects
on the growth or flowering of most plants. The lack of lower night
temperatures frequently results in poor growth, as can be observed
in plants that are grown indoors in even-temperature surroundings.
This phenomenon has been applied in the production of tomatoes.
The most flowers are produced when tomatoes are grown at 26.7°
C (80° F) during the day and 17.2°–20° C (63°–68° F) at night.
Thermoperiodic effects are distinct from photoperiodic effects
(caused by duration of light).

Nitrogen Fixation
https://byjus.com/biology/nitrogen-fixation-nitrogen-metabolism/

https://eos.com/blog/nitrogen-fixation/

https://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/
instructormaterials/availabletopics/nitrogenfixation/definition
NITROGEN CYCLE
https://kids.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/frym.2019.00041

Environmental factors affecting N2 fixation

sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378429099000842

https://forages.oregonstate.edu/nfgc/eo/onlineforagecurriculum/
instructormaterials/availabletopics/nitrogenfixation/quantity

https://academicjournals.org/article/article1381478451_Mohammadi
%20et%20al.pdf