Statics of particles

PSE100 – Physics and Mechanics I

Lecture 1
 Introduction

In this lecture we are going to consider the effects of forces acting on

particles.
The question we will answer is how does one replace two or more
forces acting on a particle with a single force having the same effect
as the original forces.
The single equivalent force is known as the resultant force.
We first consider the special case for forces that lie in the plane before
moving to the more general case of forces in space.

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 Addition of planar forces

In many practical situations the forces acting on a particle will all lie
in the same plane. In such cases this leads to a significant
simplification in the analysis of the problem.
A force represents the action of one body on another. It depends on its
point of application, its magnitude, and its direction.
In the case of a force acting on a point particle, since all forces will
have the same point of application, the force only depends on its
magnitude and direction.
Since force has both a magnitude and direction it is a vector quantity
which we will denote by F. In SI units it is measured in newton (N).
So
1·0 N = 1·0 kg m s−2

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 Addition of planar forces – Parallelogram law

Suppose P and Q denote two vectors that act on a particle A. One

way to add them is to form a parallelogram as follows:

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 Addition of planar forces – Parallelogram law

Here the vectors P and Q form two adjacent sides of the

parallelogram. The resultant force R is the diagonal of the
parallelogram that passes through A.
Finding the resultant force is this way is known as the parallelogram
law for the addition of two forces.
Note this law is based on experimental evidence; it cannot be proved
or derived mathematically.

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 Vectors

As vectors add according to the parallelogram law, we see that force is

an example of a vector quantity.
Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and
direction, even if they have different positions in space.

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 Graphical representation of a vector

As you probably already know, a vector can be represented

graphically as a directed line segment.

The directed line segment from A to B (the arrow indicates the

direction) represents the vector.
−→
We write AB to represent the vector.
The magnitude of the vector corresponds to the length of the line
−→
segment AB and is denoted by |AB|.

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 Vector addition

When adding two vectors, since the parallelogram constructed with

the vectors P and Q as sides does not depend upon the order in which
P and Q are selected, we conclude that the addition of two vectors is
commutative. That is

P+Q=Q+P

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 Vector addition

Geometrically two vectors can be added together using the so-called

“head to tail” method.
Here the tail of the second vector is positioned at the head of the first
vector, the sum, called the resultant, being the vector joining the tail
of the first with the head of the second.

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 Scalar multiplication

When a vector P is multiplied by a non-zero scalar k (which has a

magnitude only), the product is a new vector given by:

kP.

Here the magnitude of the vector increases if |k| > 1, and decreases
if 0 < |k| < 1.
If k > 0 then the direction of the vector has not changed. If k < 0
then the direction of the vector is in the opposite direction to the
original vector.

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 Negative vector

The negative vector of a given vector P is defined as the vector

having the same magnitude as vector P but opposite direction. It
corresponds to multiplying the vector by the scalar k = −1. Thus
(−1)P = −P. Clearly
P + (−P) = 0.
Note the zero here is the zero vector which has zero magnitude and no
specific direction.

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 Subtraction of vectors

We define subtraction of a vector as the addition of the corresponding

negative vector. That is

P − Q = P + (−Q).

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 Properties of vectors

If P, Q, and S are vectors, 0 the zero vector (that is the vector with
zero magniutude and no direction) then:
1 P + Q = Q + P (Commutative law of vector addition)
2 P + (Q + S) = (P + Q) + S (Associative law of vector addition)
3 P + 0 = P (Additive identity)
4 P + (−P) = 0 (Additive inverse)

And if P and Q are vectors, and λ and µ are scalars, then

5 λ(P + Q) = λP + λQ (Vector distribution addition)
6 (λ + µ)P = λP + µP (Scalar distribution addition)
7 (λµ)P = λ(µP) = µ(λP) (Associative law of multiplication by a scalar)

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 Adding two vectors
,→ Example

Example
Find the magnitude and direction of the two forces that act on
the following bolt at point A.

Solution
To find P + Q we apply the parallelogram law. The resultant
vector R will then be found using trigonometry.

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 Adding two vectors
,→ Example

Example (continued)
Adding the two vectors together we have:

The magnitude of the resultant vector can be found by apply-

ing the cosine rule. Here:

R2 = P 2 + Q2 − 2P · Q cos θ
= (40 N)2 + (60 N)2 − 2(40 N)(60 N) cos 155◦
⇒ R = 97·7 N.
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 Adding two vectors
,→ Example

Example (continued)
The direction is given by the angle α. But first we need to
find the angle A in the triangle, which can be found using the
sine rule. Here:
sin A sin B
=
Q R
sin A sin 155◦
=
60 N 97·7 N
⇒ A = sin−1 (0·259) = 15·0◦ .

So for the angle α we have:

α = 20◦ + A = 20◦ + 15·0◦ = 35·0◦ .

Thus R = 97·7 N at an angle of 35·0◦ about the horizontal.

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 Adding three or more vectors

Consider three or more vectors. To add them the vectors can be

arranged graphically so the tail of one vector connects with the head
of the previous vector.
If the vectors are coplanar (they all lie in the same plane) then the
sum of the three vectors P, Q, and S can be represented by:

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 Unit vector

A unit vector for the vector u is a vector whose magnitude is unity

(one). If u ̸= 0, then the unit vector must also have the same direction
as the vector u.
b.
The unit vector of u is denoted by u
In general, if u is a vector with magnitude |u|, then

u
b=
u
|u|

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 Resolving a vector into components

It is often desirable to resolve a vector, such as a force, into

components.
Most often one uses a set of basis vectors which are mutually
perpendicular to each other in order to resolve a vector.
For a vector in space, one chooses a basis set of vectors consisting of
three unit vectors parallel to the three coordinate axes. In this way the
vector F in Cartesian coordinates can be written as:

F = Fx b
e x + Fy b
e y + Fz b
ez

A vector written in this way is say to be in component form. Here Fx

is the x-component of the vector, Fy is the y-component of the vector,
while Fz is the z-component of the vector.

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 Resolving a vector into components

Here:
b
ex is a unit vector in the direction of the x-axis,
b
ey is a unit vector in the direction of the y-axis,
b
ez is a unit vector in the direction of the z-axis.
z

b
ez

b
ey
y
b
ex
x

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 Adding two vectors
,→ Example

Example
Redo the previous Example except this time using compo-
nents.

Solution
Resolving the vector P into components, we have:

Px = P cos θ1 = (40 N) cos 20◦ = 37·59 N,

and
Py = P sin θ1 = (40 N) sin 20◦ = 13·68 N.
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 Adding two vectors
,→ Example

Example (continued)
So we have:

P = Px b
e x + Py b
ey = (37·59 N) b
ex + (13·68 N) b
ey .

And resolving the vector Q into components, we have:

Qx = Q cos θ2 = (60 N) cos 45◦ = 42·43 N,

and
Qy = Q sin θ2 = (60 N) sin 45◦ = 42·43 N.
So we have:

ex + Q y b
Q = Qx b ey = (42·43 N) b
ex + (42·43 N) b
ey .

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 Adding two vectors
,→ Example

Example (continued)
For the sum P + Q we have:
P + Q = [(37·59 N) b
ex + (13·68 N) b
ey ] + [(42·43 N) b
ex + (42·43 N) b
ey ]
= (80·01 N) b
ex + (56·11 N) b
ey .

The magnitude can be found from Pythagoras’ theorem.

Here:
p
|P + Q| = (80·01 N)2 + (56·11 N)2 = 97·7 N.

And for the direction:

56·11 N
tan α = ⇒ α = tan−1 (0·701) = 35·0◦ ,
80·01 N
agreeing with the previously found result. ■
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 Force and equilibrium of a particle

When more than one force acts on a particle, the particle is said to be
in equilibrium if the net (resultant) force acting on the particle is zero.
Mathematically, a particle will be in equilibrium if the sum of all the
force acting on the particle is equal to zero. That is:
X
Fi = 0
i

Graphically, if all the forces lie in a plane, a particle will be in

equilibrium if all the forces when summed for a closed polygon.

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 Force and equilibrium of a particle

In component form, the forces acting on a particle will be in

equilibrium if:

X X X
Fx,i = 0, Fy,i = 0, Fz,i = 0.
i i i

If a particle is in equilibrium, than according to Newton’s first law of

motion, the particle will either remain at rest (if initially at rest) or
move with constant speed along a straight line (if initially in motion).
So if a particle is either not at rest or is not moving with uniform
speed along a straight line, than the net force acting on the particle
must be non-zero and the particle will not be in equilibrium.

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 Force and equilibrium of a particle
,→ Example

Example
Find the values for the angles α and θ so that the three forces
acting on the particle will be in equilibrium.

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 Force and equilibrium of a particle
,→ Example

Example (continued)
Solution
We will solve this problem using components. Choosing the
positive x-axis to the right and the positive y-axis up the
page.
For the particle to be in equilibrium, for the x-component we
have:
X
Fx,i = 0
i
40 kN − (20 kN) cos α − (30 kN) cos θ = 0
⇒ 2 cos α + 3 cos θ = 4.
or
4 − 3 cos θ
cos α = .
2
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 Force and equilibrium of a particle
,→ Example

Example (continued)
And for the y-component we have:
X
Fy,i = 0
i
(20 kN) sin α − (30 kN) sin θ = 0
⇒ 2 sin α = 3 sin θ.

Squaring this result we find:

4 sin2 α = 9 sin2 θ
4(1 − cos2 α) = 9(1 − cos2 θ)
⇒ 9 cos2 θ − 4 cos2 α = 5.

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 Force and equilibrium of a particle
,→ Example

Example (continued)
Substituting
4 − 3 cos θ
cos α = ,
2
into 9 cos2 θ − 4 cos2 α = 5, we find:
 
4 − 3 cos θ 2
9 cos θ − 4
2
= 5,
2

or after solving for cos θ:

21 7
cos θ = = .
24 8
For the angle α we have:


4 − 3 cos θ 4−3 7
8 11
cos α = = = .
2 2 16
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 Force and equilibrium of a particle
,→ Example

Example (continued)
This gives:  
−1 11
α = cos = 46·6◦ .
16
So in summary, for the two angles we have:

α = 46·6◦ and θ = 29·0◦ . ■

Alternatively, since the forces acting on the particle are in

equilibrium, one could solve this problem by drawing a closed
polygon (in this case a triangle) first and then using trigonom-
etry.

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 Weight force and free-body diagrams

Recall the weight W (measured in newtons) of a body of mass m

(measured in kilograms) near the surface of the Earth is given by:

W = mg

Here g is the acceleration due to gravity near the surface of the Earth
and has a value equal to 9·81 m s−2 .
Often a large body can be considered as a point particle. In this way a
separable diagram can be drawn that is free from any bodies showing
only the forces acting on the particle. Such a diagram is known as a
free-body diagram.

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 Weight force and free-body diagrams

Example of a free-body diagram. Here the crate has a mass of 75 kg,

its weight is:

W = mg = (75 kg)(9·81 m s−2 ) = 736 N.

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 Forces in space

The two-dimensional problem of forces acting in a plane is relatively

simple. The three-dimensional problem of forces acting in space is a
little more involved.
To deal with this problem we will introduce the concept of direction
cosines.
But before we do this, we need to introduce the idea of a so-called
right-handed coordinate system.

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 Cartesian Coordinates in Space

The Cartesian coordinate system in three dimensions has three axes

(x, y, z) which are each mutually perpendicular to each other and are
arranged relative to each other according to a right hand system.

The x-, y-, and z-axes are referred to as the coordinate axes.

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 Cartesian Coordinates in Space
,→ Right-handed coordinate systems

The Cartesian coordinator system in three-dimensions is an example

of a right-handed system.

With your right hand, if your place your fingers along the direction of
the x-axis and curl them through the smallest angle towards the
y-axis, your thumb will point in the direction of the z-axis.

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 Cartesian Coordinates in Space

Another example of a perfectly valid right-handed coordinate system

is the following:
z

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 Direction cosines

The direction cosines of a vector, such as a force, are the cosines of

the angles between the vector and the three positive coordinate axes.
The angle between the vector and the x-axis is denoted by θx .
The angle between the vector and the y-axis is denoted by θy .
The angle between the vector and the z-axis is denoted by θz .

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 Direction cosines

If F is a force in space, in component form it can be written as:

F = Fx b
e x + Fy b
e y + Fz b
ez .

The magnitude of the force is given by:

q
F = |F| = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2 ,

while the scalar components of the force are:

Fx = F cos θx , Fy = F cos θy , Fz = F cos θz .

So we may rewrite the force F as:

F = F (cos θx b
ex + cos θy b
ey + cos θz b
ez ) .

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 Direction cosines

From
F = F (cos θx b
ex + cos θy b
ey + cos θz b
ez ) ,
it should be clear that
λ = cos θx b
ex + cos θy b
ey + cos θz b
ez ,
is clearly a vector in the same direction as F and with a magnitude
equal to unity. The components of the vector λ are the direction
cosines. Here:

α = cos θx , β = cos θy , γ = cos θz

Since the magnitude of a unit vector is one, we therefore have the

following relationship between the direction cosines of:
cos2 θx + cos2 θy + cos2 θz = α2 + β 2 + γ 2 = 1.
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 Forces in space
,→ Example

Example
The end of the coaxial cable AE is attached to the pole AB,
which is strengthened by the guy wires AC and AD. It is
known the tension in the guy wire AC is 120 N.

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 Forces in space
,→ Example

Example (continued)
1 Find the components of the force exerted by the guy
wire AC on the pole.
2 Find the angles that the force found in (a) forms with the
coordinate axes.
Solution
1 Resolving the tension in the guy wire AC into
components we have:

Fx = (F cos 60◦ ) cos 20◦ = (120 N cos 60◦ ) cos 20◦ = 56·38 N
Fy = −F cos 30◦ = −(120 N) cos 30◦ = −103·92 N
Fz = −(F cos 60◦ ) sin 20◦ = −(120 N cos 60◦ ) sin 20◦
= −20·52 N. ■
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 Forces in space
,→ Example

Example (continued)
2 For the directions relative to the coordinate axes we
have:
Fx 56·38 N
cos θx = =
F 120 N
 
−1 56·38
⇒ θx = cos = 62·0◦ ,
120

Fy −103·92 N
cos θy = =
F 120 N
 
−1 −103·92
⇒ θy = cos = 150·0◦ ,
120

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 Forces in space
,→ Example

Example (continued)
2 And
Fz −20·52 N
cos θz = =
F 120 N
 
−1 −20·52
⇒ θz = cos = 99·8◦ . ■
120

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