9/8/2023

BME 316
BIOMECHANICS

Section I: Foundation of Human Movement

Lecture 1 – Terminology

Thurmon Lockhart, PhD

School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, ASU

Objectives: After going over this chapter

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1. Define mechanics, biomechanics, and kinesiology, and differentiate

among their uses in the analysis of human movement.
2. Define and provide examples of linear and angular motion.
3. Define kinematics and kinetics.
4. Describe the location of segments or landmarks using correct anatomical
terms, such as medial, lateral, proximal, and distal.
5. Identify segments by their correct names, define all segmental movement
descriptors, and provide specific examples in the body.
6. Explain the difference between relative and absolute reference systems.
7. Define sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes along with corresponding
frontal, sagittal, and longitudinal axes. Provide examples of human
movements that occur in each plane.
8. Explain degree of freedom, and provide examples of degrees of
freedom associated with numerous joints in the body.

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Human Movement Analysis

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Biomechanics is the study of the structure

and function of biological systems
by means of the methods of mechanics (1).

the European Society of Biomechanics

(2) is “the study of forces acting on and
generated within a body and the effects
of these forces on the tissues, fluid, or
materials

Anatomical vs. Fundamental Position

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Anatomical versus
fundamental
starting position.
The anatomical and
fundamental
starting positions
serve as a
reference point for
the description of
joint movements

Anatomical movement descriptors should be used to

describe segmental movements. This requires acknowledgment of the starting
position (fundamental or anatomical), standardized use of segment names (arm,
forearm, hand, thigh, leg, and foot), and the correct use
of movement descriptors (flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, and rotation).

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Relative Positions
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Defining the most

relevant movement

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Reference Planes and Axes

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Sagittal Plane Movement

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Frontal Plane Movement

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Transverse Plane Movement

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BME 316
BIOMECHANICS

Lecture 2
Foundations of Human Movement
Skeletal System

Thurmon Lockhart, PhD

SBHSE, ASU

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1.Define how the mechanical properties of a structure can be expressed in terms

of its stress–strain relationship. ----ultimately influencing its function…..mechanical analyses important
2. Define stress, strain, elastic region, plastic region, yield point, failure point, and
elastic modulus.
3. Identify the elastic region, yield point, plastic region, and failure point on a
stress–strain curve.
4. Describe the difference between elastic and viscoelastic materials.
5. Differentiate between brittle, stiff, and compliant materials.
6. List the functions of the bone tissue that makes up the skeletal system.
7. Describe the composition of bone tissue and the characteristics of cortical and
cancellous bone.
8. Identify the types of bones found in the skeletal system, and describe the role
each type of bone plays in human movement or support.
9. Describe how bone tissue forms and the differences between modeling and
remodeling.
10. Discuss the impact of activity and inactivity on bone formation.
11. Define osteoporosis, and discuss the development of osteoporosis.
12. Discuss the strength and stiffness of bone as well as bone’s anisotropic and
Viscoelastic properties.
13. Define the following types of loads that bone must absorb, and provide an
example to illustrate each load on the skeletal system: compression, tension,
shear, bending, and torsion.
14. Describe stress fractures and other common injuries to the skeletal system, and
explain the load causing the injury.
15. Describe the types of cartilage and their functions in the skeletal system.
16. Describe the function of ligaments in the skeletal system.
17. Describe all of the components of the diarthrodial joint, factors that contribute
to joint stability, and examples of injury to the diarthrodial joint.
18. List the seven different types of diarthrodial joints, and provide examples of
each one.
19. Describe the characteristics of the synarthrodial and amphiarthrodial joints, and
provide an example of each.
20. Define osteoarthritis, and discuss the development of osteoarthritis.
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Stress-Strain Curve (cont.)

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Functions of the Skeleton

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 Leverage*
 Support*
 Protection
 Storage
 Blood cell formation

*Critically important for movement

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Wolffs Law
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 Julius Wolff, German anatomist

 Resorption
 Response to decreased stress
 Osteoclasts dominate
◼ Disuse, immobilization, microgravity
 Deposition
 Response to increased stress
 Osteoblasts dominate
◼ Weight-bearing exercise

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Anisotropic Properties
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Viscoelastic Properties
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Loading
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Joint Stability
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 Stability is created by:

 Ligaments

 Gravity

 Vacuum

 Which joints are typically most stable?

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BME 316
BIOMECHANICS

Lecture 3
Foundations of Human Movement
Muscular System

Thurmon Lockhart, PhD

SBHSE, ASU

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22 Muscular Considerations for Movement

After reading this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Define the properties, functions, and roles of skeletal muscle.
2. Describe the gross and microscopic anatomical structure of muscles.
3. Explain the differences in muscle fiber arrangement, muscle volume, and cross
section as it relates to the output of the muscle.
4. Describe the difference in the force output between the three muscle fiber
types (types I, IIa, and IIb).
5. Describe the characteristics of the muscle attachment to the bone, and explain
the viscoelastic response of the tendon.
6. Discuss how force is generated in the muscle.
7. Describe how force is transmitted to the bone.
8. Discuss the role of muscle in terms of movement production or stability.
9. Compare isometric, concentric, and eccentric muscle actions.
10. Describe specific considerations for the two-joint muscles.
11. Discuss the interaction between force and velocity in the muscle.
12. Describe factors that influence force and velocity development in the muscle,
including muscle cross section and length, the length–tension relationship,
Neural activation, fiber type, the presence of a prestretch, and aging.
13. Explain the physical changes that occur in muscles as a result of strength
Training and elaborate on how training specificity, intensity, and training
volume influence strength training outcomes.
14. Describe types of resistance training, and explain how training should be
adjusted for athletes and nonathletes.
15. Identify some of the major contributors to muscle injury, the location of
Common injuries, and means for prevention of injury to muscles.

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Characteristics of Muscle
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 Irritability
 Ability to respond to stimulation
 Contractility
 Ability to shorten when it receives sufficient stimulation
 Unique to muscle tissue
 Extensibility
 Ability to stretch/lengthen beyond resting length
 Protective mechanism
 Elasticity
 Ability to return to resting length after being stretched
 Protective mechanism

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Sliding Filament Theory

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 A.F. Huxley
 Seeks to explain production of tension in muscle
 Myosin and actin
 Create cross-bridges
 Slide past one another

 Cause the sarcomere to contract

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Hill Muscle Model

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Net Muscle Actions

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 Isometric
 Tension produced without visible change in joint angle
◼ Holding arms out to sides
 Concentric
 Muscle visibly shortens while producing tension
◼ Up phase of a sit-up
 Eccentric
 Muscle visibly lengthens while producing tension
◼ Lowering phase of squat

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Force-Velocity Relationship
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Force-Length Relationship
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According to the force-velocity relationship

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 A) The maximum force will decrease as the lengthening

velocity increase during the eccentric action


 B) The maximum force will decrease as the shortening

velocity increase during the concentric action


 C) The maximum force will decrease as the muscle is being

stretched from its resting length


 D) The maximum force will increase as the muscle is being

shortened from its resting length

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Muscle Fatigue
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 Fatigue results from:

 Peripheral (muscular) mechanisms
 Central (nervous) mechanisms

 When motor unit fatigues:

 Change in frequency content
 Change in amplitude of EMG signal

 Sufficient rest restores initial signal content and

amplitude

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Strengthening Muscle (cont.)

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Motor Units (cont.)

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 All-or-none principle
 When they receive sufficient stimulation, all fibers of a
motor unit produce tension together.
 All fibers in motor unit are same type
◼ Type I, IIa, or IIb

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Recruitment
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 Tension generated is determined by size and number of

motor units recruited
 Order of motor unit activation
 Size principle
◼ Type I activated first → Type IIa → Type IIb
 Asynchronous activation
 Activation is temporally spaced but summed with preceding
motor unit activity
 Synchronous activation
 Large and small motor units activated together
◼ Ballistic movements, adaptation from weight training

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BME 316
BIOMECHANICS

Lecture 4
Foundations of Human Movement
Neurological System

Professor Thurmon Lockhart, PhD

SBHSE, ASU

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36 Neurological Considerations for Movement

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Organization of the Nervous System

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 Central Nervous System (CNS)

 Brain, spinal cord
 Where human movement is
initiated, controlled, and
monitored
 Peripheral Nervous System
(PNS)
 Branching nerves outside of
spinal cord

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Organization of the Nervous System

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 Neuron
 Functional unit of the nervous system
 Carries information to and from the nervous system

 Motor neurons
 Carry signals to muscle (efferent pathway)

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Muscle Fiber Types

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 Type I
 Slow contraction times (>70 ms)
 Generates little tension
 Highly fatigue resistant
 Maintaining posture
 Distance runner
 Type IIa
 Fast contraction times (30–50 ms)
 More fatigue resistant than type IIb
 Swimming, bicycling
 Type IIb
 Rapid contraction times (30–40 ms)
 Innervated by alpha motor neurons
 Large neuron-to-fiber ratios
 Sprinting, jumping, weightlifting

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Recruitment
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 Tension generated is determined by size and number of

motor units recruited
 Order of motor unit activation
 Size principle
◼ Type I activated first → Type IIa → Type IIb
 Asynchronous activation
 Activation is temporally spaced but summed with preceding
motor unit activity
 Synchronous activation
 Large and small motor units activated together
◼ Ballistic movements, adaptation from weight training

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Summary
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 Central Nervous System

 Peripheral Nervous System
 Motor neurons, motor units, motor unit type
 Neural Control of Force Output
 Recruitment, size principle, rate coding
 Sensory Receptors
 Muscle spindle, GTO, tactile and joint sensory receptors
 Training
 Flexibility, PNF stretching, plyometrics
 EMG

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Recruitment (cont.)
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BME 316
BIOMECHANICS

Lecture 5
Functional Anatomy
Lower Extremity, Trunk

Thurmon Lockhart, PhD

School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, ASU

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44 Lower Extremity

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The Pelvic and Hip Complex

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 The lower limbs are connected to each other and

the trunk by the pelvic girdle.
 The pelvis establishes the correct positioning for the
lower extremity and trunk.
 It is important to evaluate movement actions of the
limbs, pelvis, and trunk to understand lower
extremity function.

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The Pelvic Girdle (compressive force)

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Keystone Design
Load transfer to hip joint

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The Pelvic Girdle (shear force)

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Anterior Shear

Keystone Design
Load transfer to hip joint

Keystone orientation?
What postures cause
this kind of loading?

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Movements of the Pelvis

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Combined Movements of the Pelvis and Thigh

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Strength and Force

50

 Standing on two limbs—hip load is approximately

30% body weight (BW)
 Standing on one limb—hip load is 2.5–3.0× BW
 Stair climbing—hip load is 3× BW
 Walking—hip load is 4–7× BW
 Running—hip load is up to 10× BW
 Hip can withstand 12–15× BW

50

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Injury Potential
51

 Overuse injuries to the pelvis and hip joint account

for only 5% of the total injuries for the body.
 More than 60% of hip injuries occur in the soft
tissue.
 These are usually muscle strains, tendonitis, or
bursitis. Of these:
 62% will occur during running
 62% are associated with varum alignment in the legs

 30% are due to leg length discrepancy

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Force and Injury in a Perfect World

Forces exceeding
threshold cause injury?

Time dependent reduction

in load bearing ability
Posture/movement reduces the amount of
force required to cause injury by
» Changing loading distribution across tissues
» Changing direction of loading
» Creating additional biomechanical load
» Tissue viscoelasticity during movement

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The Knee Joint

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 Knee joint is a double condyloid joint.

 It has 2 degrees of freedom.
 Flexion-extension
 When flexing, there is a small but significant amount
of rotation.

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Knee Menisci and Ligaments

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 Lateral and medial menisci

 Anterior and posterior cruciate
ligaments (ACL and PCL)
 Transverse ligament
 Medial and lateral collateral
ligaments

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Strength & Force

55

 Extensors stronger than flexors throughout range of motion

 Knee muscles exert considerable force
 Quadriceps tension: 1–3× BW in walking, 4× BW in stair climbing, 5×
BW in squat
 Sample joint forces
 Patellofemoral compressive force: 0.5–1.5× BW in walking, 3–4× BW
in climbing, 7–8× BW in squats
 Tibiofemoral compressive forces often >1,000 N

 Tibiofemoral shear forces often >600 N

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Injury Potential
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 The knee joint is a frequently injured area of the body,

accounting for 25–70% of reported injuries depending
on the sport
 Often related to poor conditioning and/or alignment
problems in the lower extremities
 Running exerts forces of 3× BW on the knee with a
frequency of 1,500 contacts per mile.
 Traumatic injuries usually involve knee ligaments caused
by forceful twisting action.
 ACL is the most common ligament injured.
 Torn menisci can also result from twisting.

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The Ankle & Foot

57

 The foot and ankle consist of:

 26 irregular-shaped bones
 30 synovial joints
 30 muscles
 >100 ligaments
 Most motion occurs at 3 joints:
 Talocrural
 Subtalar
 Midtarsal

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Anatomical and Functional

58
Characteristics of the Ankle Joint
 The proximal joint of the foot is the talocrural joint
(ankle joint).
 It is designed for stability rather than mobility.
 This consists of articulations between the tibia and
talus (tibiotalar joint) and tibia and fibula
(tibiofibular joint).

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Anatomical and Functional

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Characteristics of the Ankle Joint
 The proximal joint of the foot is the talocrural joint
(ankle joint).
 It is designed for stability rather than mobility.
 This consists of articulations between the tibia and
talus (tibiotalar joint) and tibia and fibula
(tibiofibular joint).

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Injury Potential
60

 Injuries to the ankle and foot account for a large

proportion of the injuries to the lower extremities.
 Hindfoot injuries usually occur due to compressive
forces.
 Midfoot injuries are often due to excessive lateral
movement .
 Forefoot injuries are often due to compressive and
tensile forces.
 Most injuries result from overtraining or an excessive
training bout or force to the ankle structures.
 Anatomical factors resulting in poor gait, such as
overpronation, also cause injuries.

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61 Trunk

61

The Vertebral Column

62

 The vertebral column

provides rigid support
and flexibility.
 The column consists of
33 vertebrae, 24 of
which are moveable.
 The column also protects
the spinal cord.
 The vertebrae are
arranged into four
curves that facilitate
support.

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Posture
63

 Standing
 S-shaped spine acts as an elastic
rod support.
 Erector spinae helps keep spine
erect.
 When slouching, the ligaments and
joint capsules maintain posture.
 Sitting
 Unsupported sitting is more
strenuous on spine.
 When sitting, lumbar lordosis is
reduced, and the upper body
center of gravity shifts forward.
 Lumbar load is reduced in
supported sitting, especially with
lumbar support and a reclined
back rest.

63

Injury Potential
64

 85% of the general population of the Western world

report back pain at some time in their lives.
 For 1–5% of the population, back pain is a chronic
problem.
 It usually recurs 30–70% of the time after initial
incidence.
 However, back pain is uncommon in children and
athletes.
 Only 2–3% of the total sprains in the athletic
population are to the back.

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Disc Degeneration
65

 Low back pain is most

common from 25–60
years of age.
 Highest incidence at age
40
 Most of these problems
are due to the soft tissue.
 However, disc
degeneration progresses
as we age, causing splits
and tears in the disc
tissue.

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Effects of Aging on the Trunk

66

 Flexibility may decrease to as little as 10% that of younger

individuals.
 Trunk muscles lose approximately 1% of their strength per year.
 Between ages 30 and 80, strength losses are:
 Approximately 30% in cartilage
 Approximately 20% in bone
 Approximately 18% in ligaments

 The shape and length of the spine also change with

age.
 Smaller fluid region in aging discs places more
stress on annulus fibrosis.
 Height of discs may reduce.
 Increased lateral bending
 Lumbar lordosis decreases.

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BME 316
BIOMECHANICS

Lecture 6
Functional Anatomy
Upper Extremity

Thurmon Lockhart, PhD

SBHSE, ASU

67

68 Upper Extremity
What do the upper extremities enable us to do?
What stabilizes the structures of the upper extremities?
What are potential injuries to the upper extremities?
What causes these injuries?
How can injuries be prevented?
What are some exercises for stretching and
strengthening the upper extremities?

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Review of Anatomical Structures

69

 Shoulder girdle
 An incomplete bony ring in the upper extremity formed by the two scapulae and
clavicles
 Scapula
 Flat, triangular bone on the upper posterior thorax
 Clavicle
 “S”-shaped bone articulating with scapula and sternum
 “Collar bone”
 Glenoid fossa
 Depression in lateral superior scapula
 Socket for shoulder joint
 Glenoid labrum
 Ring of fibrocartilage around rim of glenoid fossa
 Deepens socket for shoulder joint

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Shoulder Joint Movement Characteristics

70

 Large range of motion (ROM) at shoulder

 Extreme ROM required by many activities
 Swimming, throwing, gymnastics
 Ligaments and muscles provide stability
 Scapular and clavicular movements accompany any
arm movement
 Scapulohumeral rhythm
 Movement relationship between humerus and scapula
during arm raising movements

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Injury
71

 Sprain
 Rupture of fibers of ligament
 Subluxation
 Partial dislocation
 Fracture
 Break in bone, often clavicle
 Ectopic calcification
 Hardening of organic tissue through deposit of calcium salts
in areas away from the normal sites
 Degeneration
 Deterioration of tissue

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Elbow and Radioulnar Joints

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 Radiohumeral joint
 Articulation between radius and humerus
 Capitulum
◼ Eminence on distal end of lateral epicondyle
◼ Articulates with head of radius at elbow
 Ulnar-humeral joint
 “Elbow”
 Articulation between ulna and humerus
 Medial and lateral epicondyles
 Carrying angle
 Angle between ulna and humerus with elbow
extended
 10–20°

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Elbow Movement Characteristics

and Muscular Actions
73

 All 3 joints never close packed at same time

 Movements limited by several factors
 Soft tissue, ligaments, joint capsule, muscles
 24 muscles cross elbow
 Most of these muscles capable of multiple movements
 Muscles better at some movements than others

73

Injury to Forearm
74

 Overuse injuries more common than trauma

 Throwing, tennis serve
 Ectopic bone
 Bone formation away from normal site
 Rupture
 Torn or disrupted tissue
◼ Muscle
 Olecranon bursitis
 Irritation of the olecranon bursae
◼ Commonly caused by falling on elbow

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Wrist & Fingers

75

 Manipulation activities
 Very fine movements
 Many stable, yet mobile, segments

75

Carpal Tunnel
76

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