HARVARD ORIENTAL SERIES

Edited by MICHAEL WITZEL

VOLUME SEVENTY-FIVE

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The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners

r~----------- The Buddhist Yogacarabhumi Treatise and

Its Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet

Edited by
Ulrich Timme KRAGH

PUBLISHED BY THE DEPARTMENT

OF SOUTH ASIAN STUDIES
HARVARD UNIVERSITY

DISTRIBUTED BY
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
AND LONDON, ENGLAND

2013
 Copyright © 2013
by the President and Fellows of Harvard College
and the President of Geumgang University
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America

No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written
permission except in case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews

For information write to Editor, Harvard Oriental Series, Department of South Asian
Studies, 1 Bow Street, Cambridge MA 02138, USA
· 617-495 3295; email: witzel@fas.harvard.edu

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

The Foundation for Yoga Practitioners: The Buddhist Yogiiciirabhiimi Treatise and Its
Adaptation in India, East Asia, and Tibet

Harvard Oriental Series; v. 75

ISBN 978-0-674-72543-0
I. Ulrich Timme Kragh 1969-
II. Title
III. Series: Harvard Oriental Series; 75

CIP
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I _- - -- - - - - --- -- - - --- -=------ ---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- - FOR PROFESSOR EMERITUS DR. LAMBERT SCHMITHAUSEN
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THE GREAT DOYEN OF YOGACARA STUDIES
WHO INFORMS AND INSPIRES US ALL

kathaip yasasvi bhavati kathaip bhavati bhogavan I

kathaip kirttim avapnoti kathaip mitrani vindatiII
siladyasasvi bhavati danad bhavati bhogavan I
satyena kirttim apnoti dadan mitrapi vindatiII

ji ]tar grags dang ldan par 'gyur//ji I tar long spyod can du 'gyur/I
fi I tar snyan pa thob par 'gyur//fi I tar mdza 'bo rnyedpar 'gyur//
tshul khrims kyis nigrags ldan 'gyur//sbyin pas longs spyod can du 'gyur//
bden pas snyan pa thob par 'gyur//byin na mdza 'bo rnyedpar 'gyur//

How does one become celebrated? How does one become blessed?
How does one obtain renown? How does one gain friends?
Through integrity, one becomes celebrated.
Through generosity, one becomes blessed.
Through exactitude, one obtains renown.
From having given, one gains friends.

Yogiiciirabhum1; Cintiimayi Bhumif,1, Saririirthagiithii Verses VII

 Foreword
Prof. Sungdoo Ahn, vice-chaired by Prof. Ulrich Timme Kragh, coordinated by
Geumgang University (:1iz:llinU*~~. i?-7JcR ~ .:iil) is proud to present this volume Prof. Changhwan Park, and organized by the members of GCBS, including Prof.
of_ scholarly excellence to the academic world and thereby promote the work of the Cheonhak Kim, Prof. Seongcheol Kim, Prof. Gilam Seok, Prof. Sangyeob Cha,
thirty-four learned contributors, whose articles are contained herein. Prof. Eunyoung Choi, Dr. Jeidong Ryu, Dr. Youngjin Lee, and Dr. Jaekwan Shim.
Located in rural Nonsan (~u.J), South Korea, the university sits at the foot of In 2009, the director of GCBS requested Prof. Kragh to take on the editorship
the Masters' P~ak. (~gijj~) of the majestic Mount Gyeryongsan (i~l![Ll..J), an of publishing a volume on Yogacara-studies based on the papers presented at the
abode that th~ ~nd1genous Mu~ang shamans and geomancers regard as the most conference. Seeing the volume as an excellent opportunity for Geumgang Univer-
s~cred an? spmtual~y paten~ site in the entire Korean peninsula. The mountain sity to foster the field of Buddhist studies and especially to promote the study of
ndge, which today 1s a national park, is also home to three antique Buddhist the adaptation of Indian Buddhism in East Asia and Tibet, which is the methodo-
temple-complex~s dating back to the seventh century. One of them, the Shin- logical focus for the current research project at GCBS, Prof. Kragh invited nine-
won:sa te?Iple, hes prostrate beneath a rocky cave high on the mountain, wherein teen further scholars to contribute articles to the volume in addition to the fifteen
the illustnous Korean Yogacara-master Wonhyo (JC~) practiced meditation and original papers. The resultant volume covers the Yogacarabhiimi and its pan-
composed~ commentary on the MahaparinirvaJJasiitra. In the nearby Gwanchok- Asian reception history in an exquisite wealth of detail, nuance, and complexity.
sa temple m Nonsan: a colossal tenth-century Maitreya statue (5i¥iJ~itl), the Geumgang University and GCBS wishes to express its warm thanks to Prof. Kragh
largest sto~e Bu_ddha m Korea, overlooks the entire valley. for his untiring editorship as well as to Prof. Dr. Michael Witzel of Harvard
Th~ umvers1ty was founded in 2003 by the Cheontae order (7:"EHf-:) of Korean University for his kind acceptance to publish our volume in the distinguished
Buddhism through the generosity of its lay supporters. The monks and nuns of the Harvard Oriental Series of which he is the general editor.
~rder adhen~ to ~he _stu?y and practice of the Lotus Siitra, and promulgate en- It is our pleasure to dedicate the book to Professor Schmithausen, whose
h~hten~ent. m dad~ ~1fe m ~ ~anner accessible to the ordain~d and lay practitioner scholarship on the Yogacarabhiimi has influenced Buddhist thinkers in both the
alike. With its amb1t10_us m1ss1on stat~ment of educating intellectuals able to study West and the East. We sincerely hope that the readership will enjoy the unique
and apply the central ideas of Buddhism to the modern society, which is bolstered constellation of bright Yogacara scholars gathered within the covers of this volume
by one of the most generous financial aid programs for students in South Korea and draw inspiration from their erudition and insights for generations to come.
Geumgang_ University not ~nly off~rs a range of undergraduate and graduat~
programs m language studies, busmess administration, religious studies, and
Ko~ean language education f~r foreigners,. but also accommodates a cataloging Prof. Cheonhak Kim
Dr. Byeongjo Jeong
proJect of. th~ Woolner Collect10n of Sansknt manuscripts and houses an advanced Director
President
resea~ch mstitute for Buddhist scholarship, the Geumgang Center for Buddhist Geumgang Center for Buddhist Studies
Geumgang University
Studies (GCBS, :1iz:JlijJU*~~{~~3t1tiitf~pfr).
G~BS ~ims to advance the critical study of Indian, Tibetan, and East Asian
Buddhism m South Korea and overseas by employing a large staff of research
prof~ssors and fell~ws, pu?lishing academic monographs and the journal Critical Geumgang University, Nonsan, October 2012
ReVIew for Buddhist Studies, as well as hosting seminars and international confe-
rences on themes of Buddhist studies pursuant to national and international
agendas of the field. In 2007, the institute was awarded a ten-year Humanities
Korea research grant by the National Research Foundation to turn the center into
a research facility of international excellence in order to nurture the humanities in
South Korea.
In 2008, GCBS held a two-day international conference at the picturesque
Jo~e:sa Buddhist temple in downtown Seoul. Under the theme "The Yogacara-
bhum1 and the Yogacaras," fifteen invited speakers from Germany, USA, Den-
mark: Ja~an, an~ !<orea came ~ogether to share their extensive and profound
learm!lg m Yogacara scholarship. The conference was dedicated to Professor
Ementus Dr. Lambert Schmithausen of Hamburg University, who was the confe-
rence's guest. of honor. The gathering was presided over by the university's presi-
dent at that time, Dr. Nakseung Sung, chaired by the then director of the center
'
 ')

Acknowledgements
· The present volume was incepted at Geumgang Center for Buddhist Studies
(GCBS) at Geuingang University in South Korea. Work on the volume was
financially supported by the center's grant from the National Research Foundation
of South Korea, Stipend No. MEST NRF-2007-361-AM0046 ..
The editor sincerely thanks the former President of Geumgang University Dr.
Nakseung. Sung, th_e fo~mer Director of GCBS Prof. Sungdoo Ahn (currently of
Seoul National Umversity), GCBS' present Director Prof. Cheonhak Kim, as well
as Prof. Tanjun Kwon of Geumgang University and Prof. Sungtaek Cho of Korea
University for their .unceasing help and kind backing for the project.
In ~arti~lar, the editor is deeply indebted to Prof. Changhwan Park of Geumgang
Umversity and Prof. Sangyeob Cha of GCBS for their hard work and immense
pe:sonal sacrifice in order to make the publication of the volume possible. The
editor expresses unreserved admiration for their outstanding diplomatic and
ethical poise.
Extraordinary thanks are extended to Dr. Byeongjo Jeong, the.current President of
Geumgang University, for his unstinting support for the publication. Without his
unwavering commitment, the book would not have seen the light of the day.
The deepest gratitude is expressed to the Harvard Oriental Series editor Prof.
Mi~hael Witzel of Harvard University for his consistent support throughout the
various and often cumbersome stages of the project and for ensuring the successful
publication of the volume. In this regard, a special thank is also given to Prof.
Leonard W.J. van der Kuijp of Harvard University for his original suggestion to
~ave the.book published by ~arvard University Press, a&well as for his subsequent
furn safeguardmg of the proJect and moral support that continually inspired and
accompanied the work.
Acknowledgement is due to Prof. Eme:itus La~bert. Schmithausen of Hamburg
University, Dr. Dominjk Wujastyk of_Y_ienna ~mvers~~· a?d Dr. G. Jan Meulen-
beld of Groningen Univer~ity for proVIdmg crucial clanficat10ns.
Last but not the least, special thanks must be given to Dr: H~rtmut ~uescher for
his incredible effort and stupendous thoroughness in reVIewmg the mtroducto_ry
essay, Prof. Florin Deleanu of the International Coll~ge for Postgraduate Buddhist
Studies for his important input on parts of the mtroductory essay, ~d Prof.
Alexander van Rospatt of the University of California at Berkeley for his useful
suggestions in formulating the dedication.
The editor wishes to express humble words of affection to all the mem~ers of
GCBS, the management of Geumgang University, as well as to all the c_ontnbutors
for their kind acceptance for the concept of this volume and for theu generous
forbearance in giving the necessary time for the editing. I~ has _been a great honor
to have been given a chance to work for Geumgang l!mv~rsity and help GCBS
build up and strengthen the academic study of Buddhism m Ko:ea a~d abroad.
Any error, fault, or harm, which the editor's ~ersonal short~~:qimgs, _mtellec!ual
ineptitude and his perhaps stubborn and at times overambitious attitude ~ight
have caus;d throughout the three years of the editorial process, rests ex~lusively
with him, and as such must be entirely borne on his and only his shoulders. ·

The writing of the_ introductory essay was made possible by a stipend from the J.
Gonda Foundation during a fellowship at the International Institute for Asian
Studies (HAS) 1:1t Leiden University in the Netherlands. The editor wishes to
express his indebtedness to HAS' Director Philippe Peycam, Institute Manager
Willem Vogelsang, and Fellowship Coordinator Sandra van der Horst.

Appreciation is expressed to the English proof-readers Mr. Ron Desrosier and Mr.
Zachary W. Jones, to Dr. Jddong Ryu for formatting Korean bibliographies, and
to Prof. Justin Ritzinger of Oberlin College for English translation from modern
Chinese.

Many warm thanks are extended to Prof. Ching Keng (lfkllf) of National Chenghi
University in Taiwan and Prof. Zhihua Yao (t(,l~fE:t~) of The Chinese University of
Hong Kong for helping to establish the needed contacts to Chinese scholars of
Yogacara Buddhism.

-- . ~--
 List of Contents 11.1 THE YOGAcARAJJH()MI
THE BASIC SECTION ( *MAULYO BH().MA YAQ)
Foreword ............................................................................................................... 8
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... 10
Preface ................................................................................................................... 16 Koichi TAKAHASHI (~m~-:--) _. 564
The Premise of Vastu m the Manobhun11............................................... .
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation: Introductory Essay
with a Summary of the Basic Section by Ulrich Timme KRAGH ....................... 22 Dan LUSTHAUS . . .
A Note on Medicine and Psychosomatic Relations m the First
- - b·i.
Two Bhiimis of the Yogacara - ·....................................................... .. 578
11um1
I. THE YOGACARABHOMI
BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENT Nobuyoshi YAMABE Gl.H~:Bng1{)
Parallel Passages between the Manobhiimi arid the
*Yogacarabhiimi of Sarµgharak~a ............................................................ 596
Tilmann VETTER
Early Mahayana and 'The Bodhisattvas of the Ten Directions' .............. 290 Robert KRITZER .
Garbhavakrantau ('In the Garbhavakranti't Quotations from
Noriaki lIAKAMAYA (~B-xf!BB) the Garbhavakrantisiitra in Abhidharma Literature and the
- - b·i.
Yogacara - ·..................................................................... ..................... 738
11um1
Serving and Served Monks in the Yogacarabhiimi.................................. 312

Hidenori S. SAKUMA (1£AFst*:ilm) Peter SKILLING . . .

Remarks on the Lineage of Indian Masters of the Yogacara Nets of Intertextuality: Embedded Scriptural Citations m the
.i. - ·......................................................................... ................. 772
Yogacara b'11Uml
School: Maitreya, Asa:riga, and Vasubandhu .................. 1......................... 330
Hartmut BUESCHER Yasunori SUGAWARA (iffi;J]f*~) . 792
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus, the Bha~yakara and the The Bhavanamayi Bhiimil;: Contents and Formation .......................... ..
Kosakara, as Yogacara-Vijiianavada Authors ......................................... 368
Alexander VON ROSPATT -
NoritoshiARAMAKI (J;'U/:5<:~{~) Remarks on the Bhavanamayi BhiimiiJ and Its Treatment of
Two Notes on the Formation · ............................................................................ ........................... 852 -
Practice
of the Yogacarabhiimi Text-Complex ...................................................... 398
Michael ZIMMERMANN . - . 872
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN The Chapter on Right Conduct in the Bodh1sattvabhum1 .................... ..
Kusala and Akusala: Reconsidering the Original Meaning of a
Basic Pair of Terms of Buddhist Spirituality and Ethics and Its Florin DELEANU . d
Development up to Early Y ogacara ......................................................... 440 Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhiim1: Quest for an
Liberation through the Thing-In-Itself .................................................... 884

II. THE YOGACARABHOM!

THE TEXT 11.2 THE YOGAcARAJJH()MJ
THE SUPPLEMENTARY SECTION (SAJr[GRAHAJY/)
I I'
:I Martin DELHEY
The Yogacarabhiimi Corpus: Sources, Editions, Translations, William s. wALDRON
and Reference Works ................................ ;............................................... 498 Alayavijfiana as Keystone Dhar_m~: _ . 922
The Alaya Treatise of the Yogacarabhu°!1 ............................................. .

Kazunobu MATSUDA (if'l83f0{6°) 938

Sanskrit Fragments of the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra ................................ .

~'":- -=--'="- -
----,----'
-
~-----
- - - - - - - - ---- -----
 III. THE INDIAN YOGACARA RECEPTION Leslie s. KAWAMURA (lilJ;t'.f~:fi;-ft)
Gadjin M. Nagao on MSA 1.1 and 1.2 ...................................................... 1296

Changhwan PARK (l:!r.:%~)

What are Aca.zyas or *Yaugacarabhumikas Doing in · V. THE TIBETAN YOGAcARA RECEPTION.
Abhidharmakosabha~a 3-28ab? ............................................................... 948

Jowita KRAMER Dorji WANGCHUK ..

A Study of the Saipskara Section of Vasubandhu's Paiica- On the Status of the Yogiiciira School in Tibetan Buddhism ..;............... 1316
skandhaka with Reference· to Its Commentary by Sthiramati ................ 986
OrnaALMOGI
Harunaga ISAACSON Yogiicara in the Writings of the Eleventh-Century Rnying ma
Yogacara and Vajrayana according to Ratnakarasanti.. ......................... 1036 Scholar Rong zom Chas kyi bzang po ...................................................... 1330

Ulrich Timme KRAGH

IV. THE EAST ASIAN YOGACARA RECEPTION All Mind, No Text -All Text, No Mind: Tracing Yogiiciira in
the Early Bka' brgyud Literature of Dags po ........................................... 1362

Bing CHEN (~!~) Leonard W.J. VANDERKUIJP

Reflections on the Revival of Y ogacara in Modern Chinese Notes on Jfiiinamitra's Commentary on the
Buddhism .................................................................................................... 1054 Abhidharmasamuccaya ............................................................................. 1388

EyalAVIV
The Root that Nourishes the Branches: The Role of the
Yogacarabhumi in zoth -Century Chinese Scholastic Buddhism ............ 1078

Lawrence Y.K. LAU (;iJ¥Yc)

Chinese Scholarship on Yogiiciira Buddhism since 1949 ........................ 1092

Sangyeob CHA (~VJ-~)

The Yogacarabhumi Meditation Doctr~ne of the 'Nine Stages
of Mental Abiding' in East and Central Asian Buddhism ....................... 1166

A. Charles MULLER
The Contribution of the Yogacarabhumi to the System of the
Two Hindrances ......................................................................................... 1192

Simgdoo AHN T) (~"'a

Theories of the Darsanamarga in the Yogacarabhumi and
Their Chinese Interpretations ................................................................... 1212

Makoto YOSHIMURA (aH~)

The Weishl. School and the Buddha-Nature Debate in the Early
Tang Dynasty .............................................................................................. 1234

Seongcheol KIM ( {I "'a 1I)

A Brief History of Studies on the Y ogiiciira School in Modern
Korea ........................................................................................................... 1254

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I
I
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Preface
The Yogacarabhiimi stands out as one of the truly great Buddhist doctrinal works,
whose influence was strongly felt not only in India but also in other regions where
Mahayana Buddhism flourished, especially in the countries.of East Asia and Tibet.
The greatness of the text lies in the enormous scope of its contents as well as in the
profund clarity it achieves in the systematization of its many subjects. However, the
features of its magnitude are also its greatest weakness, for the treatise is so long
and its multitudinous reception history across Asia so manifold that a comprehen-
sive study of the text and the ensuing Yogacara tradition requires truly prolonged
study to be achieved with any sense of command. For this reason, the creation of
the present volume entailed two overriding concerns.
First, to overcome the problem of the complexity of Yogacara studies and at-
tempt to open this intriguing subfield of Buddhist studies up to a wider audience of
learned readers, the contributors were requested as far as possible to supply
English translations of all terms and quoted passages, at least at the first occur-
rence of any given term. In consideration of the wide linguistic range that the
pertinent primary sources involve, which in this volume includes works in Vedic,
Pali, Prakrit, Sanskrit, classical and modem Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and
Tibetan, it was clear that not all readers would possess the necessary expertise in
every language and that systematic English translation therefore would have to be
employed. This is particularly the case in that the volume me;rges scholarship on
Yogacara Buddhism of India, East Asia, and Tibet, trying to 'unify the academic
discipline across the full geographic span covered by the historical spread of the
Yogacarabhiimi While the abundance of languages may be daunting, the use of
English translation is intended to offer the reader a possibility to pursue an under-
standing of the text outside his or her own breadth of specialization that otherwise
may tend to be compartmentalized in a particular subfield of Area Studies, such as
Indology, Sinology, Japanology, Koreanology, or Tibetology. To be sure, each
contributor to the volume has his or her own preferred English translations for
I
Yogacara terms and to avoid constraining the intellectual creativity this involves,
II no attempt was made to standardize the translation of terms across the volume.
Since all the contributors diligently supply the equivalent words in the original
languages, the reader should be able to navigate the variety of English expressions
that are anchored in the same term in Sanskrit, Chinese, and/or Tibetan. In light of
the fact that the volume caters to Western as well as Asian readers whose set of
skills in modern languages generally differs, it was decided also to supply English
translation of all quotations in modern Chinese and Japanese even though these
languages are common academic lingua franca in the whole of East Asia, as well as
of all quotations in German and French that conventionally are·working languages
in Western scholarship.
Likewise pertinent to the problem of the inherent complexity of Yogacara
studies is the difficulty involved in facing several languages necessarily written in·
foreign scripts, such as Chinese, Japanese, or Korean. To overcome this hindrance,
the contributors were requested to supply Roman transliteration for all single
terms and short phrases in primary languages, though it was deemed unnecessary
for whole quoted passages in East Asian scripts that were furnished with English
translation. Sanskrit and Pali have been rendered using the IAST system, Japanese
... ···~-------------------------.-
. Preface 17
with Revised Hepburn Romanization,. Korean. with_ Revised Romanization of
Korean and Tibetan with Extended Wyhe Transliteration. .
In the case of Chinese characters, the phonetic transcription scheme used is
that of Hanyu Pinyin OlmH#if) including t~e diacritica~ ~arking of tone~. The
latter feature, which was quite laborsome to implement, is mtended to assist t~e
reader get past the problem of the many seeming homonyms t?at appe~r. m
Chinese when the tones are left unmarked as well as to facilitate e~sier recogmtl?n
of Chinese words by having the transcription reflect an a~tu~l Chmes~ p~onuncrn-
tion. It should here be kept in mind that Pinyin transcription ~nly mdicates the
modern Mandarin (piitonghua ftmlg§) pronunciation of C~mese ~harac!ers,
which is not representative of how Chinese was pro~ounced_durmg m~d~eval times
when the classical Buddhist texts were translated mto Chmese. This is of. some
consequence particularly when reading the ~any loanwords fr~m- ~ans~rit an~
other Indic languages used in Chinese Buddhist texts, such as shemata ~JJH-tl! (-
Sanskrit samatha) or bolu6miduo rill~~ (= paramita). Many su~h correspon-
dances may be detected, if the reader keeps a keen eye of comparing the ;isted
Sanskrit and Chinese terms. It should also be noted that the use of co~sistent
translation, transliteration, and transcription was a compulsory reqmrement
imposed on the contributors and that these featu~~s therefore.may not be ~ep_re-
sentative of a given contributor's usual styl_e ~f writm~ and chmce of transcripti~m
scheme. In several cases, Chinese transcription and m some cas~s ~ven E:1gbsh
translations had to be added by the editor to implement these principles with _an
ensuing check-up and approval by the aut~or. For. this reason, any error occurring
in such features lies primarily with the editor. It is hoped th~t these efforts h~ve
resulted in a volume that is as accessible tQ the reader as p_ossibl~, thereby makmg
the difficulty of navigating the complexity of Y ogacara studi~s as ~asy as .c~n be. .
Secondly, to overcome the problem o~ the trem~ndous historical, religious! J:hi-
losophical, and terminological breadt~ ~nvolved m the st1:1dy of the Yogacara-
bhiimi and the broader Yogacara tradition, the vol~me brmgs_ t~g~ther the aca-
demic work of a wide selection of scholars representmg a multiplicity of perspe~-
tives. On the one hand, the selection includes a truly internationa! s~t of academi-
cians residing in Canada, China, Denmark, Germany, Great Britam: Japan, th~
Netherlands, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand, and the US~, so a~ ~o yield a m~lti-
faceted view of the text rooted in a great variety of academic tra<i;itions worldwide.
On the other hand, the selection comprises senior as well as young~r ~chola_rs,
thereby combining articles exhibiting great mat1:1rity of ~owledge and i:nsigh~ with
papers that may reflect new upcoming trends m the_ field. Several articles m ~he
volume are written by contributors whose scholarship here appears for the first
time in English for a broader international audie:1ce. .
The original selection of contributors consisted of fifteen ~cholars who had
been invited to participate in a two-day international conference m Seoul hosted by
the Geumgang Center for Buddhist Studies in October, 2008. The co~ference,
entitled "The Yogacarabhiimi and the Yogacaras," was an event dedicated to
Professor Emeritus Dr. Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN, who participated as the guest of
honor. Consequently, the invited participants were particularly scholars who are
closely associated with SCHMITHAUSEN, eit~er as h~s former studen~s or as close
collaborators. These contributors, whose revised articles make up a ~ittle l_ess tha?
half of the papers in this volume, listed in the topic-oriented order m which their
articles occur in the volume, include: Tilmann VETTER (tthe Netherlands),
Hidenori- s. SAKUMA (Japan), Noritoshi ARAMAKI (Japan), ~ambert SCHMIT-
 18 Preface
Preface 19
HAUSEN (Germany), Martin DELHEY (Germany), Yasunori SUGAWARA (Japan),
however has not been summarized, in spite of the fact that two articles in the
Alexander VON ROSPATT (USA), Michael ZIMMERMANN (Germany), Florin
volume deal with material from this Section. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the
DELEANU (Japan), Kazunobu MATSUDA (Japan), Harunaga ISAACSON (Ger-
reader with the textual survey in hand will be sufficiently equipped to locate the
many), Jowita KRAMER (Great Britain), Sungdoo AHN (South Korea), Ulrich
topics of each individual article in the volume within its broader context in the
Timme KRAGH (the Netherlands), and Leonard W.J. VANDERKUIJP (USA).
Indian contemplative text that is the (ocus of the book. . .
To increase the volume's scope and elaboration, an additional nineteen
The essay also introduces the thirty-four contributors, whose articles appear m
scholars were subsequently invited to contribute further articles to the volume,
the volume. Given that it is an aim of the volume to bring together a wide array of
covering a variety of aspects that had been left untouched by the original cast of
Western as well as Eastern scholarship on the Yoga.carabhiimi and that the book
writers, bringing the total number of contributing authors up to thirty-four. The
consequently includes articles by several writers whose work may be l~ttle know?-
subsequently invited scholars, listed in order of occurrence, count: Noriaki HAKA-
outside their geographic origin, it was decided to include as many detatls as possi-
MAYA (Japan), Hartmut BUESCHER (Denmark), Koichi TAKAHASHI (Japan), Dan
ble when introducing each author. The information provided on each contributor
LUSTHAUS (USA), Nobuyoshi YAMABE (Japan), Robert KRITZER (Japan), Peter
was limited by the extent to which it was possible for th~ editor to find t~e relevant
SKILLING (Thailand), William S. WALDRON (USA), Changhwan PARK (South
data, for which reason the backgrounds of some contributors are described mo~e
Korea), Bing CHEN (China), Eyal AVIV (USA), Lawrence Y.K. LAU (China),
thoroughly than those of others. The reader and contributors are asked for their
Sangyeob CHA (South Korea), A. Charles MULLER (Japan), Makoto YOSHIMURA
forgiveness for the potential imbalances to which this ~ay have le~.
(Japan), Seongcheol KIM (South Korea), Leslie S. KAWAMURA (tCanada), Dorji
Each scholarly introduction is placed separately m the essay m the context of
WANGCHUK (Germany), and Orna ALMOGI (Germany). A few other scholars,
discussing the part of the text or its reception history to which the author's present
whose writings would also have been warmly welcomed, were likewise invited, but
article pertains, and it therefore may be slightly diffi~ult quickly to locate the
on account of various personal circumstances it was not possible for them to
contribute to the volume. introduction to a specific author when needed. To expedite ~his problem, t_he ?-ame
of the author has been written in boldface letters and underhned at the pomt m the
Concerning the listing of names, it should be remarked that SMALLCAPS have
essay when the author in question is being introd.uced. M~reover, a lis~ indicating
been implemented throughout the volume to indicate a given author's family name,
the page numbers on which the various scholarly mtroductlons appear m the essay
by which the author is listed in the individual bibliographies of each article. The
is given at the end of the Preface. .
use of smallcaps was considered necessary in that family names are placed last in
Following the structure of the introductory essay, the a~tlcles ~f the vol~1me
the name in the Western hemisphere but first in the name in the East Asian
have been arranged in five sections of ~ommon themes. The flr~t section ~f artlcl~s
hemisphere. In the above list, the sequence of the East Asian names have been
is entitled (I.) "The Yoga.ca.rabhum1: Background and Environment. The six
modified to fit the usual Western pattern, given that this is an English-language
articles found in this section analyze topics dealing with the prehistory of the text
publication, e.g., the name Noriaki HAKAMAYA is actually HAKAMAYA Noriaki in
or issues concerning masters belonging to the early Yogacara tradition. The second
Japanese, which is how the name invariably is written in Japanese characters (~.::§.
section is entitled (II. including two sub-sections II.1 and II.2) "The Yogacara-
'.fiBB). It should, however, be added that the contributors were free to cite East
bhumi: The Text" and consists of twelve articles that directly discuss select pas-
Asian names in whichever sequence they preferred, for which reason the use of
sages of the treatise itself. The section is subdivided int~ two sub-sections, con~ai-
smallcaps helps the reader to indentify the family name needed for bibliographical
ning articles relating to the treatise's Basic Se~tion and .its Supp~eI?entary Se~tlo~
reference. Further, as a rule, an author's name is listed in bibliographies under the 1
respectively. The third section, called (III.) The Indian Yogacara Receptl~n,
first capitalized part of the family name even when the actual family name begins
contains three articles that deal with select aspects of the subsfquent reception
with a non-capitalized word written in smallcaps. For example, Louis DE LA
history of the Yoga.carabhumi in Indian Buddhism. The fourth section, (IV.) "The
VALLEE POUSSIN is listed alphabetically under the letter 'L' though his surname
East Asian Yogacara Reception," similarly consists of nine articles on. the rec_ep-
starts with the non-capitalized preposition !de'; yet, since the preposition is part of
tion history of the Y ogacara tradition in China, Korea, and Japan, whtle the fifth
the surname, it is written in smallcaps but is not capitalized. For Korean names, the
section, (V.) "The Tibetan Yogacara Reception," has four articles on the Yogacara
use of dashes to separate syllables has been avoided as far as possible.
tradition in Tibet. .
To facilitate the reader to overcome the two above-mentioned difficulties that
The volume does not contain a universal bibliography for all the articles at the
are involved in creating a scholarly comprehensive volume 6n the Yogacarabhiimi
end of the book. Instead, each article is furnished with its own bibliography. It
and its reception history, namely the linguistic challenge of the many languages
should be noted that although the volume was published in 2013, the work on this
such work necessarily requires as well as the extensiveness of the doctrinal topics
volume began in 2008, and most of the articles were submitted to the editor in 2009
and historical issues that the text entails, the volume begins with a thorough and
or 2010. Consequently, the articles and their bibliographies do not reflect new
quite long introductory essay entitled "The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation."
scholarship that has appeared after 2009 or 2010. In g~neral,.no attempt was. ma~e
The essay provides background information that the non-specialist reader may
to enforce a unified system of sigla to denote the various primary sources cited m
need to fully appreciate the volume's many articles, some of which are highly
the articles. The only exception to this rule was the use of sigla for Tibetan cano~i-
technical. To furnish the reader with a proper overview of the Yogacarabhiimi, the
essay also supplies an extensive summary of the Basic Section ( *Maulyo Bhiimayal;) cal sources, where the ~ystem prop~sed ?Y Paul HARRISON and Helm~t ~IM;R m
their 1997 article "KanJur and TanJur S1gla: A Proposal for Standardisation was
of the treatise. The treatise's massive Supplementary Section (SaipgrahaI_Ji),
adopted. Though several of the contributors did not fully agree with this standard,

- ------==---=-- --~--= ~ - ----1

!

I
 20 Preface
particularly regarding HARRISON's and EIMER's choice of using the siglum b for
the Peking canon, they nevertheless gracefully agreed to comply with the editor's
choice in that regard.
Finally, mention needs to be made of the fact that the volume unfortunately
has not been furnished with an index. it was originally the editor's intention to
include a comprehensive index, but the task proved to be too large to be realizable,
given the length of the book. It is hoped that an index may be created at a later
date, perhaps after a thorough study of the Supplementary Section of the treatise
has been undertaken in a separate publication. In that manner, the envisioned
index would encompass the entirety of the YogacarabhOmi and not be limited
mainly to the Basic Section.

Contributor Information in the Introductory Essay

Arranged Alphabetically

AHN, Sungdoo ....................................................................... 240

ALMOGI, Orna ....................................................................... 248
ARAMAKI, Noritoshi ............................................................. 41
A VIV, Eyal ............................................................................. 237
BUESCHER, Hartmut ............................................................ 38
CHA, Sangyeob ...................................................................... 239
CHEN, Bing ............................................................................ 237
DELEANU, Florin .................................................................. 220\
DELHEY, Martin ................................................................... 47
HAKAMAYA, Noriaki ............................................................ 31
ISAACSON, Harunaga ............................................................ 235
KAWAMURA, Leslie s.......................................................... 243
KIM, Seongcheol .................................................................. 243
KRAMER, Jowita ................................................................... 234
I
I KRITZER, Robert .................................................................. 69
VAN DER KUIJP, Leonard W. J ............................................ 249
LAU, Lawrence Y. K ............................................................. 238
LUSTHAUS, Dan .................................................................... 66
MATSUDA, Kazunobu ........................................................... 227
MULLER, A. Charles ............................................................. 240
PARK, Changhwan ................................................................ 232
VON ROSPATT, Alexander .................................................... 101
SAKUMA, Hidenori s........................................................... 35
SCHMITHAUSEN, Lambert... ................................................ .43
SKILLING, .Peter ..................................................................... 78
SUGAWARA, Yasunori .......................................................... 101
TAKAHASHI, Koichi .............................................................. 66
VETTER, Tilmann ................................................................. 26
WALDRON, William S ........................................................... 227
I I
W ANGCHUK, Dorji ................................................................ 247
YAMABE, Nobuyoshi ............................................................ 68
YOSHIMURA, Makoto ........................................................... 242
ZIMMERMANN, Michael ....................................................... 219

•
 .,
1,
! i
,,
, I
The Yogacarabhiim.i and Its Adaptation
Introductory Essay with a Summary of the Basic Section
Ulrich Timme KRAGH
When a riew trend - philosophical, institutional, or otherwise - builds up within a
religion, its conception is made in a finely struck balance between novelty and
perpetuation of received tenets. Too much innovation, and the new tradition is
liable to be disdained as unfaithful to the given religion. Excessive continuance,
and it offers no vital alternative to the existing doctrines and the social structures
these entail. Fruitful renewal demands a subtle process . of adaptation, where
orthodox ideas are carried on in changed contexts, thereby imbuing them with new
import. In the study of the history of religion, which aims to explain a faith's con-
tinuities and discontinuities, adaptation is thus a keyword. 1
In Buddhism, the single most influential religious development was the gradual
rise in the early centuries CE of the movement of the Maha.ya.Ba, the Great Vehicle;
no other doctrinal innovation had as big effect on Buddhist thought and practice,
as well as on the religious histories of both India and the many other Asian coun-
tries and empires that in the ensuing centuries adopted Buddhism.2 While the
The author would like to express warm gratitude to Dr. Hartmut BUESCHER and Professor
Florin DELEANU, who kindly read through a draft of this introductory essay and provided
excellent corrections and much useful feedback. Whatever errors and shortcomings may
remain are wholly my own.
1 The issue of adaptation and reception history pertains to the large research project on
the adaptation of Indian Buddhism in East Asia and Tibet that is currently being carried
out by Geumgang Center for Buddhist Studies (GCBS) at Geumgang University in South
,,. Korea. The project's overall theoretical focus on the notion of 'adaptation' was originally
proposed by Professor Dr. Jorg PLASSEN, formerly of Geumgang University and now of the
l'I Ruhr-Universitat Bochum in Germany. PLASSEN participated in submitting a research
I proposal to the National Research Foundation of South Korea, which in 2007 was re-
1 warded with a ten-year grant for GCBS. The present volume with its focus on the adapta-
: 11
tion history of the Yogacarabhiimi in India, East Asia, and Tibet is an outgrowth of this
project.
2 It may though be noted that Richard GOMBRICH (1988) has argued that the success of
the initial minority movement of the Mahayana was made possible only by the adoption of
writing by Indian religions in the second-first centuries BCE, since the use of writing
permitted the preservation of unorthodox doctrines not belonging to the established
Buddhist teachings, whose transmission was ensured through an elaborate ecclesiastical
oral system of memorization and recitation. While this may be so, the advent of writing
should, nonetheless, hardly be considered the most influential religious development in the
history of Buddhism, because writing in itself does not constitute a religious development
23
The Yogaciirabhtlmi and Its Adaptation
Mahayana introduced an entirely new paradigm, its formulation was largely
couched in the terminology and principles of earlier Buddhist factions, thus
adapting old dicta to novel creeds. Although it with time came to be seen as a
monolithic denomination, the heterogeneity of its assimilations along with the
array of solutions to the various new doctrinal problems its originality posed
brought about many diverse subdoctrines, which in a few cases became discrete
Mahayana schools. pne such tradition was the Yoga.cam, the "School of Yoga
Practitioners," which in part may owe its name to its formative treatise, a monu-
mental compendium entitled Yogacarabhiimi, meaning "The Foundation for Yoga
Practitioners (yogacara)." 3 It is this treatise, its adaptations, and the tremendous
effect it had on the later Mahayana traditions in India, East Asia, and Tibet that is
the focus of the present volume.
In some of the lore surrounding the Yogacarabhiimi (henceforth abbreviated
YBh), the text is said to have been composed near Ayodhya, an ancient city of
Northern India set on the bank of the Ghaghara River, a major tributary of the
sacred Ganges. 4 Just as the Ghaghara is a mighty watercourse springing from
uncountable humble glacial brooks in the high Himalayas, the YBh is an immense
literary opus with ever shifting currents of leitmotifs teeming with multitudinous
minor themes flowing together from a great range of different backgrounds. With
such a complex and varied composition, the scholarly difficulty becomes how to
gain a comprehensive understanding of the text in all its many implications, while
at once keeping its entire panorama of ideological benchmarks in view. The
present volume attempts to take up this challenge by presenting a medley of thirty-
four papers, each of which approaches the YBh or related materials from a unique
perspective.
The adventurer may set out to explore a river in a variety of ways. By sailing
upstream, the explorer may map the river's network of tributaries and locate its
sources. Hiking along its banks, s/he may survey its land-based eco-systems and
encounter the people who depend on it. By probing its waters, s/he may discover its
mineral composition, aquatic life, or the flow of its currents. Sailing downstream,
the explorer may reach the delta at its mouth and find the destination to which the
river flows.
The first section of the present volume, bearing the title (I.) "The Yogacara-
bhiimi - Background and Environment," contains six papers written by Tilmann
VETTER, Noriaki HAKAMAYA, Hidenori s. SAKUMA, Hartmut BUESCHER,
Noritoshi ARAMAKI, and Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN. These articles explore the
YBh in ways resembling both an upstream voyage as well as a hike along river
but is a technological advancement ( or from the traditional Buddhist point of view perhaps
rather a 'deterioration' when compared to the earlier transmission said to have been
preserved purely by memory), which may have served as a revolutionary circumstance for
the Mahayana to rise. Cf. also the critical remarks concerning GOMBRICH's argument in
VETTER (1994:1243-1244, fn.4) and DREWES (2009a:6).
3 For further discussion of the meaning of the title, see below.
4 For the YBh's alleged connection with Ayodhya, see the travel record Da tang xiyu Ji
(:*:J!W~l'ic., T2087.896b22_23 ) by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (~*' c.602-664 CE);
English translation by BEAL (1884.I:226). Ayodhya is located 536 kilometers southeast of
New Delhi.
1.
24 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
banks, in that they either concern materials that formed a background to the YBh
or appertain to persons belonging to the early and medial Y ogacara community,
thereby touching on its possible authorship and original readership.
The second section, entitled (II. including Il.1 and II.2) "The Yogacarabhumi-
The Text," bears a resemblance to the explorer who probes the river waters. Its
twelve articles -written by Martin DELHEY, Koichi TAKAHASHI, Dan LUSTHAUS,
Nobuyoshi YAMABE, Robert KRITZER, Peter SKILLING, Yasunori SUGAWARA,
Alexander VON ROSPATT, Michael ZIMMERMANN, Florin DELEANU, Williams.
WALDRON, and Kazunobu MATSUDA - put individual drops of the YBh-river
under the microscope to analyze its composition, flow, and trace materials. These
contributions include a history of research, manuscriptology, as well as text critical,
source critical, redaction critical, doctrinal, and philosophical approaches to
particular aspects of the text. Although the articles cannot - given the sheer size
and breadth of the YBh - cover the composition in its entirety, they present a
sufficiently broad spectrum of reflections to provide the reader with a good over-
view and feeling for the character of the work.
In the third section called (III.) "The Indian Yogacara Reception," the reader
takes on the role of the surveyor who observes the Ghaghara River's confluence
with the Ganges. Riddled by a thousand tributaries of earlier Buddhist thought, the
main artery of the YBh feeds steadily into the broader tradition of later Mahayana
Buddhism, causing new currents to emerge - starting with the ensuing Yogacara-
Vijftanavada School and in due course also giving rise to certain trends in the
Tantric doctrines of esoteric Buddhism. With a mere three articles written by
Changhwan PARK, Jowita KRAMER, and Harunaga ISAACSON, the section cannot
do justice to the immense textual corpora these novel currents represent, but given
the volume's overall focus on the YBh, the number of articles on this topic was
deemed sufficient to alert the reader to the text's influence on the later Abhi-
dharma, Yogacara-Vijftanavada, and Tantric literature in that order.
Like journeying downstream along the Ganges, the reader is next carried
through very different landscapes indeed. The YBh was brought from India to
distant places in Central and East Asia, where it continued to affect the local
schools of Mahayana Buddhism long after this encyclopedic work had been
superseded and ceased to be studied in its land of origin. Resembling the manner
in which the Ganges reaches its mouth in the Bengal delta near Kolkata where it
branches off into countless smaller streams before reaching the ocean, the influ-
ence of the YBh and the ensuing works of its Indian reception can be detected in
numerous traditions and texts belonging to Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and
Tibetan Buddhism of the past and present. It is the ebb and flow of these drifts that
are sifted in the fourth and fifth sections of the volume, respectively entitled (IV)
"The East Asian Yogacara Reception" and (V.) "The Tibetan Yogacara Recep-
tion." Written by Bing CHEN, Eyal AVIV, Lawrence Y.K. LAU, Sangyeob CHA, A.
Charles MULLER, Sungdoo AHN, Makoto YOSHIMURA, Seongcheol KIM, Leslie S.
KAWAMURA, Dorji WANGCHUK, Oma ALMOGI, Ulrich Timme KRAGH, and
Leonard W.J. VAN DER KUIJP, the thirteen articles of both sections survey perti-
nent aspects of the Y ogacara traditions and their adaptation in those regions
outside of India. They not only provide reception studies of the YBh at large in the
'
' sense of a Wirkungsgeschichte, but also offer a history of research of the YBh and
:1
related Y ogacara works in the modern Chinese, Korean, and Japanese academia.
Overall, the present volume leads the reader on a voyage spanning a textual
history of ideas that has endured over two millennia. Like the ancient Indian
- _ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ - - _ * _ •• ·-• -
The Yogaciirabhumi and~t~-~~~~~~ti~~-
•• hmn-••••••••••-•"'"-""'"'''""""""'''-""""""'_"_,.,_••-••••-••-•••'""·''"
. ________ _ ______ -~5-
offering-practice of placing a small candle upon a tiny raft of a leaf and putting it
upon the waters of a river to be carried _down _along the ~tr~am, the a!ticle~ pre-
sented here will take the reader from the mceptlon of Mahayana Buddhism, via the
weighty YBh corpus, down through the later Indian,. East Asian, and Tibet~n
traditions of learning, unto the contemporary academic study of the t~xt and its
influence on world liistory. It is the wish that this study of the YBh and its adapta-
tion will shed light wherever it will bring its reader.
I. The Yogacarabhumi- Background and En~onment
Being the formative text of a major Mahayana schoo~, the YBh is before ~II else a
work that has fed into the deluge of Mahayana doctnne. Though substantial parts
of the text also deal with the Mainstream Buddhist practices of the sravaka and the
pratyekabuddha, its overall objective seems to be to present a c?herent structure of
Buddhist yoga practice with the Mahayana path of the bodhisattva placed at t~e
pinnacle of the system. The YBh _was thus p~rt of a br~ader eff~rt by Buddhi~t
s.cholars of the fourth century CE to systematize and defme the still n?vel Maha-
Y,ana movement in contradistinction to _or perha~s as an ~xtension .of the
Sravakayana methods that had been and still were bemg taught m the earher and
contemporaneous Mainstream forms of Indian Buddhism. 5
As an encyclopedic compendium written in the sastra genr~ of Indian r.e~igious
literature the YBh relies on a large number of sutra scnptures traditionally
consider;d to contain the trustworthy sayings of the Buddha. These are scriptures
belonging to the Agama/Nikaya co~pora a1:d further te~ts of M~i~stream _B_ud-
dhism along with other sutras associated with the postenor Mahayana tradition.
Certain Mahayana texts thus form a doctrinal as well as scriptural backd~op !or the.
YBh, which lends the sastra an authoritative cloak that helps to defme it as a
Mahayana work. · . . . .
The earliest compositions with Mahayana tendencies - m pa~tlcul~r arch_aic
prototypes of some Mahayana sutras - are thou~ht to hav~ been wntten m the ~mt
century CE. 6 This oldest stratum of Mahayana literature is though long lost, smce
5 The expression 'Mainstream Buddhism' has here been adop~ed from t~e writi~gs of
Tilmann VETTER as a general label denoting the form of Buddhism that existed pnor to
and side-by-side with the arising of the Mahayana tradition. Howeve:, it should be noted
that in many parts of India and abroad, the Mahayana form of Buddhism later be~ame ~he
dominant form, and for this reason 'Mainstream Buddhism' should not be t~ken as ~mplymg
that Mahayana Buddhism invariably was secondary to Mainstream Buddhism. !v1amstream
Buddhism has elsewhere been referred to by a number of other labels, such as Sravakayana
or Nikaya Buddhism; each term has its peculiar advantages and d~sadva~tages. The ter~
Sravakayana logically necessitates the co-existence of other yanas, 1~ parti~ular the ~aha-
yana, and therefore seems ill-suited to describe the phase of Buddhism pnor to thens~ of
the latter tradition. The term Nikaya Buddhism is meant to denote the forms of Buddhism
that accepted the siitras of the Nikaya-corpus as their scriptures. However,. 1:1any ~arly
Mahayana traditions, including the fo!lowers of the YB~, also accep~ed t?e ~ikaya-sutra_s,
at least in their parallel form of the Agama-corpus, which today prm~anly 1s preserved m
Chinese translation. Consequently, "Nikaya Buddhism" does not provide a clear demarca-
tion. .
. 6 The dating of the earliest Mahayana compositions to ~he first century C~ 1~ a c?nser-
vative estimate based on the first available epigraphal evidence of the Mahayana m the
~.I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~ - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ ~

26 Ulrich Timme KRAGH The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 27

... ---·····- ... -·... -··-···- .. .. .... -··-..·--"'-·····-···-··- . - .. -···- ··-··.. - - - - - - ---- - - - ---- - ...... ·-·-·-'·---··-····-------·-···-·····-----·-·«•·-···- --·-··· .. -··-····-··-···-··-

the ~nitial texts only have been preserved in later Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan cerning the Chinese translation of such an early Mahayana work and the possible
vers1o~s that were much expanded and modified over the course of many centuries. precursors of Yogacara materials it seems to contain. This is by no means the first
~or t_h1~ reason, !h~ scholar, who attempts to define what the Mahayana is by time that VETTER devoted his attention to the formative period of the Mahayana.
1dentifymg the religious and social characteristics of its initial movements faces the In a series of articles, VETTER (1994) maintained the view - previously proposed
ve~ng problem that its beginning is just beyond the philological rea~h of the by HIRAKAWA (1963, 1968)- that the Mahayana approach arose as an initiative of
a~m~~ble sources, its origin lost in the haze of history. Even so, given the great lay practitioners who strove to imitate the Buddha's long career as a bodhisattva
s1~mficance of the _matter, many scholarly attempts have been made to explain the performing heroic deeds of generosity, correct behavior, patient endurance,
mmdset, the doctrinal and sectarian background, as well as the social context that constant exertion, meditation, and knowledge as for instance depicted in the
led ~o this major new religious formation. The hypotheses have ranged from popular jataka narratives. In particular, VETTER (2001, 2003) scrutinized several
argumg th~t the Mahayana began as a mobilization of lay practitioners in some texts by the Indo-Scythian translator Lokak~ema (Zhi L6ujiachen x~jfil[~), who
counte~act1on t~ the already established Mait1stream forms of predominantly was active in the period 167-186 CE in Luoyang (m~), the capital of the Eastern
monastic Bu_ddh1sm over to maintaining that it arose as an orthodox tendency Han dynasty in China, and whose nine translations of Mahayana siitras generally I
among ascetic forest monks who strove to (re)establish what they saw as a purer are considered to be the first datable Mahayana works. 10 VETTER concluded that
and more original form of Buddhism. 7 the "perfection of wisdom" (prajiiapiiramita), as a meditative method for expe-
I
When, however, the earliest actually extant Mahayana texts, datable to the riencing nirvaJJa here and now, must originally have been an ascetic sravaka I .
second half of the second century CE, are taken as the basis for analyzing the practice of mysticism that only subsequently was adopted by bodhisattva-oriented
formation and development of this movement, the time gap between these sources lay practitioners, whereby the two approaches of prajiiapiiramita and Mahayana I I
and the YBh, which is thought to have reached its final redaction in the fourth became fused in an early stratum of the Prajiiaparamita literature. At a later stage,
century, 8 becomes relatively small, and it quickly becomes clear what a tremendous such Mahayana texts were, in turn, embraced by monks and nuns, who adapt~d I
systematization effort the. YBh must have represented in comparison to the rather them somewhat to monastic practices. I I
haphazard character displayed by the most ancient Mahayana texts. Aside· from the centrality of Lokak~ema's texts, there are, however, also other
The present volume commences with an article by Tilmann E. VETTER9 con- early Chinese translations that may be characterized as displaying Mahayana
,
features and which thus are highly pertinent to the study of the extant proto-
Mahayana sources. VETTER's article in the present volume concerns one such text,
fo~rth century C?E (SCHOPEN, 1979) and the primeval datable textual evidence, viz. the namely a section entitled "The Bodhisattvas of the Ten Directions" ( Shifang pusa
Chmese tra~slatrons of Mahayana texts produced in the second half.of the second century
CE (to be discussed below). A more liberal appraisal may be to place the earliest Maha-
+ni?ritl) contained in the scriptural corpus *MahavaipulyamahasaipI1ipatasiitra
yana writings in the first century BCE. . (Dafangdeng da ;1Jing jc1.J~:*.!IfU~, T397). The section appears to have been
7
For surveys of the prolific academic writings on the origin of the Mahayana, see translated by someone belonging to the circle of the earliest translator of Buddhist
DREWES (2009a; 2009b), SASAKI (1997; 1999; 2009), and SHIMODA (2009). Additionally, scriptures into Chinese, viz. the Parthian An Shlgao (3(t!:f:rW:J) who was active in
I: the rea_der may consult ~AKI's (200~a) theory that the Mahayana arose as a new pan- Luoyang in the period ci'rca 148-170 CE. 11 The siitra depicts how the Buddha
Buddhist form of the bi-monthly fastmg-day ritual ( upavasatha). For the theoretical
problem-horizons pertaining to the study of the early Mahayana, see SILK (2002) and
11li SEYFORTRUEGG (2004). Advaita Vedanta philosophy, leading to a monograph published in 1969 on the Brahma-
8
111
0n the dating of the YBh, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1970a:111 fn.250) and DELEANU siddhi by the Hindu author Mai;itjanamisra. In 1974, he became Professor of Buddhology,
(2006:183-196). ' Indian Philosophy, and Tibetan Studies at Leiden University (Universiteit Leiden) in the
9
• The article by VETTER is published posthumously, given the all-too-early passing of Netherlands, where he remained until his retirement in 1999. During this period, he
t~1s great Buddhologist on December 20, 2012, shortly before the volume went to press. published a monograph on the contemplative traditions of early Buddhism (1988). Since
Tilman~ E. VETTER (1937-2012) was born in Germany but later became a Dutch citizen. In his retirement, he has published two new monographs on the passages dealing with the five
the penod 1956-1962, he studied Indology in Germany and Austria with Professor Helmuth aggregates (Pali khanda, Sanskrit skandha) in the Pali Vinaya and Sutta scriptures (2000) • I
. VON GLASENAPP at T~bingen University (Eberhard Karl's Universitat Tiibingen, 1956- as well as a lexicographical study of the Chinese translations by An Shlgao (2012.). He has
1957), Professor Ludw1? ALsDORF at Hamburg University (Universitat Hamburg, 1957- also published numerous articles on Pali Buddhism with a special focus on the early
1958), and Professor Ench FRAUWALLNER at the University of Vienna (Universitat Wien, contemplative traditions, the texts of Nagarjuna, the Prajfiaparamita literature, and the
1958-1962). Fellow doctoral students at the University of Vienna at this time included early Mahayana tradition as represented in Chinese and Sanskrit sources. May the present
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN, Yuichi KArIYAMA, and Ernst STEINKELLNER. VETTER obtained publication honor his memory! ·
the ~hD d~gree in 19?2 with a dissertation on Dharmakirti's epistemology (revised version °1 For the Mahayana· translations by Lokak~ema, see LANCASTER (1975), ZURCHER
pubhshed m 1964). Hrs later publications on the Indian Pramana tradition include editions (1991), DELEANU (2000a), ARAMAKI (2003a), and in particular HARRISON (1987, 1993,
and translations of t~e fi:st c?apter on praty~a of Dharmakirti's Pramm;avjnjicaya (1966) 1995). For a general introduction to Lokak~ema and his oevre, see NATTIER (2008:73-89).
as well as the Pramapasiddh1 chapter of Dharmakirti's Pramfipavarttika (1984). In 1964, he • 11 The attribution of the text to someone associated with An Shigao is remarkable,

became a membe: of t~e fac~lty at Utrecht University (Universiteit Utrecht) in the since this translator otherwise is thought only to have produced translations of Mainstream
Netherlands teachmg Indian philosophy, during which time his research focused on early Buddhist materials (HARRISON, 1993:137; ZACHETTI; 2002:92). For more research on An
 28 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
instructs a group of bodhisattvas in sravaka methods of examining and guarding
the mind and the sense-objects, whereupon he admonishes them to achieve
thorough comprehension (abhisamaya) of the four existential facts of the noble
ones. 12 Given the Mainstream Buddhist character of these teachings, the text may
be seen as a monastic response to Mahayana practice. The bodhisattva lay practi-
tioners are told that they - in spite of their Mahayana practice - still must embrace
key Mainstream Buddhist principles, such as contemplating and realizing the four
existential facts. The latter is a procedure that normally is seen as leading to the
attainment of arhathood, the goal of the Mainstream Buddhist path which in
Mahayana Buddhism is replaced with the goal of buddhahood. Hence, the text
attempts to steer a course in between Mainstream and Mahayana Buddhist prac-
tice, and in this sense it bears a great resemblance to the YBh, which likewise
endeavors to juxtapose and align these meditational systems of yoga. ·
When analyzing the slltra, VETTER uncovered three features in the text that
may be seen as antecedents of Yogacara doctrines expressed in the YB&. The first
is a reference to eight forms of consciousness, including the five sense perceptions
along with three distinct inner cognitive faculties referred to as *citta, *manas, and
*(mano) vij'fiiina (xinyi shi ,ei<g~), which he suggested may be seen as a precursor
of the characteristic eightfold model of consciousness taught in the YBh. The
Yogacara model of consciousness is a theme that in the present volume is further
dealt with in the articles by Dan LUSTHAUS and William S. WALDRON. The second
feature is a list of fifty mental phenomena that may be considered a forerunner of
the Abhidharma and Yogacara classifications of 46 or 51 'factors associated with
;-:---_-_-_-_--:-:-- - -------- -- - - -- - mind' (mahabhiimika, caitasika dharmafJ, or caitta), the latter being a topic that in
~ the present volume is thoroughly considered in the article by Jowita KRAMER. The
i
third feature is the siitra's endorsement of 'thorough comprehension' ( abhisamaya)
! of the four existential facts of the noble ones presented as necessary for a success-
ful Mahayana practice. This is an early indication that Mahayana adherents began
to appropriate this Sravakayana model of realization, without presupposing
the praj.iaparamita method of mysticism, as a less laborious way of reaching
buddhahood. 13 The adaptation of the Sravakayana abhisamaya model into the
Shigao's translations, see, e.g., HARRISON (1997; 2002), YAMABE (1996; 1997a), VETTER &
HARRISON (1998), and ZACCHETTI (2002; 2003; 2007). For a general introduction to An
Shigao and his oevre, see NATTIER (2008:38-72). On An Shigao's translations of proto-
Yogacara materials in the form of the Anban shouyi Jing ('.?;i:t,19:'ij'~~' T602) and espe-
cially the Dao di Jing (:i!!±-tl!~, T607.230c-236b), whose contents later came to be partly
reflected in the YBh, see Florin DELEANU (1992a; 1993a; 1997; 2003; 2006:157-158) and
Nobuyoshi YAMABE (1997a) along with YAMABE's article in the present volume.
12 The expression 'existential fact' is here and below used in some instances (though not
universally) to translate the term satya (di~. bden pa) to underline that the noble one
realizes a profound aspect of saip.saric and nirval).ic existence (sat). The word _satya is
elsewhere often translated by 'truth', but this may be an unfelicitous choice in the present
context, since truth fundamentally is the opposite of falsehood and therefore mainly
pertains to speech and sincerity rather than perceiving existence for what it is.
13 VETTER (2003:17) has earlier written on the Sarvastivada abhisamaya model and
proposed the hypothesis that there were lay bodhisattvas at an early stage of the Mahayana
tradition who left their lives as householders to become monks or nuns, but did not enter
the wilderness to engage in praJiiiipa.ramitii mysticism (ibid.) as otherwise instructed in
The Yogacarabfiiimi and Its Adaptation 29
Mahayana scheme of stages of realization later became a serious concern of the
YBh and its ensuing commentarial literature composed in China and Tibet, as
vividly described in the present cor1:tribution by Sungdoo AHN. Apart from the
three proto-Yogacara features listed by VETTER, the slltra's notion of guarding the
mind and restraining the senses may also be added as a component that is con-
spicuous in the YBh, e.g., in its meditation instruction on pacifying the mind
through nine aspects of resting the mind (navakarii cittasthitifJ), a topic that is
assiduously treated in the present volume by Sangyeob CHA.
The many interrelations that VETTER uncovered in the slltra between Main-
stream Buddhist doctrine and the Mahayana path suggest that the slltra was
composed in an environment where the two forms of Buddhism were interfaced.
While there may have been strands of the earliest Mahayana traditions that first
and foremost were associated with the laity, it is evident that the movement quickly
became a religious approach that was open to the lay and monastic follower alike,
who upon taking up. this type of practice respectively became a "householder
bodhisattva" (grhi bodhisattvafJ) and a "renunciant bodhisattva" (pravrajito bodhi-
sattvafJ).14 In the course of spreading within the monasteries, the budding Maha-
yana trend was exposed to the sway of the then more sophisticated philosop~ical
and meditational traditions of learning and practice maintained by the ordamed
practitioners, and thereby assimilated numerous elements that were deemed
concordant with basic Mahayana tenets. Monks or nuns wishing to follow a Maha-
yana practice would still have received and kept up their monastic ordination in
one of the Mainstream Buddhist vinaya traditions and appear often to have lived
in the same monasteries as their brethren and sisters who followed the more
orthodox Buddhist approaches. 15 In practical terms, it would consequently be hard
to distinguish whether a monk adhering to the Mahayana would be a monk first
and a bodhisattva second, or vice versa.
The integration of Mahayana and Mainstream Buddhism continued over the
following centuries, and by the time when the YBh was composed Mahayana
teachings were understood as being tightly connected with Mainstream Buddhist
practices and explanatory models. It is plausible that the YBh was written in a
monastic setting and was intended primarily for ordained readers, as suggested by
the text's highly scholastic style of writing that only would be intelligible to the well-
educated reader who had received a thorough doctrinal traininf in the mona-
stery.16 There was a variety of different monastic sects (nikiiyas) 1 of Mainstream
several early Mahayana srltras. Staying in monasteries, they had little basis for practicing
either the heroic path of the piiramitiis of generosity, etc., or the praJiiiipiiramitii method of
mysticism, which presupposes retreat in the wilderness. Instead, they seem to have learned
the Sarvastivada abhisamaya method of contemplating the four existential facts of the
noble ones resulting in the attainment of the paths of seeing ( darsanamarga) and
cultivation ( bhiivaniimiirga), thereby causing these Sravakayana methods of realization to
become amalgamated into Mahayana doctrine.
14 See HAKAMAYA (2005).
15 See BECHERT (1963), HAKAMAYA (2002), SILK (2002:359-367), and SKILLING (2005).
16 This is though not to say that everyone listening to explanations based on the YBh
and following the actual religious practices it presents necessarily had to be a monk or a
nun, because any of the seven types of priitimok-?a vows, including the vows of a layman or
 30 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Buddhism active at the time and research has suggested that the YBh displays
particular affinities with the Sarvastivada and Mulasarvastivada sects prevalent in
northern and northwestern India. 18 When it came to present a foundational and
systematic overview of Buddhist yoga practice, as announced in the title
Yogacarabhumi, it was only natural that the composers and redactors of the text
saw it as their task to explain the Mahayana practice of yoga within the larger
frame of Mainstream Buddhist yoga doctrines, thereby resulting in a manual of
almost epic proportions.
In the Buddhist parlance of the time, the word yoga carries a generic as well as
a more restricted meaning. Generically, yoga denotes "spiritual practice" or "ascetic
and spiritual effort" in general, 19 as for example seen in a YBh passage, where yoga
is broadly defined as a religious practice distinguished by faith, aspiration, perse-
verance, and the application of spiritual methods. 20 In its more restricted connota-
tion, yoga particularly implies "meditation" (samadhi), as yoga for example is
defined in the YBh commentary *Yogacarabhumivyakhya. 21 Hence, when it is said
that the YBh aims to present an overview of Buddhist yoga practice, it suggests
that the text is a full compendium of Buddhist practice in general, covering its
entire spiritual path, with special emphasis on the practice of meditation. The word
yoga should here not be understood in its modern English sense of various Indian-
based systems of bodily stretching (asana) and breathing. exercises (pra{layama),
since such techniques are not the topic of the YBh.
Already in the early centuries CE, the expression yogaciira, which - depending
on the context - primarily means "yoga practitioner" and secondarily means "yoga
practice," began to appear in a number of Mahayana and Mainstream Buddhist
·-
' - - ---- - - - - ------ - - - - - - - - -
-woman, is taught in the text to serve as a proper disciplinary prerequisite for the higher
practices, such as meditation. For more on the conduct of discipline (saipvarasila) in the
YBh, see the articles by Noriaki HAKAMAYA and Michael ZIMMERMANN in the present
volume.
17 The word 'sect' is here and below used narrowly to denote a Buddhist monastic tradi-
tion with its own distinct Vinaya transmission. The expressions 'school' and 'tradition' will
be used more loosely with reference to religious traditions and schools of philosophy and
doctrine.
18 See SCHMITHAUSEN (1970a:89-114; 1987b:304-317, English summary pp.377-380),
who demonstrates the YBh's Miilasarvastivada affiliation and also (1970:113) mentions the
possibility of it having been composed in a Mulasarvastivada circle that was influenced by
some Sarvastivada materials. For critiques of WAYMAN's (1961:26-29; 1997:103) thesis that
the text was rooted in the Mahisasaka sect, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1970a:115-119) and
DELEANU (2006:160-161).
19 These translations have respectively been proposed by DELEANU (2006:26) and
SCHMITHAUSEN (2007a:213).
20 See Sriivakabhilmi (SHUKLA, 1973:275 r276 ; SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai, 2007:152).
2 1
21 See the Tibetan version of *Yogaciirabhilmivyakhyii (D4043.70a ), which in its
1 [ Critiques of the Doctrine of Original Enlightenment] (1989). The Hihan Bukky6 (11t*U1b
proto-form may be ascribable to *Jinaputra (5th -6th centuries); the definition does not occur
in the divergent Chinese version's exposition of yoga (T1580.883ei3-884ei3). On the two
versions of the *Yogacarabhilmivyakhya, see DELEANU (2006:248, 250-251). Concerning
samadhi as a general term for meditation, see the discussion in ADAM (2002:33-74).
!
L---------
The Yogiiciirabhiimi and Its Adaptation 31
sources. 22 In several passages, the phrase merely denotes Buddhist practitioners in
general - whether beginner or advanced - but in some instances refere·nce is made
to the existence of exclusive communities of rigorous meditators, whose commit-
ment to yoga practice was extraordinary and incessant. In such cases, the word is
close in meaning to the modern Buddhist use of the appellation yogi. 23 Moreover,
the phrase is often seep in the sequence ''yoga practitioner monk" (yogacara
bhik~u), which suggests that many such meditation adepts were ordained. Given
the YBh's emphasis on yoga practice, the text has the appearance of having been
composed for monks and nuns belonging to a circle of meditation savants, who
may or may not have been historically related to the particular communities of
advanced yogacara meditators mentioned in the earlier sources.
To better understand the environment -in which the YBh was written and re-
dacted, the present article by Noriaki HAKAMAYA24 (*fr1fiB2I) - which is the
volume's second paper - probes into the social structure of this religious commu-
nity. HAKAMAYA argues that the monastic society was not homogenous but
consisted of segments with discrete specializations. On the one hand, there were
scholastic monks who first and foremost were occupied with the study and trans-
mission of teachings. On the other hand, there were ascetic monks who mainly
· engaged in meditation. To facilitate these monks' relationship with the laity and
ensure a fair distribution of the laity's gifts to the clergy, there also existed a third
company of monks called caretakers, stewards, or overseers, who were responsible
for the monastery's upkeep and cleanliness.25 By analyzing the transactions taking
22 For the expression yogiiciira and its attestation in early sources, see DAVIDSON
(1985:126-127), SILK (2000), and DELEANU (2006:158-159; 195) with further bibliogra-
phical references. In a much later phase of Indian literature, the word yogiiciira additionally
became a doxographical label for the Y ogacara school of Buddhism; for more on yogaciira
as a doxographical distinction, see BUESCHER (2008:10-15) and the present articles by
Harunaga ISAACSON, Dorji WANGCHUK, and Oma ALMOGI.
23 The spelling 'yogi' will here be employed in its modern English spelling. The correct
Sanskrit stem-form is yogin or yogi in its nominative masculine singular form.
24 The Japanese scholar Noriaki HAKAMAYA is retired Professor from the Faculty of
Buddhism at Komazawa University (,frill'!::k~ Komazawa Daigaku) in Tokyo, Japan. He
was born in Hokkaido in 1943 and graduated in Indian philosophy from the University of
Tokyo C*~** Tokyo Daigaku) in 1969 with an MA thesis on the Mahayanasaipgraha.
In 1972, he joined Komazawa University as a faculty member, where he became Associate
Professor in 1979 and full Professor in 1985. In the period 1979-1988, he also taught part
time at the University of Tokyo. His research has focused on Yogacara Buddhism in India,
Tibet, China, and Japan. The papers on this subject are collected in the Yuishiki Shis6
Ronk6 (rli~Js\m§lla~) [Investigation on Yogacara Thought] (2001) and the Yuishild
Bunken Kenkyii (Ui~:?x]¥VC1itf~) [Studies on Yogaciira Literature] (2008). His view of how
Mahayana Buddhism was formed within the traditional Indian Buddhist sects is shown in
his Bukky6 Ky6danshi Ron (1bf3<J:Zff!5e.tlla) [A Consideration of Buddhist Monastic
History] (2002). His critique of the Original Enlightenment theory affiliated with tathiiga-
tagarbha and Yogacara thought is given in the Hongaku Shis6 Hihan (;;$:JtJG'JJlJ!tfU)
~) [ Critical Buddhism] (1990) is a collection of essays in which he surveys the social and
political consequences of his Buddhist academic views.
25 For meditating monks and their lives, see DELEANU (2000a:82ff.). For the functions
carried out by the serving monks, see HAKAMAYA (1999; 2005) and SILK (2008).
 32 33
The Yogiiciirabbiimi and Its Adaptation
pl~ce_ between th~ -J~;-~racti~i~:;~-~;:;e-~?~---- ---- --- ------ __________ _
pression that seems to refer to the contents of the Basic Section of the YBh with its
pomtmg to .elements in the YBh rel; . servmg, and the served monks while division into seventeen bhilmis. In this manner, both the Chinese as well as the
study reveals that the text must h btmg to each of these groups HAKAMAYA'
as well as meditators, but that i::~so e~~ ~o?Iposed by monks wh~ were scholar!
Tibetan traditions maintain that the author of the YBh was the Bodhisattva
Mnitreya while the transmitter of the text was Asanga. 29
~ected a~ lay practitioners and that the n ats numerous passages expressly di- Besides the YBh, the textual corpus conventionally associated with Maitreya
mtersec~1on of all the parties involved.26 wor to some extent thus stands at the and Asailga includes a number of shorter Yogacara-Vijftanavada30 works referred
U?l~ke the East Asian or Tibetan B .
of rehg1ous history and biogra h th uddh~sts who entertain copious traditions
s~c:ed sayi?gs and writings to he ~alu:d~ed1eval Indi~ns mostly preferred their
g1vmg de tads about the individuals wh imkersonally m their own right without
29 It is commonly stated in modem academic sources, including several articles in the
the mere names of a few outstandin a~?o e or wro~e them. Hence, aside from present volume, that the Chinese tradition holds the author to be Maitreya, whereas the
personal facts about the th . g hors, the Indian texts hardly divul Tibetan tradition holds the author to be Asanga (i.e., without, in this context, making
comm ·ty I . o erw1se anonymous a d h 11 ge any
I d. ~m . t is. first with the witness of the Ch. n . w_ o y !aceless Yogacara roference to Maitreya). It is correct that the Tibetan bstan 'gyur catalogs, such as those by
~ ia !n the penod 629-643 that th . mes_e pdgnm Xuanzang who visited Bu ston Rin chen grub (1290-1364) (bstan 'gyur gyi dkar chag yid bzhin nor bu dbang gi
~~~:~~a~ r~co;ded. At this relativ:1;f;::~~::n~/~;.hic\the_ ~Bh_ was taught is l'J)!_OI po'i phreng ba, TBRC W1934-759 folio 101b2) and Karma pa Rang byung rdo rje
·J, uanzang had to go to Naland- ian ogacara m the seventh {1284-1339) (thugs dam bstan 'gyur gyi dkar chag, TBRC W30541-6481 folio 80b4, p. 574;
several thousand resident monks . d a, a large monastic school in Bihar w·th ond bstan bcos 'gyur ro 'tshal gyi dkar chag, TBRC W30541-6481 folio 54b6-55a3, pp.702-
teacher. ' m or er to study the text with a lo 1 y - ! 703), state Asanga to be the author of the YBh. However, it is questionable whether the
Wh ·1 ca ogacara
Chinese and Tibetan traditions, in fact, differ fundamentally on this point, because several
I e the Indian record is reticent ab . .
the Y~h was composed and about the f ~ut the ongmal conditions under which Tibetan sources do indeed also present Maitreya as the ultimate author, as, e.g., seen in the
1bove-cited Tibetan version of the story of Asailga (that is likewise composed by Bu ston).
pre~a.tmg the days when the text was ta:ahtes o! the ~arly y ogacara community
Tho final colophon of the Tibetan translation of the YBh, which is found at the end of the
:rad1t10ns share a narrative which tells w; t . at Nalanda, the Chinese and Tibetan ln11t book of the Tibetan version of the text, viz. the Rnam par bshad pa bsdu ba
:ur~h century when the YBh came to b a z/~~~pl?osed to have taken place in the ( •YylJkhyasarpgrahalJlJ, refers directly to the story of Maitreya and Asailga when saying:
I :anfa ~ca. 300-350), who is said to have ~~en bis is _th; story'rof the Indian monk "Yogis, who have donned the great armor of accomplishing benefit for themsel,ves and
a er o ave been active in the A dh - . om m eshawar (Purusapura) d others in order to [achieve] the highest Awakening, should place faith in this Yogacara-
an a~complished meditator throu y~ m;~ region. It is to~d that Asanga had beco~e 1>/J(Jmi, which was composed when the noble Asailga traversed the ocean of Buddhist and
~t~1cally to travel to the celesti:i Tusity yea? o~ practice, whereupon he was able non-Buddhist philosophical positions, achieved perfection in _the meditation (samadh1) on

from M~1treya, ai:nong which the Tibetad :e

aitreya'. the next Buddha to be. Th~r: rea m I~ order to meet the Bodhisattva
~ece1ved many lv.Iahayana teachin s
Th~ Chm~se version says that when he ha ers10~ of the story Includes the YBh~s
tho stream of dharma, and placed the anthers of the noble Ajita's stainless lotus-feet on his
head." D4042.68b 5_6 : 1/rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa 'di ni phags pa thogs med bdag dang gzhan gyi
9rub pa'i mtha' rgya mtsho'i pha rol tu phyin pa chos kyi rgyun gyi ting nge 'dzin byang bar
Mait~eya m Tu~ita, he requested the Bod~_ac:1red numerous explanations from brnyes pa 'phags pa mi pham pa 'i zhabs kyi pad ma rnyog pa med pa 'i ze'u 'i 'bru spyi bos Jen
par mdzad pa std rnal 'byor pa bdag dang gzhan gyi don sgrub par byed pa bla na med pa 'i
:n~mce o~hers of the authenticity of t~sa a tf desce?d to earth in order to . byang chub kyi phyir go cha chen po bgos pa rnanis kyis dang du blang bar bya bl/. The
aitreya did so every night for four . e nove ~eachmgs he had received
expounded the ''stltra of the s~venteen ::Ji~:~~; (~~r;°:_gd~~ich time he publicl; .
1q1 1 png +tttM~), an ex-
colophon's reference to Ajita (mi pham pa), which is the well-known epithet of the Bodhi-
1attva Maitreya, tallies with Bu ston Rin chen grub's above-mentioned narration of how
,Aan1\ga received the teaching of the YBh from Maitreya in the Tu~ita heaven, thus sugge-
26Th mteraction
.
1Ung that the Tibetan tradition also accepts Maitreya as the ultimate author. It may though
touched eupon m
betwe en monastic
· the present .
articles b and
Al lay pract"itroners
. is a theme that is al
be noted that the Chinese and Tibetan traditions differ in their enumerations of the so-
Z IMMERMANN. y exander VON ROSPATT as weII as Michael
. so culled Five Treatises of Maitreya, a set of five works said to have· been authored by
27 F h . Mnltreya and transmitted by Asailga, in that the Chinese tradition includes the YBh in this
or t e Chmese v · sot of five, whereas the Tibetan tradition does not. This could be an additional reason why
fashi zhuan (~fi.m,;;,-, erswn, see Paramartha's (Zhendl ~~
( 1904·272 275) F ~R$§fjj{.$, T2049.188b23-l88c27)· En 1· h" , 499-569) P6s6upandou &omc modern scholars· say that the Tibetan tradition does not recognize Maitreya as the
· - . or a sum d · , g 1s translatio b T ·
(1954:376ff.). For the Tibemtaanry an . discussion, see LAMOTTE (1954·385) anndyDE~usu outhor of the YBh.
1J ,. vers10n see B t R" . MIEVILLE 30 The expression Y ogacara-Vijftanavada is here 'used to include the later development
gs egs pa1 bstan pa'igsal byed chos 'fyi 'b us on m chen grub's (1290-1364) Bd b

(~J'.';~~=::is;:h:·~~~i:·:;!.o;;;;.p£2{s~)(t-::1,::::e~m~':i2:r . of the Yogacara tradition, which - starting with the Sarpdhinirmocanasiitra - began to
ndvocate the philosophical position ( vada) that whatever is experienced is constituted by
'
,:
tho given consciousness itself without any sensory, empirical input from the outside and
r:ii:::
11
Bu ,~ton (W1934-0757, folio 104b ) se . su~mary of both versions.
c;:::m
sa chen po dang theg chen;; mW:;t;~e gyi mdo roams dang ma] 'byor
d to the Mother siitras [i.e., the Pr. . - - - ,g_ ~u gsan no/. Translation: "There
that all experience therefore is cognitively constituted. In some textual passages, it seems
that the Vijftanavada tradition also rejects the independent existence of an outer, physical
reality, thereby asserting a form of idealist philosophy. For a discussion of the expression
we as many Mahayana siitras." -a;naparam1ta], the great Yogacarabhiimi, a~
Yog!lclira-Vijftanavada and its definition, see BUESCHER (2008:1-4). Partial synonyms of

- ~ -~ -- -,;,----~-
 36
Ulrich Timme KRAGH
--------......-...-·····-··---·----------··-··---·- ------ -
asrayaparivrtti theories in the YBh (1990a), SAKUMA demonstrated the text's
divergent use ?f the technic~l term "transmutation of the basis" ( asrayaparivrtt1)
and thereby l~1d out the _basic problems that crop up when the YBh is thought to
have been wntten by ~ smgle person, such as Maitreya or Asatiga, which presup-
poses _an iverall _doctnnal, ter~inological, and stylistic unity of a single authorial
mtention. In his present article, SAKUMA critically discusses the traditional
authorship attributions of several major Yogacara works. He also draws attention
to the problem of how to classify the authorship of writings that undeniably were
altered and redacted in the course of time, as evidenced by the varying testimonies
in the form of Chinese and Tibetan translations and Sanskrit manuscripts from
different dates. He accordingly proposes to step away from a purely anecdotal
~p~roa~h based ~ainly on religious biographies and traditional canon-catalog
md1~a~1o~s, and mstead to rethink independent textual chronologies along the
st~at1ficat1on of the actual theories presented in the primary sources themselves .
without excessive recourse to classical claims of authorship.
Aside from th~ works attributed to Maitreya and Asatiga, another important
textual cycle that mcludes a number of early, yet central Yogacara documents is
the commentaries and independent treatises attributed to Vasubandhu. Though
ap~arently not directly involved in the composition of the YBh, Vasubandhu was a
m~Jor Yogacara author, who seems to have been radically influenced by the text. In
this sense, Vasubandhu represents a member of the otherwise nameless commu-
nity of YBh readers. According to traditional accounts, 44 Vasubandhu was the
younger brother of Asatiga. He became highly learned in the Mainstream Buddhist
Sarvastivada Abhidharma doctrine that flourished in Kashmir and then went to
I •
Ayodhya, w?ere he .~o~posed the· famous treatise Abhidharmakosa ("A Reposi-
,I tory of ~bh1dharma ) with a prose commentary ( bhaffa), a set of texts that deftly
summanzes the Sarvastivada doctrine propounded in the large Abhidharma
e_ncyclop_edi~ Mahavibha.Ja in juxtaposition with rivaling Sautrantika interpreta-
tions. It 1s said that he subsequently was converted to the Mahayana by his brother
vrtti/asrayaparivrtti) as presented in various passages in the YBh. His research has since
focus~d ~n th~ hi~tory of cha_nges from practical to doctrinal Yogacara-Vijii.anavada
~heones m India, Tibet, and Chma. Apart form his revised doctoral dissertation published
m 1990(a), he has pro~uced_ a Sanskrit word-index to the Abhidharmasamuccayabhawa
~1996a), n~mer?us articles m Japanese covering such topics as various asrayaparivrtti
mterpretatlons m a range of Yogacara-Vijftanavada texts (1989a; 1989b; 1990b, 1996b;
1998; ~999; 2000; 2001; 2004), the issue of gender and enlightenment (1991a), the origin
and _h1_story _?_f_ the_ system of the five gotras (2007a; 2007b; 2007c), and a survey of
Yogacara-ViJnanavada thought (2012), as well as three articles in English on the Buddha-
kaya theories (1994), doctrinal similarities and differences between Sthiramati and Xuan-
zang4}2006), and asrayaparivrtti interpretations in the YBh and other texts (2011 ).
- See SAKUMA (1990a.l:5-8). For further general discussion on issues of authorship of
other texts than the YBh, see the present contributions by Hartmut BUESCHER and
Leonard W.J. VAN DER KUIJP.
44
See Paramartha's P6s6upandou fashizhuan (~ti~Ri!§ifj{. T2049.188ez -191a )·
English translation by TAKAKUSU (1904:275-293), as well as Bu ston Rin chen gru;,s (1290-'
1364) Bde bar gshegs pa 'i bstan pa 'i gsal byed chos kyi 'byung gnas gsung rab rin po che 'j
mdzod (TBRC text W1934-0757, folios 105bz-107ai;, pp.826-829); English translation by
OBERMILLER (1931:142-147).
.. )
)
'
- - .-
The Yogiiciirabhrimi and Its Adaptation 37
- -- - - - - -- ~
Asatiga, which led him to writ.e several Mahayana treatises, including commenta-
ries to some of the works by Maitreya and Asatiga.
When taken at face value, Vasubandhu's authorship is indeed very prolific. Yet,
the major writings ascribed to him fall in two distinct corpora that discernibly can
be distinguished doctrinally as well as stylistically. On the one hand, Vasubandhu is
said to have authored a number of Vijfianavada texts, including:
• the Trisvabhavanirdesa ("Pointing out the Three Natures"), being a brief
exposition of the Vijfianavada doctrine of the three natures of reality ( tri-
svabhava), 45
• commentaries (bhaffa or vrtt1)4 6 on several works ascribed to Maitreya
and/or Asatiga, viz.:
o the Madhyantavibhagabhaffa, 47
o the Dharmadharmatavibhagavrtti,
o the Mahayanasaipgrahabha,Jya, and
o the Mahayanasiitriila1plairabhaffa.
On the other hand, Vasubandhu wrote a series of Abhidharma and Yogacara-
Vijfianavada treatises comprised by:
• the above-mentioned Abhidharmakosa with an extensive auto-
commentary ( bhaffa), 48
• a supplementary exposition of the five aggregates that make u£ a person
(skandha) entitled Pa.icaskandhaka ("On the Five Aggregates"), 9
a work on scr\ptural exegesis named Vyakhyayukti ("The Proper Method
of Exegesis"),5
• the KannasiddhiprakaraJJa ("A Treatise Proving Action [and its Result]"),
which explains the workings of action (karman) with reference to a pre-
Vijfiana:vada, possibly Sautrantika, model of latent consciousness ( iilaya- I
vij.iana), 5i ·
I
For two Korean studies on this text, see the present paper by Seongcheol KIM.
45
For a discussion of the various terms used to denote Indian commentaries, see the
46
present contribution by Leonard W.J. VAN DER KUIJP.
47 For references to this text, see the present articles by Florin DELEANU and Leslie S.
KAWAMURA. For Chinese and Korean scholarship on this and the following works, see the
articles by Lawrence Y.K. LAU and Seongcheol KIM.
48 For studies bearing on the Abhidharmakosabhawa, see the present contributions by
Tilmann VETTER, Hidenori S. SAKUMA, Hartmut BUESCHER, Lambert SCHMIT~USEN,
Nobuyoshi YAMABE, Robert KRITZER, Florin DELEANU, William S. WALDRON, Jowita
KRAMER, Sungdoo AHN, Leonard W.J. v AN DER KUIJP, and especially the paper by
Chanj.hwan PARK.
4 For Vasubandhu's Pa.icaskandhaka, see BUESCHER (2010) and, in particular, the
present volume's paper by Jowita KRAMER with further references. . .
so For references to the Vyiikhyayukti in the present volume, see the contnbutions by
Martin DELHEY, Peter SKILLING, Changhwan PARK, and Leonard W.J. VANDERKUIJP.
SI For the KarmasiddhiprakaraIJa, see the present article by Changhwan PARK.
----- -------- ---------------- -

-:: _- ----- -- -~:---~--- _----=-- --~-_;_:____-_
___ ...- --------------- ---------
·---.
=------ ---· ------------
38 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
• a discourse on dependent arising (pratftyasamutpiida) entitled
Pratltyasamutpiidavyakhyii ("Exegesis of Dependent Arising"),5
• the Viipsatikii ("Twenty Verses"), being an apologetic Vijfi.anavada treatise
defending the vijiiaptimiitra doctrine against the view of realists who main-
tain the outer, physical reality to exist as effecting the perceptions that
consciousness has of a surrounding environment,
• the Triipsikii ("Thirty Verses"), which provides a succinct yet full summa-
tion of the Vijfi.anavada teaching. 53
These bifurcated corpora of works ascribed to Vasubandhu have led to a long-
standing debate on whether there may, in fact, have been two nearly contempora-
neous authors by the name Vasubandhu. 54 SAKUMA briefly introduces this discus-
sion and then proceeds to present his own research on spiritual predisposition
(gotra) and iisrayaparivrtti to suggest reciprocities between Hinayana and Maha-
yana sources and possible adaptations from the YBh in the writings of the later
Vasubandhu who is said to have authored the second textual corpus starting with
the Abhidharmakosa. 55
The controversy of the two Vasubandhus as Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada authors is
continued in the volume's fourth article by Hartmut BUESCHER,56 who here sets
himself the task of adducing fresh evidence in support of the theory. 57 He provides
a thorough summary of the debate and translucently distinguishes the two
Vasubandhus, whom he respectively refers to as the Bhazyakara ("commentary-
author") Vasubandhu (ca. 300-350) and the Kosakara ("[Abl;zidharmajkosa-author")
. 52 For Vasubandhu's Pratltyasamutpadavyakhya, see MUROJI (1993), the present ar-
ticle by Peter SKILLING, and especially the contribution by Changhwan PARK.
53 For the Trif!Jsika, see the present contribution by Oma ALMOGI.
54 It should, however, be noted that the ·ascription of some of the works to any
Vasubandhu, especially the Trisvabhavanirdesa and the Dharmadharmatavibhagavrtti, may
fundamentally require further analysis (private communication from Hartmut BUESCHER,
June 2012). SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a: 401-402 n.708 and addendum on pp.697-698) has also
drawn attention to certain structural problems with the MahayanasaJ!lgrahabha~a that are
of significance for the claim of a single authorship of this text. For a study of kalpa and
kalpanahaving a bearing on the two-Vasubandhu theory, see SUGAWARA (1984a).
55 Concerning the influence of the YBh on the Abhidharmakosa, cf. the present article
by Changhwan PARK.
56 Residing in Copenhagen, German-born Hartmut BUESCHER is an independent
scholar who has taken particular interest in the phenomenological models developed by
classical Indian Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada thinkers. He has served as faculty member at the
University of Copenhagen (K0benhavns Universitet) in Denmark and as Research
Librarian at the Danish Royal Library (Det Kongelige Bibliotek), cataloging its Tibetan
and_ Sanskrit collections, resulting in the publication of two major catalogs (BUESCHER &
TARAB, 2000; BUESCHER, 2011). He received the PhD degree from the University of
Copenhagen in 2004 with a dissertation on the history of the early Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada
tradition and critical Sanskrit and Tibetan editions of Sthiramati's Tril[lsikavijiiaptibha~a.
The editions were published in 2007, followed by a monograph on the history of the early
Yogacara-Vijfianavada tradition (2008).
57 BUESCHER first announced his intention to do so in the preface to his critical edition
of Sthiramati's Tril[lsikavij.iaptibha~a (BUESCHER, 2007:vii fn.l). See also his introduction
in The Inception of Yogacara- Vijiianavada (BUESCHER, 2008:1-22, especially p.8).
The Yogiiciirabhumi and Its Adaptation 39
Vasubandhu (ca. 350-420). 58 He firmly rejects an approach to the problem that
relies on what he calls "hagiographical fairy tales," that is to say, statements made
In traditional religious biographies such as Paramartha's stories of Asatiga and
Vasubandhu, which were heavily relied upon by the hitherto main proponent of
the two Vasubandhu theory, Erich FRAUWALLNER (1951). Instead, BUESCHER
pursues internal evidence in the form of stylistic and doctrinal criteria for distin-
guishing the two authorships. In particular, he demonstrates how the junior
Kosakara Vasubandhu in his Abhidharmakosabhawa takes the senior Bha~yakara
Vasubandhu to task for an objectionable argument in favor of demonstrating the
momentariness of phenomena, which BUESCHER convincingly traces back to
Bha~yakara Vasubandhu's Mahiiyiinasiitriilaipkiirabhawa, thereby evincing the
existence of two distinct Vasubandhus with their respective oeuvres. 59
The works .ascribed to "Vasubandhu" thus belong to at least two distinct
authorships, and it seems legitimate - in terms of unity in contents and style of
writing - to consider each individual work as having been written by a single hand.
This feature stands in stark contrast to the composition of the YBh, which - given
its lack of an overall doctrinal and stylistic homogeneity - rather must be seen as
"the work of a school, whose formation stretched over several generations."6 For °
distinguishing the writings of the two Vasubandhus, the literary notion of author-
ships may be useful, albeit perhaps best employed in a manner adequately disen-
gaged from anecdotal testimonies as underlined by both SAKUMA and BUESCHER.
Yet, when it comes to the heterogeneous YBh, it becomes necessary to think in
terms of manifold innominate writers, compilers, and redactors, each responsible
for having created or collocated anterior and posterior strata of the text that
eventually became finalized in its present forms. 61
58 It was decided to adopt this distinction of the two Vasubandhus consistently
throughout the present introductory essay in order to facilitate a clearer sense of which
Vasubandhu is intended in various contexts. For this reason, the name Vasubandhu will
Invariably be prefixed with either "Bha~akara" or "Kosakara" even in cases where this may
seem superfluous, e.g., when discussing the Abhidharmakosa. It is the opinion of the editor
that it may be fruitful simply to consider these labels as part of the English names for the
Vasubandhus, i.e., speaking of "Bha~akara Vasubandhu" and "Kosakara Vasubandhu"
rather than simply saying "Vasubandhu". . ,
59 The writings by Kosakara Vasubandhu, particularly as concerns his authorship of the
Paiicaskandhaka, have also been treated elsewhere by BUESCHER (2010). An in-depth
analysis of the Pa.icaskandhaka's presentation of the fourth skandha along with Sthira-
mati's commentary Paiicaskandhakavibhli$li is given in the present article by Jowita
KRAMER. Further discussion of Kosakara Vasubandhu's doctrinal background, in particu-
lar his relation to the Sautrantika tradition and the YBh, is provided in the present paper
by Changhwan PARK. For the momentariness of phenomena, see the monograph by VON
ROSPATT (1995).
6°FRAUWALLNER (1969:265): "... ein Werk der Schule, dessen Entstehung sich iiber
mchrere Generationen erstreckte." The passage was quoted by HAKAMAYA in his present
article. See also SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b ). For a summary of research on this compositional
topic of the YBh, see AHN (2003a:1-4). ,
~1 See in particular the present article by Yasunori SUGAwARA. On the difference
between 'author' and 'compiler' and how these terms "are only the (hardly ever actualized)
extreme points along a whole scale of intermediate stages," see SCHMITHAUSEN
 40 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Though acknowledging such a compositional process of successive augmenta-
tion, it still remains possible to maintain the text's traditional association with
Maitreya and Asanga, if this should be desired for literary reasons or out of respect
for the living Asian Buddhist tradition. The celestial Bodhisattva Maitreya might
not be taken as the author in the word's modern sense of signifying the person who
composed an (entire) original writing, but he may be considered what could be
called the text's "author of inspiration" in the word's medieval sense of the author
being the person or saint under whose (spiritual) authority even an altogether
compiled work, such as a Dorilegium anthology of quotations and extracts, would
be revered and read. 62 Correspondingly, Asanga may either be seen as one of the
important writers of the YBh who may have written an essential core of the work,
perhaps motivated by a sense of grace from the celestial Maitreya, or as one of the
main persons involved in the final redaction of the long-evolving opus. Even so,
such an arbitrated sense of traditional authorship ascription may hold purely
religious worth, for despite the fact that it is possible to distinguish certain parts of
the text as being antecedent to other· segments, the internal evidence in the avai-
lable sources verily does not allow any thoroughgoing historical knowledge of the
external circumstances for their composition.
While the present articles by HAKAMAYA, SAKUMA, and BUESCHER bestow a
- - ~ - - _- - - - -- fragmentary yet essential look at the environment of the early scholarly community
involved with the YBh and critically debate the enmeshed issues of authorship,
their primary foci are not the doctrines presented in the text and the position of
these in the history of Mainstream and Mahayana Buddhjst thought. Rather, the
text's doctrinal evolution is the topic of the two concluding papers of the volume's
first section on the YBh's background and environment, namely the articles written
by Noritoshi ARAMAKI and Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN. Though both authors are
highly regarded as leading Y ogacara scholars - in the Japanese and European
academia respectively - and share a long-lived collaboration and friendship, their
(1987a.II:477 fn.1198) and BUESCHER (2008:106-107 n.l). Fo~ studies of the adaptation of
earlier commentarial material in later Indian sources, see KRAGH (2009) as well as the
present article by Jowita KRAMER.
62 This agrees with the Franciscan St. Bonaventure's (1221-1274) distinction of writer
(scriptor), compiler (compilator), commentator (commentator), and author (auctor) in
the prologue of his Sententiae in IV Libris Distinctae; see HAMESSE (1982:186). Explaining
why compilers ·were not considered authors in medieval Europe although their compila-
tions would nonetheless be thought of as having one or more authors, MINNIS (1979:387)
writes: "Whereas an auctor was regarded as someone whose writings had considerable
auctorias (>authority<) and who bore the full responsibility for what he had written, the
compilator roundly disclaimed responsibility for what he had merely reported or repeated
(the usual verb is recitare) from his sources, the works of auctores. ... The auctoritas is that
of his. authors." In the context of the YBh, perhaps the authority or "inspiration" from
Maitreya is simply meant to imply hermeneutically that the basic Yogacara theories
presented in the YBh normatively ought to be interpreted from the philosophical viewpoint
of the Maitreya-chapter of the Smp.dhinirmocanastltra, thereby firmly placing the earlier
Yogacara tradition that chronologically precedes this stltra within the interpretation of the
later Yogacara-Vijfianavada view as encapsulated in the stltra. SCHMITHAUSEN ('1973:
167ff.; 1984:433-435) and ARAMAKI (2000a:46) both note that the Maitreya-chapter con-
tains the textual passage wherein the doctrine of vijiiaptimatra originated.
--
- - _-:...::==..==,;;;- : {.::
- -·---· -
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 41
current contributions exhibit a systematic antithesis that serendipitously help to
illuminate reverse yet intertwined dimensions of the text as well as the methodolo-
gies for its study. Textually, ARAMAKI uncovers the YBh's partial foundation in
Mahayana philosophy, whereas SCHMITHAUSEN exposes its equal footing in Main-
stream Buddhist Abhidharma literature. Methodologically, ARAMAKI searches out
ideas while SCHMITHAUSEN scouts for meanings, which in some sense might be
said to amount to the opposing variance in theoretical perspective between thin-
king in terms of abstract generalities (samanya) and concrete instances ( vise$a).
In particular, it is notable that the approach of Noritoshi ARAMAKI 63 ( ; [ ~ ~
fi) lays a major emphasis on the philosophical aspects of the YBh and the other
works he takes up in the course of his investigation. In his own words, his under-
lying cynosure is a quest for grasping "the most essential Buddhist philosophy that
has served as the underlying creative source for the history of Buddhism." Though
rooted in a strict philological reading of his sources, his method may first and
foremost be characterized as a philosophical history of ideas (Ideengeschichte,
shiso shi JsI,fj-9':), which probably represents the most dominant preoecupatiori
with the YBh and other Yogacara works in Eastern as well as Western scholar-
ship.64
63 Noritoshi ARAMAKI (born in Japan, 1936) is Emeritus Professor of Buddhism at
Kyoto University (JJ'tffi5*q: Kyoto Daigaku) in Japan. He studied Yogacara-Vijfianavada
philosophy under the Yogacara-Madhyamaka scholar G. M. NAGAO at Kyoto University
nnd was also trained in Chinese Buddhism at the Institute for Research in the Humanities
nt the same institution. He received the MA degree in 1959 and the PhD degree in 1964.
He has since served as Professor of Buddhism at Kyoto University in Kyoto, Osaka
University (*~lz*q: Osaka Daigaku) in Osaka, and Otani University <*~*q: Otani
Daigaku) in Kyoto. The dominant themes of his wide research interests consist of Buddhist
philosophy especially the Yogacara-Vijfianavada and Madhyamaka traditions, the history
of Buddhist ideas, the development of Buddhist philosophy and meditational practice in
the later half of the Northern dynasties (4th _6th centuries) in China, Dunhuang manuscripts,
the history of the introduction of Buddhism into China, the origin of Buddhism in India,
and the Hindu Upani~ads. Major monographs include a study and translation of the
Dasabhtlmikastltra (1974) and a history of Chinese Buddhism during the Northern
dynasties (41h-6th centuries) and the Sui dynasty (589-618) (2000b). In collaboration with
Gadjin M. NAGAO and Yuichi KAJIYAMA, he has produced translations of Vasubandhu's
Vimsatika Trimsika, Trisvabhavanirdesa, and Madhyantavibhagabha~a (1976); with
Ich iro Ko;,UNAMI, he translated Daoshi's Git!!:, 7th century) notes on ·sengyou's (11:ffr.:t:i,
0
445-518) Tripiµika catalog entitled Chu san zang Ji Jf (te.:::.~icJ~) (ARAMAKI & KOMI-
NAMI, 1993); and with Masaki NONIN and others, he has published an annnotated transla-
tion of the first chapter of the Mahayanastltralmp.kara (2009). In the periods 1979-1980 and
again in 1981, he was Visiting Professor at the University of Hamburg in Germany, where
he conducted several joint seminars on early Buddhism and Yogacara-Vijfianavada
philosophy in collaboration with Professor Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN.
64 See, for example, the surveys of modern academic Yogacara studies in China and
Korea by Lawrence Y.K LAU and Seongcheol KIM in the present volume. Additionally, it
should be noted that as an independent thinker drawing' from modern Western and
Eastern philosophy, ARAMAKI has developed his own idiosyncratic and highly thought-
provoking manner of translating Buddhist terms into English, which is though not reflected
In the choice of English terms in the following synopsis of his paper.
- --
- ,EC~;:~~_{_:_:_=-_---:-_·,___~--~-_-:.-
: - - -
- --- --=-
 42 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
In an earlier article published in 2000(a), ARAMAKI demonstrated that the
~ains~ream Buddhist ?o~trine of paths to liberation (marga) became Mahaya-
mzed m what may be distmguished as an older and a newer stratum of the Bodhj-
sattvabhiimj book of the YBh. It is here noteworthy that the discrimination of
different chronological layers in the YBh as reflecting sequences of textual and
philosophical formative processes, which SAKUMA emphasized as an indispen-
sable procedure for the study of the text, is fully integral to ARAMAKI's method of
analysis. ARAMAKI went on to argue that the Mahayanized developments that
were formulated in the Bodhjsattvabhumj, in turn, created the groundwork needed
for the _emergence of the philosophy of "representation-only" ( vijiiapH-matra) in
the Maitreya-chapter of the Saipdhjnkmocanaslltra, which he there analyzed in
so.~~ detail. 65 The latter text is a foundational scripture (sutra) for Yogacara-
ViJna°:avada that predates the treatises of Maitreya and Asanga as well as the final
redaction of the YB~, b~t postdates most of the YBh's substrative parts, especially
the early layers of its Sravakabhumj and Bodhjsattvabhumj books. Almost the
entir~ te~t ~f the slltra, with the exception of its prologue chapter, is quoted in the
YBh s VlmscayasaipgrahaJJi section. 6
In the present _article, ~RAMAKI penetrates philologically even deeper into the
stra.ta of the text m_ pursmt of understanding the philosophical progression from
Mamstream Buddhism through early Mahayana onto the Samdhjnkmocanasutra
and the final redaction of the YBh. He asserts that there erist certain abstract
associations between a Mahayana scripture called the Dasabhumjkasutra 67 "The
Sc~ipture of t~e- ~en St~fe~ct" follo~ed by the thought 6f the early M;hayana
p~llosopher N~garJuna (1 -2 centunes), and the ideas conceived by the Yogacara
--
;
-- --- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - --
-- - thmkers that m the fourth century were written down in the YBh and the
Saipdhjnkmocanaslltra. 68 Such influences can be detected in the older and newer
' 72 For more on the iilayavijii.ana, see the present articles by Dan LUSTHAUS and
strata of the Bodhjsattvabhumi, where attempts are made to appropriate Main-
I Williams. wALDRON.
65
For an explanation of the Vijfiaptimatra doctrine in its early context, see
SCH~ITHAUSEN (2007a! ~nd BUESCHER (2008:162-172, 177-185).
For the Saipdhm1rmocanasiitra, see the present volume's articles by Noritoshi
ARAMAKI, Martin DELHEY, Dan LUSTHAUS, Peter SKILLING, Kazunobu MATSUDA,
Sangyeob CHA, and A. Charles MULLER. For modern Chinese and Korean studies on the
text, see the papers by Lawrence Y.K. LAU and Seongcheol KIM. For further studies, see,
e.g., SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b:822-823; 1973; 1976:240-244; 1984; 1987a), HAKAMAYA (1984;
1986a; 1987a; and 1987b; reprinted in HAKAMAYA, 2008), TAKAHASHI (2002; 2006),
Po~~RS (1991, 1994), AHN (~003:6-8), and BUESCHER (2008:100-200).
,' For a Japanese translation and study of this scripture, see ARAMAKI (1974).
. 68 ARAMAKI I s 1·me of reasonmg
. presupposes, as is commonly held in Japanese scholar-
ship,_ that parts of the Dasabhiim.ikasiitra existed already in the 1'1-2nd centuries and could
at that time have influenced Nagarjuna. In contradistinction to this view it has been
c?nten~ed in Western s~hol~rship t_hat "The Dasabhiimikasiitra as we have it today
(mcludmg several transla_tions mto ~hm~se) seems to be no early Mahayana text" (VETTER,
1994:1255 fn.28). Its earhest translation mto Chinese was made by Dharmaraksa in 297 CE
(YUYAMA, 1996:274). Concerning certain influences of the Dasabhiimika;iitra on the
B_odhisattvab~iimi and. the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra, see BUESCHER (2008:9-10). Concer-
mng the Y~h s adaptation of s~me concepts prevalent in Nagarjuna's writings, see SAITO
(2010). For mfluence of the earher Prajiiaparamitii literature on the Bodhisattvabhiimi see
TAKAHASHI(1999a; 1999b;2000;2001a). ' Yog!lcara Buddhism with special emphasis on the YBh, where he contributed to the
L .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~---~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_J
The Yogtictirabhiimi and Its Adaptation 43
stream Buddhist doctrines of meditation and a system of practices referred to as
the thirty-seven factors of Awakening ( bodh1'pakffa dharmal;), 69 to which refe-
rence in like manner was made in the Dasabhumjkasiitra. He maintains that it was
these textual elaborations that formed the background for the YBh's formulation
of a cardinal Yogacara doctrine called "the five categories of reality" (paiica-
vastu).70 Further, he reasons that the conceptual advances devised in the Bodhj-
sattvabhumj allowed a new model of truth to be worked out in the Sa1Pdhj-
nkmocanasutra, first in the form of the innovative notion of representation-only
( njiiapHJJ1atra) and then culminating in the pivotal Yogacara-Vijfianavada doc-
trine of the three natures ( trjsvabhava), which likewise is taught in the sutra. 71
Finally, AR.AMA.KI discusses the intricate . interrelations between the Sa1Pdhj-
m'rmocanasutra's and the YBh's models of consciousness pertaining to the appro-
priating consciousness (adanavijiiana) and the alayanjiiana, as well as the reper-
cussions these models had for the grinciples used behind the overall compilation
and textual structuring of the YBh.
In contrast to ARAMAKI's.phjJosophical hjstozy of ideas, the contribution by
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN73 exhibits a rather different approach to the study of the
69 For a study of the factors of Awakening in Mainstream Buddhism, see GETHIN
(1992). . .
°7 For two major studies of the paii.cavastu doctrine, see the monographs by KRAMER
(2005) and TAKAHASHI (2005), as well as the remarks made in Leslie S. KAwAMURA's
paper and TAKAHASHI's background study of the te~m vastu in the present ~olume. .
71 For studies bearing on -the trisvabhiiva doctrme, see the present articles by Leshe S.
KAWAMURA and Oma .ALMOGI.
73 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN, born in 1939 in Cologne (Koln), Germany, is Professor
Emeritus for Indian and Buddhist Studies at the University of Hamburg (Universitiit
Hamburg). From 1958 onwards, he studied Indology, Arabic, and philosophy at the
University of Cologne (Universitat zu Ki:iln), followed by studi~s with the influential
Indologist Paul HACKER (1913-1979), who was an Advaita Vedanta specialist, at the
University of Bonn (Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitiit Bonn) in Germany.
SCHMITHAUSEN then proceeded to the University of Vienna (Universitiit Wien) in Austria,
where he studied with the renowned Buddhologist-Indologist Professor Erich FRAUWALL-
NER (1898-1974) and obtained the PhD degree in 1963 with a dissertation on problems of
classical Indian epistemology, especially the various theories of error ( vibhrama) with a
focus on the Hindu Advaita Vedanta author Mal).q.anamisra's treatise Vibhramaviveka
(1965). Several of SCHMITHAUSEN's early publications focused on Mi~arµsa and -:\dv~ita
Vedanta philosophy (1963; 1968; 1968-1969; 1970b). In 1966, he obtamed the hab1htat10ff
degree (Habilitation fiir das Fach Indologie) at the university of Munster' (U niversitiit
Monster) in Germany, where Paul HACKER meanwhile had taken up the chair in Indology.
SCHMITHAUSEN's dissertation for the habilitation degree was a study of vijii.aptimiitratii
ond alayavijii.ana (unpublished), which became a forerunner for his 1987(a) monograph on
0/nyavijii.ana. The habilitation thus marked his turn to Yogacara studies, which became a
life-long research interest. In the period 1967-1973, he served as Assistant (Dozent) and
Associate Professor (auBerplanmiiBiger Professor) at the University of Munster. In 1973,
he became Professor in Indian and Buddhist studies at the University of Hamburg, where
ho remained until his retirement in 2005. For about two decades his research focused on

44 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
text. Though he elsewhere has distinguished himself as an eminent historian of
ideas, for example by his influential 1987-monograph on the early history of the
alayavij.iana notion, in his present article SCHMITHAUSEN adopts a method that
may perhaps best be described as a semantic histozy of words. In order to deter-
mine the exact range of meanings associated with a central pair of terms, he
thorou~hly tra~es ~he words' concrete usage from their first occurrences in the pre-
Buddhist Vedic literature, through their attestations in early Buddhist sources,
ont_o. their tec~nical meanings in the scholastic Abhidharma literature, finally
amvmg at their full parameters of signification in the YBh and other Yogacara
sour~es. T~~ words in question are th~ bino~ial set kusala (Pali kusala) and
akus"!a. (Pah ak_usala). These are not philosophical terms, but they rather pertain
to religious-ethical nomenclature, being the central designations used for distin-
guishing positive and negative actions in the Buddhist moral theory of action and
result (karmaphala) as well as for creating a psychological typology of wholesome
and unwholesome mental states ( caitta, cetasika). 74 Hence, understanding these
clarification of the compositional history of the YBh and its relationship to the other works
of earl)'._~ogacara literature, as well as the genesis and early development of key concepts
of Y ogacara thought, such as the alayavijiiana. He has published several major studies on
the early Yogacara tradition, in particular on the elements of Sautrantika doctrine found in
Vasubandhu's Viipsatika and Triipsika (1967), an annotated translation of the nirvana-
chapters of the _Vi_niscayas~1!1grahapi of the YBh (19~9a), a surv.py of the textual history of
t?e .~arly Yog~cara. t~ad1t10n (196?b ), the recensions of the Udanavarga and their
~igmficanc: f~r ident!tymg the sectanan background of the YBh (1970a), spiritual practices
11} the Yogacara tradition (1973; 1976; 2007a), the contemplative practices presented in the
Sr_~!ak~bh_iimi (1982), ~he darsanamarga theories in the Abhidharmasamuccaya (1983), th·e
VlJn_aptJmatra passage m the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra (1984), the sectarian background of
vanous Yogacara works (1987b), critical editions of the Sopadhika Bhiimih and the
NJ_mpadhika BhiimilJ books of the YBh (1991c), the trisvabhava theory (2000b), and the
existe~ce of external r~ality in the Cheng weishi Jim (2005). The list of publications given
here is not exhaustive, and the reader may consult the online bibliography of
ScH~ITHAUSEN's publi~ations that is found at www.acmuller.net/yogacara/bibliography/
schm1thausen.html, which, however, does not include SCHMITHAUSEN's more recent
publications pro~u.ced after the year 2000. Probably the most famous work is his 1987(a)
mo~o~~aph prov1d.mg a thorough stud~ of the alayavijiiana notion, in particular discussing
the imtial passage m the YBh, where this term seems to have been used for the first time. In
1989, he was Guest Professor at the University of Canberra in Australia. Starting in 1991,
SCf!MITHAUSEN took up a 1:ew interest in various aspects of Buddhist ethics, mainly the
ethic~ of nature. He has pubhshed several monographs in this field, including studies on the
question of the sentience of plants (1991a; 1991d; 2009) and ·attitudes towards nature in
early Buddhism (1991b; 1997b); for further bibliographical references on this topic, see
fn.75. SCHMITHAUSEN has fostered close ties with Japanese Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada
scholars and was Visiting Professor in Kyoto and Tokyo in 1979, 1999, 2005, and 2006,
where ~e also received th~ cultural award of the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai ({L~{:z;:31:!f:1%~),
the Society for the Promot10n of Buddhism.
74
_ For a detailed treatment of the latter type of typologies, see the present article by
Jowita KRAMER. For the role of wholesome and unwholesome states of mind in the
processes of dea,th a~d1 re~i~?, see the volume's papers by Dan LUSTHAUS and Nobuyoshi
?7AMABE: For Lmgrun s d1V1s1on of buddha-nature (tathagatagarbha) into kusala, akusala,
mdetermmate, and buddha-result, see the paper by Makoto YOSHIMURA (fn.14).
The Yogiicarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 45
-----~-----
terms reaches down to the very core of the way in which good and evil comes to be
defined in Buddhism. 75 In particular, SCHMITHAUSEN's comprehensive study
elaborately reveals how the words kusala and akusala come to carry their primary
respective meanings of 'bene_ficial'/'wholesome' and 'baneful'/'detrimental'/
'unwholesome' when applied to things, inner states, or qualities pertaining to the
spiritual sphere, and their secondary respective meanings of 'skillful' and 'unskillful'
when applied to persons. 76 .
Besides -delineating the semantic history of these terms, SCHMITHAUSEN's
paper coincidentally brings another principal aspect of the YBh's doctrinal and
literary provenance into plain view. This aspect is the text's affinity with the Abhi-
dharma literature, expressly the Abhidharma works of the Mainstream Buddhist
Sarvastivada sect that during the early centuries CE flourished in Kashmir and the
greater Gandhara region of northwestern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.
Abhidharma, which literally means "[a study] concerning (abh1) the teachings
(dharma)," or alternatively "[a study] concerning phenomena (dharma),'m is a
scholastic genre of texts that seeks to systematize the assorted Buddhist doctrines
and specify terms appearing in the Buddha's sermons narrated in the slltra scrip-
tures. In the Sarvastivada tradition, the Abhidharma literature at the outset
developed into a set of seven fundamental works that later were followed by a
number of very large encyclopedic treatises headed by the Mahiivibhii$ii, "The Big
Commentary." By and by, these all-encompassing yet bulky and unmanageable
texts were finally abridged in the form of several shorter, more reader-friendly
compendia, among which Kosakara Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosabhii$Ya,
though not exclusively Sarvastivada-oriented, gradually became preeminent. 78
Given the Mahiivibhii$ii's importance, the Sarvastivada Abhidharma exegetes were
also known as the Vaibhii$ikas, meaning "those who follow the Vibhii$ii."
The YBh, on the one hand, incorporated a considerable number of its copious
definitions of technical terms and classifications of phenomena from the vast
Sarvastivada Abhidliarma expositions, which·-formed a schematized standardiza-
75 For his extensive writings on topics · pertaining to Buddhist ethics, see
SCHMITHAUSEN (1977; 1986; 1991a; 1991b; 1995a; 1995b; 1997a; 1997b; 1999; 2000a; 2007;
2009J as well as SCHMITHAUSEN & MAITHRIMURTHI (1998).
6 For remarks on the usage of kusala and akusala in the Bodhisattvabhiim1; see also
the current article by Michael ZIMMERMANN.
77 The former interpretation of the term is its non-technical, general sense (von
HINOBER, 1996:64; WILLEMEN, DESSEIN, & Cox, 1998:15). It agrees with the definition
slven in Pali commentaries, explaining it as "higher teachings" ( uttamadhamma). The latter
Interpretation is how the term comes to be defined within some Abhidharma texts, e.g.,
l(o,nk!!.ra Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosabhaffa verse I.2. See further KRAGH (2002:127-
128),
7H Aside from the Sarvastivada Abhidharma tradition, there also exist an extensive
Abhldharma literature of the Theravada sect written in Pali, a single Abhidharma work
Gfttltled "Sariputrabhidl1armasastra associated with the Dharmaguptaka sect, the Yogacara
Abhldharma text Abhidhannasamuccaya attributed to Asanga, as well as Gandhari and
l11nskrit fragments of some unidentified Abhidharma-like writings. It is unknown what
kind of Abhidharma literature, if any, may have existed in the other Indian Buddhist sects.
(far an introductory survey of the Abhidharma literature, see KRAGH (2002) with further
bibliographical references.
 46 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
tion of the Buddhist teachings unequalled in Buddhist history. Such corre-
spondences between the YBh and Vaibha~ika texts are in the present volume not
only affirmed in SCHMITHAUSEN's study of kusala and akusala, but are also
apparent in the contributions by Koichi TAKAHASHI, Nobuyoshi YAMABE, Robert
KRITZER, Peter SKILLING, Florin DELEANU, William S. WALDRON, Changhwan
PARK, Jowita KRAMER, A Charles MULLER, and Sungdoo AHN. Their articles
cover such textual parallels from a variety of angles that reveal scriptural, philoso-
phical, doctrinal, exegetical, and meditational adaptations. On the other hand, in
its very style of sastricwriting and the rigorous manner in which the text gradually
grew into such a massive, encyclopedic exposition, it seems that the YBh - being, in .
its final redacted form, a virtual Mainstream Buddhist discourse with an imperative
Mahayana slant - appropriated the large Abhidharma treatises' authoritative
prestige by imitating their literary guise. While this semblance may have played a
significant role in the YBh's success in becoming one of the first two truly large
Mahayana sastras 79 as well as the inceptive magnum opus for a major Mahayana
tr.adition, namely the Yogacara School, it was concurrently this very feature of its
sheer size and complexity that quickly led to the abandonment of the text in its
entirety as a topic of active study in the Buddhist monastic seminaries, tending to
be replaced by smaller and philosophically even bolder Y ogacara-Vijftana works,
not only in India but likewise in East Asia and Tibet following the text's introduc-
tion there. Yet, from the philological perspective of the modern historian of
Buddhism, it is precisely the YBh's complexity and diverse background that makes
it such a rich source for scholarly research.
II. The Yogacarabhiimi-The Text
While the first section of the volume on the background and environment for the
YBh was compared to an upstream voyage as well as a hike along river banks
aimed at searching for the doctrinal and social wellspring of the text, the volume's
second section, entitled "The Yogacarabhiimi - The Text," was likened to a scien-
tific examination of the river waters. In the twelve articles belonging to this section,
the contributors penetratingly analyze select parts of the treatise to discuss its
multifarious religious doctrines, compositional structures, textual practices, and
philosophical contributions. In order to prepare the reader for delving into the
depths of the articles at hand, the present essay will introduce the topics of the
papers in a contextualized fashion by furnishing the reader with a detailed sum-
mary of the main part of the YBh treatise preceded by a prelude with essential
information on the structure of the text.
79
The only other early Mahayana sfistra of comparable size is the *Mahiiprajiifi-
pfiramjtfisfistra (:k~ It~ Dazhi dulim, T1509), which was composed in the Ku~a1,1a
Empire in northwestern India during the fourth century (LAMOTTE, 1973:36), i.e., at the
same time as the YBh was written, compiled, and redacted. Earlier Mahayana sfistras, such
as the works by Nagarjuna (l 51 -2nd centuries CE) or Aryadeva (2nd_3rd centuries CE), are
considerably shorter.
- -
- -- _-=- :-
L
The Yogiiciirabhiimi and Its Adaptation 47
The section commences with a paper by .Martin DELHEY'0 that in some sense
constitutes the pivotal article of this section· of the book, because it is here that the
reader finds a comprehensive survey of the YBh Sanskrit manuscripts, a historical
sketch of their research, and gains an overview of the current state of textual
scholarship. After briefly introducing the formation and structure of the YBh,
DELHEY enumerates the extant text witnesses, viz. the two complete translations
into Chinese and Tibetan alon~ with the nine extant Sanskrit fragments that cover
nbout 50% of the whole work. 1 He then goes on to list, and in several cases also
discuss, the available modern editions and translations. DELHEY additionally gives
citations of the relevant bibliographical sources and reference works. Since
DELHEY's contribution covers the entire YBh, references will be given to his article
throughout the summary of the YBh that follows below.
In light of the immense number of academic publications dealing directly or
indirectly with the YBh, especially the many books and articles produced in East
Asia where the text has been and remains of central scholarly concern, it has not
been possible to include a systematic and exhaustive bibliography of pertinent
studies in the present volume. However, some articles in the volume are chiefly
focused on giving bibliographical reference, and in unison they cover a great deal
of the relevant material. Thus, Martin DELHEY provides a thorough overview of
the existing text editions, modern translations, and reference works, as well as
many germane philological studies, particularly those published in European
languages and Japanese. Leslie S. KAwAMURA describes in brief the historical
background for Y ogacara studies in Japan with special reference to the work of
Qudjin M. NAGAO. The papers by Bing CHEN and Byal AVIV give a history of
Yogacara research in China during the first half of the 201h century, which are
followed up by Lawrence Y.K. LAU's article, wherein the reader finds an exhau-
stive history of research and bibliography of Chinese Yogacara scholarship since
1949. In a similar vein, Seongcheol KIM contributes with an all-inclusive research
history and bibliography for South Korea. These articles lucidly reveal the regional
BO The German scholar Martin DELHEY is a researcher and faculty member in the
Department of Indian and Tibetan Studies at the Asia-Africa-Institute at the University of
Humburg (Universitat Hamburg). He studied with Professor SCHMITHAUSEN at the
University of Hamburg, where he received the MA (1998) and PhD degrees (2002) with a
db1sertation providing critical Sanskrit and Tibetan editions and annotated translation of
tho Samahitfi BhumjiJ book of the YBh (revised version published in 2009a). In the period
2002-2005, he served as faculty member at the Seminar for Indology and Buddhist Studies
nt Oeorg-August-Universitat in Gottingen. Thereupon, he returned to the Univ~rsity of
Humburg, where he has been engaged in text-critical research of the Tantnc work
Mnn/usriyamiilakalpa. He has also been a post~doct?ral ,,!"e~~arc!fell~w at the ~esear~h
Institute for Buddhist Culture at Ryiikoku Umvers1ty (l'l~ftA"r Ryukoku Daigaku) m
Kyoto, Japan. Apart from his publications on the Asamiihitfi and Samfihjtfi Bhfimjs of the
'\'Bh (2006b; 2009a), DELHEY has published several articles investigating attitudes towards
nulclde in early Buddhism (2002; 2005; 2006a; 2009b ).
Bl For another overview of the primary sources, see DELEANU (2006:51-146).
l)llLEANU's study, however, only concerns the YBh's Sriivakabhfimj book and therefore
docs not deal with all the Sanskrit fragments listed by DELHEY, yet it includes the many
cllfferent manuscripts and prints of the Tibetan and Chinese translations that are not
recounted by DELHEY.
-~-....;.....:.-=-~-
~--- ---- ----

48 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
vicissitudes of Y ogacara studies in East Asia and the West, and when read in
co~bination with the select bibliographies accompanying the volume's many other
topical papers, the reader has citation at his or her disposal that includes more or
less all the most significant publications in European languages and Japanese
(though omitting numerous minor studies) as well as exhaustive citation of pub-
lications in Chinese and Korean. It should be noted that great care has been taken
to provide English translations of all Japanese; Chinese, and Korean titles listed in
the various bibliographies and that perusal of these therefore wiil enable all
readers to familiarize themselves with the general state of research available in
those languages, regardless of the reader's own lingual abilities.
A Summary of the Basic Section
There is, however, a rudimentary task that is not taken up in any of the articles of
the present volume and which consequently must be attended to here in this
prefatory essay. This is to furnish the reader with a concise summary of the Basic
Section of the YBh, thereby empowering him or her to localize the present articles
within the diversiform contents of the text. 82 The following pages therefore aim at
opening the YBh up to view by summarizing its structure and contents. 83
Going progressively through all the fourteen books of the Basic Section, the
summary will provide an overview of the main thematic structures of each book
and will include references to key terms and phrases in the primary languages of
the three main textual witnesses of the YBh, i.e., Sanskrit, ~hinese, and Tibetan, as
they occur in the text, particularly when relevant for uncierstanding the overall
structure of each part of the treatise. Given this volume's policy of providing all
terms with English translations at least at their first occurrence, English equiva-
lents will accompany every term. The choice of the English equivalents is dictated
solely by how a given term is defined and understood within the YBh. It cannot be
stressed enough that the English equivalents are purely intended as a helpful guide
to the !eader and not as actual translation suggestions. The supplied English
expressions may be thought of more as short explanatory phrases rather than being
actual literal translations of the original Sanskrit terms. To provide truly precise
translation in each and every case would require a level of painstaking philological
analysis of the terms, which woulq fall entirely outside the scope and possibilities of
this summary.
Moreover, in order to link the introductory essay with the contents of the
articles in the present volume and more broadly to the scholarship of the volume's
contributors, it has been attempted to supply passages with cross-references to the
82 For other, albeit much shorter, surveys of the text, see POTTER (1999:398-433),
DELEANU (2006:43-50), and LUSTHAUS & MULLER'S outline at http://www.acmuller.net/
yogacara/outlines/YBh-summary-utf8.htm
83 On a personal note, the editor was introduced to the study of the YBh by Professor
Lambert S_CHMITHAUSEN during his years of doctoral course-work at the University of
Hamburg m the early 2000s. Hence, I would like to dedicate this introductory essay in
general. and its summary of the YBh in particular to Lambert as a token of deep gratitude
for ha":ng _led me into knowledge of this incredibly rich and profound spiritual system
embodied m tµe YBh. As amply shown by the excellent example of Lambert's scholarship,
every arduous step of the way enables others to follow.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 49
articles of the volume wherever relevant as well as with bibliographical reference to
other pertinent publications. However, it must be emphasized that the survey in no
way includes systematic and exhaustive citation of primary and secondary literature.
For a thorough overview of the available editions, translations, and select studies
of the text, the reader may consult the present article by Martin DELHEY. The
references supplied to secondary literature in the present introductory essay in
general and in its summary of the Basic Section in particular are primarily intended
to introduce and emphasize the earlier work of the scholars whose articles are
repr~sented in the present volume in order to familiarize the reader with the work
of these scholars in particular. It should therefore be kept in mind that the refe-
rences given here by no means should be perceived of as exhaustively covering all
pertinent studies. In a summary of this size covering the entire Basic Section, there
is bound to be numerous unfortunate omissions of references to important publica-
tions .and writings, even to works written by the volume's 34 contributors. Such
omissions are entirely the fault of the editor, caused by his general ignorance or
lack of attention to obvious correlations between the subject-matters presented
and the writings by the contributors. The contributors and perhaps mor$! impor-
tantly the readers are begged for their kind indulgence with such shortcomings.
With all its sundry subsections, the YBh is verily a lengthy work. The Chinese
translation covers 100 fascicles (Juan ~) amounting to 1812 individual pages,
which are printed within a single large volume in the modern Taisho edition. The
Tibetan translation, stretching over six traditional dpe cha volumes, has 1383
doubled-paged folios. 84 The text consists of two overall parts, splitting the work
into two almost equal haives: a Basic Section and a Supplementary Section. 85
86
The Basic Section ( *Maulyo BhumayaiJ, ::zt;::!:fu:5t Ben di fen, Sa'i dngos gzhi)
is composed of fourteen books, wherein seventeen bhumis are presented and
explained. The word bhumi literally means 'earth' or 'ground' and is in certain
other scriptural contexts used :metaphorically to denote a series of spiritual 'stages',
'levels', or stepping-stones ori the Buddhist path to Awakening. This is possibly
related to the usage of the word bhumi to indicate the 'floors' of a multistoried
84 The size of the Tibetan translation is here given according to the Sde dge edition (D).
85 The English translation "Basic Section" has become a standard term in the field of
YBh studies to designate the first half of the text. There does not exist, however, an
overarching term for the second half of the YBh consisting of the four saJ!lgrahaJJi com-
pendia. For the convenience of the volume, the editor therefore introduces the expression
the "Supplementary Section" as a suitable label for that part of the text. The word 'Supple-
mentary', for which no direct equivalent is attested in the primary sources, was chosen in
order to reflect the relationship in which that Section stands to the 'Basic' Section. From
the point of view of the overall structure of the treatise in its final redacted form, the
sarpgrahaJJiS may be seen as supplying ancilliary material to the contents of the Basic
Section. The word 'Supplementary', however, is not intended to suggest that all the material
.~
'
found in that Section of the text was written subsequently to the composition of the Basic
Section, because studies on the compilation history of the treatise have revealed that
I
substantial parts of the Supplementary Section were written prior to portions of the Basic
Section.
86 Concerning the Sanskrit reconstruction, see DELEANU (2006.1:44-46). The recon-
struction is also sometimes seen in its singular Sanskrit form, viz. Maull Bhiimil;. (cf.
DELHEY, 2009a:6 fn.16).
-=·-=---
 The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 51
50 Ulrich Timme KRAGH

building, e.g., caturbhiimika meaning "[a house] having four floors." Such a mea- Table 1. The Structure o f t h e YBh
Size%
ning of the word is also seen in the YBh's own system of seven spiritual stages Location in the Chinese (T)
of the
(bhiim1) laid out in the YBh's Bodhisattvabhiimi book. 87 However, in the present Books and Tibetan (D)
whole
context of the seventeen bhiimis, the word does not seem exclusively to carry the translations 90
text
denotation of a developmental 'stage' ( *krama), because the seventeen bhiimis as a
whole do not constitute a straightforward system of spiritual progression, and
The Basic Section 49.9%
because some of the bhiimis, e.g., the Paiicavijiianakayasamprayukta Bhiimif; or
the Manobhiimi that deal with the workings of sensory perception and cognition,
T1579.l.279aT279a21; 0.1%
hardly can be conceptualized as evolutionary in any spiritual sense. Rather, in the Preface
present context, the word bhiimi appears in many cases to imply a 'foundation' in D4035.la1-2az.
the sense of a field of knowledge that the Yogacara acolyte ought to master in T1579 .1.279a22-280b2; 0.3%
Book one: (1) Pa.icavij.ianakayasamprayukta
order to be successful in his or her yoga practice. If that is so, the title Yogacara- Bhumih D4035.2a2-5b2.
bhiimi could be interpreted as meaning "The Foundation ( bhiim1) for Yoga The F;undation Concerning the Fivefold Group
Practitioners (yogacara)," implying that the Basic Section in its fourteen books ofEmpirical Consciousness
presents seventeen foundational fields of knowledge that are intellectually presup- T1579.l-3.28QbT294bs; 2.3%
Book two: (2) Manobhiimi
posed for different types of yoga practice. 88 The caveat should though be kept in The Foundation (Concernind 91 Co!!nition D4D35.5br37a7.
mind th~t there are some instances in the text, especially in the final parts of the T1579 .4-10.294b8-328b24; 6%
Book three: (3) Savitarka Savicara Bhumi.lJ,
Bodhisattvabhiimi, where the term bhiimi is not used in the sense of 'foundation' ( 4) A vitarka Vicaramatra Bhumi.lJ, and D4035 .37ar 120bz.
but rather in the sense of 'stage' or 'level', for which reason it does not seem possi- (5) Avitarkavicara Bhumi.lJ, or in short,
ble to arrive at a single, generic translation of the word. (3-5)' Savitarkasavicaradibhiimi
Moreover, it should be noted that the word 'book', rather than the word 'chap- The Foundation [Concerning] Having .
ter', has been employed in this introductory essay to designate the fourteen overall Discernment and Discursiveness, The Foundation
divisions of the Basic Section, because several of these .books I
contain further [Concerning] Being Without Discernment and.
subdivisions called yogasthana or pafala that may then be referred to as 'sections' Only Having Discursiveness, and The Foundat10n
and 'chapters'. [Concerning] Neither Having Discernme~t nor
The Supplementary Section consists of four discrete texts called 'collections' or Discursiveness, or in short, The Foundation
, 'compendia' (saipgraha.JJi, she ffli-, bsdu ba), which contain auxiliary material to the [Concerning] Having Discernment and Discur-
Basic Section. The arrangement of these compendia differ between the Chinese siveness, and So Forth
and the Tibetan translations, but the Chinese arrangement seems to reflect the T1579.11-13.328cs-344b1s; 2.8%
Book four: (6) Samahita Bhumi.lJ
more original order and has been adopted in the present synopsis. 89 The following The Foundation [Concerning] Meditative D4035 .120br159a6.
table provides a structural overview of the whole YBh: Absorption
T1579.13.344bw344c1s; 0.1%
Book five: (7) Asamahita Bhumi.lJ
The Foundation [Concerning] Being Without D4035.159a6-160~.

87
For this sevenfold bhumi system and its analogy with the perhaps more commonly
known tenfold bhumi system of the Dasabhumikasutra, see the present articles by Nori-
toshi ARAMAKI and Florin DELEANU.
88
For further discussion of the word bhumi, see DELEANU (2006:48 fn.3), DELHEY
(2009:4-6), and especially fn.61 in DELEANU's present article, where Deleanu presents a
new discussion of the term, arguing for using the translation 'foundation', which is the
suggestion adopted here.
89
See the arguments summarized in DELHEY's article with further references. More-
over, it is· sometimes said that the *Vinayasaipgrahapi book of the Vastusaipgrahapi
constitutes a separate text in the Tibetan translation, thereby giving a total of five
saipgrahapi compendia in the Tibetan version as opposed to the four compendia attested
in the Chinese translation. This impression, however, merely arises due to the fact that the
printing of the large VastusaipgrahE11Ji text came to be divided over two volumes in the
Tibetan canon with the *Vinayasaipgrahapi subsection of the Vastusaipgrahapi starting at
the beginning of a new volume. The Tibetan separation of the *Vinayasaipgrahapi sub-
section is therefore artificial and of no consequence, and should be ignored.
Meditative Absorvtion
90 For the pertinent Sanskrit manuscripts, Sanskrit editions, and modern translations,
see the present article by DELHEY. . . . d d
91 The word 'concerning' ( 0saipprayuktii, lit. "connected with, occup1e? ':"1th, en owe
with associated with") occurring in the title of the first. book could - 1f mterpreted as
' · , oncerni·ng' _ be taken as tacitly implied in the titles of all the other books. As a
meanmg c . · · y - - rt rature
term, the word samprayukta may also have a techmcal me~nmg m . ogacara 1 e ,
si nifying the mental factors ( caitta) that are connec~ed ':'1th the_ mmd. In the present
ctntext however the word does not seem to be used m this techmcal sense, because the
Paiicminanakiiy;samprayuktii BhumiiJ does not exclusively deal with the fivefol? group of
cmpiri~l conscious~ess and its associated mental factors, but also covers vano~s. o~her
topics, such as the sense objects, the sense fa~ulties, and so fo~th. 11 Hence, the wor 1s ere
to be taken in its non-technical sense _"c?ncernmg, connected with.

-------·--.:· -.,;,,;
--- -
 52 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Book six: (8-9) Sacittika Acittika Bhumi.p
T1579.13.344cw345a 16 ; 0.1%
The Foundation [Concerning] Having Mentation D4035.160a4-16la2.
and Bein.I? Without Mentation
Book seven: (10) Srutamayi Bhumi.p T1579.13.345a1r361b 10; 2.9%
The Foundation [Concerning] Jf'iJat is Derived D4035.161ar200b5•
from ListeninJ?
Book eight: (11) CintamayiBhumi.p T1579.16-19.361b13-388b2; 4.4%
The Foundation [Concerning] What is Derived
D4035.200bs-26lb2,
from Understandinf{
Book nine: (12) BhavanamayiBhumi.p T1579.20.388b5-395b21;
1.3%
The Foundation [Concerning] Jf'iJat is Derived D4035.261b 3-279a5.
from Meditative Cultivation
Book ten: (13) Sravakabh'iimi
T1579.21-34.395ez-477c1; 14%
The Foundation (concerning] the Hearer D4036.la1-195a7.
Book eleven: (14) Pratyekabuddhabh'iimi
T1579.34.477ez-478b1; 0.1%
The Foundation [Concerning] the Solitary D4035 .279a5-280bs,
Buddha
Book twelve: (15) Bodhisattvabh'iimi T1579.35-50.478b6-576b27; 15.3%
The Foundation {Concerning/ the Bodhisattva D4037.lai-213a7.
Book thii;teen: (16) Sopadhika Bhumi.p T1579.50.576b 28-577a28 ; 0.1%
The Foundation [Concerning] Having an D4035.280b 5-282a6.
Existential Substratum
Book fourteen: (17) Nirupadhika Bhumi.p T1579.50.577ai9-577c16; 0.1%
The Foundation [Concerning] Being Without an D4035.282a6-283a7.
Existential Substratum
The Supplementary Section 51.1%
(A) Viniicayasarpgrahll.l}i T1579 .51-80.579a3-749c18 ; 30.2%
Compendium ofAscertainment D4038.zhi.la1-289a 7 and
The Viniicayasa]!Jgrahm;i follows almost the same zi.la 1-127~.
structure as the Basic Section discussing the
seventeen bhiimis listed above:
( 1-2) *Pa.icavij.ianakiiyasamprayukta- T1579 .51-57.579ar 7.6%
, I
Manobhiimi- Viniscaya 620ez1;
I Ascertainment of "The Foundation Conceming D4038.zhi.la 1-107a4
1,;• I
I the Fivefold Group ofEmpirical Consciousness"
and "The Foundation f Concemingj Cognition"
(3-5) *Savitarkasaviciiriidibhiimi-Viniscaya T1579.58-61.620Cz4- 4.3%
:I Ascertainment of "The Foundation [Concemingj 644bu; D4038.zhi.107a4-
I Having Discernment and Discursiveness, and So 166a5
' ' Forth'; etc.
( 6) *Samiihitabhiimi- Viniscaya T1579.62-63.644bu- 1.1%
650ez5; D4038.zhi.166a5-
181a2
(7) *Asamiihitabhiim.i-V.ll1.1SC8ya Tl579.64.650Cz6-65lb4; 0.1%
D4038.zhi.18lar181b 7
(8) *Sacittikabhiimi-Viniscaya T1579.64.651b 5-652a6; 0.2%
D4038.zhi.181br 183b 1
The Yogiiciirabhllmi and Its Adaptation 53
-~__:=--~~~~~--~~~~~
--·
T1579.64.652ar652c12; 0.1%
(9) *Acittikabhiimi-Viniscaya
D4038.zhi.183b 1-185a2
T1579.65.652cw658c4; 1%
(10) *Sriitamayibhiimi-Viniscaya
D4038.zhi.185ar 198b6
T1579.65-66.658cr 1.8%
(11) *CintamayJbhiimi-Viniscaya
668b 19 ; D4038.zhi.198b 6-
223a 6
T1579.67.668b2z-669b6; 0.1%
(12) *Bhavaniimayiohiimi-Viniscaya
D4038.zhi.223a6- 225as
T1579 .67-71.669hr 4.4%
(13) *Sravakabhiimi-Viniscaya
694c 16 ; D4038.zhi.225as-
285a5
T1579.71.694c16; 0.1%
(14) *Pratyekabuddhabhiimi-Viniscaya
D4038.zhi.285a5
T1579. 72-80.694Czo- 9%
(15) *Bodhisattvabhiimi-Viniscaya
747b 26; D4038.zhi.285as-
289a7 and zi.la1-12lb6
(16-17) *Sopadhika-Nirupadhikabhiimi-Viniscaya T1579.80.747b 2r 749c1s; 0.4%
D4038.zi.12lb 6-127a4
T1579.81-82.749c21-760a3; 1.6%
(B) *Vyakhyasarpgrahll.l}i
Comoendium ofExef{esis D4042.47br68b7.
T1579 .83-84. 760a 6-772b9; 1.8%
(C) Paryayasarpgrahll.l}i
Compendium ofRelated Terms D4041.22b1-47b1.
T1579 .85-100.772bn-882a 14; 16.5%
(D) Vastusarpgrahll.l}i
Compendium of[Selected] Themes D4039.127a4-335a1 and
The Vastusa]!Jgrahm;i consists of three D4040.la 1-22a7.
subsections: 92
T1579 .85-98. 772b !Z- 15%
( 1) *Siitravastusaipgrah8{1l
Compendium of[Selected} Themes Pertaining to 868b23; D4039.127a4-
theSlltras 335a7.
T1579 .99-100.868c1- 1.3%
(2) *Villayavastusmpgrah8{1l
Compendium of[Selected} Themes Pertaining to 878a24 ; D4040.la 1-22a7.
\
the Vinaya
T1579 .100.878a25-88lc2, 0.2%
(3) *Matrkavastusaipgrah8{1l
Compendium of[Selected} Themes Pertaining to
the Lists {ofAbhidharmaj
. '
As mentioned above, the YBh is not characterized by the :1niformity in contents
and style that a single authorship would presuppose, but mstead seems to have
been written, expanded, compiled, and redacted by several persons. over a longer
period of time. To underst~nd the hist?ry of the text a~d its doctr_1~es therefor_e
requires a thorough excavation of the different strata of 1t~ ~ompos1t1on and t~err
chronological interrelation. In spite of the fact that the wntmg of such a compda-
92 In the Tibetan translation, the *Vinayavastusa]!Jgrahal)i subsection includes the very
~hort "'MiitrkavastusaipgrahaJJI, for which reason the latter is not arranged as a separate
11ubscction in that version.
-._ -·--- -..:- . -_. _ ..

54 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
tion history employing a variety of methods of redaction criticism - relying not only
on doctrinal comparison but also on a thorough stylistic analysis - ought to be
considered a most fundamental concern for the study of the text, this regrettably
still remains a relatively understudied aspect. Nonetheless, four scholars have
dared to posit some broad outlines for such a history, which at least provide a basic
sense of the text's stratification.
Already in 1969, Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b:817-818) presented a doc-
trinal criterion that allowed a preliminary distinction between older and younger
layers of the text. He observed that the Yogacara-notion of iilayavijiiana only
occurred in certain books, but was conspicuously absent in other parts, including
segments where it doctrinally might be expected to occur. Considering the novelty
of this term in the Yogacara philosophy, the presence of iilayavfjiiiina in a given
passage would accordingly indicate that passage to be of a younger date and thus to
be interpolated. In the Basic Section, the term occurs only sixteen times, namely in
books one to four, six, and eight (i.e., in the Paiicavijiiiinakiiyasamprayuktii BhiimifJ,
1·-- - -- -
Manobhiimi, Savitarkasaviciiradibhiimi, Samiihita Bhiimih, Sacittika Acittika
i
!
I Bhii11JifJ, and the Cintiimayi BhiimifJ), 93 and is absent in the other books, notably in
i
the Sriivaka- and Bodhisattvabhiimi which otherwise seem to constitute core parts
of the text. In the Supplementary Section, the term exclusively appear& in the
ViniscayasaipgrahaJJ.I~ especially in a particular passage of its first book, the
*Paiicavijiianakayasamprayukta-Manobhiimi-Viniscaya, which sometimes is refer-
red to as the "Alayavijiiana Treatise," as well as in the *Bodhisattvabhiimi-
Viniscaya's lengthy quotation of the Saipdhinirmocanasmra. 94 Hence, the general
impression was obtained that the first few books of the Basic Section as well as
parts of the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi held contents that may be of a later date. This,
however, does not preclude the possibility that the same books could contain other
- - ------- - passages reflecting older layers, since it cannot simply be assumed that an entire
book was written or compiled at a single time, but each hook might also involve a
longer compositional history of its own. 95
These observations later led SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:14) to posit the following
distinction of three basic layers of the text: - .
1. Portions - probably the oldest layer(s) - not containing any reference to
alayavijiiiina, namely parts of the Basic Section, especially the Sriivaka-
bhiimi and ~he Bodhisattvabhiimi, as well as the VastusaipgrahaJJi.
2. The rest of the Basic Section, with sporadic occurrences of iilayaVJjiiana
but no reference to the Samdhinirmocanasiitra.
3. The ViniscayasaipgrahaJJ/containing a detailed treatment of alayavijiiiina
and at the same time quoting and making use of the Saipdhinirmocana-
.,' siitra.
93 See SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:109-110).
94 With fewer attestations, the term also occurs in a number of other books of the
Viniscayasa1pgrahapi. For the Alayavij.iana Treatise, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:10) and
the ~resent article by William S. WALDRON.
5 For this latter point, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:14 §1.6.7).
The Yogiiciirabhiimi and Its Adaptation 55
In 1989, Alex WAYMAN (1989:203), who notably considered the YBh to have been
authored single-handedly by Asaiiga, outlined a slightly more detailed yet rather
different hypothesis for the compilation of the text. As he estimated Asaiiga's dates
to be circa 375-430 and related each compositional stage with a phase in Asaiiga's
life, he coincidentally implied the following dating for the writing of Asaiiga's opus:
1. Ca. 395 CE: Asailga first composed the Sriivakabhiimi as a manual of yoga
along with the Samiihitii Bhiimil;i containing further yoga precepts.
2. . Ca. 395-400: In order, to collect material to write more about the three
levels of insight derived from listening (srutamayi), understanding (cintii-
mayi), and meditating ( bhavaniimayi), Asaiiga next compo_sed the
Paryaya- and VastusaipgrahaJJ.i books of the Supplementary Section, thus
allowing him to produce the· Srutamayi-, Cintiimayi-, and Bhiivanamayi
Bhiimih books of the Basic Section.
3. Ca. 400-410: Turning to the Mahayana tradition, he then composed the
Mahiiviinasiitriilaipkiira, being an independent text that is not part of the
YBh.<r6
4. Ca. 410: Basing himself on the structure of the Mahiiyanasiitriilalpkiira,
Asaiiga wrote the Bodhisattvabhiimi book of the Basic S~ction. The first
Chinese translation of the Bodhisattvabhiimi was made Just a few years
later.97
5. Ca. 410-420: In the following period, Asaiiga completed the other books of
the Basic section, whereafter. he added a supplementary exegesis in the
ViniscayasaipgrahaJJ.i. WAYMAN argued that this compendium pre~umes
the books of the Basic Section and brings out more controversial issues,
such as a spirited defense of the iilayavi/iiana doctrine, which had been
downplayed or left out in the Basic Section.
6. Ca. 420-430: Having completed the YBh, Asanga went on to compose
other, smaller treatises that are not part of the YBh, including the Abhi-
dharmasamuccaya and the Mahiiyanasaipgraha.
Aside from the fact that SCHMITHAUSEN and WAYMAN did not agree on Asanga's
sole authorship of the YBh and that SCHMITHAUSEN cautiously did not assign
specific dates to the compositional stages he proposed, there ~everthe}e~s are so?1e.
similarities between the two scholars' models. They both assign the Sravakabhum1
to the oldest layer of the YBh, take the VastusaipgrahaJJ.i to have been written at
96 For details on this text, see p.34 above.
97 The first Chinese translation of the Bodhisattvabhiimi is Dharmak~ema's (Tan
Wuchen ®'HIE~ 385-433 CE) *Bodhisattvabhiimisiitra (Pusa dichi Jing :groitt!!.Ftff~,
T1581) be';~~'in,418 CE (for the dating, see DELEANU, 2006:230 n.191)._Dharmak~em~'s
Bodhisattvabhiimi translation predates Xuanzang's complete YBh translat10n (T1579) with
n little over two centuries and since it contains some cross-references to other parts of the
YBh, even though these other books are not included in his transla!ion, Dh~r~ak~ema's
text is considered to provide a terminus ante quem for the Bodh1sattvabhum1 and the
existence of an overall YBh text that to some extent reflects the work in its final redaction
na Jt is known today through Xuanzang'~ translation and the later Tibetan version. For
further details on Dharmak~ema's translation, see DELEANU (2006:183-186).
~ n.aoi ,;_ "':'..-
--
~
~ -~-
 57
56 Ulrich Tiimne KRAGH

an early stage, and consider the Viniscayasmpgraha!Jito be the yo'ungest stratum of
the text. Yet, there are also considerable discrepancies between the two views. The
major disagreement lies in their estimate of the BodhisattvabhU111i book, i.e., the
YBh's exposition of Mahayana practice. While SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b:818; 1987a:
14) - given ·this book's lack of reference to alayavijiiana - saw the Bodhi-
sattvabhumi as belonging to the work's oldest layer, WAYMAN consigned it to the
second last compositional stage. Though WAYMAN did not elaborate his reasons
for doing so, his stratification here seems to imply a doctrinal criterion, according
to which Asanga would first have written the parts of the text primarily dealing with
Mainstream Buddhist practice and only thereafter explained the Mahayana path in
the BodhisattvabhU111i Moreover, a minor disagreement concerns the Samahita
BhumifJ, which SCHMITHAUSEN (ibid.) - given this book's single reference to the
alayavijiiana - delegates to the middling compositional stage, whereas WAYMAN
thinks that it belongs to the oldest layer.
WAYMAN (ibid.) states that his compositional model is based on "considering
Asanga's system of cross-references," but otherwise does not explain the· details of
his reasoning. Be that as it may, it is evident that the use of the text's internal cross-
references as a criterion for positing a compositional history is premised on the
assumption of a single authorship. The cross-references can only serve as evidence
if it is surmised that each book was written at a single time without any subsequen~
redaction. In that case, a given book's reference to another book would suggest the
other book to have been written before the book containg the reference. However
when a single authorship is not taken for granted, a diffyrent scenario become~
eq~ally pos_sible: it could be that the text first underwen! a longer period of compi-
" lation by different hands, whereafter the cross-references were inserted only at a
2. Three strata of the Sravakabhiimi
3. The Vastusarp.grah81)I
4. Two strata of the Bodhisattvabhiimi
5. The Ratnagotravibhaga
6. The Maitreya, Visalamati, Paramarthasarµbhava, and
Gm;iakara chapters of the Saipdhinirmocanasutra in that order 100
7. Th~ Dharmadharmatavibhaga
8. The Madhyantavibhaga
9. The Mahayanasutralaipkara
10. The Alayavij.iana Treatise of the Viniscayas81J1grah81)I
11. The Sacittikabhiimi- Viniscaya of the Viniscayas81J1grah81)I
12. The remainder of the Basic Section
13. The works of Asanga
14. The works of Vasubandhu
SCHMITHAUSEN and ARAMAKI both considered the Sravakabhumi, the Bodhisat-
tvabhumi, and the Vastusaipgraha!Jf to constitute the oldest layers of the tex~, ~ut
the two scholars are at odds in their assessments of the priority of the remammg
books of the Basic Section and the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi While SCHMITHAUSEN
asserts that the remainder of the Basic Section chronologically preceded the
ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi due to its lack of references to the Smp~k~nirmocanasutra2
ARAMAKI's hypothesis entails the reverse, namely that the VlmscaY_a~aipgrakaJJ~,
including its Alayavij.iana Treatise, was composed prior to the remammg Bhum1s
of the Basic Section. In his article in the present volume, ARAMAKI adduces
further arguments for this hypothesis by contend~ng that _the *Sa_cittikabh'fiimi~

..I
·;
very late stage of this process. If so, the cross-references, in fact, do not reveal
anything about the compositional steps that preceded their interpolation. 98
Viniscaya book of the Viniscayasaipgraha!Jf contams certam doctrmal elemen!s
that were crucial for the final redaction of the remaining books of the Basic
About a decade after WAYMAN had presented his model, Noritoshi ARAMAKI Section. 101
(2000:39 fn.2) published his own "provisional working-hypothesis" for the YBh's A few years later, Florin DELEANU (2006:147-246, ~specia~ly pp.155 an~ 195)
'I compilation and its interrelation with the composition of other pertinent works. As proposed yet another model. Therein, the author esta~hshed six p~ases, which he
i,,,l stated in his present article, ARAMAKI's hypothesis originally dates back to a did not posit as being strictly linear but possibly as partially overlappmg:
seminar he taught jointly with SCHMITHAUSEN at Hamburg University in 1979-
}· :1 I
1980. According to his view, the YBh underwent six steps in its formation (in the
following list, only nos. 2-4 and 10-12 pertain directly to the YBh, which are
Phase I:
Phase II:
Ca. 200-270 CE
Ca. 230-300 CE
The formation of the Sravakabhumi
The formation of the Bodhisattvabhumi
marked in boldface): Phase III: Ca. 270-340 CE The formation of the rest of the Basic
:1
Section, and, in parallel with it, the
1. Sangharak~a's *Yogacarabhumi 99 · compilation of the VastizsaipgrahaJJi,
I if the *VyakhyasaipgrahaJJi, and the
I
Paryayasaipgraha1Jl·(the formation of
.,,
I I the Vastusaipgrahal}i may have begun
98 WAYMAN's ~odel has been _bri~fly comm~nted upon by DELEANU (2006:205 n.35).
',I
11

See also DELEANU s (2006:210) re1ect1on of the mternal cross-references as evidence for a
11 redaction history.
' 99 Sailgharak~a's *Yogacarabhrimi (Xiiixfngdao di jing ~Jfi~ttMfil, T606) is one of
II
s~veral Indian texts only extant in Chinese translation, which to some degree seem to be
d1s_tant -~re~ur~ors of the_,_,YBh;1It n':i'as composed by an Indian author named Sailgharak~a
.I (Sengq1eluocha {ii!JODbrcU, 1 -2 century CE) and was translated into Chinese by
Dharmarak~a (Zhu Fahu '.~:i!filt, c.230-316) in 284 CE. The text appears to be related to
two earlier Chinese translations made by An Shl.gao in the mid-second century CE viz. the
Dao di jing (t~JtM~, T607) and the Anban shouyi ;1ng (~~v'.@J~, T602) (~f. fn.11
11
above). For further details, see DEMIEVILLE (1954), DELEANU (1993b; 1997; 2006:157-158),
nnd the present article by Nobuyoshi YAMABE. . . .
100 However, in his present article, ARA.MAKI argues for a _slightly different co~pos1-
tlonal order of these four original chapters, namely (1) the Ma1treya, (2) the Paramartha-
lllUllbhava, (3) the Gul).ii.kara, and (4) the Visalamati chapters. ,
101 To some extent, ARAMAKI's present article thus answers DELEANU s (2006:211 fn.43)
&ppeal for ARAMAKI to present further documentation for his redaction hypothesis.

--------
 58 Ulrich Timme KRAGH The Yogiiciirabhrlmi and Its Adaptation 59
~ ·- .- - - -- - - -- -- - - -- -- ---- -- -- ------ - . -·-···-··-··-·-····-·-·-·-··-·····- - -·-····--.-·····-··-·······--···-·-······-
-- -- -····-·'""''"""' ..

earlier than any of the other textual
units of Phase III)
Phase IV: Ca. 300-350 CE The formation of the Samdhinirmocana-
siitra in a milieu closely ~onnected to the
YBh
Phase V: Ca. 320-350 CE The formation of the early parts of
the ViniscayasaipgrahaIJi
Phase VI: Ca. 350-380 CE The citation of the Samdhinirmocanasiitra
in the Vimscayasaipgr~haIJi, the compila-
tion of the late parts of the Viniscaya-
saipgrah8{li, and the final redaction of the
entire YBh, consisting in additions, inter-
polations, cross-references, structural
modifications, etc.
First. off, it should b~ observed that DELEANU's theory, which is based on the
multi-author hypothesis, suggests a much earlier chronology for certain parts of the
t~xt !~an the dates proposed by WAYMAN premised on his single-author assump-
tion. F~rthen?ore? DELE~U supports his own thesis with an elaborate argu-
ment restmg pnmanly on philological and doctrinal evidence, which to date is the
most thorough reas?ning given for the text's overall compositional history. With
!he ~ew argume~tat10_n adduced ~y ARAMAKI for his own stratification hypothesis
m his rrese~t a~tlcle,. 1t now remams to be seen how the d\fferences between these
redaction h1stones will be worked out in the end. ' pages will present a thorough summary of the fourteen books of the ~ntire Basic
In-general, DELEANU (2006:211 n.43) considers his theory to be a development
of S~HMITHAUSEN's three-layer proposition, but in a sense his model constitutes a
hyb_nd _between SCHMITHAU~E~'s and ARAMAKr's thes.es, particularly as concerns
t~e!r d1ver~en~e as to the. VimscayasaipgrahaIJi. All three scholars agree that the
Srav~kabhum1, the Bodh1sattva~hiimi, and the Vastu-saipgrah81Ji belong to the
works oldest layers, ~nd thus reJect WAYMAN's claim that the Bodhisattvabhiimi
should con~titute a late str_atum of the t~xt. DELEANU further adds the *Vyakhya-
saipg_rah81J1_ ':11d the PazyayasaipgrahaIJJ to one of the early tiers of the text. The
relative pos1t1ons of these compendia were not estimated in the models by SCHMIT-
HAUSEN and ARAMAK.I, but WAYMAN likewise assigned the Pazyayasamgrahani to
~n early phase of the text. SCHMITHAUSEN, ARAMAKI, and DELEA.Nl;° are fu{ther
m _a~;eement on the interconnectedness of the Saipdhi-nirmocanasiitra and the
Vimscayasaipgraha.J?i,.}nd the two latter authors both acknowledge that certain
l~te parts of the ia11scayasaipgraha1Jf must have been written after the composi-
tl?n of the siitra. Yet, as mentioned above, SCHMITHAUSEN and ARAMAKI
differ on the relation between the remaining Bhiimis of the Basic Section and the
102
However, concerning the difficulty in dating the text in absolute terms, see the criti-
cal remarks by DELHEY (2009:10-13).
I I 103
~t _should b~ no~ed tha! a new debate regarding the relative position of the
Smpdhm1rmocanasutra m relation to the Basic Section is underway, triggered by new
hypo!heses presented by MATSUMOTO (2003; 2004) and BUESCHER (2008) concerning the
pnonty of the siitra. Forthcoming responses to these hypotheses by Lambert
SCHMITHAUSEN are currently awaited.
ViniscayasaipgrahaIJi, with SCHMITHAUSEN arguing for the priority of the remai-
ning Bhiimis and ARAMAKI suggesting the priority of at least parts of the
Viniscayasamgrahani. DELEANU's model embraces both possibilities by cleverly
proposing a twofold formation process of the Bas~c Sect~on. 104 ":hile he assigns ~he
overall composition of the remainder of the Basic Section to his phase III, which
precedes the writing of the early and late parts of the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi (phases
V-VI), he asserts a second redactional stage of the entire YBh (phase VI), inclu-
ding its Basic Section, to have occurred after or alongside the writing of the
ViniscayasaipgrahaIJi. It thus seems that a certain consensus on the compositional
history of the YBh is close to being reached, though a more minute distinction of
substrata within the individual parts of the text may be needed to account for all
the evidence. It should, of course, be remarked that the views of the four scholars
summarized here are based on different analytical approaches to the text, and
although some of their conclusions may concur, it is often the case that their
manner of reaching those judgments contrast.
With the above hypotheses for the text's redaction in mind, a summary of the
YBh now follows, intertwined with remarks introducing the pertinent articles of
the present volume where relevant.
11.1 Yogacarabhumi-The Basic Section
( *Maulyo Bhiimayal;i)
In order to provide proper background information for the reader, the following
Section, while concurrently introducing the velume's relevant contnbutors and
their articles at the end of the summary of each individual book.
Every technical YBh te:rm or_ phrase 'is accompanied, wherever possible, by
Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan correspondences in parentheses. The correspon-
dences are exclusively lifted from the related passages in the Sanskrit, Chinese, and
Tibetan versions of the text, and have not been derived from general Sanskrit-
Chinese and Sanskrit-Tibetan dictionaries or from the existing Sanskrit-Chinese-
Tibetan indices to the YBh. The listed terms and their correspondences conse-
quently reflect the text of the YBh as it exactly reads in a given pass~ge, which is
intended to result in a precise as possible summary of the text. A side-effect of
using this approach is that the same Chinese or Tibetan correspondence does not
Invariably accompany a given Sanskrit term, since there exists some variety in how
the Chinese and Tibetan translators reproduced similar Sanskrit phrasing in
different parts of the text. Such differences are accordingly reflected in the Chinese
nnd Tibetan correspondences listed here. Moreover, there are occasionally subtle
1emantic differences between how the Chinese and Tibetan translations represent
[\ given Sanskrit term, especially since the Chinese translation in numerous
lnatnnces includes explanatory glosses or extra words that were ad_ded by the
Chinese translators in order to clarify the meaning of the Sanskrit text. Such
Additions are likewise reflected in the listed Chinese and Tibetan phrases.
In this regard, DELEANU's proposition agrees with ScHMITHAUSEN's (1987a:142
104
06,B.2) view of younger interpolations into older layers of the Basic Section.

-:::-- '!""""-=------"'-"'-.._..._ __.._

".. ~- ... ..:::..-..;;."-" ::=--==I

- ----·---
~-~ - :- .~- .. -=;=-=-
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~__;:.....:;
~-- . ....
 60 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Moreover, it should be noted that the footnotes accompanying the summary
provide page-references for each passage to all three versions of the text, i.e., the
main Sanskrit editions (where available), Xuanzang's Chinese translation, and the
Tibetan translation. For this reason, the summary with its footnotes may also serve
as a practical guide to the primary sources.
Basic Section Book One - The First Foundation
(1) Pa.icavij.ia.nakayasamprayukta BhiimilJ
Wiishishen xiangy]ng di (.li~Jtt§J!!:f;-tg)
Rnam par shes pa 'i tshogs lnga dang Jdan pa 'i sa
~ter a short preface listing the seventeen foundations (saptadasa bhumayaiJ, shfqi
d1 +ttiB, sa bcu bdun po), the Basic Section of the YBh commences with its first
book entitled The Foundation Concerning the Fivefold Group of Empirical
Consciousness (Paficavijfianakayasamprayukta BhumiiJ). 105 This short book pro-
vides a phenomenology of the five sensory perceptions, including the visual,
auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile forms of consciousness ( vijfiana, shi ~.
r1?~m par shes pa). It presents these perceptions in terms of their nature ( svabhava,
z1xmg g:Hi, ngo bo nyid), bases (asraya, suoyi pfr{t-c, gnas), foci (alambana,
suoyuan pfiff,i, dmigs pa), accompanying mental states (sahaya, zhuban .§.jJ{*,
grogs), and functioning (karman, zuoyeft~t las).
· The sensory perceptions are here discussed within the fundamental Y ogacara
phenomenology of matter as well as mind, in that a sensory perception is said to
have both a material basis in the form of its respective physical sense-faculty as well
as an underlying mental basis. TM mental basis refers to the latent consciousness
(alayavijfiana, alaiye shi lfru:l¥j!f~~. kun gzhi rnam par shes pa), which is characteri-
zed as being "the holder of all the seeds [for the mind and mental states]" (sarva-
bijaka, yiqie zh6ngzi--f:;7Jffir, sa ban thams.cad pa), "the appropriator of the
[corporeal] basis" (i.e., the body) (asrayopadatr, zhishou suoyi ¥)i§tpfi{&, Jus Jen
par byed pa), and "belonging to the [category of] karmic maturation" ( vipiika-
smpgrhita, y1'sh6u suoshe JU:tPfrffli, rnam par smin pa bsdus pa), meaning that it is
morally neutral. 106
Further, the accompanying mental states are said to be five mental factors
(caitasa dharmaiJ, xin su6y6u iii 1[i,pfi,f:fit, sems las byung ba'i chos) which are
coincident and concomitant with the sensory consciousness ( tatsahabhllsam-
prayuktaiJ, bf juyou .xjfingying zhu 1Bl1J:t~i'§b!~, de dang Jhan cig 'byung zhing
'I
10s Sans1a·It text m
. BHATTACHARYA ( 1957:4-10) = T1579.1.279a2r280b2 = D4035.2ar
11
5bz. For a more extensive summary of this book along with several translated excerpts, see
I
I
the present article by Dan LUSTHAUS. ·
106
For these characteristics, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:31, 38-39, 42, 114). SCHMIT-
HAUSEN (1987a:110-117) discusses the passage at length and concludes that it constitutes a
relatively late textual stratum of the Basic Section. Yet, he argues that the passage seems to
have preceded the compilation of the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi as well as the fifth chapter of
the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra, which appear to presuppose the formulations used here. He
also considers that its references to iilayavijnana might be later interpolations altogether.
The Yogiicarabhumi and Its Adaptation 61
- - h S ~ M H HON N N - - -- --
- -- --- -- - - --- - -- --- -- ----·-·-··· . -··-···-·-·--·--·-·-
N - ~
-- .....
mtshungs par Jdan pa). Enumerated as observation 107 (manaskara, zuoyi ft~, yid
/n byed pa), contact (sparsa, chu fl), reg pa), feeling ( vedana, shou §t, tsho~ b~),
Ideation (sarpjfia, .xjangrJJ,, 'du shes), and intention ( cetana, sf JE',, s~ms pa), this hst
corresponds to what in Kosakara Vasubandhu's Paficaskandhaka 1s known as the
five universal or omnipresent (sarvatraga, bia.nxing ~fi, kun 'gro) mental fac-
tors. toe
Throe articles in the present volume make significant remarks on the Pafica-
vljlJDnakayasamprayukta BhumiiJ. Martin_ DELHEY !ists the available editions and
trnnslations. Dan LUSTHAUS gives a detailed analysis of the parts of the book that
pertain to the process of perception when he discusses the body-mind relation as
presented in the YBh. 109 Nobuyoshi YA~E remarks that in t~e YBh the more
technical chapters concerned with cogmtlon and conceptuality, such as ~he
Pnllcavijfianakayasa1pprayukta BhumiiJ, ~tructurally precede the cha~ters dea~m~
with practice and meditation, e.g., the Sravakabhllmi and_ the Bodh1sattvabh~m1,
which is also a pattern attested in an early contemplative .text translated mto
Chinese by An Shlgao, namely the Yinchirujing(~rti AJfil, T1694).
Basic Section Book Two - The Seco~d Foundation
(2) Manobhiimi
Yi di (~:f;-[g)
Yidkyisa
The second book of the Basic Section is entitled The Founda.tion [Concerning}
Ct,1nition (Manobhumi). It discusses the workin_gs of the inner c~gnitive s_ense
(mnnas, yi ~' yid), 110 which is th~ thought-consc1ou~ness ~r ~eflexive consc1ous-
ftOl8 that arises subsequent to the five sensory percept10ns. S1mllar t.? the ~resent_a-
llon of the previous book, cognition is also treated under the same five pomts of its
nncure (svabhava, zixing g ti, ngo bo nyid), basis ( asraya, suoyi J5fi1t-c, gnas), focus
107 The word manaskara is a key term especially in the second book of the YBh, the
Mnnobhum1: The English equivalent 'observation' has her~ been chosen, since !he_ t~r1?1
do1crlbes how the mind observes and understands its obJect. In the Manobhum1, it 1s
dllcussed how this observation may be 'correct' (yonisa) or 'incorrect' (ayonisa), i.e., right ~r
wrong, which determines whether or not the mi1;1-d misconceives reality an_d therefore is
bound in sa1J1siira. In other contexts, manaskara 1s a feature of contemplative a"".areness.
Tho English word 'observation' seems to be sufficiently ~road to e~co~pass !his w~ole
rnnge of meanings. Other translators have used the Enghsh expression attentiveness to
trftnslate the term, but that word may be less suited in the context of distinguish~ng right
and wrong forms of manaskara, since 'attention' in English genera_lly is considered a
nlotlvcly neutral mental activity that can be present or absent, but n?t nght or ~rong.
, 1118 For a synoptic study of the mental factors, see the present article by J owita KRAMER.
lll9 LUSTHAUS'article and scholarship will be presented below at the end of the sum-
l!1111'Y of the Manobhiimi . .
110 For the term manas, the English equivalent 'cognition' will here be used. It is
lntonded to imply the conceptual process involved in identifying a non-conceptual sensory
poreoptlon as well as the thought and emotional layers of the psyche that. en~ue. Hence,
oosnltion should in this context be understood as bemg related to but opposite m character
of perception.
- -~ - -
 62
Ulrich Timme KRAGH
--. -·····---·-- ·- - - - ----- - -- - - - - --------- - - -- - -- - - ~ - - ------ - --
(alambana, suoyuan p)T~, dmigs pa), accompanying mental states (sahaya zhtlb;;·
WJ{:f, grogs), and functioning (karman, zuoye{'F~\t Jas). 111 , of beneficial actions (kusalamiilani samucchinatt1; duan shangen 11ifr~t.lt dge ba'I
. . The seg.~ent de~c~ibing. t~e n~ture of cognition is an often-cited passage pro-
v1dmg exphc1t Yogacara d1stmctions for three central Buddhist terms for the
psyche, vi~. '~!~?' (
citt~'.. xin ,Ci,, sems), 'cognition' (manas, yi ~, yid), and 'con-
sc10usnes~ ~ vi;nana, sh1 ~' m':111 par shes pa). It relates these terms to the eight-
f~~~ _Yog~c~.r~ m~del of co~sc10usnes~, including the latent consciousness ( alaya-
VIJ11_an_a, alaiye_ ~h1 J3ii.Jf~tf~~' kun gzh1 rnam par shes pa) and the dysfunctional or
affhctive cogmtlon.(kl1$faip fl!anaiJ, nyon mongs pa can gyiyid). 11 ~ The explanation
on. the .a:compan~mg s!ates ~nslude! ~ full li~t of the 51 mental factors ( caitta or
caittasika dharmaf, XIn suoyo~ fa ,1_;~pfr1'f1~, sems byung) agreeing with the
arrangement that 1s also seen m the first chapter of Asaiiga's Abhidharmasam-
uccaya.
The s~gment on the fun~tioning (karman) of cognition is particularly extensive
a~d explams at lrngth a mynad of.ways in wh~ch this iI~ner mental faculty works in
different modes. Followmg a bnef general mtroduction, the first more extensive
exposition of cogniti~e. function~ involves a distinction of fifteen operations,
namely (!) ~?en vcog/mt1on conceives of or constructs its focus ( alambanaip vikal-
fayatI, fen~1e suoyuan :5t~UPfr~, dmigs pa la rnam par rtog pa), (2) thinks about
its focus ( alambanam ufanidhyati, shenlil suoyuan ~J:lpfr~, dmigs pa fa nye bar
~ems pa), (3) _beco~es ~ntoxicated (madyati, zui ra ro bar byed pa), (4) turns m,
msa?e (unmadyatI, kuang'Jjf., smyo bar byed pa), (5) sleeps (svapiti, meng"/;J,,
gnyid log par byed pa), (6) awakes (pratibudhyati, Jue~ sad par byed pa) (7)
pass~s out (miirc.bam apadyate, men F,b~, brgyal bar byed pa), (8) recovers from
p~s~mg out (m_iirchaya vyutti$f1:ati, xfng ~' brgyal ba las sangs par byed pa), (9)
m~tI~t;! a bodily ~i
verbal action (kayav~kkarn:a pravartayati, neng faqi shenye
yuye 1'11::;~,rnJt*an~t /us dang ngag g1 las Jug par byed pa), (10) generates
detachment ( vairagyaip karoti, neng If ya -g~~fH1:X, 'dad chags dang bra/ bar byed
pa), (11) lapses from [the state of] detachment (vairagyatparihiyate, lfyu tui
Sansk nt. text m
111 . BHATTACHARYA (1957:11-72) = T1579.l-3.280b3-294bs = D4035.
5bz-37a7 • . of existence (gati; qu ~' 'gro ba), (2) four kinds of birth (yoni, sheng!±.., skye gnas),
112
~he reference to the afflictive cognition is, however, not attested by the Chinese
translation (T1579.280b9), which is the oldest extant witness of the text; see SCHMIT-
HAUSEN (1987a:442-444 fn.943). The overall passage is discussed in detail by
SCHMITHAU~EN .(1987a:11_7-127), who argues for it being a late stratum and for certain
eler_nents bemg mterpolat10ns. He considers the reference to the defiled consciousness
(Jd_1JfaJ!l mana.{1) to have been inserted after the composition of the *Sacittikabhiimi-
Vimscaya book of the Vimscayasa:11gr81:a1Ji? on these points, cf. also the present article by
Dan L~STHAUS as well. as the d1scuss1on m the present article by Noritoshi ARAMAKI
concermng the formulat10n of kliJfamanas as it occurs in the *Sacittikabhiimi- Viniscaua
113 Wh'l . . '-"'.
. 1 e it 1s true ·that many of the operations described in this part of text are inten-
t10n~l teat~res of the manas and therefore in some sense characterizes the intentionality of
cogmt10n, it does n?t see~ to be the case that all the operations presented here can be
un_derstood as t~ly mtent10nal. .For example, the listed operations include the processes of
dymg and ?ec~m.mg ~eborn, which hardly can be called intentional. This discrepancy might
pose cert~m d1ff~cult1es for the modern scholars who try to explain y ogacara philosophy
co.mparatlvely w!th reference to HUSSERL's phenomenology, which invariably takes con-
sc10usness to be mtentional. · rtrorcnco to Xuanzang's Cheng weishi Jim (,6,x;Jll~~, T1585), see SCHMITHAUSEN (2005).
The Yogiicarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 63
- -·· ........ -"···-··-·····-···-.......-... -.. ··- - ...........·-·-·····-··-·····-
-- ---- -------- -- - - -
······-·····-·-····-·""'' ••••••••- ••• - •-• ··-•-•m••-•-••••-•-•"'''''''"' " - "'''"'''"'""'"'''"'' • • • - • - • • " - " ' - ' ' ' _ ' _ . -•-•• ••••••-•••••-••-••••·-•-m••-•••-
~. 'dad chags dang bra/ ba las yangs su nyams pa), (12) extirpates the mental roots_
rtsa ba rnams rgyun 'chad pa), (13) builds up the mental roots of beneficial actions
(kusalamiilani pratisandadhati, xii shangen *l~f.lt dge ba'i rtsa ba mams
mtshams sbyor ba), (14) dies (cyavate, sf%, 'chi 'pho ba), and (15) is reborn
(utpadyate, sheng ~. skye ba). 114 Most of these cognitive functions are only
explained in brief, but some of them, particularly the processes of death and
rebirth, are given very extensive treatment, which includes a detailed explanation
on the intermediate state (antarabhava, zh6ngy6u cpl'f, bar ma do) and the stages
of embryology. 115 It is noteworthy that by explaining death and rebirth as a function
of cognition (manas), the YBh here seems to present the sixth consciousness as the
aspect of-mind that is reborn, which would agree with the explanations on rebirth
found in numerous Mainstream Buddhist sources that do not assert latent con-
sciousness (alayavij..iana), but the YBh nevertheless explicitly states that it is the
lilayavi,[_..iana that merges into the inseminated ovum during conception in the
womb. 16
· The lengthy explanation on death and rebirth is followed by an elaborate exp~-
sition of Buddhist cosmology, detailing the cyclical destruction (saipvarta, huai ~.
Jig pa) and regeneration ( vivarta, cheng /tZ, 'chags pa) of the cosmos along with the
layout of the world with Mt. Meru in the center and the surrounding continents. 117
This exposition shares many elements with similar descriptions found in a number
of Abhidharma texts, e.g., the Sarvastivada treatise Praj..iaptisastra (T1538, D4086-
4088) and the third chapter of Kosakara Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosa. The
cosmology found here clearly represents a dualistic worldview entailing both
matter and mind as reflected in Abhidharma thought, and although the text in
other passages speaks of a theory of mind involving latent consciousness ( alaya-
vij.iana) as the holder of all seeds, in the current context this view by no means
presupposes a full-fledged representational idealism negating the existence of
n-W: physical reality. 118 ·
The Manobhiimi continues by explicating twenty-four assorted typologies that
•
seem to encompass the many modes in which sentient beings are reborn, behave,
interrelate,. and function in the cosmos. These typologies include: (1) five courses
(3) six material supports [f?r subsistence] ( adhara, yichf {!(f'if: gzh1),. ( 4) ten
measures of time (kala, shifen Si:5t, dus), (5) seven types of social relations and
J)OSsessions (parigrahavastu, sheshou shi fflr~il'., yangs su gzung ba'i dngos po),
I
114 Sanskrit text in BHATTACHARYA (1957:126-3019) = T1579.280b2r285brn = D4035.
ftno• 1Sb 3• The list is shortly discussed in the present article by Dan LUSTHAU's. .
I 1'For translation of these explanations and discussion of their background in Buddhist
urlptural sources, see the present article by Nobuyoshi Y AMABE.
IIG For, a discussion of iilayavijiiilna in the pertinent passage, see SCHMITHAUSEN
(19S7n:127-132).
ll 1 BHATTACHARYA (1957:30 2 i-44 14) = T1579.285bw288a25 = D4035.15br22a4. For an
fJnali~h translation, see KAJIYAMA (2000).
I I For a thorough discussion of the issue of the idealistic denial of the outer, physical
renllty In later Vijfiaptimatra thought ( weishi PtUI, rnam par rig pa tsam) with special
- · "':""'-'".;.;'.;,· . :-.:·.-- -·.:...::.----~ ~-=·-~-- _. _ ... --- -------::
~- - _- - - ---

64 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
(6) te_n forms of adornment and entertainment (pari~kira,-ziju jf~, yo byad), (7)
ten kmds _of sensual pleasure (kamopabhoga, shouyu st~, 'dad pa la longs spyod
f._!!), (8) e1gh! 1forms of p~rpetual pleasure-seeking ( abhik~JJanuvicarita, suixfng [li
fr~ ~gyu~ m~ __chad par -:7es su spyod pa), (9) eight worldly concerns (lokadharma~
sh1fa i:itt:t:, pg rten gyi chos), (10) three forms of social affinities (paksa pin a"
phyogs), (11) three typ~s of social interc?urse (lokayatra, shishi t!tJJ, ji; rten;.
spyod pa), (12) thre~ ~nds of conversation or speech (katha, yiiyan j§, gtam), m
(13) twenty-t~o vanetl~s of nefarious behavior (sElJ!lrambha, fafen [it'!Jlf, nyes
rtsom), (14) SIXty-four kmds of sentient beings (sattvanikava vouqinu zhi lei *'[ea;
---';, JI$ • · :., 119 . ~ · ' .; · e 'F.l Fl
K.3<51., sems cll!1 gy1 nsh . (15) eight stages of life (avastha, wei {ft, dus), (16) four
ways of ~ntenng the womb (garbhavakranti, jinru )J$, mngal du Jug pa), (17)
four b~dily ~?~es of C_?~PO~tm,!nt (iryiipatha, weiyf m'Z{i, spyod lam), (18) six
professions U1vika, huommg n5i:tp, 'tsho ba), (19) six material goods to be pre-
served (ara!~ shouhu "?IM, kun nas bsrung ba), (20) seven types of suffering
(duiJkha, ku o, sdug bsngal), (21) seven forms of self-conceit (miina, man'['f, nga
rgy~l), (~2) seven fo~ms o! pride Cf!i:_ada, qiao '[li, rgyags pa), (23) four types of
des1gna~10n (vyavahara, yanshu6 i=ilm, tha snyad), and (24) numerous lingual
conventions (sa.f!]bahuliini vyavahiirapadiini, zhongdu6 yanshu6 ju ,W3',;; miiJ
· th.a snyad kyi gzhi mang po dag). 120 r=r ' tho nggregates (skandhakausalya, yun shanqiao ril~V5, phung po la mkhas pa),
Having t~us .e~plained the operations (karman) of cognition, the remainder of
the_ ~~nobhum1 mtroduces a l~rge v~riety of doctrinal classifications (prabheda,
chabie §:5.:iU, dbye ba) t~at constitute different ways of categorizing outer and inner
phenomena as well as ?1verse aspects _of the Buddhist teachings. Such classificatory
schemes are probably mcluded here smce the objects of cognition are said to be all
phenomena (sarvadharma, Y_fqie fa -~1:t;, chos thams cad) pertaining to all six
senses, as opposed to the objects of the five sensory perceptions that are limited to
--=------ ----------
their respective sense-fields.
. The first classific~tion sums up all phenomena into three broad types, viz. those
mclud~d under. physical matter (riipasamudaya, se ju-§~, gzugs 'dus pa), those
belongmg to mmd and mental factors ( cittacaitasikakalapa, xin xinsuo pin {,,{,,pfr
ffi:t, sems dang sems las byung ba 'i tshogs), and those that are unconditioned
(. asa.f!JSJc.! t.a, wuwe1
' ,. :HEE~
"",t;<,)' uuus ma byas pa). 121 The explanation on phenomena
mclu_ded under physical matter discusses the nature of matter and how larger
phys1:al forms e~erge from the four basic material elements, viz. earth, water, fire,
and a1r .. The Abh1dharma theory of atoms (paramaJJu, jfwei @M, rdul phra rab) is
here r~jected and the opinion is set forth that the seeds (bija, zhongzi fir, sa
bon) (1.~., t~e causalyotential) for the material elements and their derived physical
forms stick m the mmd-stream, that is, within the mind itself, thereby suggesting a
phenomenology wh~re matte~ - at least the physical forms included in the body if
lj not the outer expenenced objects - emerge from the mind itself. 122 The exposition
11
' thorough discussion of the terms kusala and akusala, see the present article by Lambert
. 119 _The pa~sage. containing the clas~ification of the sixty-four kinds of sentient beings,
which mterestmgly mcludes a large vanety of socio-religious distinctions, has been studied
byHAKAMAYA (1999). . ·
121 BHATTACHARYA (1957:4416-529) = T1579.288a25-289C19 = D4035.22a4-26a6,
120
122 BHATTACHARYA (1957:5210-612) = T1579.289Czs-29lc16 = D4035.26a6-31a1.
_ _ See_ B!fAT!A~~Iff~ (1~57:521s-1_6): tatha hi/ sarve~am adhyatmikabahyanaJ!1 bhu-
tanam upadayampaJJaip cadhyatmaip c1ttasantatau bijani sannivistani/. Translation: "And
---- --------------------'--
The Yogficarabhrlmi and Its Adaptation 65
-· ·--..- - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
61 phenomena categorized as mind and mental factors presents the concomitance
botwcon the mind and its mental factors, and provides brief definitions for some of
lho Sl mental factors. 123 The category of unconditioned phenomena is not elabo-
RlOd In the present passage.
The second group of classifications pertains to causality and includes defini-
llODII of time ( adhvan, shi t!t, dus), arising (jiiti, sheng §.:., skye ba), elapsing (Jara,
/60 £1, r1a ba), enduring (sthiti, zhu {:1., gnas pa), imp~r.manence (anityat1,
wrlo.b4ng ffii1tt, mi rtag pa), and the four types of causal cond1t1ons (pratyaya, yµan
£It rk)'en) that are also propounded in the Sarvastivada Abhidharma tradition. 124
Tho third group of classifications concerns intentional socio-religious ethics
llftd enumerate~ asso~ted, divisions ?f beneficial ~kusala, ~han ~, d!e ba), ,~?n-
J,
bOnoflolal (akusala, bushan ::f ~, m1 dge ba and mdetermmate ( avyiilqta, wup ~
!a, Jung du ma bstan pa) actions and states. 25
.1The final group of classifications includes different types of divisions related to
tho twelve constituents of perception ( dhiitu, jie W, khams), viz. the five physical
10ft8C!I, cognition (manas), the five sense objects,' and the inner cognitive objects
dosianatcd as 'phenomena' ( dharmadhatu, tajie i:tW, chos kyi khams).
126
The Manobhumi ends by stating that these classifications may also be sub-
RUmed under a variety of other didactic topics, including what is called expertise in
IJPCrtlse in the constituents of perception (dhatukausaiya, jie shanqiao W~V5,
ll/Jlms la mkhas pa), expertise in the perceptual domains (iiyatanakausalya, chu
1/Jdnqiao ~~Vj, skye mched la mkhas pa), expertise in dependent arising
(1111trtynsamutpiidakausalya, yuanqi shanqiao ~JEB~V5, rten cing 'brel bar 'byung
N la mkhas pa), expertise in what does and does not constitute a basis127 (.sthiina-
1thln11kausalya, chu teichu shanqiao ~11::~~V5, gnas dang gnas ma ym pa la
mldws pa), expertise in the faculties (indriyakausalya, gen shanqiao ~.&~V5' dbang
pp la mkhas pa), as well as a classification known as the ~i~e po~?vts ~ert~ini~g ~
lho Buddha's teaching (navavastukEll!l buddhavacanam, fo yuyanpu sh1 suo{~,fl!i=i
J lhUI the seeds for all the material elements, those pertaining to oneself and the external
ODO&, ns well as for the derived physical matter pertaining to oneself reside in the mind-
llronm." The expression "pertaining to oneself' (acjhyatmika or adhyatma) refers to a
panon's own physical body; "external" (bahya) denotes outer, per~eiv~d objects other than·
\ho body. The editor is indebted to Hartmut BUESCHER for his kind feedback on the
trnnslntion of this passage.
12•1 For a study of these definitions in comparison with the definitions occurring in other
Abhldharma and Yogacara works, see the present article by Jowita KRAMER.
124 BHATTACHARYA (1957:61J-628) = T1579.29fo1r292a 12 = D4035.3la1-3lb3.
IU BHATTACHARYA (1957:62r63 23 ) = T1579.292a 12-292b14 = D4035.3lbr32b3. For a
8CHMITHAUSEN.
l26 BHATTACHARYA (1957:64 1-71 4) = Tl579.292bw294a13 = D4035.32br36b6,
ll7 The term 'basis' ( sthana, chu ~, gnas) here refers to what constitutes a ground for
mornlly good or bad behavior and the karmic results that ensue from such ethical actions.
Thu term also has a broader, philosophical connotation, where it might be better to render
llhllno and asthana as 'possibility' and 'impossibility'. For a discussion of the latter senses,
no BUESCHER (2008:115 fn.l).
 66 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
1L$J5Jr, san{s rgyas kyi bka 'i dngos po dgu). The latter set of nine points is briefly
explained. 12
The present volume contains no less than four articles concerned with text-
passages from the Manobhllmi The first of these is the contribution by Koichi
TAKAHASHI 129 (r'&J~~-). In his earlier scholarship, TAKAHASHI has time and
again grappled with the philosophical problem of reality posed in several Maha-
yana works. In a series of articles (1999a; 1999b; 2000), he discussed the notion of
reality's ultimate inexpressibility (nirabhilapyata, anabhilapyata) along with the
source-critical relationship between this term's central position in the Bodhisat-
tvabhllmi and its usage in earlier slltra sources. Moreover, throughout several
articles (2001a; 2001b; 2002; 2003; 2006) and a major monograph (2005), he
examined the Yogacara model of five entities or categories of reality (paiicavastu,
wiishi .li$, dngos po Inga) with special reference to the Tattviirthapafala chapter
of the Bodhisattvabhllmi and the *Bodhisattvabhllmi-Viniscaya book of the
t_-, .=. .• _ ·,·: •..=ccc~~==·'=ccc,c-~=.c-. -'-""--·· ... Viniscayas81pgrahaJJi. 130 According to this model, reality can be subsumed under
five categories, viz. (1) appearances (nimitta), (2) names (naman), (3) concepts
(vikalpa), (4), true being (tathatii), and (5) perfect knowledge (samyagjiiana). Yet,
I beneath this elaborate scheme lies a much more fundamental notion of vastu (shi
$, dngos po) as an existing 'entity', 'thing', or 'phenomenon', a usage of the word
that appears repeatedly in the YBh. In his present article, TAKAHASHI analyzes
this basic conception of the term vastu as it occurs in the Manobhllmi When
explaining the functioning (karman) of cognition, the Manobhllmi defines how
cognition thinks about its focus ( iilambanam upanidhyati) in' order to perceive a
thing ( vastu) correctly. TAKAHASHI links this with an explication of 'wrong view'
-== - -=- -=-== - =
(mithyadr~ti) given in the Savitarka-savicaradibhllmi, where reference is made to a
s~riptural passage dealing with wrong views. Tracing the citation back to several
Agama- and Nikaya-texts, he demonstrates how these slltra-passages came to be
interpreted in the Abhidharma literature of the Sarvastivada tradition and how
these interpretations, in turn, seem to have influenced the notion of vastu em-
ployed in the YBh. TAKAHASHI's article thus brilliantly exemplifies how a philoso-
phical analysis may carry philological repercussions for the study of the YBh.
The second paper concerned with the Manobhllmi is the article by Dan
LUSTHAUS. 131 In 2002, LUSTHAUS publishep a large monograph entitled Buddhist
12s BHATTACHARYA (1957:71 8-723) = T1579.294a r294b = D4035.36br37a .
1 2 6
129 The Japanese scholar Koichi TAKAHASHI (born 1971) is Assistant Professor at the
Graduate School of Humanities and Sociology at the University of Tokyo C****
Tokyo Daigaku). His doctoral dissertation was a study of the paficavastu theory (revised
edition published in 2005). As will be described in more detail below, he has published
several noteworthy articles on Yogiiciira-Vijfi.anavada philosophy and terminology.
130
The paiicavastu doctrine has also been studied in detail by Jowita KRAMER (2005).
See further the remarks given about its formation process and influence on subsequent
Buddhist philosophy in the present article by Noritoshi ARAMAKI and Gadjin M. NAGAO's
notes on the pa.ic<1vastu in the present article by Leslie S. KAWAMURA.
131 The American scholar Dan LUSTHAUS is Research Associate at Harvard University.
He received the PhD degree from Temple University in Pennsylvania in 1989 with a
dissertation on Vijfi.aptimatra philosophy in India and in the Chinese tradition of Xuan-
zang's Cheng weishi Jim (f&Pt!Jf!k~)- He has formerly served as faculty member at the
T_~e _>:~g_~~~~~~°!!}j _a11~ ~:s ~~~~tation___ __ ___________ ~?__
Phonomonon~l~;;,·~h~;ein he argued that Yogac~ra-:'7ijfi.~navada is b~st charac-
tortzed as n form of phenomenology and that its view implies tha! phys,ical matter
(l't1p11, so '€9., gzugs) and - in extensi~n. there?f - also the b_ody (~uP_a, se-@., ~zugs) I
plat Independently from the perce1vi~g mmd. To ~xamme this issue: which to .\
lftm.O extent may be equaled with what is called the mmd-bo~y pro?lem m West:rn
philosophy, LUSTHAUS (op.cit.:183-24~) looked at the relationship betw~en rupa ,,.,,,
nnd the cognitive intentionality of action (karman) as presented m Abhidharma,
Yosncara, and Madhyamaka sources. 132 Further, he, discu~~ed, (~p.cit::47~-~~1)
how Xuunzang's *Vijiiaptimatratasiddhis~stra ( Ch~ng_ we1~~1- fun_ ff\GllfU~.allll,
T1'~S), which is the core treatise for the Chmese Yogacara-ViJnanavada tradit1_on,
roJ;eH the notion of externality but nevertheles~ seems to present the ontologi~al
8Ultu8 of rupa as an entity that must be real m order to serve as the m~t~nal
1ub1tratum for experience. In other words, LUSTHAUS ar¥ued_ that Yog~cara-
YijftQnavada should not be taken as ~ f01:m ~f ph~losophical idealism accord_mg to
which only the mind exists. While it certamly is th~ case that the poctn~e of
"representation-only" ( vijiiaptimiitra) is not predommant an~ only sporadically
Appears in early y ogacara works, such as the Y~h and_ the A~h1dharn:asamucc~ya,
tUSTHAUS' argument was provocative to the field: smce h!s ~na~ysis w~s ma~~lY,
baaed on later Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada texts, especially Xuan~ang s G_hen_g w~1s~1
Jun, which have since long been regarded by modern scholarship as bemg idealistic
work11,133 .
ln his present article, LUSTHAUS turns to the YB~ and delves deeper mto the
ftllt\lro of the mind-body complex. In a sense, the article thus forms a prequel ~r
bngltground study to his 2002 monograph by examining the mi~d-body pr?blem m
tho curliest y ogacara source, namely the YBh, which generally is not considered_ to
bo fin Idealistic Vijfi.anavada text but which i~- :~cog~ized to ~~ve formed a maJor :I
I
doctrinal basis for the later Yogacara-V1Jnanav_ada t~~ditl?n .. Undoubte~ly,
~STHAUS' present focus on the YBh stems from his participation m the ongomg ·
,,
University of California at Los Angeles, Florida State University, ~he l!niver~jty of Illino_is
Urbnnn•Champaign, the University of Missouri, and Boston Umversity. ~1s s~holars~1p
combines an interest in Western philosophy, especi~lly pheno1:1onology, with an expertl~e
In Yogncnra-Vijfi.anavada Buddhist philosophy. Aside from his monograph on _Buddh1~t
Dbonomenology (2002) to be discussed below, he has further published a translation of J1 s
ChJnose commentary on the Heart-Sutra (LusTHAUS & Hm-:G-CHUNG, 2001), a survey of
Yo t1cnra scholarship in the twentieth century (~999), an a!t~cle on the role of the Heart-
Sain In Chinese Buddhism (2003), an intro~uctlon to ~ogacar_a thought (2006), as ~ell a~
pro! articles concerned with issues in Chan a!1d Taoist st~d1es (LUSTHAU~, 1985, 1990, '1
1095; 2003). He is co-chair of the Yogacara Studies Consultation at the Amenca~ Academy
of Religion and is also a member of the team translating t~e YBh .into English for t~e
ftDK-Numata series, where he has been assigned with translatmg the first parts of the Basic
I
leatlon, h ab
IJ2 For other studies of some of the same textual passages on karman ere ana1yze Y
L\IITHAUS though without reference to the ontological status of matter, see the mono-
paphs by KRAGH (2006) and BAYER (2010).. .
IJJ For a critical response to LUSTHAUS' mterpretatlon, see SCHMITHAUSEN (2005).
72 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
cernment Nor Discursiveness (Avitarkavicara Bhiimi.{1). Given the length of the
names of these bhiimis, the third book is often referred to by the abbreviated title
The Foundation {Concerning] Having Discernment and Discursiveness, and So
Forth ( *Savitarka Savicaradi Bhiimi.{1 or *Savitarkasavicaradibhiimi or the even
shorter title *Savitarkadibhiim1).
Discernment ( vitarka, xun ey, rtog pa) and discursiveness ( vicara, si ~. dpyod
pa)1 40 were listed in the Manobhiimi as two of the 51 mental factors accompanying
the inner cognitive sense (manas, yi if, yid). Discernment is said to be the cogni-
tive operation that is responsible for ascertaining what is perceived by the senses by
initially labeling it with a name, while discursiveness is explained as being the
subsequent conceptual operation of deciding whether the perceived sense-object is
desirable and what course of action one might want to take in relation to it. 141
From among the various cognitive processes explained in the previous book,
discernment and discursiveness thus play a crucial role in sarp.saric bondage, and
what characterizes a successful Buddhist meditation (samadhi, ding'ff!_, ting nge
'dzin) 142 is said to be the pacification and absence of these particular mental factors,
as will be explained in the following book. For this reason, these two cognitive
processes are singled out and explained at great lengtl} in the present book. Overall,
the *Savitarka Savicaradi Bhiimi.{1 book consists of five main segments:
140 The English .equivalent 'discursiveness' is here used for vicara, in that this term
denotes the general process of thinking about an object and decjding what one wants to do
with it, after the object has initially been identified and labeled, i.e., discerned ( vitarka), by
cognition. The translation 'inquiry' is sometimes used elsewhere for vicara to emphasize its
more analytic aspect in which the term is used in other contexts. As for other translations
for vitarka and v1cara, DELEANU (2000a:72) calls vitarka "coarse observation" and vicara
"subtle examination", BUESCHER (2010:350) calls them "reasoning" and "inquiry," while
Jowita KRAMER in her present article uses the translations "rough examination" and "subtle
investigation". However, in the present context the words appear mainly to refer to general
cognitive processes of rationally identifying and thinking about objects without particularly
pertaining to processes of deeper contemplation, analysis, or (philosophical) investigation.
It seems to be precisely for this reason that these general cognitive operations are relevant
when discussing how the conceptual mind should be calmed down during meditation, as it
is done in the present and the subsequent books of the YBh. Hence, the more general
English equivalents "discernment" and "discursiveness" have been adopted in this summary.
141 On the point that directing the mind towards something means desiring it, whereas
not directing the mind towards an object means not desiring it, see DELEANU (2000a:69
fn.23). .
142 The term samadhi is here represented by the English equivalent "meditation." In
some contexts samadhi denotes very advanced states of deep absorption and meditative
concentration; however, in many contexts it is used as just one of the most general words
for meditation, similar to other partial synonyms, such as dhyana. Literally, samadhi just
means "holding the mind together," as also expressed in the Chinese translation ding (JE)
and the Tibetan loanword ting meaning "to fix [the mind on the contemplative focus]." For
a· thorough discussion of the differences and overlaps between the four terms samadh1;
dhyana, samahita, and bhavana, see ADAM (2002:33-74; 2006:71-82). To avoid excessive
mystification of the terms samadhi and dhyana, the English equivalent "meditation" has
been adopted indiscriminately for either word when used in more general contexts here
and below. However, in some instances the phrase "meditative absorption" has also been
employed in order to emphasize deeper states of meditation.
The Yogaciirabhumi and Its Adaptation 73
"'""' ........................... _.................................... ······-· ···-·- - - -···-··-·· ··-···-··''"""'""'''""""-·····-··-·····-··-····-··-····-. -·····-··-······-··-······- - - - . ·····- ............. ,... _... _.. ,....... -······- ·······-··-·····-··-···--. -····-·"
(A) A description of the realms in saipsara ( dhatuprajiiapti-
yynvnsthana, jie shishe jianli Wflllig~~}'.[, khams gdags pa rnam
par gzhagpa) 143
(B) A description of the defining characteristics [of discernment
and discursiveness] (lak~aJJaprajiiaptivyavasthana, xiang shishe
jlnnli ~§flllig~~}'.[, mtshan nyid gdags pa rnam par gzhag pa)
(C) A description ·of the associated correct observation (yoniso-
manaskaraprajiiaptivyavasthana, nigu6 zuoyi shishe jianli tzDfJ.11
;ifjfgfilt~}'.[, tshul bzhin yid la byed pa gdags pa rnam par gzhag
pa)
(D) A description of the associated incorrect observation ( ayon-
l!omanaskaraprajiiaptivyavasthana, bu rugu6 zuoyi shishe jianli
:f~Dl]!{')::iffllli~~JL, tshul bzhin ma yin pa yid la byed pa gdags
pa roam par gzhag pa)
(E) A description of defilement ( saipklesaprajiiaptivyavasthana,
zhan dengql shishe jiimli fU1~~iEBllllifilt:~}'.[, kun nas nyon
mongs pa gdags pa rnam par gzhag pa)
ThCI first main·segment, (A) a description of realms, is a presentation of the three
roolms (dhatu, jie W, khams) of saipsara. 144 This classical division of cyclic exis-
ltftOo, which dates back to some of the earliest meditative traditions in Bud-
dh11in, 14' is
a way of distinguishing between ordinary existence and two forms of
~;ressively subtle planes of rebirth corresponding to higher levels of meditation;
Wbarcln the processes of discernment and discursiveness are increasingly stilled.
HJncc the division into these realms is contingent upop. the notions of discernment
and discursiveness and since it also is of great relevance to explanations of the
llQOR of the Buddhist path given later in the text, this topic is explained first in the
prosont book. ' .
- The three realms are the realm of sensual desire (kamadhatu, yujie tiXW, 'clod
par lthsms), the realm of subtle non-sensual corporeality (riipadhatu, sejie 5)i!.,
- kyi khams), and the realm of incorporeality ( arupyadhatu, wusejie ~5W,
; med pa 'i khams). 146 The former denotes ordinary forms of sarp.saric rebirth,
the latter two denote meditative states of rebirth. The three realms are
dOIOrlbed in eight points: (1) the number of realms (saipkhya, shu IQ:, grangs), (2)
lhOlr various domains or states of rebirth (sthana, chu ~' gnas), (3) the sizes of
IGDtion t beings in each domain ( sattvaparimaJJa, y6uqfng Jiang i§'[W.,m, sems can
111 tshad), (4) the beings' varying lifespans (ayus, shou ifJ,, tshe'i tshad), (5) their
iflfforlng experiences (paribhoga, shouyong·§tffl, longs spyod), (6) different types
lol3 For the often oc~urring term vyavasthana, which in this summary has been transla-
ted loosely with "description, presentation, or exposition" but which more precisely denotes
ntoxtunl segment that "determines" or "establishes" a given doctrinal point on a firm basis,
110 ~l!U!ANU (2006:38 n.22). ·
4~ Sanskrit text in BHATTACHARYA (1957:73w1126) = T1579.294bw302b18 = D4035.
!7b2•!7b5.
14s See VETTER (1988:63-73).
14a The names of the three realms are elsewhere typically seen as the desire realm, the
tln'm 1·enlm, and the formless realm.
 74
Ulrich Timme KRAGH
!
0 birth ~ upap~~ti, sheng j:=_, skye ba), (7) various ways of becoming embodied
(atmabhava, z1tJ l§'ffl, lus), and (8) an extensive presentation of causality (hetu-
pratyara, yinyuan guo E;I~*' rgyu dang rkyen).
With th~ second main segment, (B) a description of the defining characteristics
(lak~aJJa, XIang t§, mtshan nyid), the book turns to givin; a short presentation of
the mental factors of discernment and discursiveness. 14 These are made known
through seven points: (1) their constitution (sarfra, tJXing'lffl'(:1, Jus) in the sense of
ho'; they take the form of intention ( cetana, sf ,E~t sems pa) and knowledge (jiiana,
hw 31, shes pa); (2) their foci (alambana, suo yuan pfr~, dmigs pa) on names,
words, _and pho~em_es; (3) their character (akara, xfngxiimg fit§, rnam pa) of
respectlve_ly con~1gnmg and examining such foci; (4) their role in the generation
(samutthana, ~e1!fqf ~~, kun nas slang ba) of speech; (5) their subdivisions
(prabheda, chab1e ~:J.lU, rab tu dbye ba); (6) their specification ( viniscaya, jueze 1*
~, rnam par nges pa) as a form of conceptuality ( vikalpa, fenbie 5t5.:W, rnam par
rtog pa); ~nd (7) their activity or process (pravrtti, Jiuzhuan it", Jug pa) in terms
of respectively ascertaining what is sensed, and then deciding what is desirable and
~hat subsequent course of action to take. The latter point also includes an explana-
tion _of ?ow thes~ ~ental processes are silenced on the higher levels of mundane
med1tat10~ pertai_nmg to the realms of non-sensual corporeality and incorporeality.
, The th~rd mam segment (C) is a presentation of the correct observation (yoni-
so_man_askara, niguo zuoyi tzD:EJlH'F~, tshul bzhin yid la byed pa) that is associated
with discernment and discursiveness. 148 Correct observation here refers to a mental
?utlook incli~ed to practice generosity and uphold a good tnoral. This is discussed
m terms of eight points, viz. (1) its phases (adhi~fhana, chii ~, gnas), 149 (2) value
(vastu, sh1 .~' dngos po), (3) pursuance (parye~al}ii, qiu *•
tshol ba), (4) enjoy-
ment (parib~oga,. shouyong ~ffl, longs spyod pa), (5) proper accomplishment
---- -------- --==--=- (samy~kpratJpattJ, zheng xing IEfi, yang dag par 'grub pa), and (6-7) the role it
pla~s m t?~ accumulation of merit through the sravaka- and pratyekabuddha-
ve~ic~e (s!ava~~: & pratyekabuddha-yanasaipbharaprayoga, shengwen- §00 &
du;ue-c~eng z111ang fangbian juJl;~ft~*-1:15~, nyan thos- & rang sangs rgyas-kyi
tkeg pa 1 tshogs la sbyor ba), and (8) in the cultivation of the perfections (paramita-
fllrharaprayoga, b6Ju6midu6 yfnfa fangbian iff~~~g [~:15~, pha rol tu phyin
pa bsgrub pa la sbyor ba). The latter points pertaining to the sravakas, pratyeka-
buddhas, ~n~ bodhisattvas are not explained in detail, but an internal cross-
reference 1s s1_mply given to the text's later books dealing with these practices. The
passage also mcludes a short explanation on different forms of alms-giving and
their benefits.
141 B
148 HATTACHARYA (1957:112r1148) = T1579.302bw302ez1 = D4035.57b5-58b7•
149 BHATTACHARYA (1957:1149-11716) = T1579.302C2z-303b16 = D4035.58br60b2.
It_ may b~ remarked that some of the Sanskrit terms have other literal meanings than
the Enghsh e~mvalents given here; e.g., adhisthana literally is a 'basis', vastu means a 'thing',
and paryeJapa t~nds to mean 'investigation'. However, when the actual explanations given
on these pomts m the present passage are taken into consideration, the literal translations
~o not m~ke sense and .consequently the explanatory expressions 'phases', 'value', and
pursua~ce have been adopted instead. The reader may be reminded that the English
words given here should not be considered translations but mere equivalents based on the
concrete contents of each passus.
The Yogacarabhllmi and Its Adaptation 75
nnd
Thl& brief presentation is followed by a longer exposition (D) of discernment
discursiveness associated with incorrect observation ( ayonisomanaskara, bu
qµd zuoyi 1'~03:JIH'F~, tshul bzhin ma yin pa yid la byed pa), which is here
Uft~Drltood as a variety of sixteen types of mistaken views and beliefs. 150 While
lt)fllQ of the mentioned views are major themes in Indian philosophy, other are
OfOhnlc positions, which are originally described in early Mainstream Buddhist
agrtpiures, such as "The Discourse on Brahman's Net" (Brahmajalasutta). They
lnaludo: (1) the (Saqikhya] view that a result exists inherently in its cause (hetu-
l}bfH,llBndviida, yinzh6ng youguo lun lz;l$1'!f*§Rll, rgyu la 'bras bu yod par smra
lM)lm (2) the (Siirpkhya/Mimiiqisaka] belief that a higher, eternal reality appears
mo
111 world through its manifestation ( abhivyaktivada, c6ng yuan xianle Jun 1tt~
ll'TBlfll, mngon par gsal bar smra ba), for example that eternal sound manifests in
ifio form of the Hindu Vedas; (3) the Buddhist [Sarvastiviida] and Hindu
[M1mllrp.saka] idea that things of the past and the !uture exist as real entities
(ltlttlnDgatadravyasadvada, fa Jaj shiyou Jun ~*W1'!fam'l, 'das pa dang ma 'ongs pa
if/nasuyodpar smra ba); (4) the [Hindu and Jain] belief in a self (atmavada,ji wo
/un ftt~ijffij, bdag tu smra ba); (5) the [Buddhist/Hindu/Jain] belief in eter-
nity/permanence ( sasvatavada, j] ~hang Jun ~tmim'l, rtag P_ar smra ba); (6) :he [Jain]
¥low that earlier performed actions constitute truly existent causes (purvalqta-
hotuaodvada, suzuo yin Jun fEi{'Flz:;Jmfii", sngon byas pa rgyur smra ba); (7) the
(Hindu) belief in a, C~eator, such as a ~upreme Being (Jsvaradikartrkavada, ji zizai
"tllrll wei zuozhe Jun atsft~~{t:::Mmfli, dbangphyug la sags pa byed pa par smra
IHI); (B) the [Hindu] belief in violent religious practices, such as the sacrifice of
Mlmnls (hiipsadhannavada, hai wei zhengfa ~~IEi~§m'l, rnam par 'tshe ba 'i chos
IU smra ba); (9) notions that the world has or does not have a beginning and an end
(ant/Jnantikavada, youbian wubian Jun ~.il~:ilit, mtha' dang mtha' med par
,mrn ba); (10) [Safijiiya's] dialectic rhetoric of ambiguous evasion, such as not
~Jccting immortality and so forth ( amaravik~epavada, bu.sfjiaoluan Jun ::f~~IL
Bt, mtha' mi spong bar smra ba); (11) the view that the world and the self have
artaen without a cause ( ahetuvada, wuyfn jian Jun ~lz;!J!§Rll, rgyu med par smra
/Jl)I (12) the materialistic belief in a self that perishes with the death of the physical
body (ucchedavada, duanjian Jun ffiJ!im'l, chad par smra ba); (13) the nihili~tic
view that there is no benefit in giving alms or making offerings and that there exists
ffO liberation from SaipSiira (nastitavada, k6ngjian Jun ~J!§Rfj, med par smra ba); 151
(14) the. [Hin?u] v~ew t~at the ~rahman caste is superior to other ~ast~s (agrava1a,
w,Jngji zuisheng Jun ~at~Mlam'l, mchog tu smra ba); (15) a behef m the attam-
mont of a state of bliss of nirviil}a already within the present existence ( suddhivada,
wangji qingjing Jun ~Hm~mfii", dag par smra ba); and (16) the [Vedic] belief in
lhc efficacious power of the sun, the moon, solar and lunar eclipses, constellations,
and auspicious days, for which reason such believers recommend ritual offerings to
lhcse entities (kautukamangalavada, wangji jixiang Jun !~Hta~im'l, dge mtshan
150 BHATTACHARYA (1957:1181-1609) = Tl579.303b25-313a10 = D4035.60br81a1.
m For a discussion of a reference in this passage to the Sarµkhya master Var~agaQ.ya,
aoc SEYFORT RUEGG (1962). For a discussion of the whole passage, see MIKOGAMI (1969).
152 For more about false views associated with the uselessness of giving alms or making
offerings, see the present article by Koichi TAKAHASHI.
 76 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
dang bkra shis su smra ba). The text presents these views and counters each with a
short refutation.
~ Jhe final main segment (E)_gives a description of defilement (saipklesa, zariin
~7fs;:, ku_n1{ff ny?n.mongs .pa), 1.e., the fundamental principles leading to bondage
m sa1.psara. This 1s explamed through three major points: (I) the defilement of
afflictions (ldesasaipkl~sa, fannao zaran 1.&'['lff*, nyon mongs pa 'i kun nas nyon
mongs pa), (II) the defilement of actions (karmasa1.pldesa, ye zaran *~*' las .kyi
kun nas nyon mongs pa), and (III) the defilement of birth (janmasamldesa sheng
zariin §=:.ff*, s.kye ba'i kun nas nyon mongs pa). · ' .
The first major point, (I) the defilement of afflictions, provides a thorough
presentation of afflictions (ldesa, fannao j:ffi['['j, nyon mongs), 154 i.e., the emotive
and rational _states thr~w~h which sentient beings misperceive reality, e.g., desire,
hatred, and 1g~oran,c~. These are here ~xplained under nine headings: (1) the
nature (s~ab~/ava, zmng §'['i, ngo bo nyid) of afflictions; (2) their division (pra-
bh~da, fenb~e :B-~U, rab tu dbye ba) into different subgroupings, especially ten
mam types;' mcludmg an explanation of the 128 types of afflictioll{i eliminated on
the Buddhist path through the realization of the four existential facts of the noble
oles; (3) their six causes (hetu, yin lzg, rgyu); (4) their seven modes (avastha, wei
fa, gnas skabs~; (5) the way (mukha, men F5, sgo) in which they defile; (6) the
de~re~s of ~heir vehemence (adhimatrata, shimgpln J:i:fp, lei ba or che ba); (7)
the1~ m~lus10n under seven delusions ( viparyasasa1.pgraha, diandao she :lfffiftlfflr,
phyzn c1 log tu bsdus pa); (8) a list of various related terms 156 (paryaya, chabiet}J§;5JU,
Ifl8!71 l(Ia!1gs); and (9). an explanation for why they are ,detrimental (adinava,
guohuan ~,~, nyes dm1gs). ' attention in modern scholarship. 161 The explanation on dependent arising is given
T~e sec~nd m~jor poi~t, (II) the defil~ment of actions, gives a thorough pre-
sentation of mtentional action (karman, ye*' las) 57 in the sense of ethics and the
153 ,,
154 BHATTACHARYA (1957:160io-232 15 ) = Tl579.313air328b24 = D4035.8lai-120b 2..
:As noted b~ Sc~~IT_HAus_E~ (1_987a:2~6-247 ~n.21), t~e original meaning of the
Buddhist !erm klesa (Pah kilesa) 1s defilement or 'stam', but m later Sanskrit sources the
tern_i received th~ addit~onal i:rieaning 'affliction', which is reflected in the present English
eqmvalent, used m consideration of the common exegesis of term in the age when the YBh
was composed. In some modern popular Buddhist English literature, these have also been
r~ferred to as "disturbing emotions," though not all of them are emotions, e.g., "doubt" or
"ignorance. II , 160 BHATTACHARYA (1957:195 1-23217) = T1579.320b20-328b24 = D4035.99b1-120bz.
I I 155 · 161 See the pertinent remarks and references in the present article by Martin DELHEY
. BHATTACHARYA (1957:16010-17010) = T1579.313a19-315a12 = D4035.81a1-86a6. The
first part of the text has been edited and translated into German with copious annotations
by AHN (2003:56-87, 158-214).
1•1 I 156 P.~ryaya
- denotes a 1·1st of terms that are doctrinally related or similar though not
neces~anly wholly synonymous, e.g., citta, vijiiana, and manas. Elsewhere, it is also transla-
ted with the e~r~ssion "quasi-syny?oms." However, given that there often is very little
actu~\ synonymity mvolved, t~e ~nghsh equ~valent "related terms" has been ll'dopted here.
For ev~ntual non-spec1~h~t readers, 1t may be noted that the usual English rendition
of the. Sanskrit word karman 1s karma'. Though the English word karma is often under-
stood m a popular sense as denoting the ripening of actions done in former lives the word
act~ally means 'acti~n'. Hence: the present J?assage is concerned with explaining i~tentional
action. The Sansknt expressions for the Tipening of karma are "the result of action"
(karmaphala) or "ripening" ( vipaka). l ·
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 77
mornl force ethics play in sarµsaric reincarnation. 158 This is likewise explained
under nine headings, which are almost the same as above: (1) the nature (svabhava,
IJKJ/18 i;;J '[:1, ngo bo nyid) of action as a causal condition for reincarnation; (2) the
division (prabheda, fenbie :B-53U, rab tu dbye ba) of action into different types, e.g.,
tho ten beneficial and the ten negative actions, which are explained at great
longth; 139 (3) a short list of ten causes (hetu, yzn lzg, rgyu) for action; (4) five modes
(avasthA, wei {ft, gnas skabs) of action; (5) the way (mukha, men F5, sgo) in which
notion brings about a result (phala, guo *' 'bras bu), including an explanation of
different forms of karmic fruition and how action causes harm or benefit; (6) the
degrees of strength ( adhimatrata, shangpln _ti:fp, lei ba or che ba) of action; (7) the
three delusions ( viparyasa, diandao :l'rriftl, phyin ci log pa) of action; (8) a list and
oxpllcation of various related terms (paryaya, chabie t.!1£53U, rnam grangs); and (9)
Clft explanation as to why action is detrimental ( adinava, guohuan ~,f,, nyes
dmlgs).
Finally, the third major point, (III) the defilement of birth, explains reincarna-
tion (janma, sheng ±; s.kye ba) in sa1.psara. 160 This is treated under four headings:
(1) a division (prabheda, chabiet.!1£53U, rab tu dbye ba) of rebirth into various types;
(2) a short scriptural explanation of the hardship ( vyasana, jianxin ii¥, sdug
b.,ngal ba) of rebirth; (3) a short scriptural explanation of the uncertainty (aniyama,
buding ::f 5E, ma nges pa) of rebirth; and (4) an explanation of the process or
functioning (pravrtti, lizizhuan ire:",
Jug pa) of rebirth in the sense of dependent
nrlsing (pratityasamutpada, yuanqit/!iJf,, rten cing 'brel bar 'byung ba). Dependent
nrlsing is here presented in great detail, which is a passage that has received some
In nine subpoints: (1) the constitution (sarira, ti ft, Jus) of dependent arising; (2)
the ways (mukha, men F5, sgo) in which dependent arising accounts for reincarna-
tion and death as well as outer causality in the world; (3) the meaning ( artha, yi ~,
don) of dependent arising in the sense that it accounts for impermanence, causality,
sarpsaric bondage, and liberation; ( 4) an elaborate analysis ( vibhaiiga, chabie t.!1£53U,
rnam par dbye ba) of each of its twelve links; (5) their particular sequence (krama,
c}di :kffi, rim pa); (6) a derivative analysis (nirukt1; shicf ~B~, nges pa 'i tshig)1 62 of
158 BHATTACHARYA (1957:17011-19418) = T1579.315au-320b20 = D4035.86a6-99b1.
159 A p~rt of this point explaining the negative action of wrong view (mithyadr~.ti, xiajian
.!m.%, Jog par Jta ba) is treated in the present article by Koichi TAKAHASHI.
and KRITZER (1999:18-19). For the primary sources, see BHATTACHARYA (1957:198r1941s)
= T1579.321a13-328b24 = D4035.101a1-120b 2. The present article by Changhwan PARK
gives a thorough analysis of a segment from this passage.
162 The term nirukti refers to a form of exegesis used in Indian sastric writing, where an
author explains the meaning of a term by deriving it from a given verbal stem and then
explaining how the term may be said to encapsulate the action expressed by the verb.
Nirukti is sometimes translated with 'etymology' or 'hermeneutical etymology', but since
the associations that Indian authors make between a given word and one or more verbal
stems often are more exegetical in nature than historically correct etymologies, the transla-
tion 'etymology' seems to be ill-suited, at least when seen from a modern linguistic under-
standing of this term. Consequently, the expression "derivative analysis" has been adopted
here. For the use of nirukti as an exegetical device, see the below summary of the
-----=----
 Ulrich Timme KRAGH The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 79
78 .. ·-···-····-·-····-·---·-··- -- ---··-·· ··-···-«-·-·--·--·--- ... ·-· -- --···-·····-·"-.. -·-···-··--·-·-·····-··--··-··-· ·- -----··-·""-··-···-·-··-··---·-·--·--- ---·-····- .. ··-·-···-·-··----·--··

the literal meaning of the term pratityasamutpiida; (7) the ways in which depen- of lhe three realms ( dhiitu, jie :W, khams), as well as in the subsequent Samahitii
dent arising functions as a conditioning factor (pratyayatva, yuaJ1XJ'ng rkyen ~tt, DhOmlg, Sravakabhum1; and Bodhisattvabhumi books. The examples stem from
nyid); (8) a detailed commentary on its conditioning (pratyayatvaprabheda, fenbie tho Sarvastivada and/or Mulasarvastivada corpora of the so-called "Great
yuan :5t.3U~, rkyen gyi rab tu dbye ba); and (9) a summary of how this topic is Dlacourses" (Mahiisutra, Dajing ::k*i, Mdo chen po), i.e., selected texts extracted
treated in the sutras (sutriintasmpgraha, she zhu jing ffli~*i, mdo sde bsdu bar from the canonical scriptures ( iigama) that were learnt and ritually recited, also for
bya ba). 163 protective purposes, by ordained and lay practitio:qers alike (SKILLING, 1997a:l 7,
U), The examples of embedding include the Sunyatii-mahiisiltra, the Mahii-
In the present volume, a single contribution has the third book as its central focus, latl)'DtDsutra, and especially the Mayajalasutra, all of which have been thoroughly
namely the article by Peter SKILLING, 164 which concerns the use of scriptural UODtod in SKILLING's comprehensive study of the Mulasarvastivada Mahiisutra
quotations in the YBh. SKILLING has earlier written very extensively on the empus (1997a) and his edition of ten such sutras preserved in Tibetan (1994). 166
Buddhist siltra-literature. 165 He (2009b) has also discussed the literary genres of MIA present contribution vividly illuminates the strong influence that the Sarvasti-
the Indian Buddhist commentarial literature and outlined different manners in vAdn nnd Mulasarvastivada iigamas had on the Buddhist literary traditions of
which scriptural interpretation was given in the form of direct siltra-commentaries northern India, which - given their very fragmentary survival :--- have hitherto
or independent siistra-treatises. Such treatises typically incorporate numerous ncolved less attention in modern scholarship than the much better preserved
scriptural fragments through paraphrase or quotation. He has formerly examined Slnghnlese Mahavihara Pali canon. SKILLING's article is also of consequence for
the use of quotations in two sastras, namely Dasabalasrimitra's Saqimitiya- tho study of the Smpdhinirmocanasutra and the SuvarJJaprabhiisa, both of which
compendium Sa1pskrtasmpskrtaviniscaya (SKILLING, 1987:6-11) and Bhaviveka's 1h1rc certain key-similes with the Miiyiijiilasutra. 167
Madhyamaka-doxography Tarkajviila. (SKILLING, 1997b). Aside from SKILLING'S article, seven other articles make pertinent remarks on
· In the present article, SKILLING examines more deeply the use of citation as a tho book. Hidenori S. SAKUMA mentions the research presented earlier by
literary practice. In particular, he hones in on a special form of citation, which he YAMABE (2000b:68) that doctrinal points generally associated with the Sautrantika
refers to as "embedding", where an unmarked siltra quotation is seamlessly incor- trudltion are in the Basic Section concentrated in the Savitarka-saviciiriidibhumi; it
porated into the exegesis of a treatise. The examples he considers from the YBh lhould be added that such views .are also found in parts of the Viniscayasa1pgraha1Jl.
occur in segment (A) of the *Savitarkasaviciiriidibhumi cqntaining the description Norltoshi ARAMAKI discusses the book's overall placement in the compositional
. ' hlltory of the text. Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN cites the book's definition of kusala as
monning 'irreprochable' (anavadya). Martin DELHEY mentions the available
adltlons and translations. Koichi TAKAHASHI translates and analyzes several
Bodhipakwapafala chapter (I.17) of the Bodhisattvabhiimi book, where a short explana- pannges from the book, incl1:1ding a passus on the term "cognition concerning the
tion is given. See also KRAGH (2009:26-27) for a discussion and exemplification of the term lllnblishment of phenomena" ( dharmasthitijiiiina) as well as a piece dealing with
in Buddhist commentarial writing. 'fll1e view' ( dr~fi), demonstrating how the latter notion forms a premise for
-
~

I 163 For a slightly different outline of the YBh's segment on pratltyasamutpada, see
understanding the term 'existing thing' ( vastu) in the Manobhumi Yasunori
I· KRITZER (1999:24-25 fn.35). It may be added that KRITZER also has examined the parallels
S\JOAWARA translates a passage on "turning back the mind" (pratyudiivarttate
that occur between the YBh and Kosakiira Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosa-bhawa, which
are particularly numerous in the present book of the Basic Section (KRITZER, 2005:xxxiii). IIIAnasaJp) to contrast the book's usage of this phrase with a slightly different usage
164 Peter SKILLING, a Canadian citizen born in 1949, has been a resident of Thailand for fn the Bhavaniimayi Bhumil;. Finally, Changhwan PARK quotes, translates, and
thirty years. In the period 1972-1976, he undertook a traditional Buddhist education at a dlaeusses at length two passages on dependent arising (pratityasamutpada), one of
I' I monastic seminary in Thailand, studying Buddhist scriptures in Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, and which has elsewhere been identified as the original model for one of the positions
Thai. During the years 1976-1988, he taught English and worked as an independent scholar uerlbed to 'earlier masters' (purviiciizya) in Vasubandhu Kosakara's Abhidharma-
in Bangkok. He then began working for the, Pali Text Society (1988-2002) and is now ' ko'nbhliffa. 168
iii I 11 Maitre de Conferences (i.e., Professor) at the Ec9le fram;aise d'Extreme-Ori~nt (EFEO) in
Bangkok and Paris. He received his PhD from l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes in Paris
in 2004 with a dissertation on the Mahasrltras of the Miilasarviistivada tradition, followed
ii' 111 I by a Habilitation from the same institution in 2008 with a thesis on textual communities in
•
, I
I South and South-East Asian Buddhism. He has been Visiting Professor at Harvard
I Univer~ity (2000), Oxford University (2002), l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes (2003), 16~ For the Tibetan editions of the Mayajalasrltra, the Srlnyatamahasrltra, the
the International College of Advanced Buddhist Studies in Tokyo (2004), the University of M11hllsanyatasrltra, see SKILLING (1994:3-57, 146-186, and 188-263 respectively). For his
California at Berkeley (2005), the University of Sydney (2009), and Saka University in bnokground study of these text~, see SKILLING (1997a:227-265, 335-363, 365-400 respec-
Tokyo (2010). He is also Special Lecturer at Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok and tlvot1J, For ~o~e on ~itations of the Mayajalasrltra in the YBh, see SKILLING (1997a:234).
Honorary Associate in the Department of Indian Sub-Continental Studies at the University 7 On this mterlmkage, see SKILLING (1997a:246-249). ·
168 For more on the prlrvacarya passages in the Abhidharmakosabhawa and their asso-
of Sydney. For a selection of his publications, see below.
165 See SKILLING (1976a; 1976b; 1978a; 1978b; 1978c; 1979a; 1979b; 1979c; 1979d; 1980; ldAtlon with the YBh, see HAKAMAYA (1986b), YAMABE (1999), KRITZER (2000c; 2001;
1998; 2003; 2004; 2005; 2007a; 2007b:232-241; 2008; 2009a; and 2010). 200S), PARK (forthcoming), as well as the present article by Nobuyoshi YAMABE.
 The Yogiiciirabhumi and Its Adaptation 81
80 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
from sensuality (kiimopasalphitalp daurmanasyam, yu suoyin you tiXPfT5 [~, 'dad
Basic Section Book Four - The Sixth Foundation pn dang Jdan pa 'i yid mi bde ba), (3) gratification stemming from baneful action
II (6) Samahitii Bhumi./;1 (akusalopasalphitalp saumanasyam, bushan suoyfn xf =l"~?JT5 [:g, midge ba dang
I II Sanmaxiduo di (_.OJm~:f;-tg) Jdnn pa'i yid bde ba), (4) dejectedness stemming from baneful action (akusalopa-
Mnyam par gzhag pa 'i sa smphitaip daurmanasyam, bushan suoyin you =l"~PfT5 [~, mi dge ba dang Jdan
The fourth book of the Basic Section is entitled The Foundation [Conceming]
po 'i yid mi bde ba), and (5) indifference stemming from baneful action ( akusalopa-
aarphitopekJa, bushan suoyin she 1'~!5JT§ [~, midge ba dang Jdan pa'i btang
Meditative Absorption (Samahita BhumiiJ). Having presented in the previous
!JJ}'Oms). The five positive states to be cultivated are (1) delight (pramodya, huan
book the inner workings of conceptuality and how erroneous concepts lead to
~. mchog tu dga' ba), (2) joy (priti, xiffr, dga' ba), (3) relaxation, comfort, or ease
sarµsaric bondage, the remainder of the Basic Section primarily explains how to
(prnsrabdhi, an 31:, shin tu sbyang ba), (4) wellbeing or happiness (sukha, le~'
obtain liberation from such bondage. Hence, with the present book, the text turns
bde ba), and (5) meditative absorption (samadhi, sanmadi -=.~t,fu, ting nge 'dzin).
to one of its main topics, namely meditative absorption (samiihita, sanmaxiduo-=.
1*DQY§,, mnyam par gzhag pa), which - as explained above - constitutes the This is followed by a brief discussion of the sequential relation between meditation
specialized meaning of the term yoga. ttnd liberation ( vimokfa).
Thereupon, five obstructions (nivaraJJa, gai ~' sgrib pa) for the attainment of
The Samahita BhiimiiJ aims to define, characterize, and subdivide meditation
meditation are presented in detail, and the book lists what constitutes the suste-
in such general terms that its explanation would be applicable to any of the three
nance (ahara, shf ~' zas) and the non-sustenance (anahara, lei shf ;}f~, zas ma
Buddhist paths presented later in the text. 169 It dues so in four main segments: (A)
a general outline ( uddesa, zongbiao *!ti, bstan pa), (B) a detailed presentation
yin pa) for each. The five obstructions are: (1) craving for the objects of sensuality
(kilmacchanda, tanyu ~tiX, 'clod pa la 'dun pa), (2) malice ( vyapada, chenhui §l~,
( vyavasthana, anli 31:JL, rnam par gzhag pa), (C) a division of the different types of
11.nod sems), (3) lethargy and sleepiness (styanamiddha, hunshen shuimian '['~~H~v
observation (manasikaraprabheda, zuoyi chabie wg~5.rn, yid la byed pa'i rab tu
11m, rmugs pa dang gnyid), (4) restlessness and regret (auddhatyakauiqtya, daJOJU
dbye ba) along with different types of meditative images (nimittaprabheda, xiang
chabief§~5.:!U, mtshan ma'i rab tu dbye ba), and (D) a summary of how the topic ·
ozuo ;j:lj[~~{'F, rgod pa dang 'gyod pa), and (5) irresolution or doubt ( vicikitsa, yf
~. the tsom). The final parts of the second main segment go over individual
o! meditation is treated in the sutras (sutrantasalpgraha, file she zhii jing Bl@'.ffli~
nspects (aliga, zhi :SZ:, yan Jag) of each of the four degrees of absorption (catvari
*~' mdo s~e 'i bsd"'! ba) .170 \
The first mam segment, (A) the general outline, presents the Foundation
m
dhyanani, si zhong jinglil [9 l!w»I.' bsam gtan bzhi) and discuss in depth various
related terms and expressions (paryaya, chabie ~5.:IU, mam grangs) for meditation
[Conceming] Meditative Absorption as pertaining to four key terms, namely
meditation ( dhyana, jinglii ITTt»I., bsam gtan), liberation ( vimok~a, jietuo ~~Im, atemming from the scriptures.
The third main segment, (C) the divisions of meditative observation and
mam par thar pa), absorption (samadhi, dengchf 1/j.¥,i, ting nge 'dzin), and medita-
Images, aims to define meditation in terms of its various types. 173 Such divisions
tive attainment (samapatti, dengzhi1/j.""!f., snyoms par Jug pa), and defines these in
may either be made on the basis of the varying forms of concentration that are
brief. 171 Several of the terms are clarified with reference to the extent to which
employed in meditation, i.e., what is technically refered to as 'observation' (manasi-
1 · their various levels involve or are free from discernment and discursiveness.
kAra, zuoyi {'F~, yid la byed pa) meaning the manner in which cognition (manas,
The second main segment, (B) the detailed presentation, provides a compre-
! y) ;I, yid) is applied, or it can be based on the various-types of foci (alambana,
I hensive account of meditation ( dhjana). 172 It begins with an explanation of five
suoyuan pfT~, dmigs pa) on which the meditator concentrates, which are here
negative states (paiica dharma.{1, wu fa lii!, chos Inga) to be eliminated through
meditation as well as five positive states. to be cultivated. The five negative states
called the 'images' (nimitta, xiang if§, mtshan ma) of meditation.
Meditative observation is first listed in a division of seven basic observations,
are (1) gratification stemming from sensuality (kamopasalphitalp saumanasyam,yu
which are not given further comment, whereafter forty types are enumerated and
, I suoyin xi ~XPfT5 flt 'dad pa dang Jdan pa'i yid bde ba), (2) dejectedness stemming
explained in some detail. Next, the meditative images are presented in terms of
1:
I four aspects: (1) the image as the meditative focus ( alambananimitta, suoyuan
xio.ng pfT~if§, dmigs pa 'i mtshan ma), (2) the image as the basis for meditation
169 DELHEY (2009a:21-27), however, has argued on the basis of the lack of concrete (nidananimitta, yinyuan xiang lz;l~if§, gzhi'i mtshan ma), (3) the images that are to
,,'
' references to bodhisattva practices that the book mainly pertains to the Sravakayana. be abandoned (parivarjaniyalp nimitt81!], ying yuanlf xiang Ji!UIWJfU§, yangs su
170 A thorough introduction to the Samiihitii Bhiimi!J, along with critical editions of the spang bar bya ba'i mtshan ma), and (4) the images that are to be relied upon
Sanskrit and Tibetan texts and a German translation of the first two segments, has been (pratini~evaJJiy81!] nimittalp, ying xiuxi xiang ~{it~if§, so sor bsten par bya ba'i
published in a monograph by DELHEY (2009a). He (ibid.:451-468) also provides a unique mtshan ma). Four images to be abandoned are explicated, viz. dimness (laya, shen
and highly useful outline of the Samiihitii BhiimilJ in German, which is more elaborate than
the one given here.
YX, bying ba), restlessness ( auddhatya, daio ;j:_!j!, rgod pa), distraction ( vikfepa, Juan
171 Sanskrit text in DELHEY (2009a:125r126 9) = T1579.328cn-329a3 = D4035.120b 3-

121a5 (DELHEY, op.cit.:307-309). DELHEY (2009a:157 15 -179 16)

173 = T1579.332c1-336b 11 = D4035.130b6-140a6 (DELHEY,
1nDELHEY (2009a:12610-15714) = T1579.329a4-332c1 = D4035.12la5-130b6 (DELHEY,
op.cit.:309-329). op.cit.:329-350).

82 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
IL, rnam par g.yeng ba), and attachment (saJiga, zhu6 ~' chags pa), while those to
be relied upon are said to be the countermeasures against these. This is followed by
an enumeration of 32 meditative images, each of which is briefly explained. This
larger list is also tied in with the four aspects of images mentioned above. Four
powers or forces (bala, Ii 1], stabs) for entering into meditation are then explained,
namely the force of the cause (hetubala, yin Ji lzgjJ, rgyu'i stabs), the force of the
proper preparation (prayogabala, fangbian Ji "JJ{j!_jJ, sbyor ba 'i stabs), the force of
canonical direction ( uddesabala, shu6 Ii ~jJ, Jung nod pa 'i stabs), and the force
of the teacher's instruction (upadesabala, Jiaoshou Ji fj(f.§tjJ, man ngag gi stabs).
Further, four types of ill-suited meditators are mentioned, who respectively are
motivated in their practice predominantly by craving ( tf$1J8, ai ~' sred pa), wrong
views ( dr~.ti, jian Je,, !ta ba), conceit (mana, man ti, nga rgyal), or insecurity/doubt
( vicikitsa, yf WE, the tshom). The final parts of the third main segment answer a
series of four questions concerning how to enter (samapadyate, dengding ;ey;5E,
snyoms par Jug) into meditative absorption, how to mix the four degrees of absorp-
tion ( dhyanani vyavakiranti, xtlnxiil jing!d Ji{~jlw)tl, bsam gtan rnams la spel bar
spyod), and the fruition (phala, guo ~, 'bras bu) of such meditation.
The fourth main segment is (D) the summary of how the topic of meditation is
treated in the siltras, which - given this theme's centrality in the Buddha's dis-
courses - makes up a rather significant portion of the fourth book. 174 Above in
segment (A), the general outline, four key terms were listed, viz. meditation,
liberation, absorption, and meditative attainment. Meditation ( dhyana, jinglil jlw)tl,
bsam gtan) was explained at length in the second main, segment, the detailed
presentation, while the other three key terms were not gived much attention in that
context. Consequently, the remaining three key terms are treated at length in the
I:::-==
present segment in combination with references to relevant scriptural passages.
! ....: - -=--=- --= _-=. -
Liberation ( vimok$a, jietu6 ~~Jffi;, rnam par thar pa) is here discussed more
fully in terms of its eight types that were listed in segment (A), namely: (1) a
I I
I, meditator who belongs to [the realm of] non-sensual corporeality and perceives
forms (rupi rupa.pi pasyati, youse guan zhuse ~1!!.W~i!!., gzugs can gzugs rnams
la !ta ba); (2) a meditator who with respect to himself holds the notion of incorpo-
reality yet perceives outer forms ( adhyatmam ariipasarpj.ii bahirdha rilpaJJi pasyatJ;
nei wusexiang guan wai zhilse pg~{g;W.il[Ji-~1!!.. nang gzugs med par 'du shes
pas phyi rol gyi gzugs rnams la !ta ba); (3) someone who personally (lit. 'bodily') has
directly perceived, entered, and abides in pure liberation (subha1p. vimok$aip
kayena sak~atkrtvopasa1p.padya viharati, jing jietu6 shen zuozheng juzu zhu ~m
Jffi;Jtf'F~~JE.1.t. sdug pa'i rnam par thar pa !us kyis mngon sum du byas nas
bsgrubs te gnas pa); (4) someone who abides in the domain of infinite space
(akasanantyayatana, k6ng wubian chu ~~~~' nam mkha' mtha' yas skye
I'
mched); (5) someone who abides in the domain of infinite consciousness ( vijiiana-
'
'
nantyayatana, shi wubian chu ~~~~. rnam shes mtha' yas skye mched); (6)
someone who abides in the domain of infinite nothingness ( akiipcanyayatana, wu
su6y6u chu ~pfr~ffl, ci yang med pa'i skye mched); (7) someone who abides in
the domain of neither ideation nor non-ideation (naivasaipjiianasaipjiiayatana,
feixiang feifeixiang chu ?Ff~?F?Ff~~' 'du shes med 'du shes med min skye
1~4 DELHEY (2009a:179 1r228 5) = T1579.336b 11 -344b 18 = D4035.140a6-159a6 (DELHEY,
op.c1t:350-39l )..
The Yogacarabhilmi and Its Adaptation 83
mched); and (8) someone who personally (bodily) h~s directl~y_erceiv~d, ~ntered,
and abides in the cessation of ideation and sensation (saip1naveda)'ltan1rodhaip
kAyena sak~atlqtyopasa1p.padya viharati, xiangshoumie sh~n zuozheng juzu zhu f~
'.Yl:tiJtfF~~g {:t, 'du shes dang tshor ba 'gag pa !us kyis mngon sum du byas te
bsgrubsnasgnaspa). . v
Thereupon, the segment presents meditative abso~ption (~ama~h1, de1:gch1 ~
/"'"'
~' ting nge 'dzin) in terms of ten lists, ea~h ~f which 1s ex~lamed/~n det_ail. _Th'!e
Include the divisions of meditative absorption mto (1) emptmess (sunyata, kong=,
r1
stong pa nyid), wishle~sn~ss ( ap:alfkita'i7 ;,;u~~n ~ii{.', ,smon pa med pa),
and imagelessness (an1m1tta or an1m1tta, wu_xiang_ xin ~if§1L',. mtshan m~ 1_!1ed
pa); (2) absorption having discernment and discursiveness (saVJtarka1? saVJ~aral;,
youxun yous) ~~~1pJ, r'tog pa dan_g bcas dpy?d pa d~1:_g bc~s), ben:g ,with~~~
discernment and only having discursiveness ( aVJtarko VJcaramatral;, wuxun we1s1
1M@Jil1p_J, rtog pa med fa dpyod pa tsam), and neither having discernment nor
discursiveness (avitarko 'vicaral;, wuxun wusi ~~~1p_J, rtog pa fl!ed dp!od f~ !~
med pa); (3) a division into limited absorption (p~rittal; samadhil;, x1ao ~an1:7ad1,
1}.=..t-fu, chung ba'i ting nge 'dzin), great absorption (mah_adgatal; samadhil;, da
sDnmadi :k-=.JIH-fu, chen par gyur pa 'i ting nge 'dzin), and 1mmeasurabl~ a_bsorp-
tion (aprama.pal; samadhi~, wul!ang sa1:ma~i ~--=-•t-fu:. ts~ad 1:7~d pa_'I !mg_ 1;ge
'dzin); (4) absorption that is cultivated m a smgle pa~t (~kaf!!.s~bh~?:a, Y~~en XJU ~
,t~i, cha gcig bsgoms pa) or in both parts ( ubhayaipsab~aVJta, ;uten x3~ ~:5H~,
gnyis ka 'i cha bsgoms pa); (5) absorption that _is acco~pamed by Joy CJ!r!tJs8!ag~f_!.,
xi fiixfng %1lfi, dga' ba dang Jdan pa), dehght (satasahag!~~' !e Jl1Xlns:~1Jn,
bde ba dang Jdan pa), and equanimity ( upek$iisahagata, she JllXIJ?g f©flTT, ?tang
snyoms dang Jdan pa); (6) the _cult~vation of absorption wherem the medi_ta!or
abides in happiness and wellbemg m the present hfe ~ dr~tad~~rmasukhavihara,
xianfa fe zhu JJ!1:t;;~1±, tshe 'di fa bde bar gnas pa), achieves vision Of knowle~ge
(jnanadarsanapratilambha, de zhi jian 1~~ Je,, ye shes _mf1!?ng ,ba thob pa), gives
rise to the penetration into insight (prajiiapra?hed~, fenb1e hw .?t.3Ll~: she! ~~b
rab tu dbye ba), and reaches the end of corruption (asravak$aya,pn zhu Jou i'i~Jffi,
zag pa zad pa); 176 (7) the meditative absorption of a ~oblevper,son e~d~we~ ';1th
five kinds of knowledge ( aryal; paiicajiianikal; samadhil;, wu sheng zh1 sanm_ad1 li
yg~ -=-•tfu, 'phags pa'i shes pa Inga dang Jdan pa'i ting nfe 'dzfn); (8) th~ f!vef~l~
absorption of a noble person ( aryal; paiicaligikal; samadhf.lJ, ~heng ~ z~1 sanmad1
ffili:SZ:-=..t-fu, ['phags pa'i] yan Jag Inga dang Jdan pa1 tmg nge 'dz_m); (9)_ the
absorption of a noble ~erson po~se~sing t~e ?ro~er_,basi~ and ~ech~1qu~s ,(aJYa-
samyaksamadhil; sopan1$at sapan$karal;, Y?upn youJ~ s~eng zheng sanmad1 ~lz5;]
~ ~ ~IE=•t-fu, 'phags pa 'i yang dag pa 'I tmg nge 'dzm rgyu dang bcas/ yo byad
11s It may be noted that DELHEY's edition (2009a:185 15 ) attests the s~elling animitta in
one instance and animitta in another instance (2009a:1861). In the Bodh1pakffapatala (1:17)
of the Bodhisattvabhrln11; WoGIHARA's edition (1930-1936:27610) employs the spelling
animitta. For these three types of samadhi, see the present paper by Flonn DELEANU. .
176 The somewhat vague English translation 'corruption' is here adopted as deno.ti_ng
factors that in general binds one in smpsara, regardless of whether they a~e 1?"orally ~ositlve
or negative. Literally, asrava means something that flows ~art~ or flows m_, 1.e.,_ leadmg t~e
person further into sarµsaric e~sten~e. The t~:m - which is very ancient m Buddhist
1
sources - is also related to the Jam notion of the mflux of karman.

84 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
d~ng_ bca_s fa); an1QO) the vajra-like absorption (vaJropamaiJ samadhiiJ, Jingang
yu sanmad1 sit:flilJUOgu.=.Jtt!:tg, rdo Ije ]ta bu'i ting nge 'dzin).
The part of the fourth segment devoted to meditative attainment (samapatti,
dengzhi ~:¥, snyoms par Jug pa) explains the achievement of the deepest levels
of meditation in terms of four progressions: (1) the attainment of vision ( darsana-
samapa~ti, xiitnJiitn sanmab~d! fJB!=*~®, mthong ba 'i snyoms par Jug pa); (2)
the attamment of the domam of overcoming ( abhibhavayatana, duitnsheng chu !if
.Im~~ zilgyis mnon pa 'i skye mched) and the domain of totality (k[tsnayatana, biitn
chu ~~' zad par gyi skye mched); (3) the attainment of non-ideation ( asam-
Jf!asamtipatti,wu xiang ~anmabodf ~f~ - -~®, 'du shes med pa 'i snyoms par
;ug pa); and (4) the attamment of cessation (nirodhasamapatti, mieJin sanmabodf
t~m-=~~@, 'gog pa'i snyoms par Jug pa). Under the fourth point, the attain-
ment of cessation, the text employs the term alayavijiiana to explain how it is
possible consciously to reemerge from the state of the cessation of consciousness.
S<:,I;MITHAUSE~ (1987a.I:18ff.) has argued in his groundbreaking study of alaya-
VlJniina that this passus constitutes the earliest extant attestation of the term
alayavijiiana and he consequently dubbed it "the initial passage".
Finally, the fourth book ends with referring to a series of twelve scriptural
excerpts on meditation from the Buddha's discourses, which are laid out in some
detail in commentarial form.
.-:....- -= .::..:::__:-_:-:.._~ -- --- --==-- --- -----
The present volume does not contain any article that is predominantly concerned
with the Samahita BhiimiiJ, but remarks on the book are ma,de in the contributions
by Noritoshi ARAMAKI, Martin DELHEY, Yasunori SUGAWARA, Alexander VON
ROSPATT, Florin DELEANU, and Sa~gyeob CHA.
Basic Section Book Five - The Seventh Foundation
(7) Asamahita Bhiim.ilJ
Fei sanmaxklu6 di(~l:-!*UQY1Pj;ift)
Mnyam par ma gzhag pa 'i sa
The very short fifth book is entitled The Foundation [Concemingj Being Without
Meditat~ve Absorption_ (Asamahita BhiimiiJ), which constitutes a counterpart to
the pr~v1ous boo~. While the Samahita BhiimiiJ presented meditation along with
the vanous levels m and beyond saipstira that meditators may aspire to achieve, the
present book contrasts this by briefly listing twelve states that remain devoid of
such meditative absorption. 177
These are as follows: (1) The fivefold group of empirical consciousness (paiica
vijii~nakaY_tiiJ, wu shi shen EiMr, mam par shes pa lnga'i tshogs) is from the point
of view of its nature always without meditative absorption. (2) A mind engaged in
the realm of sensual desire (ktimavacara, yuJie Ji tiXW-!t 'clod pa na spyod pa)
cannot truly possess meditative absorption, even if a certain degree of meditative
177Sanskrit text in SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (2007:275-280) and DELHEY (2006b:134-136)
"". T1579_.344bw3~4c1 5 = D4035.159a6-160a4 • Martin DELHEY's article (op.cit.) also pro-
~1des an !ntr?ductl?n and a~notated German translation. The Sanskrit edition by SHOMON
JI Ken¥kai 1s ~va1lable online from GRETIL, though without the accompanying Japanese
translat10n that 1s found in the printed edition.
The Yogacarabhrlmi and Its Adaptation 85
---·-·-·-·----
ono-pointedness has been developed, because it has not yet achieved the proper
, kind of meditative ease and relaxation (prasrabdhi, qing'an f~3e, shin tu sbyangs
/}II) required for meditative absorption. (3) Likewise, a mind engaged in the realm
of sensual desire may be without meditative absorption in that it has not at all
bcaun (anarambha, bu faqu ~filt/00, ma brtsams pa) to train itself in meditation
duo to being attached to sensuality. (4), A beginner in meditation practice is
without meditative absorption due to being easily distracted ( vik~epa, Ji sitnluitn ;jii:Jj
~IL, rnam par g.yeng ba) by sensory impressions. (5) A beginner meditator may
Ditto be without meditative absorption due to drawing in the mind too strongly
(abh/Sa/!lk~ipta, titi liieJu ~t:Jli§-~, bsdus pa) when battling lethargy and sleepiness.
(6) A slightly more advanced meditator may lack meditative absorption due to not
yet having found out how to sink ( apratilambha, wei zhengde *llif~, ma thob pa)
lnto the right form of meditative observation (manaskara, zuoyi {'F~, yid la byed
pn). (7) An advanced meditator, who has discovered the right form of meditative
observation, may be without meditative absorption in that the observation has not
yet been perfected (aparipiin;a, wei yuanman *11111, yongs su ma rdzogs pa). (8)
An advanced meditator, who has perfected the meditative observation, may be
without meditative absorption, since the mind is still obscured by defilement
(sorpklesa, za ranwii m~f=J, kun nas nyon mongs pa). (9) An advanced meditator,
Who is without defilement, may lack meditative absorption in that the necessary
mnstery ( avasitva, bu zizai ~ El ft, dbang med pa) in effortlessly entering, resting
In, and exiting absorption has not yet been achieved. (10) An advanced meditator
may be without meditative absorption, since the mind remains unpurified ( avi-
luddhi, bu qingjing ~m~J, rnam par ma dag pa) from the latent residues of the
nfflictions (klesanusaya, fannao suimian ffi'l'~Jljff§~, nyon mongs pa'i bag la nyal).
(11) A meditator who has entered meditative absorption may be outside this state,
1lnce he has risen ( vyutthana, qi~. rnam par langs pa) from it without loosing it.
(12) A meditator who has entered meditative absorption may be outside this state
due to loosing it (parihaJJi, tui ~' yongs su nyams pa).
fl'he present volume does not contain any article especially devoted to the Asama-
'Jlltll BhiimiiJ but pertinent remarks are made in the papers by Noritoshi ARAMAKI
nnd Martin DELHEY.
Basic Section Book Six - The Eighth to Ninth Foundations
(8-9) Sacittika Acittika Bhiim.ilJ
Y6uxin wuxin di (1§1[)~{,\j;tg)
Sems yod pa dang sems medpa 'i sa
The very brief sixth book, entitled The Foundation [Concerning] Having Menta-
•tlon and Being Without Mentation (Sacittika Acittika BhiimiiJ), examines the
notion of 'mind' or 'mentation' ( citta, xin 1L,, sems) in relation to meditation and
other doctrines. 178 According to the Yogacara method, meditation ultimately aims
nt terminating the saqisaric mind in all its forms, including the underlying latent
consciousness ( alayavijiiana). From among the various forms of non-meditative
178 Sanskrit text in SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a.l:221-222) = T1579.344cw345a16 = D4035.
160a4-l6la2.
-~---------
---

86 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
and meditative state~ of mind presented in the text so far, the present book there-
fore dis~usses which states "involve mentation" (sacittika, youxin lf1[,,, sems yod pa)
and which states are "without mentation" (acittika, wuxin ~1[,,, sems med pa).
These make up the eighth and ninth foundations, which are explained in tandem in
a single book.
This is done through five points: (1) an exposition of the notion of 'foundation'
( bhumiprajiiaptivyavasthana, di shishe jianli tilinffil[i~ijt}'.[, sar gdags pa mam par
gzhag pa); (2) an exposition of errant and non-errant mentation (cittabhranty-
abhrantivyavasthana, xinluan bu xinluanjianli 1G,JL::::flLijt}'.[, sems 'khrul pa dang
ma 'khrul pa mam par gzhag pa); (3) an exposition of the arising. and the non-
arising of mentation ( utpattyanutpattivyavasthana, sheng bu sheng jianli ~ ::::f ~ijt
}'.[, 'byung ba dang mi 'byung ba mam par gzhag pa); (4) an exposition of the
various states of mentation ( avasthavyavasthana, fenwei jianli :B-1:s'lijt}'.[, gnas,
skabs mam par gzhag pa); and (5) an exposition of its ultimate meaning (paramar-
thavyavasthana, diyiyijianli ffi-lUl1'.r, don dam pa mam par gzhag pa).
In the exposition of the notion of 'foundation' ( bhumi, di tili, sa), it is said that
all the various states of mind listed in connection with explicating the first five
foundations of the YBh - i.e., the Pa.icavij.ianasalpprayukta Bhumil;l, the Mano-
bhumi, the Savitarka Savicara Bhumil;l, and the Avitarka Vicaramatra Bhumih -
are foundations involving mentation (sacittika bhumil;l, youxin dilf1[,,tfu, sems yod
pa'i sa). The only exceptions among these are meditative attainment and rebirth
pertaining to states free from ideation in the realm of incorporeality (sasamapatty-
upapattikam asmpj.iikam, wuxiang ding bing wuxiang s/leng ~J~JE:t=r~J~~'
snyoms par Jug pa dang skye ba yod pa 'du shes med pa) as well as the meditative
attainment of cessation (nirodhasamapatti, miejin ding ~W.JE, 'gag pa'i snyoms
par Jug pa), both of which were mentioned in the Avitarka Vicaramatra Bhumih.
--- - ---- --
-
These exceptions are said to be foundations without mentation ( acittika bhumih
wuxin di ~1[,,tfu, sems med pa'i sa). It is noteworthy that the usage of the woict
'mind' or 'mentation' (citta, xin 1[,,, sems) in the passage at hand seems to signify
any mental process involving ideation (salpj.ia, xiang !J, 'du shes), which, in turn,
becomes inactive in the very deepest level of meditation. It may further be added
that the word bhumi both here and below cannot be suitably captured by the word
'foundation' nor by the word 'level'. 179
The second exposition co.ncerning errant and non-errant mentation defines
errancy ( bhranti, luanxin IL1G', 'khrul pa) as mentation that is deluded by four
types of delusion ( vipaiyasa, diandao AAilU, phyin ci Jog). Non-errancy, on the
other hand, is defined as mentation that is not obscured by four types of delusion.
!~e four types of delusion are elsewhere in the text defined as misconceiving what
1s impermanent to be permanent, misconceiving what is suffering to be happiness,
,,
misconceiving what is impure to be pure, and misconceiving what is no self to be a
self. 180 It is then said that an errant state does not constitute an actual cognition
(acitta, wuxin ~1[,,, sems med pa) since it has strayed from its original nature
(pralqtibhra~fa, xing shihuai 'l:i~ffl, rang bzhin las nyams pa), like a crazy person
who has lost his mind, and is consequently characterized as belonging to the
foundation without mentation. The text bases this explanation on a scriptural'
179 A s1m1
. ·1ar pro bl em occurs m
· book 14, the So'Padhjka Bhiimjk cf fn 401
180 ' • ' • ' •
See, e.g., the Srutamayi Bhiimj/;1, T1579.345c17_19, D162b5_6 .
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 87
passage, wherein the word non-mentation or 'mindless' (acitta, wuxin ~ilh sems
med pa) occurs. Conversely, non-errant mentation is said to belong to the founda-
tion involving mentation. In this passage, the word 'mind' or 'mentation' seems to
signify a correct cognition that is somewhat similar to the notion of reliability (pi;,{l-
maJJa) in the later epistemological tradition of Dignaga and Dharmakirti. ·
The third exposition of the arising and non-arising of mentation explains that
mentation does not occur when any of eight factors are absent, viz. (1) injury of the
Sense-faculties (indriyaparibheda, gen pohuai ;j:Jffijffl, dbang po yangs SU nyams
pa), (2) non-appearance of an object ( VJ~ayanabhasagamana, jing bu xianqian m:::::r:
3:j.WJ, yul mi snang bar 'gyur ba), (3) lack of observation (manasikaravaikalya, que
zuoyi IIH'F~, yid Ia byed pa med pa), (4) lack of i;tcquisition ( apratilambha, wei de
*f~, ma thob pa), (5) blockage (virodha, xiangwei ;}§)I, mi mthun pa), (6)
relinquishment (prahaIJa, ylduan Bir, spangs pa), (7) cessation (nirodha, yfmie 8
~. 'gags pa), and (8) arising ( utpada, yfsheng 8~, skyes pa). Conversely, menta-
tlon occurs when any of the opposites of these eight factors are present. The
occurrence of mentation is said to belong to the foundation involving mentation,
whereas the non-occurrence of mentation is said to belong to the foundation
without mentation. The usage of the term 'mentation' ( citta) in the present passage
as well as the following passage seems to pertain to cognitive processes as well as
meditative stages.
In the fourth exposition of the states of mentation, it is explained that there are
Rix states ( avastha, fenwei :B-1:s'l, gnas skabs) in which mentation does not arise,
including (1) sleep (middha, shuimian llfil~~. gnyid), (2) fainting (murccha, menjue
~Ms, brgyal ba), (3) meditative attainment of non-ideation (asmpjna samapattil;l,
wuxiangding~J!JE, 'du shesmedpa'i snyoms par Jug pa), (4) rebirth in a state of
non-ideation ( asmpj.iika, wuxiang shepg ~fl~, 'du shes med pa pa), (5) medita-
tive attainment of cessation (nirodhasamapatti, miej]n ding~~W.JE, 'gag pa'i
snyoms par Jug pa), and ( 6) the state of nirvaJJa without remainder of an existential
1ubstratum (nirupadhise~afJ nirvaJJadhatu, wuyu yi niepan jie ~~f.&i.i~W,
phung po'i Jhag ma med pa'i mya ngan las 'das pa). Hence, these belong_ to the
foundation without mentation, whereas all other states apart from these mvolve
mentation.
The fifth exposition concerning the ultimate meaning (paramartha, d1'yiyi ffi -
ljl.i§, don dam pa) explains that from the absolute point of view it is only the state of
nlrviina without remainder of an existential substratum that can be said to be the
foundation without mentation, because it is exclusively in this state that even the
latent consciousness ( alayavij.iana) has ceased. In all other states without menta-
tlon (avastha, fenwei :B-1:s'l, gnas skabs), it is, in fact, only the operational con-
sciousness (pravrttivij.iana, zhuanshi "~' Jug pa 'i mam par shes pa) that has
oeased.
In the present volume, an important discussion of the Sacittika Acittika Bhumil;l is
found in the article by Noritoshi ARAMAKI, who - inter alia - analyzes the cross-
references to other boo~s found in this passage when examining the overall
compilation history of the text.
 The Yogacarabhrlmi and Its Adaptation 89
88 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
The first of these, inner or spiritual knowledge (lit. the science pertaining to
Basic Section Book Seven - The Tenth Foundation oneself), refers to learning the Buddhist doctrine, which is explained through four
(10) Srutamayi Bhumi1J segments .184 The first segment, called the presentation of the basis (shi shishijianli
Wen su6cheng di (MPJT~ttg) xiang :J:nfilg~9l}'.[if§, gzhi gdags pa mam par gzhag pa), briefly lists the basic
~ division of the Buddhist teachings into Sutra, Vinaya, and the mnemonic lists
' Thos pa las byung ba 'i sa 'f (matrika, madailijia ~tB Rl3m!, ma mo) of the Abhidharma. 185
Books seven, eight, and nine follow a traditional threefold way of conceiving of •I

Buddhist practice, namely the division into listening to and learning the teachings .:~' The second is a presentation of various divisions of terms (xiang chabie shishe
.,•• Jianli xiang 1.B!.~53Unfilfilt:9!:u:;;t§, ming rah tu dbye ba gdags pa mam par gzhag
(sruta, wen lffl, thos pa), understanding them ( cinta, si ,E~L bsam pa), 181 and cultiva-
pa). 186 This consists of four subgroups with brief definitions and/or lists of quite
ting (bhavana, xiil ~l, sgom pa) what has been understood through meditation.
miscellaneous key words, whose separation is demarcated in the text by outline·
Thus, the present book deals with the first of these steps and is entitled The
verses ( uddana, watu6nan O.EiLfiffwf, sdom).
Foundation [Concerning} What Is Derived from Listening. The first subgroup has twelve members: (1) an enumeration of 26 fundamental
Listening to the teachings is here said to pertain to processes of listening to
concepts (pada, ju {V, gnas); 187 (2) a brief presentation of errancy (mfhuo ~~,
religious discourses, memorizing and reciting scriptures, and recollecting various ,
'khrul pa); (3) the proliferation ( *prapaiica, xilun ~~' spros pa) of the afflictions;
points of doctrine, all of which result in knowledge of the Buddhist teachings. It is
(4) the bases (zhu{t, gnas pa) for experiencing this, here stated to be the sevenfold
noteworthy that aside from recitation ( svadhyaya, dusong ~fgit], kha ton byed pa)
consciousness; (5) the reality ( *tattva, zhenshf ~if, de .kho na) thereof, namely
which might involving reading, the listed learning processes do not include (silent)
Suchness and the four existential facts of the noble ones; (6) what is pure (Jing§;
reading of texts, which perhaps illustrates certain didactic differences between
dge ba); (7) what is outstanding (miao ~!};, mchog); (8) what leads to peace (j)jing
traditional Buddhist learning and modern education. 182 It is though also clear that
sruta (lit. 'listening') includes further activities than merely hearing Dharma lec-
~ffi'i, rab tu zhi ba); (9) the characteristics or nature (xing '['1, rang bzhin) of
phenomena; (10) correct reasoning ( daoli §1[:EJ,, rigs pa) in the sense of under-
tures, and that the term thus signifies the broader processes of learning and
standJng dependent arising; (11) what constitutes convention ( *sa.1pketa,jia shishe
studying. ®nfilfilt:, brda); and (12) direct realization ( *abhisamaya, xianguan 3:Jflt mngon
The book clarifies that which is studied in terms of five sciences, branches, or
fields of knowledge ( vidyasthana, mfngchu Bjj~, rig pa '1\gnas), viz. (1) inner or- par rtogs pa).
The second subgroup likewise has twelve members: (1) cognitive bases (fang-
spiritual knowledge (adhyatmavidya, nei mfngchu 179~~' nang gi rig pa), (2) me-
suo nPfr, yu1 can); (2) the process of-sensory perception ( wei {l'L gnas skabs); (3)
dical knowledge (cildtsavidya, yifang mfngchu UnBA~, gso ba'i rig pa), (3)
ideation (fenbie 5t53U, rtog pa); (4) cognitive engagement (zuo fF, spyod pa); (5)
knowledge of logical reasons (hetuvidya, yin mfngchu lzs]BJj~, gtan tshigs kyi rig
cognitive appropriation (zhfchf ¥.Mi, Jen pa); (6) the build-up or accumulation
pa), (4) knowledge of language (sabdavidya, sheng mfngchu §BJj~, sgra'i rig pa),
(zeng:tiw, tshogs pa)' of affliction and karmic action; (7) the darkness (ming~, mun
and (5) knowledge of practical skills including fine arts and crafts (silpakarma-
pa) of ignorance; (8) the words (yan §, tshig) of the Buddha's teachings; (9) what
sthanavidya, gongye mfngchu I~BJj~, bzo'ilaskyignaskyi rigpa). 183 is to be realized (suojue pfrfi:, rtogs par bya ba); (10) what is most excellent (shang
l_-_., yang dag phul); (11) practicing in secluded retreat (yuanlf ~lfl, dben pa); and
(12) evolution ( *pravrtti, zhuan $t, Jug pa).
181 The term cinta has often been translated into English as 'reflection' or 'contempla-
The third subgroup has ten members: (1) motive (zanghu ~~' gzh1); (2)
tion'. However, when the actual description given in the Cintamayi BhumilJ book is taken
differentiation (sixiang ,~Ji, rnam par 'byed pa); (3) activity (lit. 'origination',
into consideration, the term does not seem to emphasize any critical deliberation of the
teachings in order to arrive at a personal point of view, but rather to consist in an internali- *samudaya, xianxfng:E~fi, kun 'byung ba); (4) sleep (shuimian !Ji§~, nyal ba); (5)
zation of the Buddhist 'view' in the sense of properly comprehending the pertinent doc- relation (xiangzhii if§~, 'brel pa); (6) collection (she m, bsdu ba); (7) concomi-
trinal points as they are intended to be understood. Hence, the English equivalents tance (xiangying if§bl, mtshungs par ldan pa); (8) communication (shu6 ~,
'reflection' or 'contemplation' may give an imprecise impression of the process involved. bsnyad pa); (9) preservation (renchf {fft, rton pa); and (10) sequence ( cidi ;x~,
The words 'reflection' and 'contemplation' are perhaps more rooted in the Christian go rims).
Protestant notion of the individual's need for arriving at a personal understanding of
scripture than in the traditional Buddhist sense of the term. For this reason, cinta has been
expressed with the English equivalent 'understanding' throughout this introductory essay.
Naturally, that is not to say that Buddhist thinkers invariably were dogmatic: In fact, the sciences to know the world and be able to help others. For a broader explanation of the
history of Buddhist thought reveals a very vibrant environment of debate and critical
secular sciences based on Mahayana sources, see SEYFORT RUEGG (1995:101-141).
analysis, where later intellectuals often deviated from the earlier tradition. To which extent 184 T1579.345a -356a = D4035.161ar187a5 . There is currently no available Sanskrit
24 7
those historical aspects should be taken as reflecting the spiritual process of cinta 'is
edition of the first part of this book.
another matter. 185 T1579.345a _ = D4035.161as-6·
27 29
182 On the European medieval invention of silent reading, see SAENGER (1997).
186 T1579.345bi-347a 18 = D4035.16la6 -l65b6.
183 The five fields of knowledge or the five sciences turn up again in the Prajiiapafala
187 For the Sanskrit text of this passage, see SCMITHAUSEN (2000b:246-249).
(I.14) of the Bodhisattvabhumi, where it is said that a bodhisattva must master all five

Ulrich Timme KRAGH
90
Again, the fourth subgroup has ten members: (1) preparing for what is to be
done ( *lqtya, suozuo pfr{'p, bya ba); (2) meditative foci ( *iilambana, suoyuan ?fr~,
dmigs pa); (3) yoga (yujia litifJJO, sbyor ba); (4) tranquility ( *samatha, zhf l.t., zhi
gnas); (5) meditative insight ( *vipasyana, guan ft, ]hag mthong); (6) meditative
observation ( "'manaskara, zuoyi i'F'.i!, yid la byed pa); (7) instruction ( *avavada,
jiaoshou f!z~, gdams ngag); (8) positive qualities ( de 1!, yon tan); (9) Awakening
( *bodhi,putf""!g-rf!, byangchub); and (10) teaching (shengjiao ~f:5(, bstanpa).
The third segment on inner knowledge is a very brief summary of the Buddhist
teachings (she shengjiao yi xiang ffli~fJ.iM§, bstan ,pa'i don bsdu ba), outlining
what is to be abandoned and what is to be cultivated. 18
The fourth and final segment on inner knowledge is called the points to be
known with regard to the Buddha's words ( *buddhavacanajiieyadhiffhana, f6jiao
189
suoyingzhi chu xiang{~f{pfrff!~D~:,f§, sangs rgyas kyi bka'i shes bya'i gnas). The
segment is formatted numerically into different groups of terms, reminiscent of the
principle of numeric organization seen in the Dasottarasiltra and the SaIJ1gltisiltra
as well as the Abhidharma works Puggalapaiiiiati, SaIJ1gltiparyaya, and chapters six
and eight of the Prakaraqapada. It begins with quite a random presentation of
ethics and religious practices that are explained through some twenty sets of
twofold terms, most of·which are referred to as 'phenomena' ( *dharma, fa ~.
chos). 190 This is followed by similar presentations of assorted groups of terms with
three members, 191 four members, 19 five members, 193 six members, 194 seven mem-
8
I
bers,195 eight members,196 nine members, 197 and ten members. 19, · four elements (mahabhilta, dazhong j(ffl, 'byung ba chen po), bodily, verbal, and
I Next, the book introduces the four remaining fields of knowledge ( vidyasthana,
mfngchu El)j~, rig pa'i gnas). The art of healing ( cikitsa, yifang U15, gso ba'i rig
pa), which only is treated in brief, is said to consist of expertise (kausalya, shanqiao
lfJ.75, mkhas pa) in diseases (abadha, bingxiangffelf§, nad), diagnosis (abadha-
- ------=---= -:;---=-----=- -:;- :1· samutthana, bingyin ffellz;], nad ci las gyur pa), treatment ( utpannasyabadha-
I
-_-:
- -
~ =:-
syayatyam prahaqa, yf sheng bi'ng duanmie B~ffelifr~, nad byung ba bstsal ba),
I \l and prophylaxis (prahiqasyabadhasyayatyam anutpada, yf duan bing hou geng bu
1
199
sheng fangbian Bifrffe11&1!::f~Jj1}!, nad bsal nas phyis mi 'byung bar bya ba).
ill'" The passage on the knowledge of logical reasons (hetuvidya, yin mfngchu lz;JEl}j
200
~. gtan tshigs .kyi rig pa), which has been much studied in modern scholarship, is
\I
\1
188 T1579.347a 19.27 = D4035.165b6-166a3.
\I 189 T1579.347a28-356a7 = D4035.166a3-187as.
190 T1579.347a28-348b 7 = D4035.166a3-l68as,
i 191 T1579.348br350a19 = D4035.168a5-172b4. This part includes an explanation of the
important term 'seed' ( *bfja, zhongzj li-=f, sa ban).
192 T1579.350air351ez8 = D4035.172b4-l 74a3.
'.I 193 T1579.351c28-353a 14 = D4035.174a4-l80a4.
194 T1579.353aw354a6 = D4035.180a4-182b2.
195 Sanskrit edition in SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai (2007:282-294) = T1579.354ar355a18 =
D4035.182bi-185a3.
196 SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (2007:296~302) = T1579.355a18-355c27 = D4035.185a3-187a1. '
197 SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai (2007:302-304) = T1579.355c26-356a1 = D4035.187a1_3.
198 SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (2007:304) = T1579.356a1.7 = D4035.187a3_5.
199 SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai (2007:304) = T1579.356a8.11 = D4035.187as.7,
200 See the pertinent remarks and references in Martin DELHEY's article in the present
volume.
The Yogiiciirabhiimi and Its Adaptation
-~~~~~-~~~~~~
91
somewhat longer and gives an outline of the various elements of logical reasoning,
inchiding (1) various kinds of propositions (vada, Jun t.ixing~fttt smra ba), (2)
the outer setting for holding a debate ( vadadhikaraqa, Jun chusuo ~~?fr, smra
ba'i zhal ce ba), (3) the foundation of debate (vadadhiffhiina, Jun suoyi ~®PfrBx,
smra ba'i gzh1), (4) rhetorical features employed in debate (vadalaIJlkara, Jun
zhuangyan ~W:t/rui, smra ba'i rgyan), (5) points of defeat in debate (vadanigraha,
Jun duofu §\jjj~~. smra ba chad pas bead pa), (6) the decision whether to engage
in a debate ( vadaniJ;.saraJJa, Jun chilli §jjjjl±\lfl, smra ba las 'byung ba), and (7) the
benefits of performing a debate ( vade bahukara dharmaJ;., Jun duo suozuo fa~~
J:ifrf'F~!, smra ba gees spras la dgos pa).201 The third element, the foundation of the
debate, provides a very detailed overview of the rhetorical elements of logical
reasoning, various types of reasoning, and the distinction between direct percep-
tion (pratyakfa, xianliang"fJl'JA, mngon sum) and inference (anumana, biliang !:tit,
rjes su dpag pa).
The field of knowledge of language (sabdavidya, sheng mfngchu §El]mt, sgra'i
rig pa) is laid out in six points.202 The first, called a presentation of the notion of the
phenomenon ( dharmaprajiiaptivyavasthana, fa shishe jianli xiang ~!nffifilt@;}'.z:f§,
chos gdags pa rnam par gzhag pa), defines the phenomenon of language as signi-
fier. The second, called a presentation of the notion of meaning ( arthaprajiiapti-
vyavasthana, yi shishe jianli xiang~nffifilt@;:tzJ§, don gdags pa rnam par gzhag pa),
proffers a series of brief instances of meaning, mainly in the sense of religious
meaning, including objects of the sense-faculties (indriya, gen flt dbang po), the
mental activity (karma, ye"*• las), seeking ( efalJB, xunqiu ;ey.}J<, tsho] ba), unethi-
cal behavior (adharma, feifa ~F-$, chos ma yin pa), ethical/religious behavior
(dharma, fa~. chos), welfare (saIJipatti, xingsheng '4:!Jlt., 'byor pa), misfortune
( vipatti, shuaisun ~:j:J, rgud pa), enjoyment ( upabhoga, shouyong ~:j:J, longs
spyod), and protecting (anurakfaJJB, shouhu ~~. rjes su bsrung ba). It is here
notable that the Sanskrit word artha not only signifies 'meaning' but also has wider iI
connotations of 'aim', 'motive', and 'utility', which is reflected in the range of
significations provided. The four remaining points are all explicated very briefly.
These include presentations of the grammatical notions (prajiiaptivyavasthana,
ahishe jianli xiang nffig~@;:V:J§, gdags pa rnam par gzhag pa) of person (pudgala,
buteqielu6tm~fJJam, gang zag), time (kala, shill{¥, dus), and number (saIJikhya,
shu ~. grangs), as well as the study of the relationship between words ( adhikaraJJa,
g6nben tlH&, gzhi) and additional grammatical topics (khila, chusuo ~?fr, yan
lag).
' j,
I I,
, 201 Sanskrit text in YAITA (1992:512-546) = T1579.356a12-360ez1 = D4035.187arl99b2.
Sanskrit text and English translation in WAYMAN (1999:3-41); Japanese translation in
:1
VAITA ( op.dt.). .
202 SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (2007:306-310) = T1579.360c21-361b4 = D4035.199bz-200b2.
-~·-- "--~,,-
- - : : - - - ::::----
 92 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Finally, the knowledge-field of practical skills 203
(silpakarmasthanavidya,
gongye mfngchu I*S]~, bzo'i las kyi gnas kyi rig pa) is introduced by enumera-
ting twelve practical skills (silpa, gongye I*, bzo), viz. (1) agriculture (kr~i,
yfngn6ng tg,5, nams su bya ba), (2) trade ( val}ijya, shanggu ili1t, nyo tshong), (3)
court administration (rajapauruwa, shiwang $.:£, rgyal po'i zham 'bring bya ba),
(4) writing, enumeration, arithmetic, and sealing (lipigaJJanasalJlkhyamudra, shll
suanji dushu yin if•~t§'.~EP, yi ge dang rtsis dang shod dgod pa dang grangs
dang Jag rtsis), (5) prognostication (naimittika, zhanxiang r:!if§, Jtas su blta ba), (6)
ministerial affairs of the court (mantri, zhoushu _5!Et,Jtj, blo gros), (7) construction
(ghafana, yfngzao lg~, 'bur), (8) production (smpjana, shengcheng 1:_gx,, bskyed
pa), (9) weaving/sewing ( vana, fangna ~Em,. snams SU bya ba), (10) conjugal
matters (sa1J1yojana, hehe fD1S', sbyor ba), (11) cooking (paka, chengshu gx,J;;~,
g.yossu bya ba), and (12) music (gandharva,ylnyuef.f~, rolmo). 204
Apart from Martin DELHEY's remarks on the available editions and tral}slations,
the present volume contains no articles directly concerned with the Srutamayl
Bhllmil;. ' of examination (parikwo 'rthal;, su6guancha yi pfrfi~~. brtag par bya ba 'i don)
Basic Section Book Eight - The Eleventh Foundation
(11) Cintamayi Bhiimi!J
Si su6cheng di (J=/slJ=iJrJ$Gtili)
Bsams pa las byung ba 'j sa •
Subsequent to the process of listening to the teachings, the eighth book concerns
the process of understanding205 ( cinta, sf ,f/s;,, bsam pa) what is being learned and it
is therefore called The Foundation [Concerning] What Is Derived from Under-
standing ( Cintamayl Bhumil;). Understanding essentially means that· the practi-
tioner based on his or her206 studies of the teachings arrives at a singular 'view' or
203 Silpakarmasthana is sometimes translated with "fine arts and crafts," but as is clear
from the following list this field of knowledge also includes elements that are neither arts
nor crafts, e.g., agriculture, trade, administration, solving issues pertaining to conjugal
matters, and cooking. Hence, the broader expression "practical skills" has been adopted
here as the English equivalent.
204 SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (2007:310-312) = T1579.36lb 4. 10 = D4035.200b2.s-
,i zos Regarding the English equivalent 'understanding' for cintii instead of 'reflection',
I
'contemplation', or 'deliberation', see the remarks made in fn.181.
206 It must be remarked that the YBh generally speaks in the masculine voice and that
,,1 the use throughout this summary of the feminine pronouns 'she' and 'her' as well as 's/he' is
a modem addition to the survey aimed at creating a gender neutral discourse, which has
been employed except in passages where the text specifically distinguishes between genders,
e.g., by using 'monk' or 'nun'. In general, the Sanskrit language of the sfistras employs very,
few personal pronouns, for which reason a certain gender orientation is not felt particularly
strongly when reading the work in the original. Nonetheless, it should be noted that the
summary's use of such inclusive gendered language is not reflected in the original text. It is
though not entirely off the mark to add female forms alongside male pronouns, because the
spiritual practice system presented in the YBh does not in any way exclude female practi-
tioners. This is clearly evidenced by the text's explicit inclusion of monastic ordination for
nuns and female lay practitioners among the possible disciplinary bases for its meditation
The Yogiicarabhumi and Its Adaptation 93
philosophical outlook of reality along wit~ knowing t~e religio~s p~th that l~a~s to
the eradication of misconceptions of reality and the mner reahzatlon of this view.
For this reason, the book is first and foremost preoccupied with discussing reality
in terms of what exists and what does not exist.
The book is divided into three overall sections: (1) the pure nature [of proper
understanding] (svabhavavisuddhi, zixing qlngjing § '[i.m~. ngo bo nyid rnam par
dag pa), (2) an analysis of what is to be known (jiieyapravicaya, size su6zhl ,f/s;,mpfr
~D, shes bya rab tu rnam par 'byed pa), and (3) an analysis of the teachings ( dhar-
mapravicaya, size zhll fa ,1S7,mITTi$, chos rab tu rnam par 'byed pa).
The first overall section, which deals with the pure nature of proper under-
standing, explains in brief what constitutes a genuine internalization of . the
practitioner's studies. 207 This point is explained in nine aspects, which essentially
amount to that the practitioner goes into solitude and und1stractedly analyzes and
contemplates in full the meaning of what has been learned during listening.
The second overall section is a longer segment presenting the analysis of what
is to be known. 208 It is said that such analysis takes into consideration both objects
that exist as well as some that do not exist.
The analysis of existing entities (sadvastu, y6ufa ~it, yod pa'i dngos po)
pertains to five points: (1) existence (sat, y6ufa ~$, yod pa) with specific charac-
teristics (svalakfaJJa, zixiang §T§, rang gi mtshan nyid), (2) with general charac-
teristics (samanyalakfaJJa, gongxiangfH§, spyi'i mtshan nyid), (3) with conven-
tional characteristics ( sa1J1ketalak$a1Ja, jiiixiang @J§, brda 'i mtshan nyid), (4) with
the characteristics of being a cause (hetulak~aJJa, ylnxiang 12S!T§, rgyu'i mtshan
nyid), and (5) with the characteristics of being a result (phalalak~aJJa, gu6xiang
~§, 'bras bu'i mtshan nyid). 209
*
system. Hence, there is no doubt that women - monastics as well as lay - cou~d a°:d in all
likelihood also did engage in the meditation practices presented here, possibly m even
greater numbers than male practitioner~. That is ~t. least the picture t~at emer~es from
many modern Asian traditions of Buddhist monasticism and contemplative practices. For
further discussion of the use of inclusive gendered language, see DELEANU (2006:467-468
n.4). In contradistinction thereto, it then also needs to be a?ded ~hat the text is male-
oriented when it comes to the higher stages of the path, especially with regard to the path
of a bodhisattva. In the Bodhisattvabhumi, as will be noted below, it is said that the
bodhisattva cultivates the methods throughout three incalculable aeons. During the first
neon the bodhisattva may take rebirth in a male or female form (whether human, animal,
or other form of reincarnation), but it is then stated that during the second and third aeons
the bodhisattva's gender is invariably male. Consequently, in such contexts the addition of
female gender forms has been avoided, at least wherever it has been possible to draw such a
c.1lear distinction. Further, it may be observed - as is also noted below in the summary - that
the text includes a couple of misogynistic passages, revealing a male predominance that
e,1omes out in a few instances. However, generally speaking, the text is overall kept in a very
gender neutral tone.
207 Sanskrit text in SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (2007:318) = T1579.361b21-29 = D4035.200bs-
201a1.
208 SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (2007:318-334) = Tl579.36lc1-363a10 = D4035.201ai-204bs,
209 SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (2007:318-330) = Tl579.36lc4-362c13 = D4035.20laz-204a1,
-------·--·---· -------- -

Ulrich Timme KRAGH
94
From among these, existence with specific characteristics is elaborated as exi-
stence (sat, you ~' yod pa) with ultimate characteristics (paramarthalak$aIJa,
shengyi xiang WJ~, don dam pa'i mtshan nyid), appearing characteristics
(nimittalak$aIJa, xiangzhuang xiangif§#*if§, mtshan ma 'j mtshan nyid), and present
characteristics ( vartamanalak$~a, xianzai xiang :fJU':Eif§, da ltar gyi mtshan nyid).
This explanation relates to the five categories of reality (paiicavastu).
Existence with general characteristics is laid out through the· generalities of
genus (jati, zhonglei ffiffi, skye ba), worthwhile action (krtyanu${hana, cheng
suozuo fr1Zfifr11, bya ba bsgrub pa), everything conditioned (sarvasarpskara, ylqie
xfng-i;)Jfi, 'du byed thams cad), everything corrupted (sarvasasrava, yiqie you/au
-W~ii, zag pa dang bcas pa thams cad), and all phenomena in general ( sarva-
dharma, yiqie ta -W~t, chos thams cad). . then it actually makes good sense that the present passage contains explanations
Existence with conventional characteristics is explained through verbal
expressions ( vada, yiinlun § ~Nff, bijod pa) suggesting a possessive relation (svami-
sambandhayukta, shiJzhiJ xiangying )l}:±_if§ff!, bdag po dang 'brel par Jdan pa),
mutual exclusiveness ( tatta(janyanyavaijita, yuanlf cibl ~ffl.ll:c{&'., des de dang
gzhan gyis gzhan spangs pa), linguistic convention (sarpketika, zhonggong shishe
;;J<;:!=tfilii, brda las byung ba), inclusiveness or conglomeration (sarpghatika,
zhongfajujf '*i:t:~Jt, mang po las byung ba), demarcation (asarvatraga, bubian
ylqie ~~-i;)J, kun tu 'gro ba ma yin pa), or transience ( anitya, feichiing 11:1%', mi
rtagpa).
Existence with the characteristics of being a cause is analyzed in terms of desi-
rable causes (i${ahetu, ke'ai yin nJ'.Ntlz;I, sdug pa'i rgyu), undesirable causes
(am~fahetu, bu ke'ai yin ~J:iJ'.Nl:lz;J, mi sdug pa'i rgyu), augmenting causes
(pu$fihetu, zhangyang yin ~ • 1z;] , *brta ba 'i rgyu), evolutionary causes
(pravrttihetu, Jiuzhuan yin mE"iz;J, 'byung ba 'i rgyu), and devolutionary causes
(nivrttihetu, huiinmie yin il~iz;J, /dog pa 'j rgyu).
-:--~ ~ - -=~~ ~-::~ =-=-=-- Existence with the characteristics of being a result refers to having come about
- - and being present ( utpanna, sheng ~' skyes pa), acquisition (prapta, de f~, thob
pa), accomplishment (siddha, cheng m, grub pa), completion (m~panna, ban ¥h¥,
rdzogs pa), and being brought about (pravrtta, zhuan !Iii, zhugs pa).
Next, the analysis of non-existing entities ( asadvastu, wzifa ~i:t:, med pa 'i
non-existence in the sense of (1) what has not yet arisen (anutpanna, weisheng
~' ma skyes pa), what has already ceased (niruddha, yimie B~, 'gags pa), mutual
*
dngos po) likewise falls under five .headings, which are merely outlined in brief, viz.
exclusivity (itaretarasat, huxiang wu &if§~, gcig la gcig med pa), ultimate non-
existence (paramarthasat, shengyi wzi Im~~' don dam par med pa), and complete
non-existence in the sense of impossibility ( atyanta, bijing wzi *J[;~, gtan med
pa).210
Following the explanation of the five existing entities (sadvastu, youfa ~:$:,
yod pa 'i dngos po) and the five non-existing entities ( asadvastu, wufa ~it, med
pa 'i dngos po), a second segment on the analysis of what is to be known presents
yet another explanation of fivefold existence ( astita, youxing ~ti, yod pa nyid)
and. fivefold non-existence (nastita, wuxing ~'[i., med pa nyid). It is noteworthy
that while the explanation of the first set of fivefold existing and non-existing
210 SHOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:330) = T1579.362c14_21 = D4035.204a1_4.
The Yogaciiiabhiimi and Its Adaptation 95
~-----------~--·~-__.::._--------~
entities seems to relate to a characteristic Mainstream Buddhist Abhidharma
doctrine of reality, the second set of fivefold existence and non-existence pertains
in part to a model of reality that is typical of (later) Mahayana teaching, namely the
Yogacara-Vijflanavada doctrine of the three natures of reality (trisvabhava) and
the three absences of intrisic natures ( trinil;svabhavata). The passage has been
discussed in this regard by SCHMITHAUSEN (2000b:259-263), and, as he notes, it is
possible that the passage constitutes a later interpolation, inserted into the text in
order to add the Yogacara-Vijflanavada view to the discussion of what is to be
understood during the process of understanding. It is, however, also to be noted
that if the present book on the process of understanding was originally intended to
be of such general character that it would apply equally to the subsequent books on
the various Buddhist paths of the sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas,
on the different philosophical views of reality according to Mainstream Buddhism
and the Mahayana respectively. Hence, if the passage should indeed be seen as an
interpolation, its insertion could be related to the compilatory stage of arranging
the perhaps originally separate texts of the Sravakabhiimi and the Bodhisattva-
~hiimi as parts of a single larger work, while its reference to the trisvabhava theory
simultaneously presupposes the explication of this theory found in the supplemen-
tary Sarp.grahal).I section, specifically in the Smpdhinirmocanasiitra which is quoted
at length in the ViniscayasarpgrahaIJi
The fivefold existence is laid out as: (1) being existent in the sense of the per-
fectly accomplished character (parim~pannalak$aIJa, yufmcheng shfxiang [§].fr1Z1f if§,
yangs su grub pa 'i mtshan nyid), (2) being existent in the sense of the dependent
character (paratantralak$aIJa, yita qi xiang 1t<1iliilliif§, gzhan gyi dbang gi mtshan
nyid), (3) being existent in the sense of the imagined.character (parikalpitalaksana
bianji suozhfxiang ~Hfifr¥.Jtif§, kun brtags pa 'i mtshan nyid), (4) being exist~nt i~
the sense of a specific character ( vi$eialak$aIJa, chabie xiang ~.8Uif§, bye brag gi
mtshan nyid), or (5) being existent as something having an inexpressible character
( avaktavyalak$a1Ja, bu keshu6 xiang ~nJIDtif§, brjodpar bya ba ma yin pa 'i mtshan
nyid). The corresponding negative counterparts are being non-existent (nastita,
wzixing ~ti:, med pa nyid) in the sense of (1) lacking the character of highest
roal~ty (paramarthalak$~a, shengyi xiang .W~if§, don dam pa 'i mtshan nyid), (2)
Jackmg the character of being independent (svatantralak$a1Ja, ziyi xiang §1t<if§,
1zhan gyi dbang gi mtshan nyid), (3) entirely lacking any character of its own
(sarveJJ_a sarvarp svalak$~a, bijing zixiang •J[; § if§, thams cad kyi thams cad du
ra11g g1 mtshan nyid), (4) lacking a specific character (aviie$alak$aIJa, wzi chabie
Klang ~~.8Uif§, bye brag med pa'i mtshan nyid), or (5) lacking an expressible
character (vaktavyalak$a1Ja, keshu6 xiang nJIDtif§, bijod par bya ba'i mtshan
ll)'ld).211
, The thir~ overall section, the analysis of the teachings ( dharmapravicaya, size
ma fa ,~JiITT11t, chos rab tu rnam par 'byed pa), is a long segi;nent that consists of
three passages of selected canonical and paracanonical verses accompanied by a
prose commentary. The first canonical passage, referred to as "Stanzas on the
!"lghest Reality" (paramarthagatha, shengyi gata .W~1JJIT1ili, don dam pa 'i tshigs su
211 SHOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:330-334) = T1579.362c21 -363a 10 = D4035.20414-204b5•
-----~-=...;;----- -

96 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
bead pa), contains 41 stanzas discussing the conditional arising and ceasing of all
phenomena, their empty and selfless character, and the nature of delusion and
liberation.212 The commentary on the latter points mentionslwice the notion of the
latent consciousness (a.Jayavij.ia.na) and has consequently been discussed in
SCHMITHAUSEN's alayavij.ia.na study. 213
The second canonical passage, called "Stanzas on the Intended Meaning"
( abhipra.yika.rthaga.tha., yiqu yi ga.ta. ~)OO~{f]Of-tt!., dgongs pa 'i don gyi tshigs su bead
pa), consists of 51 stanzas accompanied with a commentary explaining in detail the
three kinds of religious training (sik~a, xue ~' bslab pa) in higher discipline
( adhisila, zengshang jie ti _t:w;, ]hag pa 'j tshul khrims), higher mind ( adhicitta,
zengshang xin iji/ __t,C,,, Jhag pa'i sems), and higher insight (adhipraj.ia, zengshang
hui iji/_t~, Jhagpa'i shes rab). 214
The third canonical passage, entitled "Stanzas on the Meaning of the [Canoni-
cal] Corpus" (sarira.rthaga.tha., tfyi ga.ta. '\m~f:tmf-tt!., 'dus pa'i don gyi tshigs su bead
pa), has some 82 stanzas that are divisible into 41 groups of canonical prose and
verse passages.215 It treats fourteen major canonical doctrinal and literary themes,
including (1) negative action (papa, e ~' sdig pa), (2) what is to be expressed
(a.khyeya, shu6 IDl, brjod bya), (3) desire (raga, ta.n1fi., 'dad chags), (4) the analogy
of a flood ( ogha, Jiu t7.,, chu bo), (5) being frightened ( u[t]trasta, but-$, Jigs), (6)
the caste system (abhivanp;ata., lei~' rigs), (7) possessing fame (yasasvin, yii ~,
grags Jdan), (8) the analogy of wandering (sara, chi~' mtsho), (9) the analogy of
two floods ( oghau, Jiu mt,, chu bo gnyis), (10) desire and hatred (ra.gadve~a, tan 1fi.,
'dad chags zhe sdang), (11) what ought to be done (ka.ryata., zuo i'F, bya ba), (12)
the analogy of struggle ( a.yiihana, qulao {iJ}JM, 'dzin pa), (13) the attainment of the
aim (arthapra.pti, deyi :ft~, don thob), and (14) instruction (upadesa, Jun§'ffil).2 16
A large number of the verses are quoted from the Uda.navarga and it is on the basis
of comparing these verses of the YBh with the corresponding ones found in
-~=.~-~~~~ _= - -~~ =-~- =- :;:;:-;;::. -- ---- different recensions of the Udanavarga that SCHMITHAUSEN (1970a) demon-
-
strated that the canon used by the compilers of the YBh, at least in this case,
belongs to the Mulasarvastivada sect.217
In the present volume, aside from Martin DELHEY's remarks on the available
editions and translations of the book, Peter SKILLING's article draws attention to
the fact that the YBh is a precious source for the study of siltra literature, as
212 Sanskrit edition in WAYMAN (1984:333-352) and of verses 28-41 with commentary
in SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:223-241) = T1579.363aw365c16 = D4035.204br2l0b4.
213 See SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a: 138-142, 160-166, 236-239).
214 Sanskrit edition in SHOMON JI KENKYOKAI (2007:337-368) = T1579.365c1s-~70a9 =
D4035.2l0b4-2l9b2.
215 Sanskrit edition of the verses only in ENOMOTO (1989) = T1579.370ar388b 2 =
D4035.219bi-26lb2.
216 The fourteen themes are listed in an outline verse ( uddana) placed at the very end
of the passage. The Sanskrit and Chinese versions list the fourteen themes as detailed
above. The Tibetan translation, however, does not contain the final element, i.e., "instruc-
tion", but instead continues with a longer list of other themes.
217 See fn.18 above. .
The Yogaciirabhiimi and Its Adaptation 97
exemplified in the Cintamayi Bhilmil;'s anthology of canonical and paracanonical
ve1·ses found in the Parama.rthagatha., Abhipra.yika.rthagatha., and Sarira.rthaga.tha..
Basic Section Book Nine - The Twelfth Foundation
(12) BhavanamayiBhiimilJ.
Xia suochengdi (1iJ=iJrfflGtili)
Bsgoms pa las byung ba 'i sa
After the book on understanding the teachings follows the book on the meditative
oultivation ( bhavana., xiil {1i, sgom pa) of what has been understood. The book is
entitled The Foundation [Concerning] What is Derived from Meditative Cultiva-
tion (Bha.vana.mayi Bhumil;). Cultivation is explained in terms of its basis, condi-
tions, the actual practice in the form of yoga, and its results. These aspects are
treated in seven points,, viz. (1) the right circumstance of coming into existence
(nbhinirvrttisampat, sheng yua.nman ~liliwi, mngon par 'grub pa phun sum tshog~
pn), (2) the right circumstance of hearing the true teachings (saddharmasrava.JJa-
111mpat, wen zhengfa yua.nman lir]lf~li]Ml,i, dam pa'i chos nyan pa phun sum
tlhogs pa), (3) turning toward nirval)a (nirvfi.JJapramukhata, wei niepa.n shangshou
~rfil.iij~_tt/f, mya ngan las 'das pa gtso bar byed pa), (4) developing the insights
that foster liberation ( vimuktiparipiicanya.J; praj.ia.ya.J; paripa.kal;, nengshu jietu6
hu) zhi chengshu f'ilg1Af§~Jffl;~~.1=&1A, rnam par grol ba yangs su smin par byed pa 'i
lhe!i rab yangs su smin pa), (5) cultivation of remedies or antidotes (pratipakfa-
bhilvana., xiiixf duizhi 1i~J1}EI, gnyen po bsgom pa), (6) complete purification of
1111 mundane aspects ( sarva.kara. laukiki visuddhil;, shijia.nyiqie zh6ng qingjing t!tFa~
-it1J~mi1ffe, rnam pa thams cad du Jig rten pa rnam par dag pa), and (7) complete
purification of all transcendent aspects (sarva.kiira. lokottara. visuddhil;, chil shijia.n
'flqle zhong q1ngj1'ng/:Bt!tFa~-Wfffimi1ffe, rnam pa thams cad du Jig rten las 'das pa
l'llnm par dag pa).
The first point concerns the basis for being able to engage in meditative cultiva-
tion and pertains to the right circumstance of coming into existence. Ten personal
imd outer conditions that must be present to practice the Dharma are here ex-
plnlned.218 These include the right circumstances (sampat, yua.nman liliwi, phun
lllm tshogs pa) of (1) being reborn as a suitable type of sentient being (nika.ya-
lllbhliga, zhong tong fen -*-IP]5t, ris mthun pa) namely as a human, (2) being
reborn in the right place ( desa, chusu6 ~?Jr, yul), (3) having a well-functioning
committed the most hemous actions (karmana.varaJJa, wu yezhang
1Jflb pa med pa), (5) not being impeded by following wrong convictions
~*~'
physic~l constitution (~sraya, yi~hf f~.ll::., J~s), (4) not b,ei~g i1;11peded by having_
las kyi
(lldhimuktyana.vara.JJa, w6 xi'n jie zhang ~faf§~~, mos pa sgrib pa med pa), (6)
tbnt a teacher (sa.Jtr, dashi ::fdffi, ston pa), i.e., the Buddha, has appeared in the
world, (7) that he has given verbal instruction in the Dharma (saipketika-
dhnrmapraj.iapti, shisu zhengfa shishe t!t{1tlE~nffi~, brda las byung ba'i chos
lldngs pa), (8) that there are followers of the Dharma who have preserved the
foachings on ultimate reality (pa.ramarthikadharma.nupravrtti, shengyi zhengfa
,U/zhuan /m~lfi:'tllifU$, don dam pa'i chos kyi rjes su Jug pa), (9) that personal
218Sanskrit edition in SUGAWARA (forthcoming) = T1579.388bw389a 11 D4035.
261 bn-263b2.

98 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
accomplishment of these teachings still exists (lit. has not come to an end, prati-
pattyanantard~~na, zkengxfng bu_mie 1Ef':f:::f¥~, bsgrub pa med par mi gyur ba),
a~d (1~) that ~t 1s possible to ?bt~m the proper outer conditions needed for practi-
cmg ( anulomikopakaraJJa, swshun ziyuan JiJi/lll~~. mthun pa 'i yo byad).
~ex~, the b~ok ~ays out the various conditions that must be created to engage in
med1tat1ve cultivation. Thus, the second point, referred to as the right circum-
stance of hearing the true teachings, briefly explains how to properly hear the kind
of t_eachings that are consistent (anukula, sufshun JiJi/lll, mthun pa) and free from
defilement ( ~s~li~fa, wu ranwrl ~~t.J, !un n~s nyon mongs pa can ma yin pa).
Proper heanng 1s understood as hstemng without any sense of resistance
( salpst~bha, jiao 'ai t-1~, khengs p~j, d~sdain ( avamanyana, qingmie f_fil~, brnyas
pa), famtheartedness (salpkoca, tJeruo !:!§.J§, bag 'khums pa) or distraction
1
( vik~epa, sanluan ~IL. rnam par g.yeng ba). 219 ' suffering ( duiJkhe 'anatmas8lpj.ia, yu zhong kii xiu wuw6 xiang 1Jt5;KE~l~t\tJJ,
~he third point c~ncerns the spiritual process in which the practitioner
genumely turns the mmd toward reaching nirvaJJa, the extinction of samsaric
suffer_ing, and hold~ !his as his or her ultimate aim. 220 While listening t~ the
tea_c~mgs, the p~actit10ne~ ~eeds to foster belief in nirval)a, thinking that this
~ehgiou~ goal exists, that 1t is worthwhile, and that it is attainable. Withdrawing
m_to solitude, _th~ practitioner applies him- or herself to the methods of the path
with the conviction that sa1J1sara is a vicious condition whereas nirvana is full of
goo? q~alities. Deepening the meditative practice, the practitione; eventually
attams liberation. The passage also includes a short explanation of the benefits that
derive from following this religious path. •,
The f~urth pain~, entitled developing the insights that foster liberation, pre-
sents the mner conditions needed for achieving insight, namely the circumstances
needed for bringing a~~ut m~ditative insight ( vipasyana, pfb6shena Ee-.~~$, ]hag
I I ,I mthong) a~d tranqmhty (samatha, shemata ~-{ili, zhi gnas). 221 The initial
n~cessary c1r~umsta~ce !or engendering meditative insight is to rely on a spiritual
friend (sanm1tra, shanyou ~R, bshes gnyen dam pa), i.e., a religious mentor. For
!ranquility, it_is the perfection of discipline (silasampatti, shilu6 yuanman Fmll
mi, tshul khnms phun sum tshogs pa). The inner process that the practitioner goes
t~rough in t?~s regard is then laid out in ten steps. To begin with, by associating
with the sp1~1~ual mentor a yearning to achieve realization is created and by
e~r~~stly s!nvmg to perfect discipline the practitioner becomes able to accept
cnt1c1sm with regard to lapses in his or her conduct. The yearning for realization
leads to studying the teachings, formulating questions, seeking further teachings
etc., until this study has been completed and all doubts have been resolved:
1:hereby, the practitioner comes to see the shortcomings of S81J1Sara and this gives
nse to a sense of renunciation of .everything worldly and harmful along with a
strong motivation to develop what is spiritual and wholesome. The seeker thus
applies him- or herself to using all the remedies against the afflictions in order to
achieve complete purity of mind.
Having explained the various outer and inner causes and conditions needed for
spiritual development, the book with its fifth point turns to issues associated with
I:
~~~ SUGAWARA (forthcoming) = T1579.389a12-19 = D4035.263b2-6•
221 SUGAWARA (forthcoming)= T1579.389a20-389b 29 = D4035.263b6-265a1.
SUGAWARA (forthcoming)= T1579.389c1_29 = D4035.265a1-265b5 .
The Yogacarabhilmi and Its Adaptation 99
the actual practice of meditative cultivation-222 This consists in applying ten types of
antidotes or remedies (pratipak~a, duizhi Wm, gnyen po) against the afflictions.
The segment explains in detail how various difficulties and adverse inclinations
( vipak~a, suodui zhifa pfrf;J-m;i-t;, mi mthun pa 'j phyogs) arise in different types of
practitioners, namely householders (agarika, zaijia tt*, khyim pa), renunciants
(i.e., ordained persons) (pravrajita, chujia tB*, rab tu byung ba), and those who
have entered into solitude in order to practice yoga. The adverse inclinations need
to be countered by applying ten remedies, viz. (1) contemplating (of the notion) of
unattractiveness (asubhasalpjna, bujing xia.ng ~~JJ, mi sdug pa'i 'du shes), (2)
contemplating impermanence ( anityas81Jljna, wuchang xia.ng ~1if;JJ, mi rtag pa 'i
'du shes), (3) contemplating the suffering found in what is impermanent ( anitye
du1Jkhasa1J1jna, yu wuch!mg xiiixf kii xiang~~1if;{1J~Efl, mi rtag pa la sdug
bsngal ba'i 'du shes), (4) contemplating selflessness with regard to what entails
sdug bsngal ba la bdag med pa'i 'du shes), (5) fostering an attitude of indifference
to food ( ahare pratikulasa1J1j.ia, yu yinshf xiii yanni xiang ~~~{!l/JtH~JJ, zas la
mi mthun pa'i 'du shes), (6) fostering an attitude of disinterest in anything worldly
( sarvaloke anabhiratJ"salJlj.ia, yu yiqie shijian xiii bu kele xia.ng 1Jt-t1JfilFa~{IJ~EJ
~JJ), (7) meditating on images of light (alokasalpj.ia, guang-mfng xiangJ'tEJ!fl,
snang ba 'i 'du shes), (8) fostering an attitude of detachment ( viragasalpj.ia, Jfyu
xia.ng ~fHiXJl, 'dad chags dang bra] ba 'i 'du. shes), (9) contemplating cessation
(nirodhasa1J1}.ia, mie xiang~JJ, 'gag pa'i du shes), and (10) contemplating death
(mar81JaS81J1}.ia, sfxiang JE!l, 'chi ba 'i 'du shes).
The two final points of the book present the results of meditative cultivation.
Among these, the fifth point, called the complete purification of all mundane
aspects, explains ( 1) the attainment of meditation ( samadhilabha, de sanmadi ff-=::
)tH,tg, ting nge 'dzin thob pa), (2) its fulfillment (samadhiparipiiri, sanmadi yufm-
man _:::::-Jfil[iliw.i, ting nge 'dzin yangs SU rdzogs pa), and (3) its mastery (samadhi-
vasita, sanmadi z1'zai -=::-till§ ft, ting nge 'dzin la dbang ba). 223
The attainment of meditation (samadhilabha, de sanmadi 1~-=::-tlli, ting nge
'dzin thob pa) is elucidated as a process that is far from being accomplished
smoothly, given that the passage presents twenty problems that may prevent the
practitioner from resting in a proper meditative state. Most of these problems are
practical in nature, pertaining to living in a meditation retreat together with a small
group of ascetics or in complete solitude. These include problems arising from (1)
being close friends with other practitioners who do not strive in their renunciation,
(2) having good companions but following a teacher who does not teach medita-
tion correctly, (3) having a good teacher but not receiving the meditation method
properly due to insufficient interest, (4) receiving the method correctly but not
understanding it due to lack of intelligence, (5) having a good understanding but
being misled by a craving for profit and recognition, (6) being frustrated due to
dissatisfaction with the hardships of finding food and support, (7) having too many
affairs to attend to in this regard, (8) having an ideal situation but nevertheless
failing to practice due to laziness, (9) not being lazy but instead encountering
various difficulties caused by others, (10) not encountering difficulties from the
222 SUGAWARA (forthcoming) = T1579.390a1-391a16 = D4035.265bs-268b4.
223 SUGAWARA (forthcoming)= T1579.39la1r392c 10 = D4035.268b4-272b2.

- - - - -=- - ----="::'---- - ==
100 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
side of others but being unable to bear the hardships of heat and cold, etc., [expe-
rienced when being a renunciate], (11) not having that problem but instead not
receiving the instructions due to arrogance and vindictiveness, (12) not being
arrogant or vindictive but misunderstanding the instructions, (13) understanding
the instructions but then forgetting them, (14) not having problems with receiving
the instructions but encountering problems due to living together with a group
consisting of both householders and renunciates, (15) not having this problem but
getting problelJlS due to resting and sleeping in five improper ways as explained
below in the Sravakabhilmi, (16) not having such problems and having gone into
retreat but nevertheless having negative thoughts due to not guarding the senses,
(17) guarding the senses but feeling physically heavy and unwell due to eating
improperly, (18) eating properly but sleeping at the wrong times due to having a
sleepy nature, (19) sleeping properly but finding no pleasure in isolating the mind
in tranquility (samatha) due to not having earlier familiarized oneself with the
tranquility practice, and (20) having no problems with practicing tranquility but
finding no pleasure in observing phenomena as they are through the practice of
insight ( vipasyana) due to not having earlier familiarized oneself with the insight
I
practice. It is explained that such problems should be countered by clearly identi-
' ,I fying them and then striving to do the opposite in each case.
Once the practitioner has overcome such problems and managed to acquire a
good meditation practice, s/he needs to accomplish or fulfill the meditation
(samadhiparipilri, Siinmad] yuanman =•Jfilli]Mlj, ting nge 'dzin yangs SU rdzogs
pa). This fulfillment is laid out in a process through whic~ the practitioner goes
deeper and deeper into practicing tranquility meditation in'seclusion. Finally, the
practitioner achieves mastery of meditation (samadhivasita, sanmadi zizai -•ti±!
11 §1:E, ting nge 'dzin la dbang ba) through undergoing various stages of ascetic
I, austerity in order to devote him- or herself fully to the practice.
The seventh point, titled 11 complete purification of all transcendent aspects,"
.=.:. - --- presents five stages of fruition. 224 These are (1) realization of the existential facts
(or truths) (satyabhisamaya, rusheng di xianguan :A~lm¥fJ!fi, bden pa mngon par
rtogs par bya ba), (2) removing obstacles hindering [the seeing of] the existential
fact that has been comprehended ( abhisamitasatyasya antarayavivarjanam,
rusheng di xianguan yllizhu zhangai A~lm¥fJifiB~l~nlii, bden pa mngon par
rtogs pa'i don du spyod pa rnam par spang ba), (3) focusing the mind on pleasant
objects in order quickly to attain clairvoyance (k~iprabhijiiatayai pramodyavastu-
manasikaral;i, rusheng di xianguan yf wei yuzheng de suji t6nghui zuoyi slwei zhil
-
h uaflXJ .z.., , ]lt::r~rS,l!;B.::::t -6)0',,S1;t,?;/.S ~'*',IJ!:"~;,;,,fffk= S3 '[it:f::"'cfi:i)lif.,-=ffi"
v
S1J1 /\.EE.r,rp.1-;,t,!l\)tL,ts,tn=1Ai'iR1"f~17':@~ i--,\s!,,c,, 1±ira1l0.-l§-~, mngon par sues
.z..
pa myurbarbya ba'iphyir mchog tu dga' ba'i dngos po yid la bya ba), (4) practicing
the path of contemplative cultivation ( bhavanamargani~evaJJii, xiiixf ru suode dao
11 ' {~~tzDPJr:f~:im:, bsgom pa'i lam rten pa), and (5) attaining the path of complete
purification along with its results and benefits (saphalanusarpsa suvisuddha-
margapraptil;i, zheng de ji qlngjing dao ji guo g6ngde §i1~tim~&*JJJ1i,
shin tu rnampardagpa'i Jam 'bras bu dangphanyon du bcaspa 'thob pa).
224 SUGARAWA (forthcoming)= T1579.392cu-395b20 = D4035.272br279a5.
The Yogaciirabhumi and Its Adaptation 101
....--··---·-·· - - ------ -- --- ---- -- - ----- - - -- - - - - ----- - - - - ---·. -----·--·-······-··------......... _. _,....-.,-...-
The present volume contains two articles devoted to the Bhavanamayl BhOmiiJ.
The first is the article by Yasunori SUGAWARA225 (W~'*~). SUGAWARA is a
philologist who has wor~ed extensively on manuscript transmi~sions. In ~990, he
published a broad bibliographical survey of the exta~t Sans~1~ manus~~1pts22~nd
editions of nineteen major and minor texts of the Indian Yogacara trad1t10n. In
recent years, he has turned his attention to the Bhavanamap Bh0!_11iiJ an_d pr~-
duced the first critical edition of the entire book on the basis of Saqtlqtyayana s
Yogacarabhumi manuscript, which is the codex_ unicus source f?r this part ?f the
text. His present arti('.le commences by introducmg the manuscnpt and. provides .a
thorough outline of the book, which is much more detailed than the bnef synopsis
offered above. Thereupon, he engages in an extensive discussion of several textual
problems that reveal some of the complex issues that a . scholar faces ~h~n
attempting to explain the YBh's history of compilation on a mmute_ level.. Earlier m
the volume Noritoshi ARAMAKI's article presented a general d1scuss1on of the
compilatio~ history of the text. That analysis gave a bird's eye view o~ the matter,
arguing how entire books or larger segments of individual books were mtegrated to
create the final version of the YBh. SUGAWARA's article, on the other hand,
approaches the problem of the text's compilation his~of)'. from the ground up. It
offers an in-depth analysis of the Bhavanamayi Bhumil;i an? ~e~onstrates the
numerous redaction critical issues encountered on the level of md1v1dual sentences.
The article thus does not aim at providing a complete compilation history of the
YBh, but rather shows the manner in which a single book came to be written;
rewritten, adjusted, and restructured through citation, pa~aphrase, and cross-
reference in order to make the book fit into the larger proJect of the YBh as a
generalwork. . · _ _ _ _ ..
The second article in the volume concerned with the Bhavanamayi Bhumil;i 1s
the contribution by Alexander VON ROSPATT. 227 In his earlier work on Yogacara
225 Yasunori SUGAw ARA is an independent scholar from Japan. He has published
widely on Yogiiciira studies, in particular a series of articles examini~g the origi~ and
development of the trisvabhava theory (1983; 1984b; 1984d; 1985a). His sch?la~ship has
also been concerned with the two Vasubandhu-theory (1984a; 1984c), Dig~aga as a
Yogacara-Vijfi.anaviida author (1987), the notion of buddhahood (1985~), reh~s (1_993~,
szitra literature (1998), and text criticism in relation to Vasubandhu's Tns~abh~~amrdesa
(1996). In 1990, he was a major contri?utor to a _large s~rv~y Sansknt editions and o!
manuscripts, with his contribution covermg the Indian Y ogacara hte~a.ture (Tsu~M?~O,
MATSUNAGA, & !SODA, 1990:315-389). He is currently producing a cntlcal Sansknt edition
of the Bhavanamayi BhiimilJ.
226 Contained in TSUKAMOTO MATSUNAGA, & !SODA (1990:315-389).
227 The German-born schola; Alexander VON RosPATT is Professor of Buddhist and
South Asian Studies at the University of California at Berkeley in ~he USA Ha~ing
received a BA degree (1985) in Religious Studies from !he School of ?ne~tal and Afncan
Studies (SOAS) at the University of London, he studied at the l!mversity of Ha~~urg
(Universitat Hamburg), where he earned the MA degree (1988)_ m In~ology, .Rehgious
Studies, and Tibetology, followed by the doctoral degree in 1993 with a d1ssertat10n on !he
Buddhist doctrine of momentariness (revised version published in 1995). In the pen?d
l988-1990, he worked on cataloging Sanskrit manuscripts at the Nepal-German Manu~cnpt
Preservation Project in Hamburg. After receiving the PhD degre~, ~e sef:'ed ~s Assi~tant
Professor (Hochschulassistent) at the Institute for Indology at Leipzig Umvers1ty (Umver-
102 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
materials, VON ROSPATT (1995) provided a comprehensive study of the Buddhist
doctrine of momentariness (k~aJJikata) and impermanence ( anityata) as presented
in a broad range of Sutra, Abhidharma, and Y ogacara sources, including pertinent
passages in the Cintamayi BhiimiiJ, the Sravakabhiimi, the Bodhisattvabhiimi, and
the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi His current paper centers on the Bhavanamayi BhiimiiJ,
laying out the spiritual path presented therein. His analysis reveals how the book is
less concerned with explaining specific practices but instead aims at mapping the
concrete stages that the practitioner undergoes in his or her quest for nirvaJJa,
identifying the various difficulties that may arise. VON ROSPATT also discusses a
number of points where the book differs subtly from similar presentations else-
where in the YBh.
Remarks on the book are also found in the articles by Martin DELHEY and
Noritoshi ARAMAKI.
Basic Section Book Ten - The Thirteenth Foundation
(13) Sravakabhiimi
Shengwen di (Vfiflt-fu)
Nyan thos kyi sa
With the Sravakabhiin11; i.e., The Foundation [Concerning} the Hearer, the YBh
turns from the general overview of the Buddhist path that the text has provided so
far to presenting a specific form of Buddhist practice tailored for a particular type
of practitioner, namely the so-called 'disciple' or 'hearer' (sravaka, shengwen WM,
nyan thos). The book is followed by two other books dealing with other specific
styles of practice, viz. the Pratyekabuddhabhiimi and the Bodhisattvabhiimi Taken
together, this triad of books expounds the three 'vehicles' (yana) of Buddhism, i.e.,
the vehicle for the hearers (Sravakayana), the vehicle for solitary buddhas
(Pra~ekabuddhayana), and the 'great vehicle' (Mahayana) for the bodhisattvas.
The Sravakabhiimi book is very sizeable, forming an entire printed volume in the
Tibetan version of the text. It is the second largest book in the Basic Section, only
sitat Leipzig) in Germany (1993-2001). He was Visiting Professor at the University of
Oxford (2001), the University of California at Berkeley (2001), and the University of
Vienna (2002-2003), before joining UC Ber~eley as Professor in 2004. The two major areas
of his scholarship include the doctrinal history of Indian Buddhism as well as Newar
Buddhism in the Kathmandu Valley, the latter being the only Indic Mahayana tradition
that continues to persist in its original South Asian setting right down to the present. His
publications on the early Indian Yogacara tradition include his 1995 monograph on the
doctrine of momentariness and an article on the contemplation of impermanence (2004).
Some major articles among his many writings on Newar Buddhism cover such topics as the
Svayambhucaitya in the Kathmandu Valley (1999; 2001b; 2009; 2011), Mahayana Bud-
dhism in Nepal (2001a; 2005b ), Newar Buddhist ritual texts (2002; 2010), Buddha
Diparµkara (2003), Newar monastic ordination rituals (2005a; 2010-2011), and Newar
death rituals (2005c). His new book The Svayambhu Cmtya and Its Renovations (forth-
coming) deals with the historical renovations of the Svayambhu Stu.pa in Kathmandu.
Based on Newar manuscripts and several years of fieldwork in Nepal, he in this book
reconstructs the ritual history of these renovations and their social contexts. His current
research focuses on Newar Buddhist narrative literature and on life-cycle rituals of old age
among the Newars.
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 103
exceeded by the Bodhi§attvabhiimi which is slightly longer. As noted above, many
scholars consider the Sravakabhiimi and the Bodhisattvabhiimi as constituting the
oldest layers of the Basic Section, with other parts having subsequently been added
before and after these books in order to create a larger and more systematic
treatise.
The Sravakabhiimi is divided into four sections called yogasthana (yriqie chu
ffrj{iJD~, rnal 'byor gyi gnas), literally meaning 'yoga topics'. As discussed above, the
word yoga signifies a 'religious practice' in general or 'meditation' more specifically.
The word 'topic' (sthana) here implies a division of the book containing a series of
doctrinal points, which the text simply numbers from the first to the fourth. 228
The First Yogasthana
The Gotrabhiimi
The first Y ogasthana section is further subdivided into three 'foundations' ( bhiimi)
called Gotrabhiim1; Avatarabhiimi, and Nai~kramyabhiimi Hence, one of the
oldest books within the overall structure of the Basic Section's seventeen bhiimis is
thus subdivided into further bhiimis, which may have something to do with the
early compilation history of the text.
The first bhiimi is entitled "The Foundation [Concerning] the Predisposition"
( Gotrabhum1; Zhongxing di mtt_ttg, Rigs kyi sa). It discusses the notion that
practicing the Buddhist path successfully requires having a certain innate spiritual
or religious 'predisposition' (gotra, zhongxing mtt, rigs). 229 While this notion is
related to the contemporaneous and slightly later developments in Buddhist
thought concerning predisposition (gotra) in the sense of a buddha-nature ( tatha-
gatagarbha), the present segment does not divide persons into different 'families'
(gotra) of practitioners according to their yana-affiliation, as is otherwise seen in
certain tathagatagarbha texts. 230 Rather, the point of the present exposition seems
to be to provide a logical justification for the claim that it is possible for a sentient
being drifting in saipsara to attain nirvaJJa, given that such an attainment is inhe-
rent with the innate nature of certain people, without any further distinction of
different gotras being presupposed here. Aside from the passage's association with
the tathagatagarbha literature, it is topically likewise related to similar works in the
Abhidharma genre, such as the Theravada treatise Puggalapaiiiiati, "The Exposi-
tion of Persons," which lists and explains the various types of practitioners men-
tioned in the Buddha's discourses, e.g., those without the wish to attain liberation
(Pali: niraso), those having such a wish ( asaipso), and those in whom this wish has
been accomplished ( vigataso).
The Gotrabhiimi commences with a short section that defines the word pre-
disposition as denoting a factor that is like a capacity, a potential, or a 'seed' ( *bija-
228
For a discussion of the term yogasthana and the structure of the book, see
DELEANU (2006:36-37 n.18).
229
An alternative semantic connotation of gotra is 'lineage'. For a brief discussion of
the meaning of the term gotra with further bibliographic references, see DELEANU
(2006:37-38 n.21). For a longer discussion of the term, see SEYFORT RUEGG (1976).
230
It should be noted that such a distinction, however, is made in the Pudgalavyava-
sthana segment of the second Yogasthana (to be summarized below).
104 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
dharma, zhongzi iii f!i-=f-it, sa ban gyi chos) [for spiritual achievement] found in
the predisposed (gotrastha, zhu zhongxing 1::Hitzi, rigs la gnas pa) person
(pudgala, biiteqielu6 11M1{1JDl't gang zag). 231 It further says that if a person
possesses such an innate spiritual predisposition and encounters the right condi-
tions, s/he has the ability to achieve nirvaJJa. The passage also lists the words 'seed'
( *bifa, zhongzi fir it, sa ban), 'fundamental constitution' ( *dhiitu, fie W., khams),
and 'nature' ( *svabhava, xingti, rang bzhin) as possible synonyms for the notion of
gotra, and elaborates that the predisposition is not physical but mental, that it is
innately acquired ( *dharmatiilabdha, fii'er suode 1tffl pfr{~, chos nyid kyis 'thob
pa), and that it has persisted since beginningless time ( *pararpparagato 'niidi-
kalikaiJ, c6ng wzishi shi zhanzhuiin chuanlai 1Jf:~~irt!tJ~:lJJ{$31(, thog ma med pa 'i
dus nas brgyud de 'ongs pa).
This is followed by a second section giving a broader presentation of the pre-
disposition ( *gotravyavasthiina, zhongxing iinli :ffitzi~}'[, rigs kyi rnam par gzhag
pa). 232 The section is structured around a series of four questions and answers that
aim to clarify the nature of the predisposition. The first question concerns the stage
at which the predisposition remains hidden ( *siik~mii, xi *ffi, phra ba, literally
'subtle') and when it becomes visible ( *audiirika, cii II, rags pa). The second
question is about whether the predisposition is part of a single existential conti-
nuum or -of multiple continua. Then it is asked why someone possessing such a
predisposition has remained in sarpsara without already having entered nirvliJJa
long ago. Finally, the question is raised as to what conditions are needed for
attaining nirvaJJa. The answer to the third question explains in some detail four
causes that have prevented predisposed persons from having already entered
nirviil}a, namely (human) rebirth in inopportune places ( *ak§aJJyopapanna, sheng
wzixia ~~B~l, mi khom par skye ba), disinterest or heedlessness ( *pramatta,
fangyi guo ,1j5(~~, bag med pa), following wrong beliefs ( *mithyapratipanna,
xiefie xfng 3ff_;f§~fi, Jog par zhugs pa), and being unable to understand and practice
the right teachings due to being obscured ( *avrta, you zhang guo f:f~l~, sgrib pa).
The answer to the fourth question lists two main conditions for reaching nirval)a,
namely receiving the proper teachings from others ( = *anyasabda, ta.yin ft!!s,
gzhan gyi sgra) and being personally engaged in practicing these in a correct
manner (nei nilf zuoyi vgtzOfl±!_f'F,li!,, nang gi tshul bzhin yid la byed pa). Further, it
gives a longer explanation of twelve such conditions, which are (1) a good human
rebirth (= *atmasampat, zi yuanman El ~1~, bdag gi 'byor pa), (2) that the Bud-
dha's teachings have been taught and transmitted down to the present time
( =parasampat, ta yuanmiin {fil~Y~, gzhan gyi 'byor pa), (3) a beneficial aspiration
for [practicing] the Dharma (kusalo dharmacchanda, shanfii yu ~itti'X, dge ba 'i
chos la 'dun pa), (4) r_enunciation of one's home (pravrafya, zheng chiifia iEl±t~,
rab tu byung ba), (5) following a discipline of vows (silasarpvara, fielilyf f!:til{it,
tshul khrims kyi sdom pa), (6) restraining the senses (indriyasarpva.ra, gen liiyf t.N
1-f{I, dbang po'i sdom pa), (7) knowing the right amount of food intake, i.e., eating
231 Tibetan edition in SHOMONji Kenkyukai (1998:2-4) = T1579.395c . = D4036.lbs-
19 27
2a4. The word gotrastha, which is here translated with "predisposed," literally means
"standing ( 0sthaiJ) in the lineage (gotra 0 ) . "
232 Tibetan and Sanskrit editions in SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (1998:4-22) = T1579.395c -
28
397c25 = D4036.2a4-7as.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 105
healthily ( bhofane matraj.iata, yzi shi zhiliang ,a~t?tto_,;_, zas kyi tshod rig pa nyid),
(8) maintaining the practice of staying awake in the evening and in the early
morning (purvaratraparariitrarp jagarikiinuyoga, chiiye houye changqfn xitlxff uewu
yuqie 1JR}tff{j(~lv{rl~1':ft§f§l]{jJD, nam gyi cha stod dang nam gyi cha smad la mi
nyal bar sbyor ba 'i rfes su brtson pa nyid), (9) moving about attentively with full
alertness [e.g., to avoid inflicting any harm on beings] (sarpprafiinadviharita,
zhengzhi er zhu IEtDfm{:t, shes bzhin du spyod pa nyid), (10) going into retreat
(pravivekya, yao yuanlf ~jj:1~ft rab tu dben par gnas pa), (11) purifying the
obscurations (nivaral)avisuddhi, qingjing zhiigai n§fy~gf~, sgrib pa rnam par dag
pa), and (12) resting in meditation (samiidhisarpnisraya,yisanmadi {~-JIHIB. ting
nge 'dzin la yang dag par gnas pa). Several of these themes are/ further explained in
greater detail below in the Nai~kramyabhiimi segment of the Sravakabhiimi
The third section of the Gotrabhiimi concerns the characteristics of predis-
posed persons (gotrasthasya pudgalasya liligiini, zhu zhongxing zhe suoyou
zhuxiang {:1flti~Pfrtf~tB, rigs la gnas pa 'i gang zag gi rtags). 233 It explains the
notion of a predisposed person (gotrastha, zhu zhongxing {:t:ffitt rigs la gnas pa)
with a negative example by contrasting such an individual with a 'not predisposed'
person ( agotrastha, bu zhu zhongxing ~{-1fiif'4:, rigs med pa la gnas pa), viz.
someone who fundamentally does not possess the qualities needed to attain
nirviil}a ( aparinirvanadharmaka, wzi niepan fa ~1~~$, yangs su mya ngan las mi
'da' ba'i chos can). 134 The text presents six general characteristics of such a not
predisposed person, including (1) having excessive physical desires ( alayat{$1)3.,
alaiye ai ~oJliUm~, lus la gzhi'i sred pa), (2) being completely incapable of seeing
the badness of sarpsara ( sarpsarado$a, shengsi zhongduo guoshi ~31[~§',~~'
'khor ba'i skyon), (3) having absolutely no conscience (ahrikya, wzican ~·filift, ngo
tsha med pa) and sense of embarrasment ( anapatrapya, wzikui ~ti, khrel medpa),
(4) feeling no degree of openness ( cetasa avarjanamiitrakam, weixiao faxin :fj,&1J\~
iL', cung zad sems gtod pa tsam) when being taught about the four existential facts
of the noble ones, (5) living a sham of the life of a renunciate if becoming ordained,
and (6) having only mundane motivations when performing beneficial actions.
The fourth and last section of the Gotrabhiimi presents a gradation of predis-
posed persons. 235 Predisposed persons are considered to be of three overall types,
viz. (A) being predisposed but having not yet entered [the path] and having not yet
gone forth (gotra eva sthito n;ivatfrIJO na lll~krantaiJ, you weizhu zhongxing er wei
qu Ill er wei chulf ~rll{:tfltt®*mA?J'f*tBWI, rigs la gnas pa kho na yin la/
ma zhugs shing nges par ma byung ba); (B) being predisposed and having entered
[the path] but having not yet gone forth (gotrastho 'vatlrIJo na m~krantaiJ, you
iinzhu zhongx1'ng er y! qu Ill er wei chiilf if~{jJ_itzi?ffBmAffrT*tBm, rigs la
gnas la zhugs shing nges par ma byung ba); and (C) being predisposed and having
entered [the path] and having gone forth (gotrastho 'vatirl}o m~krantalJ, you an zhu
233
Sanskrit edition in SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (1998:24-28) = T1579.397c25 -398b 24 =
D4036. 7a 5-8b 2.
234
The present article by Makoto YOSHIMURA examines the controversy which the
YBh notion of a person incapable of reaching nfrvaIJa stirred in Chinese Tang Dynastic
Buddhist circles, which otherwise were preoccupied with the universal tathagatagarbha
theolis'S . . . K ky k . ( 998
HOMONJI en l1 a1 1 :28-38) = Tl579.398b2s-399b18 = D4036.8brl0b1,
106 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
zhongxing er yi qu ru er yf chuli ~::R11.f.mtt3J\BmJ,Jsz.BdJlt rigs la gnas la
zhugs shing nges par 'byun{ ba). Such pr~disposed pers~ns are then _furt?er su~-
divided into twenty types:2 6 (1) those havmg a weak aptitude (mrdvmdnya};l, you
ruangen ~,tm, dbang po rtul po); (2) those having a mediocre aptitude
(madhyendriya};l, you zhonggen ~cpflt dbang po 'bring po); (3) those having a
keen aptitude ( tik~!Jendriya};l, you Jigen ~lrJflt dbang po rnon po); ( 4) those
having a temperament of desire (ragacarita};l, you tanxing ~~ff, 'dad chags
spyad pa); (5) those having a temperament of hatred (dve~acarita};l, you chenxing
~~Afr, zhe sdang spyad pa); (6) those having a temperament of stupidity
(mohacarita};l, you chixfng ~~fr, gti mug spyad pa); (7) those having been
reborn in an inopportune place ( ak~aJJyopapannafJ, sheng wtixia ~~B~l, mi khom
par skyes pa); (8) those having been reborn in an opportune place (k~aJJyopa-
panna};l, shengyouxia £~B~, khom par skyes pa); (9) those who are disinterested
[in the Dharma] 237 (pramatta};l, you zongyi ~~~' bag med pa dang ldan pa); (10)
those who are not disinterested [in the Dharma] (apramatta};l, wu
zongyi ~~~'
bag yod pa dang ldan pa); (11) those following wrong beliefs (mithyapratipanna};l,
you xiexfng ~;f~fj, Jog par zhugs pa); (12) those not following wrong beliefs
(amithyapratipanna};l, wu xiexfng ~:fBfi, Jog pa ma yin par zhugs pa); (13) those
who are [heavily] obscured (avrta};l, you zhimg'ai ~~~@£, bsgribs pa); (14) those
who are not [heavily] obscured (anavrta};l, wu zhimg'ai ~~f@E, ma sgribs pa); (15)
those who are far away [from nirvaJJa] ( dare, yuan huo ~~' yun ring ba); (16)
those who are near [to mivaJJa] (antike or asanne, Jin huo lli~, thag nye ba); (17)
those who are not developed ( aparipakva};l, wei chengshou 5Km,~,
yangs SU ma
smin pa); (18) those who have developed (paripakva};l, yi chengsh6u Bi'PG~, yangs
su smin pa); (19) those who have not become purified and perfected (avisuddha};l,
wei qingj1'ng *m~*' rnam par ma dag pa); and (20) those who have become
purified and perfected ( visuddhalJ, yi qingj1'ng Bm~J, rnam par dag pa).
The Avatarabhumi
The second foundation of the first Yogasthana is called the Avatarabhtlmi ( Quru
di m>Jfu, 'Jug pa'i sa), meaning "The Foundation [Concerning] the Entry [Into
the Path]." It consists of four segments.
The first se~m,en! ~laborates ''.the _natur~ of the en_try nnto the pat.h]" ( avatara-
2
sya svabhava, quru zmng ~A~ tt ;ug pa 'I rang bzhm). The entry mto the path
236 It is also possible to count the twenty subcategories together with the first three
types and simply say that there is an enumeration of 23 types of predisposed persons:
However, the first three types are more universal than the subsequeI.1t twenty types and are
cross-referenced as such later in the passage. Further, the segment on the twenty subtypes
begins with the word tatra ( omitted in the Chinese translation, Tib. de la), which could here
be interpreted in the sense of "with regard to these [three]" or "among these [three]," thus
suggesting that the twenty types are a subdivision of the three types. It should though be
noted that the same word tatra also occurs elsewhere in the passage, where such an
intergretation is not tenable. . the person with the ability or lacking the ability to achieve liberation. See, e.g., the eighth
7 The word pramatta may also generally mean to be heedless and careless, but the
explanation given here concerns having no interest in receiving teachings and practicing the.
Dharma.
238 SHOMONji Kenkyukai (1998:40-42) = Tl579.399b 20 -399c15 = D4036.l0b1-lla3.
The Yogacarabhllmi and Its Adaptation 107
means that a predisposed person is reborn in an opportune place at a time when a
buddha has appeared in the world, and the person encounters the buddha or his
snivaka students, receives teachings, feels faith therein, adopts a Buddhist disci-
pline, practices generosity, and begins to learn. It is also emphasized that the
ensuing process of spiritual development usually continues throughout many
rebirths before nirvaJJa is reached. Hence, the word "entry" ( avatara, quru fffilA,
Jug pa) is said to be used in the sense that the predisposed person has entered the
path that gradually will lead to the achi.evement of nirvaJJa.
The second segment provides a more detailed "presentation of the entry" ( ava-
taravyavasthana, Jianli quru ~1LmA or quru anli iOOA~1L, Jug pa,,. rnam par
gzhagpa). 239 To begin with, predisposed persons are here classified into eight types.
The first is someone who is merely predisposed [to enter the Buddhist path of a
sravaka] (you zhongx1'ng ~;fi:tzi, rigs yod pa). The second is someone who has
entered the path ( *avatirJJa, you quru ~mA, zhugs pa) in the manner outlined
above. The third is someone who is in the process of developing him- or herself
( *paripacyamana, Jiang chengsh6u M1m~~. yangs SU smin par byed pa), including
anyone engaged in practicing the path from its beginner level up to its most
advanced levels. The fourth is someone who has become developed ( *paripakva, yi
chengshou E!'PG,~, yangs SU smin pa), referring to a person who is in his or her last
reincarnation before entering mivaJJa. The fifth is someone who has entered the
path, but who is not yet developing him- or herself and who also has not yet
become developed, i.e., a complete beginner. The sixth is someone who has
entered the path and has begun developing him- or herself but who has not yet
become developed, being someone who has practiced throughout one, two, or
many rebirths but who has not yet reached the final rebirth. The seventh type is
someone who has entered the path, has become developed, and no longer needs to
develop him- or herself, namely someone who has reached his or her final rebirth.
The eighth and last type is the person who has not yet entered the path, who is not
developing him- or herself, and who has not become developed. This person is
merely predisposed and is said to have a destiny or potential ( bhavya, you kanneng
~±lfft, ska] pa yod pa) for entering the path and developing him- or herself. Such
a person is distinguished from the person who has no destiny or potential (abhavya,
wu kanneng ~±ttfig, ska] pa med pa) for entering and practicing the path, i.e., a
person bereft of predisposition (gotravkahita, Ji zh6ngxi'ng /ijU.mtt, rigs med pa)
since s/he fundamentally or intrinsically lacks the qualities needed to attain nirvaJJa
( aparimivanadharmaka, wuniepan fa ~11£~1~, yangs su mya ngan las mi 'da 'ba 'i
chos can). 240 The last part of the segment provides what may be seen as a variant
explanation of predestined persons, dividing them among six progressive steps on
the path (sthana, wei {v., gnas), namely (1) those who are [merely] predestined
239
SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai (1998:42-52) = Tl579.399c 1r400c 23 = D4036.1laT13b 2 •
240
. As a digression, it may be remarked that the terms bhavya and abhavya are also
widely used in classical J aina texts as well as in contemporary Jainism to denote respectively
chapter in Kundakunda's (c. 2nct _4tti centuries CE) Samayasiira, verses 273-275 and 317
(CHAKRAVARTI, 1950:172-173, 196), according to which the abhavya person could very
well be a highly engaged Jaina practitioner, though s/he fundamentally lacks the faith that
would enable liberation. For further explanation, see JAINI (1977; 1979:139-141).
108 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
The Yogaciirabhumi and Its Adaptation
- - _ _ _ 109
( bhavya, you kangneng lfilfm, ska/ pa dang ldan pa), (2) those with weak roots
leaving the life of a householder and oin forth as · - -- . -. - - ·· - -
for what is beneficial (mrdukusalamiilasamanvagata, chengjiu xiapin shimgen )$Ggx monk or a nun; additionally it entailsga g g a renunciate, 1.e., becoming a
-Fi:rr::i~f.N, dge ba 'i rtsa ba chung ngu dang ldan pa), (3) those with mediocre roots path. ' enera1 sense of traveling on the spiritual
for what is beneficial (madhyakusalamiila-samanvagata, chengjiu zh6ngpfn shan-
Structurally, the Na1~kramyabhumj is not limit . -
gen nxfilt cp Jb~tN, dge ba 'i rtsa ba 'bring dang ldan pa), (4) those with exceptional Y
commences here and then covers the rest f th td to the first og~s~hana, but it
roots for what is beneficial ( adhimatrakusalamulasamanvagata, chengjiu shimgpin
shangen Jrx&tJ:-_JtfHN, dge ba'i rtsa ba chen po dang ldan pa), (5) those whose
book, thereby spanning all four y ogasth-
0
!
;h ext 0 the entire_Sr~vakabhiimi
detail the path of the sravaka practitione an:s: h . e NaiJkramyabhum1 explains in
practice is reaching completion ( m~fhaprayogika, jiuji'ng fangbian 'J!c.-=ti751£, mthar
aimed at achieving detachment ( vairagy:, :m~~a is ~:~e~s~~d a,n inner journey
}!~
thug pa 'i sbyor ba la gnas pa), and ( 6) those who have arrived at the completion [of bra/ bar 'gyur ba). The path is split into ~ b ' qu iyu ~~il,X, 'dad chags dang
the practice] (ni~fhiigata, yidao Jiujing B¥U9tJ%, mthar thug par gyur pa), i.e., the these are called the mundane path (laukiZa::n;;es that ,?.~th l~ad to d~tachment;
liberated state of a sage (arhattva 1 Itlu6him guo PoliUI*, dgra beam pa nyid).
These steps are said to reflect the entire scope with regard to the practice of a
pa 'i lam) and the supramundane path (lak ft
rten las 'das pa'i lam) The
f
aiJ~ shipan ~aa, iit_FJ=:Ji;ig, j~g rten
h o ara. margafi, chush1 dao tt}tft;i][ ;'Zu
/,
I

sravaka (sravakacarya, shengwen suoxiu zhengxfng V~fifr{1liEfr, nyan thas kyi · segment t at makes up th · d
Yogasthana consists of three parts defi·n· . b . f h e remam er of the first
' 0
spyadpa), which may require one or more rebirths to complete. · , mg m ne t e two path d · ·
exp1anat10n of the requisites (sambhara zilian ;::;":, s an g1vmg a full
The third segment of the Avatarabhiimi deals with "the characteristics of the journeying on these paths.243 ' ig ~@, tshags) that are needed for
person who has entered [the path]" (avatin;iasya pudgalasya lingam; yi ~uru zhe
The first part contains a brief introduction to the 244
suoyou zhuxiang B~A~?fr~~f§, zhugs pa'i gang zag gi rtags).-41 Eight follow this path contemplate that the
qualities are here listed, to wit (1) a natural tendency to engage in the Dharma 1 0f mu~dane path. Those who
31, 'dod pa 'i khams) is brutish and c::r:: :-n~ual d~s1re (kamadhatu, yil]ie ti'X
comparable to how a bee is attracted to honey, (2) avoidance of rebirth in inoppor- view the absorption and rapture asso . t (~u ~rika, cu. fl, rags pa), and instead
absorption (prathama dhyana chu 1 ~ ~ e :ith the first degree of meditative
tune places where the Dharma cannot be practiced, (3) feeling very moved with 1

tears in the eyes and the body hairs standing on end when hearing or thinking of Practicing this level of [samatha] ml~{~. Wrw!JI, bsam gtan dang po) as serene
the good qualities of the Buddha, the Dharma, or the sangha, ( 4) possessing an from sensual desire and come to e It ~ mnh refi~eatedly, they achieve detachmen~
inherent strong conscience and sense of embarrasment with regard to anything res m t e rst degre f b ·
quently, th~y begin to consider the first d e ? a sorption .. Subse-
blameworthy [in oneself], (5) a strong drive for practicing any beneficial activity, coarse and m a similar manner ro t egree of absorpt10n as also bemg too
such as reciting scriptures, studying or asking questions about the Dharma, practi-
cing meditation, and so forth, (6) a firm resolve to carry out and complete any
forth, until they have achieved the f;;~s ;Ithelse?~d degree of ~bsorption and so
realm of incorporeality ( anlpyadh _t es ,,e~~. ,0 Js;:natha] meditation within the
worthy undertaking, (7) having only weak negative sides and not being dishonest which is called the domain of neitha u,.dwus~pe "" u:W,. gzug_s med pa 'i khams),
and deceitful, and (8) being undaunted and never feeling powerless in the face of ·- - er 1 eation nor non-ideation ( · ·-
sa1r11nayatana, feixiang feifei'x1ang chu :~W*fl=ll::=ll::;;f§Fie
I na~vasa111Jnftna-
the magnitude of what needs to be realized and accomplished. These eight quali- mm sz,.TTe mched) Th. . th 'D,:rr:rr,D,J521, 'du shes med 'du shes med
ties are said to be present in a small degree right from the earliest stage of entering n.p · IS Is e mundane path h · h 1 d
meditative absorption, though it remains . ,hV: IC e~ s to the ~ighest level of
the path and thereafter progressively becoming more and more predominant on referred to as mundane. wit m SalJJsara, for which reason it is
the more advanced stages. Someone possessing these qualities in any degree is
The second part introduces the supramundan h 245
considered a person who has entered the path ( avatin;ia, yf quru B~A, zhugs pa). path encounter a genuine teacher achie .e P.at . Those who follow this
Finally, the fourth segment of the Avatarabhumi is a short piece defining "the vipasyana meditation] come to se~ the v:::~pertise m the D~arma? and (through
persons who have entered [the path]" ( avatin;alJ pudgalalJ, yide quru biiteqielu6 B noble ones, viz. suffering, the origin of ft ~tty ohf the fou~ existential facts of the
fffflft\~j~{1JD*1, zhugs pa'igang zag). 242 It distinguishes four degrees of maturity su ermg, t e cessation of suffering, and the
in such persons in terms of whether they have entered the path, begun to develop ! I
themselves, become developed, and gone forth.
243 It .
. . . may m general be remarked that Lambe S
s1gn1ficant contributions that bear on d. rt CHMITHAUSEN has made a number of
The Nai~amyabhiimi are common to the different Buddhist1ve~e ~spects of the Buddhist paths, both those that
The third foundation of the first Yogasthana is entitled ''The Foundation [Con- pres~nt~tion of the paths explained in st~eo1;a:s well ~s !hose that a~e particular to the
cerning] Going Forth" (nai~kramyabhum1; chuff di tf:WMfJfu, nges par 'byung ba'i sa). publications are his two articles of 1982 d 200 akabhum1. The m_ost important of these
The expression "going forth" (naifkramya, chilli tfj/il, nges par 'byung ba) implies emendations to the Sanskrit text of the ;r:.avaka;(a.J. !he 19~2 art1~le also includes many
abandoning a worldly life and practicing renunciation instead; it also implies and fourth Yogasthanas presented in SHUKLA' S ifw~~' es~~crnlly with regard to the third
pres~p_poses an earlier article (SCHMITHAUS~N ans it ed1tt~m (1973). The 2007(a) article
Yogacara tradition but which picked b ' 1981), which was not restricted to the
241 SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (1998:52-58) = T1579.400c -40lb2 = D4036.13brl4b7.
24 5
had g~en ~egun ?,Y DE LAVALLEE Po:isr~ (I~;t~t91~)~ad of contrasting approaches that
242 SHOMONji Kenkyukai (1998:58) = Tl579.40lb -40lc = D4036.14brl5a4. 24s SHOMONJI Kenkyiikai (1998:60) = Tl579 401
26 7 - SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (1998:60) = Tl579.402C2i-~2a1 = D4036.15as-15b1.
· a1_9 - D4036.l5b1_4.
 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
110
path leading to the cessation of suffering. 246 Thereupon, they cultivate this under-
standing and gradually go completely beyond the world of the three realms of
sa1psiira. Hence, this path is referred to as supramundane.
The third and longest part of the segment within the present Yogasthana ex-
plains thirteen reguisites ( sambhara, zilifmg JUI, tshogs) needed for following
these two paths. 247 The elaboration of these requisites, though rather lengthy, may
be of some interest, not only for elucidating a number of more pragmatic aspects of
meditation practice but also as they attest to how Buddhist monks ideally were
supposed to live and conduct themselves at the time when the YBh was composed.
The first requisite is the favorable circumstance stemming from oneself
(iitmasampat, ziyufmmiin § [i]ijijfj, bdag gi 'byor pa), 248 namely a huITian rebirth in a
place and condition that is opportune for practicing the Dharma. The second
requisite is the favorable circumstance stemming from others (parasampat, tii
yuanman {tgliJijijfj, gzhan gyi 'byor pa), viz. that a buddha has appeared in the world,
that he taught the Dharma, and that his teachings have been successfully transmit-
ted down to the present time. The third requisite is a beneficial aspiration for
[practicing] the Dharma (kusalo dharmacchanda, shanfa yu ~1:t:~'X, dge ba 'i chos
la 'dun pa). These three requisites were already addressed in the Gotrabhumi's
explication of predisposition ( *gotravyavasthiina, zh6ngxing iinli ;f~tt~J'.I, rigs
kyi rnam par gzhag pa), and the present segment merely makes a cross-reference
to that passage.
249
With the fourth requisite, the text provides a longer explanation. This requi-
site is called the restraint of discipline ( silasaf!1vara, jieliiyf tf\G1.f f~, tshul khrims
kyi sdom pa). 250 It should be noted that the word 'restraint' (saf!1vara, yf {~, sdom
pa) also signifies the 'vows' taken by Buddhist practitioners, whether lay or mona-
stic, a topic that is covered too in the present passage. The restraint of discipline is
first defined as "living in accordance with a code of discipline" ( silavan viharati,
anzhujujie ~{1.~tf\G, tshul khrims dang ldan par gnas pa), which is understood as
behaving without bodily or verbal failure within the limitations of the points of
religious training that have been undertaken. In particular, disciplinary restraint
should be understood as restraining oneself by observing the vows aimed at
liberation (pratimok~aSaf!1VaiaSaf!1V[fa, shangneng shouhu bie jietu6 Jtiyf ~~ig~
~51U.f!JfJlli:1.ff~, so sor thar pa 'i sdom pas bsdam pa), i.e., one of the seven classes of
246 Concerning the process of seeing and realizing (abhisamaya) the existential facts,
see the present articles by Tilmann VETTER and Sungdoo AHN.
247 SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (1998:62-296) = Tl579.402a 10-423b2s = D4036.15b4-67a4.
248 For a discussion of the term sampat, see DELEANU (2006:38 n.23).
249 SHOMONji Kenkyukai (1998:62-98) = Tl579.402a 21 -406b11 = D4036.l5br25b3.
250 The term sf/a has elsewhere been translated in a variety of ways, e.g., ethics, virtuous
conduct, ethical conduct, or morality. It is, however, evident that the sections on sila in the
Sravaka- and Bodhisattvabhumi predominantly explain sila as a discipline that the practi-
tioner needs to impose on him- or herself and abide by. This discipline serves as a founda-
tion for all further spiritual practice, such as meditation, and involves a broad array of vows
or 'restraints' (smpvara). Some of these vows pertain to ethical matters, some deal with
ascetic practices, while other concern social behavior. Far from all the vows are moral rules.
Consequently, words such as 'ethics', 'virtuous conduct', or 'morality' cannot fully capture
the semantic range of sila, and for this reason the English equivalent 'discipline' has been
adopted here and below.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 111
Pratimok~a vows including the vows of fully ordained monks and nuns, fsroba-
tionary nuns, novice monks and nuns, and male and female lay practitioners. 51 The
proper code of conduct ( aciirasaf!1panna, guize yuanmiin ,J1JW~1wj, cha ga phun
sum tshogs pa) must accord with the Vinaya as well as with secular norms for
religious behavior. It is said that a monk should avoid visiting the houses of
butchers and prostitutes, bars, royal palaces, and the homes of outcast families, and
should learn to fear committing even the slightest disciplinary infraction and train
himself very properly in the 250 points of discipline that he has adopted. When the
monk behaves perfectly in this way, he will instill and promote faith in others. Such
a highly developed training in discipline serves as the necessary foundation for the
subsequent trainings in meditation and insight.
In a longer passage, the segment lays out ten ruinous causes that may impair
the restraint of discipline. These are (1) from the outset to adopt the discipline for
the wrong reasons ( adito durgrhitaip silam, zuichu eshou sh1Ju6 Jdyi .i&W~~F
JUffj, dang po nyid nas nyes par blangs pa), (2) being too lax ( atilina, taijf
shenxia 7.(:f".itt~, ha cang zhum pa), (3) being too uptight (atisrta, taijf fusan *ti
/:f!Y., thal ches pa), (4) to uphold the code with carelessness and apathy
(pramadakausidyaparigrhita, fangyi xiedai su6she n)(i!r[:ijgJ=iJr1A, bag med pa
dang le los yangs su zin pa), (5) having a wrong motivation (mithyiipraJJihita, faqi
xieyuan ~iIB~BliL log par smon pa), (6) having embraced a wrong mode of
behavior (aciira-vipattya parigrhita, gufze kuisiin su6she fJ1J~U!litffilJ=ifr1A, cha ga
nyams pas yangs su zin pa), (7) having embraced a wrong mode of livelihood
( ii}Jvavipattyii parigrhita, jingm1'ng kuisiin su6she fl?oTJJist~J=iJr1A, 'tsho ba nyams
pas yangs su zin pa), (8) falling into either of the two extremes [of seeking pleasure
or pain] ( antadvaya-patita, duoz/Jj erbiiin _i!!tt=~, mtha 'gnyis SU ]hung ba), (9)
following a code (such as practicing austeries) that does not lead to liberation
(anaiiyaJJika, buneng chilli ::f~gi::e;u, nges par 'byung ba ma yin pa), and (10)
falling down from _!_he conduct that has been adopted (samiidanaparibhra~fa,
suoshou shihuai pjy':5t~f!i, yang dag par blangs pa yangs su nyams par gyur pa).
The opposites of these are ten positive causes that purify and perfect the restraint
of discipline. This explanation is followed by a passage that provides a series of six
canonical quotations that concern the topic of discipline by definining it and
comparing it to an ornament, an ointment, a perfume, good behavior, and restraint.
Thereupon, three types of inspection (pratyavek~a, guan fi, so sor rtog pa) are
presented. It is said that the sravaka must inspect his bodily, verbal, and mental
actions to check whether they bring any kind of harm to him- or herself and others.
By thus avoiding harmful actions, the discipline will be kept pure. Finally, the
se~ment lists ten benefits (anusaf!1sa, g6ngde shengli J}J1!fMJtrJ, phan yon) stem-
mmg from upholding a pure discipline. These include (1) being without regrets, (2)
experiencing peace when dying, (3) having a good reputation, (4) sleeping peace-
fully, (5) being protected by the gods while sleeping, (6) having no fear or worry of
retaliation by others, (7) being protected even by adversaries, rivals, or enemies
once they see the practitioner's good conduct, (8) being protected by potentially
harmful ghosts and spirits once they see the practitioner's good conduct, (9) being
251
Concerning these vows and the monastic community, see the present article by
Noriaki HAKAMAy A.

112 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
~eld. in hig~ estee~ and provided for by kings, leaders, and villagers alike, and (10)
fmdmg fulfillment m all aspirations and prayers.
Next, t~e t~;Xt/ tu~ns ~ the fifth r~quisite cal~~ d restraint of the senses ( indriya-
2
saIJJvara, gen luyi fltr'.f;f~, dbang p01 sdom pa). Restraint of the senses means to
~~p the doors of the senses guarded (indriyair guptadviiro viharati, mihu genmen
~'lJJH~F~, dbang po rnams kyi sgo bsdam pa), maintaining a protective awareness
(arak~itasmrti, ffingsh6u zhengnian ~Jj~IE$, dran pa kun tu bsrungs pa) and a
constantly watchful awareness (nipakasmrt1; chfingwei zhengnian m'~IE~, dran
pa la rtag 'grus byed pa). The practitioner should carefully observe the entire
process of sensory perception to avoid adopting any misconstrued or harmful
thoughts, e.g., thinking what is unattractive is attractive which in turn leads to
afflic~ions such as desire or anger that may occasion ~egative actions. Having
explam~d these techniques in some detail, the segment ends by giving three
alter~ah~~ ways of ~umming up this top~c. T~e first summary analyzes the ex-
pression what restrams what, from what, m which manner," meaning that it is the
watchful_ a~are~ess that restrains the senses from the sensory objects by observing
and avmdmg misconstrued perceptions and thoughts that lead to afflictions and
negative actions. The second summary examines what method is used to restrain
which o_bject in wh~t ~ay. The third summary sums up the same process in just two
st_e~s, viz. the application of two powers of careful consideration (pratisaIJJkhyiina,
s1ze Jls!Jf,. so sor rf?f p~) and cultivation ( bhiivanii, xiuxf{r}~, bsgoms pa).
. _ ~he JlXt~ re9~}s1te: to kn~w the right amount of food intake ( bhojane miitra-
1nata, yu_ s~1 zh111ang D~ ~~D~, zas kyi tshod rig pa nyid), i.e., eating healthily. 253
The topic 1s here explamed m much more detail than it was done above in the
_Gotra~humi. segment on the same theme. Knowing the right amount of food
l~take ~S d~fme? as ~a5inS f~od ~it~ Careful consideration (pratiSaf!]khyfiyfihfiram
aharatJ, you zheng_ s1ze sh1 yu suosh1 Ei=lIEJlsHlitn~Pfrit, so sor brtags shing zas za
bar byed), not eatmg f~r t~e sake of some idea, enjoyment, adornment, or beauty
bu~ for the sake of nounshmg the body, removing hunger, sustaining celibacy when
bemg _a monk or ~ nun, aban~o~ing former sensations, not giving rise to new
sensa~10~s, supportmg oneself, g1vmg strength and happiness, being irreproachable,
and fmdmg ~ase. !he segm~nt explains each word in this definition at length.
Careful cons1derat10~ .(pratJSaf!]khyii, zheng size IEJ=isUi, so sor rtog pa) here
~eans that the pract1t10ner should be aware of the physical downsides in eating
imp.roperly, e.g., merely for the sake of pleasure, company, social convention, etc.
Eatmg properly, on the other hand, is said to bring good health and longevity.
Further, the monk or nun who begs his or her food as alms also needs to reflect on
the good intentions of the villagers who donated the food and eat it with the
int~ntion of bri~g.ing the~ m~rit. The word 'food' ~ iihiira, su6shi pfrit, zas) is
?efmed a~ ~hat 1s mgested .m bites (k~va<jaIJJkiira, duanshi ffejit, kham gyi zas) and
1~ exemphfie~ through a hst of possible food items, including bread, cakes, por-
r!dg~, ghee, ml, honey, molasses, meat, fish, jerky, salt, dairy, and butter. From this
hst, 1t se~m~ that the monks or nuns in question were not vegetarians, provided
that.the hst is und~rstood as applying to what is eaten by the ordained and that it is
not JUSt a general list of food items. The segment ends with three summaries of the
252
SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai (1998:100-114) = Tl579.406b 20 -408a 14 = D4036.25b -29b
253 SHOMON
- JI.. K enkyiika1. (1998:116-148) = T1579.408aw411b 23 = D4036.29b53-38b s1•
113
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation
theme of eating, analyzing the topic in a similar manner as it was done at the end of
the segment on the restraint of discipline: . . .
The seventh requisite is to maintam the practice of staymg awake m the
evening and in the early morning (prJJVariitraparariitraf!] jagarikiiyogasyanuyukta- t
i ;1
ta, chuye houye chfingqin xiuxijuewu rziqie 1JJ15Z.1&15Z. 'm ~frt~JJ:if£1Jr11DD, na1.17.b7s{
1
cha stod dang nam gyi cha smad la m1 nyal bar sbyor ~a 1 rJeS su b~tson pa nyid).
The word 'evening' (puJVariitra, chuye tJJ15<'.., nam gy1 cha stod) 1s defmed as _the
first part of the night after sunset. The expression 'early morning' ( ~pararatra,
houye 1&15Z., nam gyi cha sm~d) is under~~ood_ a~ the l~st y~rt ~f ~~~1g~~before.
sunrise. The practice of staymg awake Uagarikayoga, 1uewu yuq1e ~.}lfr:l:~1J1DD, ~1
nyal bar sbyor ba) means to clear the mind f~om things tha~ have or will d1~turb it
during the day by taking a walk and then lymg down. Havmg walked m~tside th.e
monastery in the evening, the practitioner should lie down on the be?. L~mg on his
or her right side with one foot placed upon the other, s/he. should v1suahze a mass
of light, while being focused, discerning, and intent on waking _up early. I.n the early
morning, s/he should wake up quickl~ an~ aga~n c~~a; ,;2e ~~~ by_ takmg a walk.
To maintain this practice (anuyuktata, changqm XIUXI ffi~h a, JJeS su b~t~on pa
nyid) means to persevere in this manner according to how 1t was !augh! to sravakas
by the Buddha. How the mind beco1:1es ~isturb~d _by sens~al d~s1;,ej_kamacchanda,
tanyu ~i'iX, 'clod pa la 'dun pa), 111 will ( vyapada, chenhw ~~~, gnod sems),
restlessness and regret ( auddhatyakaukrtya, daiojii ezuo t~~~~'F, rgod pa dang
'gyod pa), and doubt ( vicikitsii, yi ~]E, the tsom), along with vanous subform_s of
these mental states, and how the monk should clear his mind of such obscurat10ns
through a variety of short contemplations is here e~plaine.d a~ length. The style of
sleeping on the right side is compared to that of a hon, which 1s opposed to .seve.ral
other inferior sleeping positions that are referred to as the manner of rep,?sm~ h~e
a ghost (pretasayyii, gul wo *12A, yi dwags ~i nyal ~tangs), a_ ~od _( de~asapa, :1an_
wo --Xi2A, Jha'i nyal stangs), or someone des_1rous (kamab!fffg1sayya, shouyu zJ_ie w:o
'~t!X~i2A, 'clod pa la longs spyod pa dag g1 nyal stangs). Th~ purpose of.v1s~ah-
zing a mass of light before falling asle~p is to. prevent ~he mmd. from fallmg. mto
darkness while sleeping, i.e., to sleep lightly, 1f not lucidly. Fallmg asleep with a
focused and discerning mind will keep the sleeping mi~d in. a wholesom.e state.
Being intent upon waking up early helps to awake qmckly_ m the morn.mg and
thereby aids to shun laziness. As above, the segment ends.with several bnef sum-
maries that additionally provide short excerpted canomcal statements on the
theme of sleeping. . ._ . _._ ,
The eighth requisite is to move about attentively (saippra1anadvihanta, zheng-
zhi er zhu IE~Drfi:11::t., shes b~hin du spyod pa nyid), ~-g-' wh~n t~e monk or _nun
goes out during his or her dally round to b~g for alms. Mo~mg abou~ attentivel~
is defined as walking attentively when gomg out or returnmg ( abhikramapratJ-
krame saipprajanadvihari bhavati, ruowang ruohai zhengzhi er zhu ~1!:_t=Jfil~~D
rnf{i., 'gro ba dang ]dog pa la shes bzhin du spyod par byed pa), paymg attent10n
254SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (1998:150-170) = T1579.4llcs-413c29 = .D4036:~8b1-44a5.
255It would seem that these comparisons refer to different bodily pos1t10ns of sleep,
such as lying on the back, on the stomach, and so forth, though the passage does not explain
. these in further detail.
256 SHOMONji Kenkyukai (1998:172-210) = T1579.414ai-417ais = D4036.44a5-52a5.
 114
Ulrich Timme KRAGH
with _regard to seeing, !ooking care!ully, bending the limbs, stretching th; limbs:
weanng the_ robe, ho_ldmg the beggmg bowl, eating, drinking, putting food in the
m~uth,_ tastmg, walkm~, standing, sitting, lying down, keeping awake, speaking,
b_emg _silent, ~r rcf~eshmg _oneself fr~m sleep and tiredness. Each of these expres-
sions 1s explamed m detail, along with an explanation on how the monk or nun
should regard his or her surroundings. As before, the segment ends with a sum-
mary.
The ninth requisite is to find a proper spiritual teacher 257 (ka/vanamitra shan-
~ t ,-I b ,. b h 258 • . Abhidharma texts that specify the meaning of the Sii.tras sutranta, pngzong ,fo::~,
Yf!U = ,!X.,. u_ge ~ 1 ~ es gnyen). It IS exp lamed that the teacher should possess
v '.I'' • '
eig~ qualities, VIZ .. (1) upholding a [pure] _discipli~e ( *sf/e sthitafJ, anzhu jfnJie ~
1f~flx:, !shtjl khnms la gnas pa), (2) havmg studied many teachings (bahusruta,
Juzu _duowen ~;:i~}flii''J.,, m~ng /u tho! pa yin pa), (3) possessing realization
(adh1gan_~r, nengyou suozheng li~l:fpfr~f, rtog[sj pa dang ldan pa), (4) being
compassionate (an.ukampaka, xingdu6 aimfn xin '[i.§,,:R.~1~\ rjes su snying brtse
b~ ~ang_ldanpa), (5) h~ving an untiring mind (aparikhinnamanasa, wuyanjuan ~
~1t\Y![~ng~su m1 skyo ba), (6) possessing_ pati~nce (k~a~avan, sh~nneng
ka1!r~n ~ li~~tL.~,, ~z~ pa -~~ng ldan pa), (7) bemg without diffidence ( v1sarada,
1
wu!ou buwe1 ~~f:fr:ix, m1 pgs pa dang ldan pa), and (8) being gifted with words
(vakka~a1;zenopeta~, yii ju ~anman §flJ!.lilim, tshig gi bya ba dang ldan pa).
~~ss.~s:1t;hese eight quahties makes the teacher impelling (codaka, shanneng
1::_n1u = fclr::;af~, skul bar byed pa): memorable (smaraka, shanzuo yinian -f:!Hi='f~
,E,, !!ran par byed pa), a capabable mstructor (avavadaka shannengjiaoshou ~~~
12&, 'dams par byedpa), a mentor ( anusasaka, shannen; jiaojie ~~~,2~, Ij:s
s~
sto__n par byed pa), and a Dharma teacher ( dharmadesaka, shanshu6 zhengfa ~§~
1E1!, chos ston par byedpa).
The tenth requisite is to listen to the true Dharma and understand it
(saddhannasravapacintana, wensi zhengfa lifJJG',1Ei!, dam pa'i chos nyan pa dang
259
sems pa). The ,seg~ent, begins by explaining the concept of "the true Dharma"
(saddhanna, zhengfa 1E1:t, dam pa'i chos) by listing and defining "the twelve
branches of [the Buddha's] words" (dvadasaligavacogata, shf'erfeniiao +=5-}1'.,
gsung rab yan lag bcu gnyis po). This categorization of the Buddha's words does
not refer to ~ny phy~ical separation of the Buddhist scriptures but divides textual
passages ~tyhstically m terms of their contents or writing style. The twelve branches
are: (1) d1scou~ses ~sfitra, JiJing'f/J.¥:Ji, mcJ_o), referring especially to the Vinaya, (2)
~?~ss ~(geya, ymgsong ~0Jt dbyangs kyi ~snyad_ pa), (3) predictions ( vyakarapa,
pb1~ 1=1C,JjU, lung bstan pa), (4) stanzas wntten m meter (gatha, fengsong wlt~,
tsf1fgs su beadpa),_ (5) statements giving identifications [of persons] ( udana, zishu6
§ ~~~ che~ du /bIJod pa), ( 6) stat~ments indicating the occasion [for a teaching]
(mdana, ymyuan ~*i, gleng gzh1), (7) statements expressing parables (avadana,
257
!he term kalyaJJamjtra literally means a 'beneficial friend' or 'lovely friend'. This is
~he mam term us~d for the spiritual teacher in the text. The word guru only appears
~nf~~quently, e.g., m the SI7apafala (1.10) of the Bodh1'sattvabhiimi The English equivalent
s~m!ual :ea~her_' used here and be_low is meant to express the general meaning of
kalya1Jam1tra m simple terms, though 1t should be noted that this is not the literal meaning
of the term.
258
259 Sm)MON ji Kenkyukai (1998:212-226) = Tl579.417a27 -418b 19 = D4036.52a -55b
SHOMONji Kenkyilkai (1998:226-242) = Tl579.418b 20-419c14 = D4036.55b:-58b;:
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 115
piyu ~otu rtogs pa bijod pa), (8) accounts of former events ( vrttaka, benshi *$,
de Jt; bu' byung ba), (9) accounts of form~r rebirths [~f the B~ddhaJ (jataka,
bensheng *~-' skyes pa'i rabs), (10) extensive_ texts (va1pulya, fangguang_ 13Jli,
shin tu rgyas pa), referring particularly to teachmgs on the pat~ ?fa bodhisattva:
(11) accounts of the marvellous qualitie_s [of buddhas o~ practlt_10ners] (ad~kuta
dharmal;, xifii mi!, rmad du byung ba'I chos), and (12) mstr~ct10ns o~ spec1flca-
. s (unadesa Jimvi glfa~, gtan la phab par bstan pa) referrmg especially to~the
t IOn
r , '.I'· ( _ _ ·- - k<«-="
mdo sde). The segment also relates this twelvefold divisi~n to the_ thr~efold dlVl-
sion of Sutra, Vinaya, and Abhidharma. The explanation on h~temng to the
teachings specifies various types of scriptural expertise, such as ?cmg a holder of
the Sutra (sfitradhara, shouchf sudalan '.:5f:t~*OflJI, mdo sde 'dzm fa), a holder of
the Vinaya ( vinaya~hara, sho~chf pfn~iy~ '3tt~ m~lf~, ~dl_!l /b~ 'd~11;/:), a h~d~"r
of mnemonic [Abh1-dharma] hsts (matrkadhara, shou~h1 ap1damo ~,fl~~::t£)~,
a mo 'dzin pa) a holder of Siitra and Vinaya (st1travmayadhara, shouch1 sudalan
1:!pinaiye ;:gt~itE!J'l:Edt*lf~, mdo sde dang 'dul ba 'dzin pa), a hol~r of Sii.tra
{nd Abhi~arma (sfitrabh1dhannadhara, shouchf sudalan Ji affdam6 '3tt~*tf:!~
~!
&fwJ ~~)tw, m_do sd~ dang ma 1!10 'dzin P,a), a/ h?l~~r/ _Y~n~ya /~d:in~omc
[Abhidharma] hsts ( vmayamatrkadhara, shouch1 pma:ye J1 ap1damo ~_h m~ lf~ &
rtpTS=I ~~~ 'du/ ba dano- ma mo 'dzin pa), as well as bemg a holder of Sutra, Vmaya,
1'1.f;t:iJ£/~, b h' h/ 'd/1."
nd mnemonic [Abhidharma] lists (siitravinayamatrkadhara, s ouc 1 su a an
;inaiye apidam6 '3t}~*'['B •m*lf~j)oJ fe;~)tw, mdo sde dang. 'dul ba dang J?a mo
'dzin pa). Finally, the segment mentions four modes of analyzmg the, te~hmgs as
exemplified by the categorization of the five aggregates (ska1!dha,_yun_ *£,__ph~ng__
po), namely (1) reasoning pertaining _to depe1:d~ncy (apek?ayukt~ guanda1 daol~
IJH~i~J_f, Jtos pa'i rigs pa), (2) reasomng pertammg to funct10n (k~ryakaraparz11!t1,
zuoyang daoli 1'Fr-fE~JJ., by~ ba ,byed pa'i ~igsJ!;j·, ~3) rea somng ~-stabhshm~.
1
validity ( upapattisadhanayuktJ, zhengcheng daolI §_ia_}1)Gi~J_f, thad pa 1 sgru_b pa:
rigs pa), and (4) reasoning pertaining to the nature of phenomena ( dharmatayuktJ,
iaer daoli i:tilE~1J.f, chos nyid kyi rigs pa). _ / , =
The eleventh re~uisite is to be free from obstacles ( anantaraya, wuzhang ~~Ip,
bar chad med pa). 26 The segment explains what it means !o be free from ob~t~cles
by contrasting it with its opposite, which is to experience different forms of difficul-
ties. A distinction is here made between obstacles that stem from oneself ( adhy-
atmam upadayantarayaiJ, yinei zhang ~pg~, nang la brte1!-_Pa! bar cha!) and_
those that stem from others ( bahirdhopadhayantarayaiJ, yiwa1 zhang {1X9H7"' phy1
rol Ja brten pa 'j bar chad). The obstacles stemming fr~~ oneself are ~xp_lamed as
difficulties in obtaining the daily necessities for practlcmg, such as fmdmg ~l.ms-
food, clothes, beddings, medicine, etc., due to not having performe? s~ffic1~n!
meritorious actions in former [lives] (piirvam eva lqtapupyo na bhavatJ, X1ansh1 .bu
cengxifi fu n:i:tt~tff~ti, sngon bsod nams ma byas pa). Further, sue~ hardships
may appear in the form of physical ailments or difficult inne~ tendencies that _are
caused by harmful actions done in former lives due to ~ffhcted states. of mmd.
Impediments stemming from others can be obstacles denved from relym~ on an
- improper teacher and consequently not receiving suitable teachings and mstruc-
260
SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (1998:244-256) = Tl579.419c15 -420c11 = D4036.58br60b5.
 116
Ulrich Timme KRAGH
-- --, -
tions when they arc neede_d. ~so, they may be difficulties that arise from staying in
a b~d place, ~uch as ~xpenencmg quarrels during the day, a lot of clamor and noise
durmg the ~-1~ht, bemg too exposed to the elements, or feeling apprehensive of
people or spmts.
. Moreover, obstacl~s are again summed up in three kinds. The first type consists
m ~bst~~e! that pertai?. overall to the religious_ undertaking (prayogantaraya, xing
zhang_ :'TP!p., sby~r ba 1 bar chad) by preventmg one from engaging in what is
benef1c1al. These mclude illnesses, sufferings, and difficulties in finding necessities.
The_ s~cond type consists in obstacles preventing one from practicing in retreat
(pra~1vekyantaraya, yuifnli zhang ~/?JUl, rab tu dben pa 'i bar chad), such as
heav1~ess fro~ food, engaging in too many duties, being too social, being too
t~lkative, feeh~g lazy, ~n~ the_ like. _Such problems make it difficult for the practi-
tioner to practice meditation m solitude, whether staying in the wilderness at the
root of a tree, or in an empty house. The third type consists in obstacl~s that
p~even.!.~he pr~ctiti~;; !om fully resting the m,i_nd in_wardly (pratisaiplayananta-
raya, Jl]lng zhang f0(PJ=tf"P!p., nang du yang dag Jog gi bar chad). These include
ob~tacles fo~ the practice of tranquility (samathantaraya, shemata zhang ~-{-tgµf,
zh1 gnas ky1_ ba~ chad) co?sisting in carelessness (pramada, fangyi "ftx.;f&, bag med
pa) and staymg m an unsmtable place [for meditation J (adesavasa, zhu fekhu {±~F
~: yuf ng~n pa:. gnasp~), ~s ~ell ~s obstacles fo:. the practice of meditative insight
(_v1_pasY_ananta:a~a, p1boshena zhang filfilt~#~p~, ]hag mthong gi bar chad) con-
s1stmg m narc1ss~sm ( atmasaIJlpragraha, le zishijzJ ~ § f~$, bdag nyid rab tu 'dzin
1
fa) and unstea~mess ( capala, yf diaoluan J..-)J-$:IL, mi brtan pa). A practitioner who
1s completely without such obstacles may be said to be "free from obstacles."
The twelfth requisite i~ 'relinquishment' ( tyaga, huishe ;ffl:1~, gtong ba spel ba),
namely, to donate pos~ess10ns to other~. 261 Presumably, this practice of generosity
would take place particularly at the time when the sravaka takes up monastic
ord~nati?n, i.e., "?oes forth," though this is not specified anywhere in the passage.
Relmqmshmen_t 1s defined as giving items that are beyond reproach as gifts [to
others J (yad danam a~_avad!af!l... dadati, bushi qi xing wzizui :m-nffi~ti~~' kha
na_ ma tho ba med pa 1 sbym pa sbyin par byed pa) in order to beautify the mind
(c1tta!aIJ1kar~rthaIJ1_, ~e~ zhuangy11! xJ_n ~~/D1L\, sems kyi rgyan ...phyir), to aid
the mmd (c1ttapan~kararthaIJ1, we1 bangzhu xin ~ll}J{f,L\, sems kyi yo byad), [to
;;;°;f lete] the ~equisite_s for [practicing] yog~ (yogasaIJ1bharartham, wei ziyujia ~
ffe!~rrnWil, ma!_ 'b;;or .fJ'I ~shof!), ~d to achieve the highest goal ( uttamarthasya
prapta[e, ~e1 de s~angy1 ~h __t~, don gyi mchog thob par bya ba). The person
wh_o g!v~s 1~ the _giver ( da(r, shiz_h~ tiffi~, sbyin pa po) or the donor ( danapatt1;
sh1zhu 11@±, sbym bdaf). ~he_ r~c1p1ents are those afflicted by suffering, the needy,
dear ones, or outstandmg md1V1duals such as renunciates ( sramaJJa, shamen z:J>F~,
~ge sbyo_n'?) or ~rahmans (brahm_apa, p6Ju6men ~ffr~, bram ze). The gifts may
mcl~de _hvmg be1~gs as well as obJects. Gifts of living beings might be to give away
ones wife and children, slaves or servants ( dasldasa, nub] -f;..yJ'#r., bran dang bran
mo), work~rs and labour~rs, as well as various animals and livestock. The segment
here mentions th~t the gifts of b~d~ parts _a~ practiced by bodhisattvas also gene-
rally belong to this category, but 1t 1s specified that such gifts are not intended in
261
SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (1998:256-266) = Tl579.420cu-42lb 24 = D4036.60b -62b .
5 4
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 117
the present context. Gifts of objects ar~ differ_ent forms _of riches, food: land, and
buildings. These points are explained m detail along with an explanat10n on the
inner attitude that the donor needs to maintain.
The thirteenth and last requisite needed to go forth on the path is to possess
what is called "the ornaments of a renunciant" ( sramaIJalaipkara, shamen zhuang-
yan 1:J>r~~f/M, dge sbyong gi rgyan). 262 The seg~c~t lists and explains seventeen
qualitie_s tha/t a renunci~nt ?r as~t1c should exh1b1t, namely that s//he svho1:ld ~)
have faith (sraddha, zhengxm IE{§, dad pa), (2)_ hones~ (as~tha, WU ~hanq'! ~ris
ffil, g.yo med pa), (3) a strong constitution or hterally fe~ illn~sses (alpab~d~a,
1
shifo zhiijfbing Y~*W3, nad nyung ba), (4) a strong dn:e (arabdh~v1rya!atJya,
xing qfn JingJi'n '[1.lbf~:tit, brtson 'grus brtams pa 'i rang bzhm can), (5) mtelhgence
[to understand the teachings] (praj.ia, miao hui frj>~, shes rab rno ba), _(6) ?~ve
few wishes (alpeccha, shifo yu y~J, 'dod pa nyung ba), (7) be content [with hvmg
under the conditions of a renunciant] (saIJlfu~ta, xizu -g JE, chog shes pa), (8) ?e
easy to feed [for the alrrisgivers] (supo~a, yi yifng ~It gso sla ba),. (9) be ~a.sily
satisfied (subhara, yi mifn ~1~, dgang sla ba), (10) be endowed with asceticism
( dhutagupasamanvagata, chengJi'u dudu6 g6ngde ~gt,t~:g, mi~, S~Ya.,_1!f! pa 'i yon
tan dang ldan pa), (11) be amicable and serene (prasadika, duany~n )Lrm/M, n:~zes
pa), (12) know the right measure [in seeking almsfood: robes, beddmgs, med1~me,
etc., from donors] (matraj.ia, zhiliang ~D.m., drod ngs pa), (13) have received
teachings from a genuine teacher [regardless of the teacher's personal background,
etc.] (satpuru~adharmasamanvagata, chengjiu xianshanshi fif lt<~~~±?t, ~~es
bu dam pa'i chos dang ldan pa), (14) possess the charactenst1cs of erud1t10n
(panditaliligasamanvagata, chengjiu conghuizhe xiang )t<gt~,,~~f§, mkhas pa 'j
rtags· dang ldan pa), (15) have patience and enduranc~ (k~ama, kanren fi!tB, bzod
pa che ba), (16) be pleasant and respectful (surata, rouhe *f~, des pa), and (17)
be charming (pesala, xianshan 'ii~, gya nom pa). A renunciant who poss~s.ses
such qualities always behaves beyond reproach. S/he is adorned by these quahtles,
just like a suitor is adorned by his best clothes and jewellery. . . . .
In the above segment, the tenth quality, i.e., to be endowed with asc~t1c1sm, 1s
presented i~ more deta~l than ~he other qualities,_ giv~g _a ful! explan~~on of, the
twelve or thuteen ascetic practices ( dhutagu-(la, duduo gongde H:@', JjJf;-e;;, sbyangs
pa 'i yon tan). The first four of these are different kinds of a~cetic pr_actices related
to eating and fasting. Among these, in order to give up desire for mce food, there
are two ascetic practices of (1) only eating what is obtained as almsfood (prapta-
piIJrjapatika, suide qlshizhe ~1~Z It, rnyed pas chog pa 'i bsod snyom_s pa) and (2)
eating almsfood obtained in repeated begging rounds [up to a maximum of ten
houses] (savadanapiIJrjapatika, ddi qfshfzhe ::Xffizit%, mtkar gyis slang ba'i
bsod snyoms pa). These two practices may also be counted as a smgle type o~ alm~-
seekers (pil)rjapatika), in which case there are only twelve dhutagupa practices m
total. Further, in order to give up desire for a large amount of food, the~c are two
ascetic practices of (3) only eating what is obtained in a sin~le_ beggmg rou~d
(ekasanika, danyi zuoshi {B_-~Jt, stan gc1f pa) and_ (4) ?_eclm~ng, toe/at ag~m
[that day] after having eaten [once] (khalupascadbhaktika, XJ~n zh1 kou sh1 n:µ-_1&
it, zas phyis mi Jen pa). The next set consists of three ascetic practices associated
262
SHOMONji Kenkyukai (1998:268-294) = Tl579.42lb 2s-423b2s = D4036.62b4-67a1,

118 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
with the renunciant's. dress. H~re, in ?rder to give up desire for having many
Dharma robes, there 1~ t?e~scet1~ pra~tice of (5) only possessing a single set of the
three ~onk robes ~ traJCJvan"ka, danch1 sanyi {§J~ - ~' chos gos gsum pa). To give
up desir~ for wearing soft and pleasant clothes, there is the ascetic practice of ( 6)
only havmg :obes ma~e of [roug~] fel~ (namatika, dimchi cw'yi {§.}~~~. phying
pa pa). T_o give up desire for wearing mce clothes, there is the ascetic practice of (7)
o~ly vhav~ng±rob;' made from cloth found on the trash heap (paipsukulika, chi
fens~o y1 t~!Uw~, phyag dar khrod pa). The third and final set of practices
c?ns1sts of six ~scetic ~?des of dwelling and sleeping. Among these, in order to
give ~p the desu~ for hv1~g togethc~ with others,_ th~~e is the ascetic practice of (8)
dwellmg [alo_ne] m the wll?erness ( a~aJJyaka, zhu aiJanmo 1.±lmllt;;s, dgon pa pa).
In or~er to give up the desITe for havmg shelter, there are the ascetic practices of (9)
dwellmg at the _foo~ of a tree ( vrk~amiilika, changju shu xia ffi ~,ffiff, shing drung
pa), (10) dwellmg m th~ o~en ( abhyavakasika, changjii ji6nglu ffi ,@-i@lff, bla gab
:,edpa), and (11) dwellmg ma cremation ground (smasanika, changzhu zhongjian
r~1.±~Fs~,. dur khro~ pa). T~e la~t~r practice is also connected with giving up
s~xual desITe [by looking at or 1magmmg corpses while contemplating the unattrac-
tive_ness of the ?od~ and t~e.reby su~duing sexual attraction]. In order to give up
desITe for ~lee~m~ m a ~osition ~f ly11:1g dow!1, there is the ascetic practk:e of (12)
o~ly dw~llmg s1ttmg ~pnght (n~1~adyika, ~hangqi duanzuo 'MM~fffl~, cog pupa).
Fmal~y, m o~der to give up desITe for havmg a bed, sheet, and quilt, there is the
ascetic practice of (13) only dwelling wherever the practitioner spreads out rleaves
or grass] (yathasalJ!starika, chu ni changzuo ~tzD'Mg[, gzhi ji bzhin pa).~63 The
segment also ~xplams the literal meaning of the word dhutaguJJa, viz. "the quality
(guJJa) of havmg shaken off ( dhuta)," by comparing it to wool or cotton which is
tangled and rough as long as it has not been spun ( adhuta). Yet, once th~ wool or
cotton has bee~ spun_ ( ~huta), it becomes soft and workable and can be made into
thread or a wick. S1m1larly, the untrained renunciant may harbor desire and
attac~ment t~ alm~food, ~lothes, or dwelling, but through the mentioned ascetic
pra~t!ces of shakmg off ( dhutaguJJa) such desires, his or her mind becomes
punf1ed and straightened, in the sense of being mild and workable.
The Second Yogasthana
The second Yogasthana section contains sixteen major segments. Its first segment
surveys 28 types of perso~s (pudgala, biiteqielu6 i,n;111om, gang zag) who go forth
on the two paths _ment10ned at the beginning of the Na1~kramyabhiimi 264 It
thereby partly pro~1?es a chart of what t~e text sees as fundamental personality
typ~s among practitioners (types 1-8), while at the same time giving a layout of
various stages of accomplishment (types 9-28). The charting of personality types is
also ~f consequence for a subsequent segment presenting the particular meditation
practices to be used as remedies or antidotes by each type of person.
263
~or further explanation of these thirteen dhutagw;a _practices, including a French
translat10n of excerpts from the present segment of the Sravakabhtlmi see DANTINNE
(1991). ' These two types were already explained above in the Gotrabhiimi and the present
264
SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (2007:2-20) = Tl579.424a 19-425b 19 = D4036.67a4 - 70b 7 .
119
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation
The 28 types of personality are: (1) someone with weak apti_tude (mrdvin1riya,
dungen zhe iilit.lt~, dbang po rtul po), (2) some~re with keen _aptitude
(tfksnendriyalJ, h'gen zhe fUt~~, dbang po rnon po), (3) s?meon~ m whom
desi;e and attachment are predominant (utsadaraga, tanzengshangzhe ~.ti~~,
'dad chags shas che ba), (4) someone in whom dislike and hatred are predommant
(utsadadve~a, chen zengshang zhe H.i)ir1t zh_e sdang shas che ba), (~) ~omeo,ne
· whom deludedness and stupidity are predommant ( utsadamoha, ch1 zengshang
i~e ~.t@"_t~, gti mug shas che ba), (6) someone in whom pride and self-conceit
!re predominant ( utsadamana, man zengshang zhe '['f.tj _t ~, n_ga rgya~ sh~s ~he
ba), (7) someone in whom the intellect is predominant ( utsadav1tarka, XU!7SI zeng-
shang zhe ey,E~Ua} -1.~, rnam par rtog pa shas che ba), (8) someone with equal
1~2f ~~,
8
amounts [of ea~h afflictive state of mind] ( samaprapt~, de pfngdeng ~he
cha mnyam par gyur pa), (9) someone with weak pass10ns (mandara1aska, baa chen
xi'ng zhe ~Jl1H1~, nyon mongs p~ chung ba'i rang bzhin can), (1_~) som:~}~.e who
has embarked [on the path with its results] (pratipannaka, xmgxiang zhe fTIPJ~,
zhugs pa), (11) someone who has reached the result (phalastha, zhugu6 ~he{.±~
~' 'bras bu la gnas pa), (12) ,so~eone vwhoJ:?~ows [the path~ on t~e basis of faith
[alone] (sraddhanusari, sui xm xmgzhe pjj{§fT~, dad pas r;es su brang ba), (13)
someone who follows [the path] on the basis of [having studied] the Dharma
( dharmanusari, sui fa xingzhe pjji!fi:.ft chos kyis rjes su 'brang ba), (_14) someone
who follows [the path] on the basis of faith and ascertainment [obtam~d thr~ug~
personal experience while relying on the instruction of someone else] (sraddhadh1-
mukta xin shengjie zhe 1§"W1M~, dang bas mos pa), (15) someone who has
attain~d the [right] view [without any longer relying on the instruction of someo?e
else] (drHiprapta, 1ianzhi zhe 3!~~' m_thong_ bas thob P_a), ~16) so~eo~e wit~
personal (lit. bodily) realization [of the existential facts] (~ayasak~1, shenzheng_ zhe
~fili~, }us kyi mngon du byed pa), (17) someone with up t~/ s~ve;1 revbirth~
remaining [before reaching parinirvaJJa] (saptalqdbhavaparama, J1 q1 fan you zh_e
~t~:..t=f ff, re ]tar thogs na srid pa Jan bdun pa), (18) someone [who henceforth 1s
exclusively reborn] as a particular type [of sentient being, namely as a god or
human, until reaching parinirvaJJa] (kulaipkula, jiajia zhe %%~, rigs nas rigs_ su
skye ba), (19) someone with a single digression (i.e., reb~rth) left [before reachmg
parinirvaJJa] ( ekavicika, yijian zhe -Fs~~, bar chad gc1g pa), (20) s?me?~e ~~o
will reach parinirvaJJa in the intermediate state [after death] ( antarapanmrvaym,
zhongpfmniepfm zhe tjJ~ilE~~' bar ma dor yang~ su mya ngan las ~a' ba), (21)
someone who will reach parinirvaJJa [right] after havmg been reborn [m the real,m
of non-sensual corporeality] (upapadyaparinirvayin, sheng panniepfm zhe ±Jf3h1E
-im~, skyes nas yangs su mya ngan las 'da' ba), (22) someone who reaches
parinirvii]Ja without effort ( anabhisaipskaraparinirvayin, wuxing panniepan zhe ~
fi~)£!.-im~, mngon par 'du byed pa med par yangs su mya ngan las 'da' ba), (23)
someone who reaches parinirviiJJa with effort ( sabhisaipskaraparinirvayin, youxfng
panniepan zhe 1ffj-~i1£~~, mngon par 'du byed pa dang bcas pas Y?ngs SU mya
ngan las 'das pa), (24) someone [who reaches parinirvaJJa after] traversmg progres-
sively upwards [through the higher realms over several rebirths] ( iir~hvaipsrotr,
shangliu zhe rifrE~, gong du 'pho ba), (25) someone [of weak aptitude] who
265
passage refers back to that exegesis.
120 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
becomes liberated in due time (samayavjJnukta, shfjietu6 zhe ~fg~Jm%, dus kyis
rnam par grol ba), (26) someone with unshakable qualities [of meditation] (akop-
yadharmin, budong fa zhe ~i}Ji!%, mi g.yo ba 'i chos can), (27) someone who
becomes liberated through insight (praJ.iavimukta, hui Jietu6 zhe ~M~~}t~, shes
rab kyis rnam par grol ba), and (28) someone who becomes liberated through both
[meditation and insight] ( ubhayatobhagavimukta, Julen jietuo zhe {J=i)tfg~Jm%,
gnyiga 'i cha las rnam par grol ba).
The second segment of the second Y ogasthana is called an "exposition of
personalities" (pudgalaryavasthana, Jianli biiteqielu6 ~1I~~M=;{110m, gang zag
rnams kyi rnam par gzhag pa). 266 It differentiates eleven ways of classifying perso-
nalities with regard to their spiritual acumen, as it was done according to a variety
of criteria in segment one. These eleven differentiations are: (1) according to
aptitute or ability (indriyaprabheda,gen chabieflHt3U, dbangpo'irab tu dbye ba),
(2) according to saligha membership [i.e., being a fully ordained monk or nun, a
probationary nun, etc.] ( nikayaprabheda, zhong chabie ~~3U, sde pa 'i rab tu
dbye ba), (3) according to temperament ( caritaprabheda, xfng chabie fi~3U,
spyad pa 'i rab tu dbye ba), (4) according to aspiration (praJJidhanaprabheda, yuan
chabie 1Ji~3U, smon lam gyi rab tu dbye ba), (5) according to progress (pratipat-
prabheda, xfngjl chabie fj],JJi~3U, Jam gyi rab tu dbye ba), (6) according to path
and result (margaphalaprabheda, daogu6 chabie ~~R3U, lam dang 'bras bu 'i rab
tu dbye ba), (7) according to stage of practice (prayogaprabheda, Jiaxing chabie i1D
f:f1f:3U, sbyor ba'i rab tu dbye ba), (8) according to the level of meditative attain-
ment ( samapattiprabheda, ding chabie 5ERJJUi&, snyoms par Jug pa 'i rab tu dbye
ba), (9) according to [the number of] rebirths [left until reaching parinirvaJJa]
(upapattiprebheda, sheng chabie ±~53U, skye ba'i rab tu dbye ba), (10) according
to deficiency [in terms of how long it will take to reach parinirvaJJa] (pari-
haJJiprebheda, tui butui chabie ~~~~BU, yangs su nyams pa'i rab tu dbye ba),
and (11) according to hindrances [that have been overcome through meditation
and insight] (avaraJJaprabheda, zhang chabie ~i~53U, sgrib pa'i rab tu dbye ba).
The segment correlates each division with one or more of the 28 types of personali-
ties listed above.
It may be noted that the explanation of the division according to temperament
( caritaprabheda, xfng chabie fi~3U, spyadpa 'i rab tu dbye ba) provides a detailed
description of each type of personality, namely those having a temperament of
desire and attachment (ragacaritaiJ, tanxing zhe ~ff%, 'dad chags spyad pa), a
temperament of dislike and hatred (dve~acaritafJ, chenxing zhe §j;fi%, zhe sdang
spyad pa), a temperament of deludedness and stupidity (mohacarital;, chlxing zhe
iffi~, gti mug spyad pa), a temperament of pride and self-conceit (manacarita,
manxfng zhe 'l'i:1]%, nga rgyal spyad pa), a temperament of intellectuality
( vitarkacarita, xfnsizfng zhe ;ey:,~JT%, rnam par rtogpa spyadpa), and a tempera-
ment with equal amounts [of each afflictive state] (samabhagacarita, dengfen xing
zhe ~:B-f=I-%, cha mnyam par spyad pa). In brief, a person with a given type of
temperament tends always to react with the predominant afflictive emotion in
response to even the slightest exposure to its object, such as an object of like,
dislike, etc.
266
SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai (2007:22-40) = T1579.425b 20-427a 21 = D4036.70br 75a3.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 121
Moreover, the explanation on the division according to aspiration (praJJidhana-
prabheda, yuan chabie 1Jt~53U, smon lam gy~ rab tu dbye ba) s~y~ that a~piratio? is
made within the fold of one of the three vehicles of hearers ( sravaka-yana, sheng-
wen sheng WM*, nyan thos kyi theg pa), solitary buddhas (pratyeka-buddhayana,
duJue sheng ~JfJft rang sangs rgyas kyi theg pa), or the great vehicle (mahayana,
dasheng **' theg pa chen po) in agreement with the indivi-dual's predisposition
(gotra) for a particular vehicle. Notably, the text here distinguishes between a sra-
vaka predisposition (sravakagotra, shengwen zhongxJng VMfftt, nyan thos kyi
rigs), a pratyekabuddha predisposition (pratyekabuddhagotra, duJue zhongxi'ng ~
1fflltt, rang sangs rgyas kyi rigs), and a Mahayana predisposition ( mahayanagotra,
dasheng zhongxing jc~fHlltl.1, theg pa chen po'i rigs). Such a threefold division of
gotra is also seen in several other texts, e.g., in the SaI!]dhinirmocanasiitra and
works dealing with buddha-nature ( tathagatagarbha). However, the present passa-
ge stipulates that even if some~ne of a given p_redisp?sition ~ere to as~ire. for
practicing one of the other veh_1cles, the ~ractlt10~er ~n. question ~ould m time
inevitably revert back to the vehicle for which s/he 1s ongmally predisposed. Thus,
the predisposition is said never to be ambiguous or mixed. This point seems in
some degree to conflict with the notion of an indeterminate predisposition ( ani-
yatagotra) as, e.g., propounded in the Lalikavatarasiitra and the Mahayanasutra-
Jamkara, according to which there exist some individuals possessing a predisposi-
ti;n whose yana affiliation remains uncertain until they have embarked on practic-
. a part1cu
mg . 1ar ve h'1c1e. 267
The third segment gives an exposition of the various foci ( alambana, suoyuan
rM&, dmigs pa) used in sravaka meditation practices, i.e., the phenomena,268visua-
lized images, or contemplations that serve as their objects of concentration. The
meditative foci are divided into four overall kinds: (I) general [types of] foci ( vyapy
alambanam, bianman suoyuan ~y;pfr~, khyab pa 'i dmigs pa), (II) foci purifying
the practitioner's temperament ( caritavisodhanam alambanam, J1'ng xfng suoyuan
yjfi,R~~' spyad pa rnam par sbyong ba'i dmigs pa), (III) foci [for developing]
expertise (kausalyalambana, shanqiao suoyuan ~J5pfr~, mkhas pa'i dmigs pa),
and (IV) foci purifying the afflictions (klesavisodhanal!] alambanam, Jing huo
suoyuan ij~pfr~, nyon mongs pa rnam par sbyong ba'i dmigs pa). Notably,
starting from group II of these meditative foci, the treatise for the first time
presents various concrete meditation techniques.
(I) The general types of foci are fourfold. 269 The first is the conceptual image
(savikalpal!] pratibimbam, you fenbie yfngxiang ~:B-53U~~' rnam par rtog pa
dang bcas pa 'j gzugs brnyan) referring to the object for insight meditation
( vipasyana, pfboshena _mu~ffl3, lhag mthong). The meditator (yogin, xiii guan-
xfng zhe {i}ltfi%, rnal 'byor pa) chooses as the object of meditation a doctrinal
topic that has been studied well, e.g., dependent arising, the aggregrates, or the
four existential facts of the noble ones, and then analyzes this topic conceptually
267
On the relative lateness of the Laiikavatarasiitra and the argument that the text in its
received form must have been written after the composition of the Saipdh1nirmocanasiitra
and the YBh, see BUESCHER (2008:23-25).
268
SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (2007:42-124) = T1579.427a 2r435b 23 = D4036.75a3-96a6.
269
SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai (2007:42-58) = T1579.427a 2r428c 18 = D4036.75a3-79a2,
Another edition is found in SAKUMA (1990a.II:4-15).
122 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
while resting in meditation until a direct experience and realization emerges
thereof. The second is the non-conceptual image (niivikalpaip pratibimbam, wzi
fenbie yingxiang ~5t53U~1*, rnam par rtog pa med pa 'i gzugs brnyan), which is
the object for tranquility meditation (samatha, shemiitii ~~1-fQ, zhi gnas). Here
the meditator focuses the mind steadily on the chosen object of meditation without
analyzing it conceptually. Thereby, the mind comes to rest peacefully, settling
deeper and deeper internally through a series of steps called "the nine aspects of
resting the mind" (navakara cittasthitiiJ, Jiiizhong xinzhu nf.mi[A:t, sems gnas
rnam pa dgu). These steps, which the text here lists for the first time, will be
explained below in the third Y ogasthana. The third general type of foci is the
entirety of things ( vastupaiyantatii, shi biiinJJ xing ~~~ft, dngos po 'i mtha ').
This involves focusing on all phenomena in samatha or vipasyanii meditation either
in terms of their variety (yiivadbhiiv1katii, J1'nsu6y6u xi'ng ~pfr~'f'i, Ji snyed yod pa
nyid) or in terms of their nature (yathiivadbhiivikatii, ni su6y6u xi'ng ~Dpfr~tt Ji
lta ba bzhin du yod pa nyid). Focusing on the variety of things is, e.g., to concen-
trate on the five aggregates (skandha, yun -r{!, phung po), the eighteen constituents
of perception ( dhiitu, Jie Jf, khams), or the twelve perceptual domains ( iiyatana,
chu ~, skye mched). Focusing on the nature of things is to analyze their being by
means of a valid reasoning, e.g., concerning their causality, function, or characteri-
stics. The fourth type of general foci is the perfection of the aim [of meditation]
(kiiiyaparini~patfi, SUOZUO chengban pfr{'fn\GWJt dgos pa yangs SU grub pa),
meaning that the meditator through repeated practice of samatha and vipasyanii
meditation transcends the meditative image and enters into the higher levels of
meditation, including the four degrees and the domains of meditative absorption
associated with the realms of corporeality and incorporeality, and thereby achieves
the vision of non-conceptual, direct knowledge (nirvikalpam pratyak~aip Jiiiina-
darsanam, wzi fenbie xianliang zhijian ~-5t3U:fJ!.m. ~ Je.,, rnam par rtog pa medpa 'i
ye shes dang mthong ba mngon sum du 'byung bar gyur). The segment on the
general types of foci ends with an extensive scriptural quotation attesting these
categories while also explaining how a monk who is a yoga practitioner ( bhilc~ur
yogi yogiiciiralJ, biqiii qinxiii guanxing shi yriJia shi tt.liiv{tDfi~fgrj{jJD§ffi, dge
slang rnal 'byor pa rnal 'byor spyod pa) should practice the instructions on the
following types of foci.
(II) The foci purifying the pracititioner's temperament ( caritavisodhanam
alambanam, Jing xing suoyuan ~:fj"pfr~, spyad pa rnam par sbyong ba 'i dmigs pa)
include five contemplative objects (A-E), which are explained at length. 270
(A) The practitioner having a temperament of desire is instructed to use the
meditation on unattractiveness (asubhfl, buJJng ~~' mi sdugpa). 271 Five different
forms of desire and attachment (raga, tan~' 'dod chags) are countered by means
of contemplating various kinds of unattractiveness. ( 1) The first contemplation is
on unattractiveness in the sense of being dirty (pratyasubhata, xiiihui buJi'ng fi,fj
270
SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (2007:58-106) = T1579.428c 18-433c 1 = D4036.79ar91a3 . For
another edition of the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts along with a German translation of the
segment on the meditation on friendliness, see MAITHRIMURTHI (1999:276-278, 285-286,
295-296, text piece I).
271
For the meditation on unattractiveness or repulsiveness, see SCHMITHAUSEN
(1982:66-74).
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 123
;f fP, mi gtsan_g ba 'i 1!1i sd_ug pa ,n{rid),:,,,~e contemp1,ation is meant to coun~e.r the
1
desire of passion (kamaraga, yutan B'A~, 'dod pa1 'dad chags), more spec1~1cally
attachment to oneself [as being attractive, beautiful, and clean]. The med1tator
concentrates on the filthiness of his or her own body and its physical aspects, such
as the organs, bodily fluids, and so forth. (2) To counter sexual desire (mait~una-
raga, yin tan Vi~, 'khrig pa 'j 'dod chags) dir~cted. towar~s ot?~rs, the m.ed1tator
contemplates the inherent filthiness of others bodies by v1suahzmg these m terms
of the stages of decomposition of corpses until s/he perceives others as nothing but
skeletons. This visualization is analyzed in some detail, showing how each aspect of
the repulsive image is meant to c~unter vari~us facets of ~rou~al. The. segme~t also
cites a scriptural passage illustratmg how this contemplation 1s associated w1th the
ascetic practice of staying in a charnel ground for the purpose of observing decom-
posing bodies. (3) Next, ther.e is. the desire for sensua.l objects ( V1$ayarag_a, J1'ngtan
m~, yu] gyi 'dod chags), which lS countered by two different COntemplat10ns. ~ne
is the contemplation on unattractiveness in the sense of what brmgs suffenng
( dulJkhasubhata, kiinao buji'ng =@r'['~~if, sdug bsngal gyi mi sdug pa nyid), where
the meditator rests in an awareness of how each and every bodily and mental
contact is laced with innate pain. The other contemplation is on unattractiveness in
the sense of inferiority (avarasubhata, xiaHe buJing T~~~. nganpa'i mi sdugpa
nyid), where the practitioner focuses on how everything in each sa:rµsar.ic realm is
completely unsatisfactory, inferior, and miserable. ( 4) To counter desire for the
[realm of non-sensual] corporeality (riiparaga, @.~, gzugs kyi_ 'dod cha!s), t~e
meditator engages in the contemplation of comparative unattractiveness ( apekfiky
asubhatfl, guandai buJ1'ng 81~~~' ltos pa 'i mi sdug pa nyid). Here, the practitio-
ner reflects on that even something very attractive is actually unattractive when
seen in the light of something more attractive, e.g., the meditative levels of the
realm of non-sensual corporeality are unattractive in comparison to those of the
realm of incorporeality, and these, in turn, are unattractive in comparison to
nirvfll}a. (5) Finally, there is desire in the sense of clinging to a self (satkiiyaraga,
sajiiiye tan fil~!f~~, Jig tshogs kyi 'dod chags), which is also countered by means
of two contemplations. One is to focus on the unattractiveness of the afflictions
(ldesasubhatfl, fanniio buJ1'ng t~]~~~' nyon mongs pa'imi sdugpa nyid), where
the practitioner contemplates afflictions in all their various forms, such as latent
types, main types, secondary types, and so forth. The other is to meditate ?n
unattractiveness in the sense of transience (prabhaligurasubhata, suhuid bu Jing~
~~if, rab tu jig pa'i mi sdug pa nykl), which is to contemplate the imperma-
nence, changeability, and flux of the five skandhas. In this way, the practitioner
whose predominant emotion is desire overcomes the affliction.
(B) The practitioner having a temperament of predominant dislike and hatred
should employ the meditation on friendliness (maitri, cfmfn ~~' byams pa). This
contemplation is only explained in general terms in the present segment, since a
longer explanation will follow later. In the meditation, the practitioner wishes
happiness to his or her friends (mitrapakfa, qinpin lijifp, mdza' bshes kyiphyogs),
enemies ( amitrapak~a, yuimpin 1Jh~o, dgra bo'i phyogs), and neutral persons
(udasinapa#a, zh6ngpin cpif0 , tha ma] pa'i phyogs). Based on several short
scriptural extracts, the segment further explains that the meditator's attitude must
be without any hostility (avairata, wziyuan ~1J?;, khan med pa), rivalry (asapatnata,
wzi diduJ ~~ii, 'gran zla med pa), or harm ( avyabiidhata, wusiinnao ~tffit'f'~,
gnod pa med pa). Fostering an expansive, great, and unlimited wish for others'
happiness, the practitioner gradually comes to dwell in a state of meditative
124 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
absorption. In this context, the treatise adds that by using a similar technique, the
meditator goes on to cultivate compassion (karwJa, bej 1J, sny1ng rje) towards
those who suffer and sympathetic rejoicing (mud1"ta, xi~' dga' ba) towards those
who are well.
(C) The practitioner with predominant deludedness and stupidity should em-
ploy the meditation on causality and dependent arising (1'da1ppratyayatapratitya-
samutpada, yuanqi ~,IB, rten dng 'brel bar 'byung ba). In this meditation, the
meditator trains in seeing phenomena ( dharma, fa it, chos) merely as events that
do not involve any creator or experiencer. This is done by analyzing phenomena
through the four modes of reasoning pertaining to dependency, function, validity,
and nature mentioned above.
(D) The practitioner with a temperament of pride and conceit should meditate
on the division of the constituents (dhatuprabheda,/ie chabje W~53U, khams rab
tu dbye ba). Here the meditator strives to perceive him- or herself along with the
surroundings as constituted by the six elements, viz. the elements of earth
(prthkidhatu, dij1e tfilW, Sal khams), water (abdhatu, shufjje 7-.kW, chu'j khams),
fire (tefodhatu, huof1e xW, me'i khams), air (vayudhatu, teng;ie JJ\W, rlung gi
khams), space (akasadhatu, kongjje ~W, nam mkha1 khams), and consciousness
( njnanadhatu, shijje ~IW, rnam par shes pa 'j khams). The segment explains the
characteristics and functions of these elements in detail with regard to the physical
body and the outer environment. By focusing on the elements, the meditator stops
seeing the body as a singular unit (ph_l(ja, yihe -15, di por), gains a sense of the
body's unattractiveness, and in this way prevents arrogance and self-conceit.
(E) Finally, the practitioner with a predominant intellect is adviced to use the
meditation of awareness on the breathing ( anapanasmrti, anabona nHw [1oHJf)iHZffi3
~' dbugs rdub pa dang dbugs 'byung ba dran pa). This segment commences with
an extensive explanation of the breathing cycle, giving a minute analysis of each
aspect along with an explanation on the harmful effects of breathing too slowly or
too fast. Five ways of exercising awareness of the breathing are then presented.
The first is to exercise awareness by counting the breath (gaIJanaparkaya, suanshu
xitlxf ~~{rif~, bgrang bas yangs su sbyang ba). Here, in order to keep the mind
focused undistractedly, the meditator counts the breaths up to the number ten,
either counting the in- and out-breaths separately or counting full breath-cycles.
Once the number ten has been reached, s/he may either start over with another
round of ten or may reduce the cycle with one number for each round, thus
counting to nine, then to eight, then to seven, and so forth. Once this technique has
been mastered, s/he may proceed only to count every second breath, every fourth
breath, etc., up to counting every hundredth breath. The technique of counting is
intended for the meditator of weak aptitude, who tends to fall asleep or become
distracted unless s/he actively counts the breaths. A meditator of keen aptitude
may easily be able to focus undistractedly on the breath cycles without counting
and might choose to complete this exercise quickly. With repeated practice, the
meditator achieves bodily and mental ease (prasrabdh1: qing an lj.fil~, shjn tu
sbyangs pa) and one-pointedness of mind ( ekagrata, yijing xing -:ij~Ji, rtse gcig
pa nyM). Once bodily ease has arisen, the meditator proceeds to the next exercise
of expanding the awareness onto the aggregrates (skandhavataraparkaya, wuru
zhuyim xiiixf '['gA~~i{~~' phung po la Jug pas yangs su sbyang ba). While stilt
concentrating on the breath, the meditator observes how each of the five aggre-
gates (skandha, yuil l{!, phung po) is involved in the breathing process, understan-
ding that the bodily aggregate provides the physical basis for the breath, the feeling
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 125
aggregate senses it, the aggregate of ideation cognizes it, the aggregate of condi-
tioned factors enables the act of concentrating on the breath with awareness,
intention, and intelligence, while the consciousness aggregate perceives the entire
process. When the meditator is able clearly to see the breathing cycle as consisting
purely of the individual elements of these aggregates without involving any object
or subject, s/he proceeds to the third exercise of expanding the awareness onto
dependent arising (pratityasamutpadavataraparkaya, wuru yuanqixjiixf ·['§" )\~ffl
11~, rten c1ng 'brel par 'byung ba). The meditator looks into what the basis or
condition for breathing might be. Following an analytical chain of thought, the
meditator observes that the basis for the breath is the body, which in turn necessi-
tates the mind. The condition for the body and mind is the life-force, which in turn
is dependent on conditioned factors from former lives, i.e., karmic actions. The
accumulation of karmic actions is in turn dependent on ignorance. The meditator
concentrates on this chain of conditions forwards and backwards, and by doing so
repeatedly contemplates dependent arising. Thorough familiarization with seeing
the breathing as a process of dependent arising produces a sense of its imperma-
nence where the arising and ceasing of one condition leads to another. Thereby,
the meditator realizes how dependent arising entails birth, old age, sickness, and
death, as well as the suffering this process involves, and how it is empty and without
a self. This is to see the existential fact of suffering. Thereupon, the meditator
moves on to perceive the origination and cessation of suffering, along with the path
leading to its cessation. This is the fourth exercise of expanding the awareness onto
the [four] existential facts (satyavataraparkaya, wuru shengdi xiiixf '['B" A~§i1i~,
bden pa la Jug pas yangs su sbyang ba). Finally, the practitioner reaches the fifth
and highest practice of breath-awareness called the exercise of [seeing] the sixteen
aspects (~oqasakara-paricaya, shf]ju shengxfng xjuxf +/\!mfitf~, rnam pa bcu
drug gjs yangs su sbyang ba), which serves to eliminate any remaining afflictions
through contemplative cultivation. Here, the meditator again focuses on the
breathing in light of the earlier realization, perceiving it exactly as it is, how it is felt
throughout the body, and how it produces bodily ease, pleasure, joy, bliss, and
liberation. S/he sees its impermanence and generates elimination of the afflictions,
detachment from desire, and cessation. By repeating the practice over and over
while perceiving the breath as it naturally is, the meditator reaches the four
degrees and four domains of meditative absorption with their respective meditative
experiences, overcomes all afflictions, and finally achieves liberation.
(III) Having thus explained the four general types of foci and the five foci puri-
fyi~g temperament, the text then turns to explaining the third group of five foci,
which are called foci [for developing] expertise (kausalyalambana, shanqiiio
s_uoy_win ~JS pfr*i, mkhas pa 'j dmjgs pa). 272 There are five such foci, viz. ( 1) exper-
tise m the aggregates (skandhakausalya, yun shanqjao *1[~J3, phung po la mkhas
pa), (2) expertise in the constituents [of perception] (dhatukausalya, jje shanqiao
W.~J3, khamslamkhaspa), (3) expertise in the domains [of perception] (ayatana-
kausalya, chu shanqiao /lt~JS, skye mched la mkhas pa), (4) expertise in depen-
dent arising (pratityasamutpadakausalya, yuanqf shanqiao *'m~rs, rten c1ng
'brel bar 'byung ba la mkhas pa), and (5) expertise in what constitutes a basis and
272
SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (2007:106-114) = T1579.433ci-434b 14 = D4036.9la3-93b 1.
126 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
what does not constitute a basis [for beneficial action and desireable karmic results]
(sthanasthanakausalya, chit ieichit shanqiiio Jfglp~~J5, gnas dang gnas ma yin pa
la mkhas pa). Each topic is presented by first outlining the particular doctrine, e.g.,
defining and subdividing the five aggregates, and then explaining how to contem-
plate this subject. For developing expertise in the five aggregates, it is said that the
meditator should focus on the distinct nature of each aggregate and the various
subdivisions it contains. This should be done without conceiving of anything
outside this taxonomy while understanding that the aggregates do not involve any
permanent, unchanging phenomenon, such as a self. For developing expertise in
the eighteen constituents of perception, the meditator should ascertain how each
constituent arises, unfolds, and becomes cognizant from its own particular domain,
seed, or type. For developing expertise in the twelve domains of perception, s/he
should discern that in the case of a visual consciousness, the eye serves as the
enabling condition, the visual forms serve as the focal condition, and the inner
cognitive sense that has just ceased serves as the immediately preceding condition.
In the same manner, the meditator contemplates all six types of perception. For
developing expertise in the twelve links of dependent arising, the meditator first
analyzes how each link serves as a condition for the subsequent link to arise and
then understands that the causality involved in this process requires each phe-
nomenon to be impermanent. Since they are impermanent, they also involve
suffering and are without any self. For developing expertise in what constitutes a
basis and what does not constitute a basis means to reflect on the difference
between beneficial and negative actions and the kinds of karmic results each form
of action brings.
(IV) The fourth and final type of meditative object is the foci purifying the
afflictions (klesavisodhanalJl alambanam,jing huo suoyuan ~~pfr~, nyon mongs
pa mam par sbyong ba'i dmigs pa). 273 These refer to the meditations that make up
the mundane and supramundane paths. On the mundane path, as outlined in brief
above, the meditator develops the notion that the lower level on which s/he pre-
sently abides, such as the realm of sensual desire, is brutish and coarse ( audarikata.,
ciixing lltt rags pa nyid) in comparison to the immediately higher level, such as
the first degree of absorption within the realm of non-sensual corporeality, which i~
seen as peaceful (santatva, jingxi'ng Wtt zhi ba nyid). Once the higher level has
been achieved through meditation, the seeker begins to consider that level coarse
and the next higher level as peaceful, and so forth, until s/he attains the highest
level of meditation within the realm of incorporeality. Such a practice temporarily
removes but does not permanently eliminate the afflictions associated with the
lower levels. The present segment explains in detail how the lower level is coarse in
comparison to the higher level. On the supramundane path, the meditator concen-
trates on four foci in order to purify and completely eliminate the sarµsaric afflic-
tions. These foci are the four existential facts of the noble ones, which are here
explained in detail.
The fourth major segment of the second Yogasthana is a very short exposition
of the modes of giving instruction (avavada, jiaoshou lz:f5l, gdams ngag). 274 The -
manner in which instructions are given to the sravaka may be characterized in four
273 SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (2007:114-124) = Tl579.434bw435b = D4036.93b -96a .
23 1 6
274 SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (2007:126-128) = Tl579.435b -435c = D4036.96a -97a .
23 18 6 2
The Yogiiciirabhumi and Its Adaptation 127
different ways. The first aspect is to give unmistaken instructions ( aviparitavavada,
wzidao jiiwshou ~{¥Ui3rf'3t, phyin ci ma log pa 'i gdams ngag), meaning that the
sravaka receives proper explanations on the Dharma that are genuine and correct.
The second is to give progressive instructions ( anupiirvavavada, jianci jiaoshou ilfr
:.:jZf{~, go rims kyi gdams ngag), denoting the manner in which the Dharma is
taught progressively with the more basic teachings being taught first and the more
advanced teachings being taught later. The third aspect is to give instructions in the
form of a transmission ( agamavavada, jiao jiaoshou fjzfjz:f5l, lung gi gdams ngag),
meaning that the disciple receives teachings from his or her teachers in the very
same way that these teachers received such explanations themselves and that the
disciple subsequently passes these teachings on to his or her own students in the
same way that they were originally heard. The fourth aspect is to give instructions
of realization ( adhigamavavada, zheng jiaoshou §ii!z:f5l, rtogs pa 'i gdams ngag),
signifying that the instructions are given to others in the way that they were com-
prehended, experienced, and actualized while practicing in retreat. Additionally,
the giving of instruction may be extraordinary, for example when it is accompanied
by physical miracles aimed at engendering faith in the receiver, or when the
teacher intuitively knows the student's inherent temperament and aptitude and
teaches accordingly.
The fifth segment describes the three trainings (sik$a, xue ~' bslab pa) that the
sravaka student undergoes. 275 These are the training in superior discipline (adhi-
silaipSIK$a, zengshang Jie xue ttw-1.~~' /hag pa 'i tshul khrims kyi bslab pa), the
training in superior [meditative] mind (adhicitfa1J1Sik$a, zengshang xin xue ti_b[i\
~' /hag pa 'i sems kyi bslab pa), and the training in superior insight ( adhi-
praj.iaipsik$a, zengshang hui xue ti J::JI~, lhag pa 'i shes rab kyi bslab pa). After
giving short definitions of each, it is discussed why they are threefold, how these
practices support each other, what their individual aims, their progressive order,
and the reason for their names are, and finally who is able to complete them.
The sixth segment presents ten factors that go along with the training
(sik$anulomika dharmalJ, sufshitn xue iii ~)l~!Jht, bslab pa dang rjes su mthun
pa'i chos). 276 These ten serve as remedies against ten factors that go against the
training (sikJfivi/oma dharm/il;z, wein} xue iii ~~~1:t;:, bs/ab pa dang rjes SU mi
mthun pa 'i chos). Thus, (1) the notion of unattractiveness ( asubhasa1J11fia, bu Jing
XIang TiJfJ!, mi sdug pa 'i 'du shes) counters attachment to beautiful and delight-
ful women, (2) the notion of impermanence ( anityaSalJl}.ia, wuchfmg xiiing ~mfJ!,
mi rtag pa 'i 'du shes) remedies attitudes associated with believing in a self, (3) the
notion of suffering with regard to what is impermanent ( anitye dulJkhasaipj.ia,
wrichang kii xiiing ~,m-E!!, mi rtag pa la sdug bsngal ba 'i 'du shes) overcomes
laziness and apathy, (4) the notion of no-self in suffering ( dul;zkhe 'natmasa1J1J.ia,
kii wriw6 XIang =@;=~tt!J!, sdug bsngal ba la bdag med pa 'i 'du shes) opposes belief
~~ a self, (5) the notion of dislike of food ( ahare pratikiilasa1J1J.ia, yanni shfxiiing )1R
~1tf!, zas la mimthunpa'i 'du shes) counters desire for eating, (6) the notion of
the lack of real happiness anywhere in the world (sarvaloke 'nabhiratisaipJfia, yiqie
shijian bu kele xiiing --l;JJtltF1cc1~TPJ~!J!, pg rten thams cad la mngon par mi dga I
ba 'i 'du shes) works against craving for listening to chatter about the world, (7) the
275
SHOMON ji Kenkyiikai (2007:130-136) = Tl579.435c26 -436c 10 = D4036.97ar99a4.
276
. SHOMONji Kenkyiikai (2007:138-144) = Tl579.436cu-437b 23 = D4036.99a4-l0la4.
128 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
visualization of light ( alokasaipjiia, guangmfng xiang 1c;l3,8f~, snang ba 'i 'du shes)
remedies unconducive states for contemplating the teachings and con-centrating
the mind in meditation, including such states as doubt, unclarity, tiredness, sleepi-
ness, and so forth, (8) the notion of non-attachment ( viragasaip;na, Jfyu xiang #JUi'X
f~, 'clod chags dang bra] ba 'i 'du shes) works against attachment to the bliss experi-
enced in higher states of meditation, (9) the notion of cessation (nirodhasaipjiia,
mie xiang ~ftQf~, 'gag pa 'i 'du shes) overcomes desire for the meditative absorption
without determinant characteristics, and (10) the thought of death (maraJJaSaipjiia,
sf xiling 3'Ef~, 'chi ba 'i 'du shes) remedies the misery that arises from wishing and
hoping for life.
The segment ends with explaining an alternative list of ten factors that go along
with the training, consisting of (1) possessing the right causes from former [lives]
(purvako hetuiJ, suyfn m1z;1, sngon gyis rgyu), (2) receiving the accompanying
teaching transmission ( anulomika upadesa, sufshun jHw ~/l~IX, rjes su mthun pa 'i
lung), (3) proper engagement (yonisaiJ prayogaiJ, nilijiaxing ~ffE.fiJDfi, tshul bzhin
la rab tu sbyor ba), (4) always doing what needs to be done with devotion
( satatyasatkrtyakarita, wuJian yinzhong suazuo ~FFl9~~:mpfr11=, rtag tu gus par byas
te byed pa), (5) strong aspiration ( tfvracchandata, mengli leyu 1~:fU~:e'X, 'dun pa
drag po), (6) engendering yogic power (yogabaladhanata, chi yujia Ji t~ffilwa:1.J,
rnal 'byor gyi stags skyed pa), (7) easing debilitations in body and mind (kayacitta-
dauffhulyapratiprasrabdhi, zhfxi shen xfn cuzhong ll:.,~,-%{Afl"f£, lus dang sems
kyi gnas ngan Jen shin tu sbyangs pa), (8) constant introspection ( abhikfJJapraty-
ave#a, shiishu guancha f)l:f)l:iffl~, yang dang yang du so sor rtog pa), (9) being
unintimidated ( aparitamana, wziy6u qieruo ~W'['!§f], yangs su gdung ba med pa),
and (10) being without excessive arrogance (nirabhimanata, Ji zengshang man #Jt:ijf
_ttf, mngon pa 'i nga rgyal medpa).
The seventh segment concerns failures in the practice of yoga (yogabhraipsa,
yzijia huai ffil{bD$, rnal 'byor nyams pa), which are said to be of four kinds. 277 The
first is called fundamental failure in yoga ( atyantiko yogabhraipsaiJ, bij1'ng yujiii
huai ~YlfifrJ{bo:tJ, rnal 'byor nyams pa gtan du ba), which means that if a not
predisposed person ( agotrastha, wzi zh6ngxi'ng ~~~!, rigs med pa la gnas pa)
attempts to practice, it will never be fruitful. The second is called temporary failure
in yoga ( tavatkaliko yogabhraipsaiJ, zanshi yzijia huai ~8~JfrJ{bO$, rnal 'byor
nyams pa re zhig pa). This refers to a predisposed person, who attempts to practice
yoga at a time when the right conditions are not present. If this person persists for
a long time, s/he will eventually achieve the result of nirvaJJa. The third is called
failure in yoga due to lacking attainment (praptiparihaJJiko yogabhraipsalJ, tuishi
su6de yujiii huai ~~pfr1~fiw{bU$, thob pa las yangs su nyams pa 'i rnal 'byor
nyams pa), referring to the practitioner who is unable to attain direct experience
and realization. The fourth is the failure in yoga stemming from practicing wrongly
(mithyapratipattikfto yogabhraipsaiJ, xiexfng suozuo yuJia huai :rBfrPfr11:fiwwaf.l,
Jog par sgrub pas byas pa'i rnal 'byor nyams pa). This downfall means that the
practitioner engages in studying and practicing the Dharma, but somewhere along
the way falls short in his or her practice. It is emphasized that such problems
particularly may arise if the sravaka grows proud and attached when s/he is vene-
277
SHOMONji Kenky(ikai (2007:146-150) = Tl579.437b 23 -438a 15 = D4036.10la4 -102bz.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 129
rated and served by important laymen, and begins to lead a sham of the life of a
renunciant. It is said that though this may have the appearance of being the
authentic Dharma, it is, in fact, an inauthentic Dharma, which only leads to the
eclipse of the true Dharma.
The eighth segment gives an overall definition of yoga or "spiritual practice"
(yoga, yujia ffrJ{bD, rnal 'byor), this being a passage that was briefly referred to at the
beginning of the present introductory essay in the context of defining the term
yoga. 278 As mentioned above, yoga is here said to consist of four aspects, namely (1)
faith (sraddha, xin {-g-, dad pa), (2) aspiration ( chandas, yu t1'X, 'dun pa), (3) perse-
verance ( vf1)1a, jlngjin f~:ii, brtson 'grus), and (4) the application of spiritual
methods ( upaya, fangbian 13{!£, thabs). The segment briefly explains these four
qualities.
The ninth se~ment deals with [meditative] observation (manaskiira, zuoyi {1:J~l,
yid la byed pa). 2 As may also be noticed from the usage of the term in the first two
books of the YBh, viz. the Paiicavijiianasamprayukta BhumilJ and the Manobhum1;
manaskara has the basic sense of 'observance'. The term was there defined broadly
as any kind of "enfilagement of the mind" ( cetasa abhogaiJ, xfn hufzhuan {A!glff,
sems kyi Jug pa), 28 and it was added that its function is to "turn the mind [towards
its object]" (cittavaljana, yin xfn i3 [{}, sems gtod pa). 281 In the present context,
however, the term is used in a more restricted sense with reference to yoga,
denoting in particular the strength with which the mind focuses on the meditative
object and how constant this focus is kept in the mind. Accordingly, manaskiira is
here translated as 'meditative observation'. Meditative observation is here said to
be fourfold: (1) forceful application [of the mind towards the meditative object]
(balavahana, Jili yunzhuan jJlfJ~$f, bsgrims te Jug pa) referring to the medita-
tion of a complete beginner, (2) interrupted application (sacchidravahana, y6ujiiin
yunzhuan WFR93'.i$t, skabs su 'chad cing Jug pa), (3) uninterrupted application
(nischidraviihana, wu jian yunzhuan ~Fs93'.i$t, skabs su 'chad pa med pa Jug pa),
and (4) effortless application ( anabhogaviihana, wzi g6ngyong yunzhuan ~:r}] ffl 3'.i
ff, rtsol ba med par Jug pa). An alternative list of four aspects is also given that
focuses on the functions that the different types of observation serve. This is
followed by a short outline of the four kinds of meditative images (nimitta, xiang
f§, mtshan ma), which were already laid out in the third segment of the Samahita
BhiimilJ, i.e., (1) the image as the meditative focus (alambananimitta, su6yuan
xiimg pfr*fif§, dmigs pa 'i mtshan ma), (2) the image as the basis for meditation
(nidanamitta, yfnyuan xiang, gzhi'i mtshan ma), (3) the images that are to be
abandoned (parivarjaniyaip nimittalp, yfng yuanli xiang JJ!~Mif§, yangs su spang
bar bya ba'i mtshan ma), and (4) the images that are to be relied upon (prati-
niJevaJJlyaip nimittaip, yfng xiiixf xiang }J!~g~if§, so sor bsten par bya ba'i mtshan
ma). Next, it is said that when the meditator applies these various forms of medita-
tive observation, the mind ascertains ( adhimucyatalJ, qi shengjie ,IBMj~~, mos par
byed pa) the meditative focus. This may take the form of one of nine types of
ascertainment ( adhimokfa, sheng;ie Mj~~, mos pa) of the meditative focus, viz. it
278
SHOMONji Kenky(ikai (2007:152-156) = Tl579.438a 16-438b18 = D4036.102br103b1.
279
SHOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:158-164) = T1579.438bw439a 16 = D4036.103bi-l04b 7 •
280
BHATTACHARYA (1957:601) = T1579.29lb27 = D4035.30ar30b1.
281
BHATTACHARYA (1957:6010) = T1579.291cs = D4035.30b4.
 130 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
may be ~1) clear ,.(pr~bh~svara, y~u guangjing ~Jt~, 'od gsal ba), (2) unclear
fa?rabhasvara, wu guangpng. ~:Yttfi, 'od gsal ba ma yin pa), (3) dull (jaifa, chidun
J@j~, blun pa) when th~ med1~ator is of weak aptitude, (4) intense (pa{u, jieli H!fU,
sgnn pa) when the med1tator 1s of keen aptitude, (5) limited (paritta, xiaxilio ~11\
c~ung. ngu) when the m:dita,to_:s focus, faith, and aspiration are restricted, (6)
g1g~nt1~ (mahadgata, guangda JJifc, chen par gyur pa) when the focus, faith, and
asp1rat10n are gre~t, (7) imm~as~rable ( apramiil)a, wuliang ~_;,_, tshad med pa)
~e.n the focus, faith, and asp1rat10n a~e ~ndless, (8) perfect (pansuddha, qingjing
:~ W, yangs su c(~g pa) wh,en _th~, med1~at~~n has been well-accomplished, and (9)
1mperfe~t ( ~pansuddha, bu qmgpng ~ m~, yangs su dag pa ma yin pa) as long as
the med1tat10n has not yet been well-accomplished.
T~e te1:,t·~- se~me~\.which is very short, outlines four aims of yoga (yoga-
kara1;11y~, yu11a suozuo frrn{JJDPfrfl=, rnal 'byor du bya ba). 282 The final goal of sravaka
~ed1tatlon 1s a twofold process, in which the present depraved basis for existence
(1:e., the body ~nd the saiµs.aric mind) gradually comes to an end and is replaced
~1th a new basis accompamed by comfort and ease. These two steps are respec-
~1vely called ,:'cessati.on of the [old] b~sis"_ \ asrayan~rodha, suoyi mie pfr{~j~, gzhi
fag pa) and unfoldm~ of [a new] basis" (asrayapanvarta, suoyizhulin pfr{~fli$, gzhi
pho ba). To enable this process, the meditator must first undergo two steps called
thorou~h knowledge of the focus" ( alambanaparijiiana, bianzhi suoyuan ~~Opff
~, dm1gs pa yangs su shes pa) and "delight in the focus" (alambanabhirati a1 e' ryu'
V /' ~xru F;i:;:.QS, • '
suoyuan ~*rm~, dm1gs pa la mngon par dga' ba). The passage is of some
con~equ~n~e to the ~ogaca!.~ _theory of the transformation of the basis ( asraya-
panvrtt1 ), 1.e., of the alayaVJJnana, and has been discussed in detail by Hidenori S.
SAKUMA (1990.1:46-58).
T_ht:_ ele':~~th _s~gment sun.:eys the different kinds of yoga practitioners
([og~cara, yupash1 fmdtrogffi, rnal 'byor spyodpa), saying that there are three. 283 The
fir~1s1he beginner yoga practitioner ( adikarmiko yogacaraiJ, chu xiuye yujiashi W
{~~~J1rn{JJOgffi, rnal 'byor spyod pa las dang po pa), being the meditator who has not
yet achieved one-pointedness and who is practicing the lowest levels of meditative
observation (to be presented in the fourth Yogasthana). The second is the develo-
ped yoga practitioner (lqtapan~aya, yi xizing yujiashi B~frfifrJ{JJogffi, yangs su
sbyangs pa byas pa), who practices the second to the sixth levels of meditative
~bservation .. The third is the yoga practitioner who has transcended medita-
tive observa~10n (atikranta1:1anaskara,,_Yi du zuoyiyuJiashi ENff,~JifrJ{JJogffi, yid Ia
byed pa las 'das pa), referrmg to the sravaka who has reached the seventh level of
meditat~ve observatio~, :iz. the fruit of the practice. The segment also provides an
altern~t1ve way of defmmg the same three kinds of practitioners by relating them
to various stages of the path.
. The twelfth segment is a longer passage dealing with the contemplative cultiva-
t1?n. of ;:oga (yogabhavana, yujia xiu fifrJ{iJDVl, rnal 'byor bsgom pa). 284 Overall, it
d1s~mgu~sh~~ two._ type!: of cultivation, viz. the cultivation of notions ( saipjfia-
bhavana, Xiang XJu YJ!V~, 'du shes bsgom pa) and the cultivation of the factors of
282
SHOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:166) = T1579.439a 16 _29 = D4036.104brl05a5 •
283
SHOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:168-170) = Tl579.439b 1_22 = D4036.105a5-105b. 6
284
SHOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:172-236) = Tl579.439b 22 -445b 28 = D4036.105b 6-l2la5 •
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 131
Awakening ( bodhipak~ya bhavanii, pziti fen xiu ~:t!E:5Hl, byang chub .kyi phyogs
bsgompa). . . .
The cultivation of notions refers to vanous types of attitudes or understandmg
that the meditator cultivates. The practitioner who follows the mundane path
cultivates the notion that the lower level [of existence or meditation], on which he
currently abides, is fraught with shortcomings. The practitioner aiming for nirviil)a
cultivates the notion that nirval)a is peace, the elimination of afflictions, detach-
ment, and the cessation of suffering. The samatha practitioner cultivates the
notions of up and down, referring to how the meditator visualizes that the entire
body is impure and unattractive starting from the feet up and then starting from
the top of the head down. The vipasyana practitioner cultivates the notions of
before and after, meaning that the meditator takes a commonly held notion such as
standing, sitting, lying, going, coming, etc., and analyzes how the notion is applied
to change in bodily position in terms of arising and ceasing in the past, present, and
future.
The cultivation of the factors of Awakening is to develop the thirty-seven
factors of Awakening (saptatriipsad bodhipakffa dharmalJ, sansh{i{ pziti fenfli ~
+-t ~:ji:B-i~, byang chub .kyi phyogs sum cu rtsa bdun po). The seg~ent
explains each of these factors in detail. In brief, the thirty-seven factors consist of
seven groups of spiritual practices. The first group is called the four applications of
mindfulness ( catvari smrtyupasthiinani, si nianzhu [9~f1., dran pa nye bar bzhag
pa bzhi), referring to the practice of contemplating the_ nature of the body,. sensa-
tions, the mind, and phenomena. The second group 1s called the four kinds of
correct elimination ( catvari samyakprahiil)iini, si zhengduan [91Effi, yang dag par
spong ba bzhi) and refers to the practice of eliminating unwholesome states that
have arisen and guarding against the arising of new unwholesome states, as well as
developing new beneficial states and promoting the beneficial states that have been
developed. The third group pertains to the four bases of accomplishment ( catvara
rddhipadalJ, si shenzzi IZ-9t$ JE, rdzu 'phrul gyi rkang pa bzhi), which consist of the
proper aspiration, drive, concentration, and reflection that need to be applied to a
successful meditation practice. The fourth group is called the five faculties [for
what is beneficial] (pa.icendriyaJJi, wu gen liflt dbang po Inga), referring to faith,
drive, mindfulness, meditation, and insight which enable transcendental qualities
to arise. The fifth group is the five powers (paiica balam; wuli li1J, dbang po Inga),
which consist of the same five qualities of faith, drive, mindfulness, meditation, and
insight, here denoting that the practitioner has attained mastery over these and
realized the power they bring. The sixth group is the seven limbs of Awakening
(sapta bodhyaligani, -1:::;Jl::SZ:, byang chub .kyi yan Jag bdun), made up of seven
qualities that accompany realization, namely mindfulness, correct discrimination of
phenomena, drive, joy, ease, meditation, and equanimity. The first of these is said
to result from both samatha and vipasyana meditation. The next three result from
vipasyana, while the last three are brought out by samatha. Finally, the last group is
the eightfold path of the noble ones ( arya~fiiligo margalJ, bashengdao )\~~'
'phags pa 'i Jam yan Jag brgyad), being the fourth existential fact of the noble ones.
It consists of right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood,
285
On the thirty-seven factors of Awakening, see DAYAL (1932:80-164), LAMOTTE
(1970:1119-1207), and GETHIN (1992).
 132 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
- --
right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditation. The elements of these seven
groups add up to the thirty-seven factors of Awakening.
The thirteenth segment concerns the result of contemplative cultivation
( bhavanaphala, xiuguo vt*, bsgom pa 'i 'bras bu), namely the four stages of
fruition for the sravaka practitioner, including the result of a stream-enterer
(srotapatti, rujjzi fflim-:1!~t rgyun du zhugs pa), a once-returner (sak[dagam1; YJ1ai
-3f{, Ian CJg phyir 'ong ba), a non-returner (anagam1; buhuan ~Jfil, phyir mi 'ong
ba), and the state of a liberated sage, i.e., an arhat(arhattva, alu6han ~mil, dgra
286
beam pa nyid). The result is said to be the elimination of the afflictions and this
process is divided into the four mentioned stages. The stream-enterer has elimi-
nated all causes for rebirth in the three lower existences and has a maximum of
seven rebirths in saipsara left before reaching nirvaJJa. The once-returner has a
single saq:isaric rebirth left as a human or a god in the realm of sensual desire
before reaching nirvaJJa. The non-returner has eliminated all causes for rebirth in
the realm of sensual desire and hence will not return again to the realm of sensual
desire, but may still be reborn in the two higher meditative realms of samsara. The
arhat has eliminated all causes for rebirth in saipsara and will enter parinirval}a
upon death. The segment presents these levels in some detail and then turns to
discuss the characteristics of persons with weak passions (mandarajaskasya pudga-
lasya lingani, b6chenxfng biiteqielu6 xfng xiang chabie ~!H=f:rm4'lf1JJUff fit§~JJU,
gang zag nyon mongs pa chung ba 'i rtags), i.e., those who have purified their
pre~ominant afflictions and achieved stability of mind, but who have not yet
attamed one of the four stages of fruition.
The fourteenth segment is an exposition of other terms related to the word
'person' (pudgalaparyayalJ, biiteqielu6 YJ'men tm4'lf1JJU~~F5, gang zag gi roam
grangs), elucidating a variety of words used in the Buddha's discourses when
287
speaking of practitioners. These include renunciant (sramaJJa, shamen i.1>F5, dge
s~yo13g), b~c1__hman ( brahmaJJa, p6lu6men ~mF5, bram ze), celibate ( brahmacarin,
fa~ng ~1""!, ~!han;s far spyod pa), monk ( bhikJf!, bi'chzi ~~' dge slang), ascetic
stn~~= (y:!}, pngqm ;fflfu, sdom brtson), and 1tenerant mendicant (pravra1i'ta,
chupa tB~, rab tu byang ba). Each word is presented with a few subtypes, which
are briefly explained, presumably on the basis of the scriptural passages in question.
The ses~e~! e~ds_ ~th a brief discussion of eight and four types of person (pud-
gala, butequiluo tmh{iJUW, gang zag) and how these categorizations are made.
The fiftee?th segment presents the four deadly forces ( catviiro mara"'f;l, si m6 [Z!3
fflf, bdud• bzh1)288and the activities associated with these (marakarman ' m6 sh] )Ufolim
~~.
bdud ky1 las). The four deadly forces are the deadly force of [possessing] the [five]
aggregates ( skandhamara, yunm6 *lm.mf, phung po 'i bdud), the deadly force of
[having] afflictions (klesamara, fannao m6 1:lHimf, nyon mongs pa 'i bdud), the
deadly force of death (maraJJamara, sim6 JE!Jl, 'chi ba'i bdud), and the deadly
force of the youthful gods [of temptation] (devaputramara, tianm6 :;R!Jl, lha'i bu'i
bdud). The first three are explained as literally consisting in the five aggregates
[constituting a saq:isaric existence], the afflictions, and death, while the fourth
deadly force is said to consist in obstacles that lead the practitioner away from
286
287 SHOMON ji Kenkyukai (2007:238-248) = Tl579.445b 2r446c 5 = D4036.12las-123b3 •
288 SttOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:250-260) = Tl579.446c6-447c 14 = D4036.123b;-l26a1•
SHOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:262-268) = Tl579.447c 15 -448b 4 = D4036.126ar127a6.
The Yogacarabhtlmi and Its Adaptation 133
performing beneficial actions,. thereby p~eventing him or her fro~ going beyo~d
samsara, particularly by leadmg to rebuth as a youthful god m the celestial
exi.stences within the realm of sensual desire. The activities associated with the~e
are obstacles or distractions that prevent the practitioner from being successful m
his or her discipline and practice, such as difficulties in upholding the v~w. of
celibacy, attachment to sensual pleasure or food, attachment to corr~fort by s1ttmg
or lying down, various kinds of mundane distractions, bad compam?i:is, and self-
conceit developed from receiving veneration from the lay practitioners. The
sravaka needs to be aware of such problems and avoid them. . .
The sixteenth and final segment of the second Y ogasthana contams a bnef ex-
position of an unsuccessful or fruitless effort ( arambho viphalaiJ, f,ngqin faqu
k6ngwu you guo fiiv~~~~~ *' rtsom pa 'bras bu med pa) . . It, is here
explained that there are three things that would_ re~der the renunciant s eff?rt
i
I
unsuccessful. The first is the case of a person with mcomplete [sense] faculties
(indriyani na samudagatam; zhii gen weijiji ~~lt*:flJt,. dbang P_O yang dag par
mi 'grub pa), which seems to refer to a perso? with a physical handicap ~~at would
render the practice impossible. The second 1s the case where th~ prac~~!10ne,r ha~
not received the instructions in due course (navavada anulomikafJ, paoshou bu
suishun f!zBt~~JI~, rjes su mthun pa 'igdams ngag med pa). The third is the case
where the practitioner's meditation is of weak strength (samadhir durbalafJ,
dengchi Ji weilie ~t'lf)Jf;!&~, ting nge 'dzin mthu chung ba). If any of these three
conditions are present, the practitioner's effort will remain fruitless. If the oppo-
sites of these three are all in place, his or her effort will be successful ( saphala, you
gu6 ~ ~, 'bras bu yod pa).
The Third Yogasthana
The third Y ogasthana chapter consists of six major segments, which continue to
present the "The Foundation [Concernin~] Goin~ ~orth" .(Nai~~a°!"!a~hii1!1i). ihe
opening segment290 narrates how the begm?er ( adik~r1:1ika,, ~hu xwye z_he wv~*
~' las dang po pa), who wi~hes to engage m _a beneficial spmtual prac~1ce,, s~o~L'1
begin his or her undertaking by approachmg ( upasaipkramaJJa, wangYJ 116s,
drung du 'gro ba) someone knowledgeable of yoga (yogaj.ia, shanda yziji'a ~~!fij
fllD, mal 'byor shes pa), such as a master ( acarya, guifanshi t'"Lirrnffi, 1:7khan po), a
preceptor ( upadhyaya, qiil Jiaoshi ~JH13z@ffi, slob dpon), or another kmd of worthy
person. Having greeted the teacher with respect, taken a low seat, and assume~ t~~
right bodily posture for making a request, the seeker should request (yacna,
qfngwen ~l'lfFAi, gsol ba) the teacher for instruction in yoga. The tea~~er ~h?uld then
in gentle words explain to the student how important and beneficial it 1s to seek
liberation from samsara and in this manner encourage (harJaJJa, qing !t, gzengs
bstod) him or her. ·Thereupon, the teacher should interview (prcchana, qizi :Jt dri
ba) the student concerning four points, namely whether the student has taken the
Buddhist refuge in the Buddha, Dharma, and sa.Iigha and is not following any non-
Buddhist teacher; whether the student has a proper discipline suitable for up-
289
SHOMONji Kenkyukai (2007:270) = Tl579.448b 4_15 = D4036.l27a6-127b3.
290
Sanskrit text in SHUKLA (1973:351-3584) = Tl579.448b2s-449crn = D4036.127bs-
130a5.
134 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
holding a pure conduct and has developed a proper view; whether the student has
received some degree of general teachings on the four existential facts of the noble
ones as explained in the Buddha's discourses and so forth; and whether the student
has gone forth (i.e., received monastic ordination) with the wish to attain nirviiIJa.
If the student answers in the affirmative to these questions, the teacher should
continue with assessing ( e~a1pI, fang anli 1J'li:fl, brtag pa) the student in terms of
his or her spiritual predisposition, aptitude, and temperament, by asking the
student which vehicles/he aspires to follow, what sort of aptitude s/he has, etc. If
the student cannot answer these questions with clarity, the teacher must try to see
the student's reactions when receiving teachings from the different vehicles to
assess which one of those seems more appealing and suitable to the student and
thereby assess the student's predisposition along with his or her aptitude and
temperament. Once the teacher has assessed the student's ability and qualities, he
then teaches five topics (paiica sthana, wu chu E.f!!i:., gnas Inga po) to the student,
namely (1) how to guard and accumulate the requisites needed for meditation
(samadhisaipbhararak~opacaya, huyang ding ziliang filiilJE'.$i*-i, ting nge 'dzin gyi
tshogs bsrung zhing bsags pa), (2) how to practice in solitary retreat (pravivekya,
yuanlf :ifil/rMt rab tu dben pa), (3) how to achieve one-pointedness of mind ( cittai-
kagrata, xin yij1'ng xing 1L,\-mti, sems rtse gcig pa nyid), ( 4) how to purify the
hindrances ( avara1Jav1suddhi, zhang qingjing ~im~, sgrib pa rnam par sbyong ba),
and (5) how to cultivate meditative observation (manaskarabhavana, xiii zuoyi {~
{t-JJJ, yid la byed pa bsgom pa). The remaining segments of the third Yogasthana
give an exposition of these five topics.
The second segment is a brief discussion of the first topic of the teacher's
instruction, namely how to guard and accumulate the requisites needed for medita-
tion.291 These are the thirteen requisites already presented at the beginning of the
Na1~kramyab1!iimi in the first Y ogasthana, i.e., the restraint of discipline ( sila-
saipvara, Jieliiyf ~1${1, tshul khrims kyi sdom pa), restraint of the senses (indriya-
saipvara, gen liiyf i'.N1$11, dbang po'i sdom pa), knowing the right amount of food
intake ( bhojane mfitrajnata, yzi shf zhiliang ~1it~D.m., zas kyi tshod rig pa nyid),
and so forth.
The third segment presents the practice of solitary retreat (prfivivekya, yuanlf
:ifil., rab tu dben par gnas pa). 292 It is said that there are three aspects to a proper
retreat. The first aspect is the right condition concerning the location (sthana-
sampad, chusu6 yuanman f!!i:.Y,Jr~ijim, gnas phun sum tshogs ga). The right place
may be in the wilderness (arapya, alianruo fwJtf;;s, dgon pa), 93 such as a dwelling
in the open, a cremation ground, or a place at the edge of an inhabitated area. It
can also be at the foot of a tree ( vrk~amiila, Jin shu xia ~T, shing drung) in the
291
SHUKLA (1973:358 4. 20 ) = Tl579.449c1 8 -450a2 = D4036.130a5 -l30b 3.
292
SHUKLA ( 1973:359 1-362 10 ) = Tl579.450ar450b26 = D4036.130b 3-132a3.
293
It should be underlined that the Tibetan word dgon pa also means a "monastery,"
which is how the word dgon pa usually is understood in Tibetan today. However, in such
cases it represents the Sanskrit word vihara. Here, the Sanskrit araJJya and its Chinese
equivalent explicitly mean "wilderness" in the sense of a place away from inhabitated or
cultivated land. For studies of the significance of the wilderness in Buddhist practice, see
NATTIER (2003:89-96) and BOUCHER (2008:40-63). For a background study of the wilder-
ness in pre-Buddhist Indian religion, see SPROCKHOFF (1981; 1984).
The Yogaciirabhumj and Its Adaptation 135
sense of dwelling in a forest, or it can be in a desolate place free of houses (siinya-
gfira, kongxian shi ~M'¥, khyim gyis stong pa), such as a mountain dwelling, a
cave, or a grass hut. The passage elucidates in some detail the right characteristics
of such places, e.g., that it should be pleasant and safe, and be a place from which it
is not too difficult to obtain provisions. The second aspect of going into retreat is
the right condition concerning the meditator's bndily comportment (iryfipatha-
sampad, weiyf yufmman m'Z{liJi~, spyod Jam phun sum tshogs pa), namely that
the practitioner should get up early, start the day with taking a stroll, remain seated
throughout the day, take another stroll in the evening, and should rest lying down
on the right side during the night. When seated, the meditator should sit straight,
focusing the mind without distraction or sleepiness. The third aspect of a retreat is
the right condition concerning the isolation ( vyapakar$asampad, yuanlf yufmman
JililiJi~, dben pa phun sum tshogs pa). Physically, isolation means not to stay
together with other persons, such as lay practitioners or other monks and nuns.
Mentally, it means to rest in meditation without engaging in afflictive or neutral
states of mind. When these three aspects come together, the practitioner has
entered a proper solitary retreat.
The fourth segment concerns the one-pointedness of mind ( cittaikfigratfi, xin
yij1'ng xinf. ,C,\-mtt sems rtse gcig pa nyid), which the meditator aims to
achieve. 29 This segment, which is quite lengthy, begins by defining meditation
(samadhi, sfinmadi - ~t-tg, ting nge 'dzin) as a stream of mind characterized by
continuous irreproachable bliss whose focus is an appropriate object of constant
mindfulness. 295 It may also be defined as a beneficial one-pointedness of mind.
Meditation is here divided into two fundamental aspects, namely tranquility
(samatha, shemata ~!1'Hllii,,zhignas) and meditative insight (vipasyana,pfboshena
feJ$~ffl3, ]hag mthong). Samatha meditation consists of a series of steps called
"the nine aspects of resting the mind" (navakara cittasthitiiJ, jiiizh6ng xinzhu fLW
1L,\{±, sems gnas rnam pa dgu), viz. (1) to make the mind rest internally (adhy-
atmam eva cittaip sthapayati, JJ'ng xin nei zhu -%1L\1791.1., sems nang khonar Jog par
byed pa), (2) to make it rest fully (sa1J1sthfipayati, dengzhu ~{.1., yang dag par Jog
par byed pa), (3) to make it rest deeply (avasthfipayati, anzhu 'li:11., bsdus te !jog
par byed pa), (4) to make it rest closely (upasthapayati, ji'nzhu lli{:t, nye bar Jog
par byed pa), (5) to subdue it ( damayati, tiaoshun imJH!W!, du/ bar byed pa), (6) to
pacify it (samayati,jijing';WJw, zhi bar byed pa), (7) to completely pacify it (vyupa-
samayatJ: zuijf jij1'ng 1&;@;J&jW, nye bar zhi bar byed pa), (8) to make it singular
( ekotikarotJ: zhuanzhu yiqu :Wit-JOO, rgyud gcig tu byed pa), and (9) to meditate
(samadhatte, yi dengchf J.,J,~1~, ting nge 'dzin du byed pa). The text explains each
of these steps, elucidating how the mind becomes increasingly settled and undis-
tracted by thoughts and afflictions. The final stages denote a meditation that is a
completely uninterrupted flow of awareness in which the meditator is able to rest
effortlessly. This segment has been translated in the present article by Sangyeob
, CHA. Next, it is explained how the meditator accomplishes these nine steps by
means of six forces (~a<jvidhabala, Jiu zhong Ji 7\f_ljJ, stabs rnam pa drug), to wit
(1) the force of having learnt [the Dhanna] (srutabala, tingwen Ji ~Mn, thos pa'i
294
SHUKLA (1973:362 11 -398 10) = T1579.450b 27 -457b3 = D4036.l32arl46b3.
295Concerning the interpretation of samadhi as corresponding to the English word
'meditation', see the discussion in ADAM (2002:33-74 ).

136 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
stabs), (2) the force of having understood [the Dharma] ( cintabala, siwei Ji }\!l[i:tJ,
bsam pa 'i stabs), (3) the force of mindfulness ( smrtibala, y1'nian Ji t!~:tJ, dran pa 'i
stabs), (4) the force of watchfulness (saipprajanyabala, zhengzhi Ji IE~U:tJ, shes
bzhin gyi stabs), (5) the force of drive ( viryabala, Jingjin Ji ffl:iigjJ, brtson 'grus kyi
stabs), and (6) the force of complete familiarity (abhyiisabala, chuanxi Ji i$~1J,
yangs su dris pa 'i stabs). Further, the nine aspects of resting the mind are also
?istinguished in terms of the degree of meditative observation that each step
mv?l;es. HereJ:_our kinds of meditative observation ( catvaro manaskariilJ, si zh6ng
~editative observation ( balavahano manaskiiralJ, Jili yimzhuan zuoyi 1J 111~,,w
zuoy1 IZ9fiff:,r~i, yid la byed pa bzhi) are presented, namely (1) a forceful flow of
]t, bsgrims te Jug pa'iyid la byed pa) which is used during the first two stages of
resting the mind; (2) an interrupted flow of meditative observation ( sachidra-
viihano manaskaralJ, youjianque yimzhuan zuoyi ~FsiwR~fi11=,E!,, skabs SU 'chad
~ing Jug pa'iyid la byed pa) employed during the third to seventh stages; (3) an un-
mterrupted flow of meditative observation ( nischidravahano manaskaralJ, wujian-
que yunzhuan zuoyi ~FaiU!R:~"11=~, skabs su 'chad pa med par Jug pa 'i yid la
byed pa) occuring on the eighth stage; and (4) an effortless flow of meditative
?bserva~n (anabhogavahana manaskaralJ, wu gongyong yimzhuan zuoyi ~J}Jffl
:@"{'l=,E!,, rtsal ba medpar Jugpa1yid la byedpa) attained on the final stage.
. . Subsequent_ly, vipasyana meditation is explained in terms of four supports for
ms1ght ( caturvidho prajiiadharalJ, si zh6ng hui xing ll!df.l~fi, shes rab kyi dpyad
1:a rnam pa ?zh! po), which the practitioner takes up after having perfected
s~matha med1tat10n. The progression of these four analytical steps are (1) to
discern [phenomena] ( vicinotJ; neng zheng size tcf5IE}~Ji, rnam par 'byed par byed
pa), (2) to fully discern (pravicinotI; zuiji size ii~}~Ji, rab tu rnam par 'byed par
byed pa), (3) to ascertain (parivitarkayati, zhoubian xinsi ml~~'~' yangs su rtog
par byed pa), and (4) to arrive at a profound understanding (parimimamsam
ilf!ad!ate,__zhoubi~n SI~ha mJ~{P]~, rongs SU dpyod par byed pa). Fu;ther,
v1pasyana 1s explamed m terms of what 1s called the three gates and the foci on the
di:isi~n o_f six entitites. The three gates ( triIJi mukhani, san men - Fi, sga gsum) of
v1pasyana are (1) the v1pasyana that only is concerned with the meditative objects
[~it~ou! ~nalyz_!!1g ~1!._ese] ( vipasyana yan nimittamatranucarita, wei sui xiang xing
p1boshena IJi~fE31T m~*ffl3, mtshan ma {Sam gyi Ijes SU zhugs pa 'j ]hag
mthong), (2) the vipasyana concerned with examining [these] (vipasyana parye-
$81Janucarita, suf xfnsi xing piboshena ~~Jls'Jr EBm**ffl3, yangs SU btsal ba 'j Ijes
su zhugs pa), and (3) the one concerned with (examining and) ascertaining [these]
(pratyavek$aJJanucarita, suf si'cha xfng pfb6shena ~fPj~fi fBm*~_ffi3, yangs SU
btsal ba la so sor rtag pa1 Ijes su zhugs pa). 296 The foci on the division of the six
entitites ($acfvastuprabhedalambanam; Jiu shi chabie suoyuan A-$~~UJ5fr~, gzhi
rab tu dbye ba rnam pa drug la dmigs pa) are the various facets under which the
meditator analyzes the meditative object, viz. in terms of its (1) meaning [of its
name] ( artha, yi ~' don), (2) being an [outer or inner] entity ( vastu, shi -$, dngos
296
On the one hand, the Tibetan translation suggests that the third gate should be
called "the one concerned with examining and ascertaining [these]". SHUKLA's edition
(1973:36714) suggests the beginning of the word parye~a- (i.e., "examining") but is then
broken off due to a lacuna at the end of the folio. The Chinese translation, on the other
hand, does not include the word "examining".
r
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 137
po), (3) characterization [~~ a particula_r or general pheno~e~on] (lak$aJJa, xi~ng
;t§, mtshan nyid), (4) [pos1t1vc or negative] value (pak$a, pm m::i, phyogs),_ (?) time
(kala, shf 8~, dus), and (6) logical principles [o~ depcndenc~, fun_ct10n, vahd1o/, a~d
nature] (yukh: Ji f_l, rigs pa). These six categories are exp~amed 1~ great detail w~th
regard to how they are to be applied to the aforement10ned five cont~1:1plative
objects, i.e._, unattractiven~ss, friendliness, caus~lit~9 fnd dependent ansmg, the
differcntiat10n of the constituents, and the breathmg.
The fourth segment ends with an explanation of nine conducive practices of
meditation ( *navavidhalJ suklapak$aSaipgfhitalJ prayogalJ, jiu zh6ng baipin ~u6s~e
jiaxfng :71.JiB ~r:tPfrfflr:1JOfi, dkar po1 phyogs kyis bs~us pa rnam pa dg~), which ai?
the meditator to quickly achieve samiidhi These nme are (1) [choosmg] the sm-
table practice [in accordance with the practitioner's temparament] (anun11:a-
prayogata, xiangying jiaxing t§ff!~Df1, .. :11!hun p:1 ~tyor ba), (~) to practice
repeatedly (a?hyastaprayogat~, ckuanx1pax1n_g ~~PD1!~ g;oms P;l sbf!!r ba),. (3)_
to practice without error ( av1pantafrayofata, wu dao J13!Inf ~1:tU1Jm~, p~ym :1
ma Jog pa1 sbyor ba), (4) to practice without slac_k (as1thilaf!rayofata, bu h~a!1
jiaxfng T-~1JDfi, mi ]hod pa'i sbyor ba), (5) practicmg at the nght time [when 1t 1s
right to employ samatha and when it is right to employ v1pasyana] (kalaprayogatii,
yingshf jiaxfng )!!B~:1JDfi, dus kyi sbyor ba~, (~) practicing with proper ob~e~-~n-~e
[of the characteristics of samatha and v1pasyanii] ( upa!ak$a1;1aprayogata, p~iia?
jiaxfng ~~T:1JDfi, nye bar brtagpaf sbror/b~~~ (?) practi_cmg ~~hout ever_feelmg I~.
is enough (asaiptU${aprayogata, wu yanzu pax1ng ~~JE1JD1!, ~hogv1;!1.~ht:,s pa1
sbyor ba), (8) practicing without diversion ( avid~~raprayogata, bu she e pax1ng ~
t~r!im1Jof=r, mi 'gal ba1 sbyar ba), and (9) pract1cmg perfectly (samyakprayogata,
zhengjiaxing 1E:1JDfi, yang dag pa1 sbyor ba). 298 From among these, the explana-
tion on practicing at the right time includes brief definitions of ~amatha and
vipasyana along with descriptions of their characteristics. The opposites of these
nine obstruct the achievement of samadhi
The fifth segment of the third Y ogasthana describes the purification of 299
hin-
drances (avaraIJavisuddhi, j1'ng zhang @~, sgrib pa rnam par sbyong ba). The
meditator who practices samatha and vipasyana in the proper manner gradually
purifies the mind from hindrances ( avaraJJa, zhang pf, sgrib pa), i.e., factors that
prevent the practitioner from perfecting the meditation. Th~s is accomplished by
(1) recognizing the nature (svabhava, zixI'ng §t±:, nga ba1_1y1d) of th~ hmdranc~s,
(2) knowing the circumstances (nidana, yinyufm lz;I~, gzh1) under which they anse,
(3) realizing the nuisance ( adinava, guohuan ~J!L nyes dmigs) they cause, and (4)
employing the right remedies (pratipak$a, dw'gu t11'El, gnyen po) against them.
Their nature is a state of disturbance ( *paritasana, qieruo 'f:t@~, yangs su gdung
ba), 300 obstruction (nivaraIJa, gaifu !E1', sgrib pa), conceptuality (vitarka, xinsi ~
,~, rnampar rtogpa), and self-admiration (atmasaippragraha, zijii El:$, bdag nyid
297 Cf. the third segment of the second Y ogasthana for the explanation of these five.
The section on friendliness (SHUKLA, 1973:377 10-380 15 ) has been critically edited and
translated by MAITHRIMURTHI (1999:278-281; 296-300).
298 The section on "practicing perfectly" (samyakprayogata) has been edited and trans-
lated by SAKUMA (1990.II: segment E.0-E.8).
299
SHUKLA (1973:398u-405 18 ) = Tl579.457b 3 -458b 22 = D4036.146brl49az.
300
For the Sanskrit emendation, see DELEANU (2006:28 fn.36).
 138 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
rab tu 'dzin pa). Each of these facets is broken down into specific circumstances
under which it arises, which is followed by explanations on how to remedy these.
The sixth and final segment of the third Yogasthana chapter is an extensive
presentation of the cultivation of meditative observation (manaskarabhiivana, xiu
zuoyi 113- t--,G,, Y1"di.a b,yed pa bsgom pa). 301 To cultivate
' 'ii-:kfk::DO •
the practice, the meditator
progresses through a series of four types of meditative observation. The initial step
is called the observation that toughens the mind ( cittasantapano manaskarah,
tiaolian xin zuoyi i~fJIUA"f,8 ,, sems kun du gdung bar 'gyur ba'i yid la byed pa),
through which the practitioner becomes disenchanted with sa1psara. Next, the
practitioner engages in the observation that moistens the mind ( cittabhifyandano
manaskaral;i, zfrim xin zuoyi i~f1l1 lA'F ,8 ,, sems mngon par brlan par 'gyur ba 'i yid
la byed pa) by engendering inspiration for practicing through recollecting the
qualities of the three jewels and so forth. Thirdly, s/he employs the observation that
produces inner comfort, relaxation, and ease (prasrabdhjjanako manaskaral;i,
sheng qingan zuoyi ±.f~3ef"f,8 ,, shin tu sbyang pa skyed pa'i yid la byed pa) by
letting the mind rest inwardly in samatha and vipasyana meditation. 302 Finally, the
meditator reaches the observation that perfects knowledge and the view (jiiana-
darsanavisodhano manaskiiraiJ, Jing zhi Jian zuoyi i,9& J! f"f ,8 ,, ye shes dang
Il}thong ba rnam par sbyong ba 'iyia la byed pa) by first perfecting the practice of
samatha and thereupon repeatedly penetrating into the nature of phenomena with
the insight of vipasyana. The segment then explains in great detail how these four
stages of practice should be applied by practitioners who rely on one of the five foci
for purifying the various temperaments, i.e., the meditations on unattractiveness,
friendliness, causality and dependent arising, the six constituents, or awareness on
the breathing. The explanation ends by teaching the signs by which the practitioner
can recognize that s/he has successfully practiced these meditative observations.
The mind has become one-pointed, gentle, and peaceful, and the various types of
negative temperaments no longer arise in the circumstances where they typically
would be felt. The mind rests inwardly and the pracitioner has attained bodily and
mental ease in the meditation.
The Fourth Yogasthana
The opening passage 303 of the fourth Y ogasthana chapter explains that the yogi
who has progressed through these four steps of meditative observation is next
faced ~ith a choice between two possible paths (gat1; qu ,00, bgrodpar bya ba): s/he
must either proceed through the mundane or the supramundane path. Once this
choice has been made, the meditator should apply him- or herself wholeheartedly
to the chosen practice day and night. The remainder of the fourth Yogasthana is
devoted to presenting the principles of these two higher modes of practice.
The ~egment o? the mundane path (laukikaiJ margaiJ, shi;ian dao i:!tFfct~m, Jig
rten pa'l Jam), which only leads to the highest meditative level within samsara
begins by enumerating the types of practitioners who are limited t~ thi~
301 S (
HUKIA 1973:4051r43421) = Tl579.458bn-465a 19 = D4036.149ar164a2.
:~: This point has been edited and translated by SAKUMA (1990.II: segment F.3).
Sanskrit text in DELEANU (2006:317) = T1579.465b4-14 (DELEANU, 2006:411-412)
D4036.164a2-s (DELEANU, 2006:359-360). English translation in DELEANU (2006:446).
The Yogiiciirabhumi and Its Adaptation 139
approach. 304 These include all non-Buddhist meditators [such as Jainas and
Hindus], those of weak aptitude who have previously practiced samatha meditation,
those of keen aptitude whose inner positive states have not yet fully matured, and
bodhisattvas striving towards achieving full Awakening [in the distant future] and
not [striving for liberation] in the present life. In other words, they include those
who are intent upon achieving detachment from sensual pleasures but who are still
fully or partially bound to this world.
The second part of the segment on the mundane path presents seven types of
meditative observation (sapta manaskaralJ, qi zuoyi -t;11f~, yid la byed pa mam
pa bdun) that lead to the attainment of detachment from sensual ~leasures
(kamavairagya, Ji yujie yu /iiti'XW-ti'X, 'clod pa'i 'clod chags dang bral ba). 3 5 (1) The
first type is the meditative observation comprehending characteristics (lakfa1Ja-
pratisa1pvedi manaskaraiJ, liiio xiang zuoyi 7t§11f,8 ,, mtshan nyM so sor rig pa'i
yid la byed pa). Here the meditator, relying on study and understanding, observes
the coarseness of the [human] realm of sensual desire, analyzing it in terms of its
meaning, its [outer and inner] entity, its particular and general characteristics, its
negative value, the time when it is present, and the reasonings [for its dependency,
function, validity, and nature]. Having thus understood the coarseness of the realm
of sensual desire, the meditator understands that the first degree of meditative
absorption is profoundly serene and free from such flaws of coarseness. (2) The
second type is the meditative observation leading to ascertainment ( adhimokfiko
manaskaraiJ, shengjie zuoyi ~~~M"f ~, mos pa las byung ba 'i yid la byed pa),
meaning that the practitioner after listening to and understanding these explana-
tions contemplates their meaning in meditation repeatedly, thereby becoming
personally convinced of them. (3) With zealous practice, the afflictions of the
realm of sensual desire are subdued and the practitioner reaches the third level of
meditative observation wherein the mind retreats [from the realm of sensual desire]
( *pravivekyo manaskaraiJ, yuanli zuoyi ~/ii11f, 8 ,, rab tu dben pa'i yid la byed pa).
(4) Due to having abandoned the afflictions, a sense of joy and pleasure is felt, and
to overcome torpor, drowsiness, and agitation the meditator time and again brings
forth this joy. This is the fourth type of meditative observation which takes hold of
delight (ratisa1pgrahako manaskaraiJ, she le zuoyi 11-~11~, dga' ba sdud pa 'i yid
la byed pa). (5) To check the mind, the meditator next consciously concentrates on
images that under normal circumstances would stir desire, and since desire for
sensual pleasure has still not been fully overcome, a slight desire is felt, which in
turn spurs the meditator to practice even more. This is the fifth type called the
probing meditative observation (mima1psamanaskara, guancha zuoyi ~~1'F~,
dpyod pa 'i yid la byed pa). (6) With further practice of samatha and vipasyana, the
sense of joy in having abandoned the afflictions grows ever vaster and the medita-
tor's mind is temporarily freed from all afflictions pertaining to the realm of
sensual desire. The seeds for these afflictions to arise again, however, remain latent,
for which reason the mundane path does not lead the practitioner to a permanent
304 DELEANU (2006:317-318) = Tl579.465b14-27 (DELEANU, 2006:412-413) = D4036.
164a5-l64b2 (DELEANU, 2006:360). English translation in DELEANU (2006:446-447).
305 DELEANU (2006:318-330) = T1579.465b28-467b21 (DELEANU, 2006:413-424)
= D4036.164bz-169a2 (DELEANU, 2006:360-375). English translation in DELEANU (2006:447-
453).

140 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
liberation from saipsara. This stage is the end of the preparatory practice for
attaining the first degree of meditative absorption and it is called the meditative
observation of the culmination of the practice (prayogamj{ho manaskaralJ, jiaxfng
jitlj}ng zuoyi 1JOfi3tJt11~:, sbyor ba mthar thug pa 'i yid la byed pa). (7) The
practitioner then actually achieves the first degree of absorption, which is the
seventh and last type called the meditative observation whose fruit is the culmina-
tion of the practice (prayogani~{haphalo manaskaralJ, jiaxfng jitljing gu6 zuoyi 1JD
fi~JtJHt~:, sbyor ba mthar thug pa'i 'bras bu yid la byed pa). Later on, the
practitioner who has attained the first degree of absorption will rely on the same
technique of these seven observations, contemplating the coarseness of the first
degree of absorption and the serenity of the second degree, in order to progress to
ever higher degrees of absorption as well as to the four domains of absorption,
until finally reaching the very peak of cyclic existence.
The third part of the segment on the mundane path is an exegetical passage
that explains a series of words used to characterize the four degrees and the four
domains of absorption in the Buddhist scriptures. 306 To summarize these descrip-
tions in brief paraphrase, the first absorption is said to be withdrawn from sensual
pleasure, withdrawn from bad and unwholesome states, entail discernment and
discursiveness, and involve joy and pleasure born from withdrawing. The second
absorption is described as being without discernment and discursiveness, and
involving joy and pleasure born of meditation. The third absorption entails
dwelling in equanimity with mindfulness and awareness in that the meditator has
become detached from joy. The fourth absorption transcends both pleasure and
pain and is pure with regard to equanimity and mindfulness. The first domain of
incorporeal absorption is said to fully transcend all notions of form. It involves no
notion of obstruction or variety and is therefore called the domain of infinite space.
The second domain of incorporal absorption transcends the notion of infinite
space and instead gives rise to a notion of infinite consciousness. The third domain
of incorporeal absorption transcends the notion of infinite consciousness and
instead gives rise to a notion of infinite nothingness. Finally, in the fourth domain
of incorporal absorption the meditator is said to enter a state that can neither be
characterized as a notion nor a non-notion and hence it is called neither ideation
nor non-ideation. The text shortly explains each of these characteristics. The
passage ends by mentioning the signs for having accomplished these advanced
levels of meditation, namely that someone who has attained the four degrees of
absorption feels as if the body is sinking into the ground, while someone who has
attained the four domains of incorporeal absorption feels as if the body is floating
up into the air:
The fourth part of the segment on the mundane path presents two forms of
meditative attainment free of mentation (acittika samanatti r , wuxin dinuo f!IE,r"u /;'c'
11\\
DELEANU 2006:330-342) = T1579.467b2r469a3 (DELEANU, 2006:424-435) =
306 ( 173b4-l 74as (DELEANU, 2006:395-397). English translation in DELEANU (2006:460-461 ).
D4036.169arl 73b4 (DELEANU, 2006:376-395). English translation in DELEANU (2006:453-
460). For information on the four degrees of meditative absorption ( dhyana) and the four
domains of absorption (ayatana), see DAYAL (1932:221-236), LAMOTTE (1949:1023-1057;
1970:1233-1238, 1274-1279), COUSIN (1973), and VETTER (1988).
r
The Yogficarabhumi and Its Adaptation 141
sems med pa'i snyoms par Jug pa). 307 These are (1) the meditative attainment of
non-ideation ( asaipj.iisamapatti, wzixiang d1'ng ~1j5E, 'du shes med pa 'i snyoms
par Jug pa) and (2) the meditative attainment of cessatio~ (n_kodha~amapatti,
miejin ding 1~~!£, 'gag pa 'i snyoms par Jug pa). The meditative attamment of
non-ideation, on the one hand, may be attained by the practitioner who has
reached the fourth domain of incorporeal absorption. Becoming fed up with
cultivating various abstract ideas or notions in the meditation, the meditator finally
withdraws the mind from all forms of ideation ( saipj.ia, xiang fj, 'du shes), thereby
gradually terminating all factors pertaining to the mind and the mental states.
However, the meditator will remain within a sarpsaric state and his or her suppres-
sion of the mind is temporary. The meditative attainment of cessation, on the ~ther
hand, is also pursued by the practitioner who has reached the fourth domam_ of
incorporeal absorption, but it requires that the practitioner is already a noble bemg
(aiya, shengzhe ~:ti, 'phags pa) who has reached a le~el of fruition on the sriivaka
path (i.e., a stream-enterer, a once-returner, ~tc.). Di:iven _to pro~ress even further
than the fourth domain of incorporal absorption, the meditator fmds no new focus
( alambana, suoyuan pfr~&, dmigs pa) !or the m~ditation, and being with?~t an
object the mind and the mental functions termmate for as long as the sravaka
remains within the meditative attainment of cessation.
The fifth part of the segment on the mundane path speaks about the attain-
ment of five types of extrasensory knowledge (pa.icabhij.iii, wzJ shentong lit$:im,
mngon par shes pa lnga). 308 The practitioner who has attained a pure level. of
meditation may direct his or her attention on a discourse of the Buddha dealmg
with ( 1) the range of the miraculous signs of accomplishment ~r<;k!hivi!jaya, ~h~n-
ji'ng t$~, rdzu 'phrul gyi yul), (2) the recollection of former hves, (3) th~ di:~ne
ear, (4) knowledge of the deaths and rebirths of all sentient beings, or (5) mtmt1ve
knowledge of the thoughts of others. The practitioner who has achieved a pure
meditation will truly grasp the meaning of such teachings and by repeatedly
conditioning the mind by means of twelve notions, the above-listed five types of
extrasensory knowledge will gradually arise. The twelve 'notions' (saipj1!__a, xiiing fj,
'du shes) are (1) the notion of lightness (laghusaipjna, qingjii xiang li1~~1j, yang
lifted up by a whirlwind; (2) the notion of softness (mrdusaipj.ia, r6uruan xiang *
ba 'i 'du shes) where the yogi experiences the body being as light as a tuft of cotton
lXfj, Jam pa 'i 'du shes) where the yogi feels that the body is extremely soft; (3) the
notion of the element of space (akasadhatusaipjna, kongjie xiang ~Wrj, nam
mkha 'i khams kyi 'du shes) where the yogi feels as if physical matter offers no
obstruction and can be penetrated like space; ( 4) the notion of the body-mind
connection (kayacittasamavadhiina, shen-xin fushim xiiing Jr{/{4Hl~fj, sems dang
Jus 'phrad pa 'i 'du shes) where the yogi feels that the mind is connected to the body
_AL_.,
and the body is connected to the mind causing the body to feel lighter, softer,
brighter, more malleable, and more obedient to the mind; and (5) the notion of
307 DELEANU (2006:342-344) = Tl579.469a4_24 (DELEANU, 2006:435-437) = D4036.
308 DELEANU (2006:344-352) = T1579.469a2s-470b3 (DELEANU, 2006:437-443) =
D4036.l 74a5-l 76b7 (DELEANU, 2006:397-407). English translation in DELEANU (2006:461-
465). On the five types of extrasensory knowledge, see further DAYAL (1932:106-134) and
LAMOTTE (1976:1809-1827).
142 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
ascertainment ( adhimuktisaipJiiii, shengjie XIang /mffif!l!, mos pa 'i 'du shes) where
the yogi thinks that what is remote is near and what is near is remote, what is subtle
is coarse and what is coarse is subtle, that the earth element is the water element
and the water element is the earth element, and so forth with all the other elements,
which in turn gives rise to an ability to conjure up magical creations. Through these
five notions, the practitioner gains the ability to perform physical miracles, such as
multiplying the body, passing through walls, walking on water, levitating, and
stroking the sun and the moon with his or her hands. The list then continues with a
series of notions more concerned with heightened perception, memory, and
knowledge: ( 6) the notion of remembering the entire sequence of activities pre-
viously experienced (pilrviinubhiltacaryiinukramiinusmrtisaipJiiii, xiiin suoshou xing
cidi sufnian XIang n:Pfrs'tfi~ffi~~t~, sngon spyad pa nyams su myong ba 'i go
rims rjes su dran pa 'i 'du shes) being an experience of clearly recalling each and
every action done in this life, which in turn leads to the memory of previous lives;
(7) the notion of [perceiving] sounds as a totality of distinct types (niiniiprakiira-
sabdasaipnipiitanirgho~asaipJiiii, zhong zhong pfnleijfhui yinsheng xiang f.lf.1£~
~lts§J~, rnam pa sna tshogs 'dus pa'i sgra skad kyi 'du shes) where the yogi
gradually becomes able to perceive all sounds distinctly, which in tum leads to
being able to hear any sound no matter how remote; (8) the notion of a meditative
image of an appearance of light ( avabhiisarilpanimittasaipJiiii, guiingmfng se XIang
xiang :Yt;E)l~J§!Jl,, snang ba 'i gzugs kyi mtshan ma 'i 'du shes) where the yogi
visualizes a light radiating out and illuminating all worlds, through which the
meditator comes to perceive each and every sentient being and their actions in all
worlds, and thereby comes to know the deaths and rebirths of all sentient beings; (9)
the notion of the distinct physical appearances caused by [the various] afflictions
(klesalqtarilpavikiirasaipJiiii, fannao su6zuo se bianyi XJang tl'l'ipfr{1f5~J~J~,
nyon mongs pas byas pa 'i gzugs rnam par 'gyur ba 'i 'du shes) where the yogi
becomes able to discern the particular ways in which the various primary and
secondary afflictions give rise to facial and other bodily expressions such as the
tone of voice and so forth, whereby the yogi becomes able to know the thoughts of
others as they really are; (10) the notion of the [eight] .liberations ( vimok~asaipJiiii,
Jietu6 xiang ffif)ffi:t~, rnam par thar pa'i 'du shes), (11) the notion of the [eight]
domains of mastery ( abhibhviiyatanasaipJiiii, sheng chu xiang /m~!Jl,, zil gyis gnon
pa'i skye mched kyi 'du shes), and (12) the notion of the [ten] domains of entirety
(JqtsniiyatanasaipJiiii, bian chu xiang ~~1~, zad par gyiskyed mched kyi 'du shes).
Through the last three notions, the yogi develops the ability to know the teachings
precisely in their entirety. The passage on these powers ends by stating that mi-
racles performed by a noble being (iirya, shengzhe ~~, 'phags pa) changes things
in reality, whereas miracles performed by non-liberated persons only appear to
transform things in a deceptive manner, like in a magic show.
The sixth part of the segment on the mundane path concerns rebirth in the
realm of non-sensual corporeality (rilpadhiitu, sejie 53'r-, gzugs kyi khams) and the
realm of incorporeality ( iirilpyadhiitu, wuseJie ~5:W-, gzugs med pa 'i khams) as a
result of having practiced the meditative absorptions of the mundane path. 309
Practitioners who have accomplished the four degrees of meditative absorptions
309
DELEANU (2006:352-354) = T1579.470b4-2t (DELEANU, 2006:443-444) = D4036.
176brl 77a6 (DELEANU, 2006:407-409). English translation in DELEANU (2006:465-466).
The Yogacarabhtlmi and Its Adaptation 143
will be reborn in the realm of non-sensual corporeality. Each of the four absorp-
tions is divided into three sublevels depending on the strength of the practice,
thereby giving a total of twelve celestial realms in which the practitioner may be
reborn. The celestial levels corresponding to the first absorption are called (1)
Brahma's retinue gods ( brahmakiiyikii devii};l, fanzhong tiiin Jt~:;R, tshangs rigs
kyi ]ha), (2) Brahman's head-priest/minister gods ( brahmapurohitii devii};l, fan fii
tian Jtm::R, tshangs pa'i mdun na 'don gyi lha), and (3) the great Brahman gods
(mahabrahmaJJaiJ devii};l, da fan tian -Jc.Jt:;R, ~shangs chen gyi lha). Th~ celestial
levels corresponding to the second absorpt10n are (4) the small hght gods
(parittabha devafl, shao guiing tian j;':Yt;:;R, 'ad chung gi lha), (5) the boundless
light gods ( apramiiJJabha devalJ, wuliang guang tian ~£:YtT, tshad med 'ad kyi
Jha), and ( 6) the luminous gods ( abhiisvara devii};l, Ji guiing tian t_iii:Yt1J:;R, 'ad gsal
gyi ]ha). The celestial levels corresponding to the third absorption are (7) the small
splendor gods (parittasubha deva};l, shao Jing tian :P~:;R, dge chung gi lha), (8) the
boundless splendor gods (aprama.JJasubha deva};l, wuliangJ1'ng tian ~£~T, tshad
med dge'i Jha), and (9) the complete splendor gods (subhalqtsna deva};l, bian Jing
tian ~1f::R, dge rgyas kyi lha). The celestial levels corresponding to the fourth
absorption are (10) the unclouded gods (anabhraka deva};l, wuyun tian ~~:;R,
sprin med kyi Jha), (11) the merit-generated gods (puJJyaprasava deva};l, fti sheng
tian fi:±.T, bsod nams skyes kyi ]ha), and (12) the abundant reward gods
( brhatphala devii};l, guang guo tian !Ji*::R, 'bras bu che ba 'i lha). The fractitioner
who has accomplished the four meditative absorptions of the realm of mcorporea-
lity is reborn as a specific god corresponding respectively to one or the other of the
four levels called infinite space, infinite consciousness, infinite nothingness, or
neither ideation nor non-ideation. These levels have no subdivisions. The practi-
tioner who has attained the meditative attainment of non-ideation is reborn as a
non-ideation god.
Finally, the seventh and last part of the segment on the mundane path prese~s
the characteristics of persons who have achieved detachment ( vitariiga, lfyu zhe ~
~X~, chags dang bra] ba). 310 The passage lists a variety of qualities, such as having
calm body movements, staying for an extended time in [the meditation] posture
without weariness, being soft and quiet spoken, not delighting in crowds or com-
pany, and being completely without passion toward any sensory perception. S/he is
fearless, has profound understanding, is at ease in body and mind, is without
cravings, is never agitated, and is always patient.
Having thus laid out the mundane path, the fourth Y ogasthana finally turns to
presenting the supramundane path (lokottara};l miirga};l, chilshJ dao tfj-f!t~, Jig
rten las 'das pa'i Jam). The supramundane path leads to liberation from saipsara in
the form of arhathood. It relies on the same set of seven types of meditative
observation (sapta manaskarii};l, qi zhong zuoyi tf.1{1f~, yid la byed pa rnam pa
bdun) that were presented in the second part of the segment on the mundane path,
but here the seven observations take on new meanings, since the supramundane
path is not concerned with the levels of samatha practice of the two higher realms
but rather with meditation on the four existential facts of the noble ones.
310
DELEANU (2006:354) = T1579.470b2z-470c4 (DELEANU, 2006:444) = D4036.l 77a6-
177b4 (DELEANU, 2006:410). English translation in DELEANU (2006:466).
 144 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
In terms of the first type, namely the meditative observation comprehending
characteristics (lak~aIJapratisaipvedi manaskaralJ, liiio xiang zuoyi T f§ft=it
mtshan nyid so sor rig pa 'i yid la byed pa), the mectitator should understand the
four characteristics of each of the four existential facts thereby giving a total of
311
sixteen characteristics. The four characteristics of the ~xistential fact of suffering
( du!Jkhasatyasya lak~aIJam, kif di XIang *~if§, sdug bsngal gyi mtshan nyid) are
impermanence ( anityakaral_. wzichang xing ~~fi, Ini rtag pa 'i rnam pa), suffering
(du!Jkhakara, kif xing ~h, sdug bsngal ba'i rnaIQ pa), emptiness ( *sunyakara,
f sf
qng xing ~13, ?ng pa 'i rnam pa), and selfless~es~ ( anatmakara, wziwo xing ~ix;
TT, bdag med pa 1 rnam pa). The four charactenstics of the existential fact of the
origin of suffering ( *samudayasatyasya lak~aIJam, ff di XIang Jrn/H§, kun 'byung
ba'i mtshan nyid) are cause (hetu, yin xing lzgfi,, rgyu'i rnam pa), origination
(~amudaya,jixing$_fi, kun 'byungba'irnampa), P:toduction (prabhava, qixingMJ
h, rab tu skye ba'i rnam pa), and condition (pratyaya, yuan xing *lfi, rkyen gyi
rnam pa). The characteristics of the existential fact of the end of suffering
(ni-!'odhasaty_~sy~ la1!~~izam, mie d_i xiang 1}i~f§, 'g-0 g pa 'i rnam pa) are cessation
(mrodha, m1e XIng{~fT, 'gag pa'! rnam pa), peace (santa, j1'ng xing@fi, zhi ba'i
rnam pa), excellence (praIJita, miao xingfrrJ;fi, gya .nom pa'i rnam pa), and getting
away [fro?-1.suffering] (n!fJsar~IJa, Ji xinglfffi, nges par 'byung ba'i rnam pa). The
charactenstics of the existential fact of the path ta the end of suffering (marga-
saty_asya l~k~aqam_~ 1~o di xian_g ~ITT(iif§, lam gyi m ~shan nyid) are being the path
(marga, daoXIngj~:fT, lamgy1 rnampa), the method (nyaya, nixingYDfi, rigs pa'i
rnam pa), the practice (pratipatt1; xing xing fifi, .sgrub pa'i rnam pa), and what
leads out [of suffering] (naiiyaIJika, chu xing tefr .. nges par 'byin pa'!' rnam pa).
The segment presents each of these characteristics ill. full detail.
The remaining forms of meditative observation are ex-plained in somewhat
312
lesser detail. Relying on the meditative observation leading to ascertainment
(adh1mok~1ko manaskaralJ, shengjii zuoyi !mWH"F~, mos pa fas byung ba'l'yid la
byed pa), the practitioner listens to teachings on tb._ese sixteen characteristics and
understands them in such a manner that their mect.ning is fully ascertained. This
prod_uc~s a clear i_nn~r experience that leads to t:he attainment of the highest
medita;~ve state_ withm saip~ara (Jaukil~o 'g~adharI71alJ, sh} diyi fa tttffi-i:!, 'jig
rten pa 1 chos kyi mchog). With an ensumg direct realization of the four existential
facts, t~e pr~ctitioner overcomes the afflictions that are to be eliminated by seeing
[the exis~ential facts], ?ecomes a stream-enterer, anrj thereby enters the meditative
~bse~t10n of retreatmg [from saipsara] (praviveky-0 manaskarah, yuanli zuoyi ~
lff{"F~, rab tu dben pa'i yid la byed pa). This m~ment marks ·the practitioner's
transcendence of saipsara, which is what makes the :present approach a supramun-
dane path. After the first moment of direct realiza -.::ion, the practitioner strives to
progress onto the higher levels of fruition throug~ eliminating ever more subtle
aspects of the afflictions based on reapplication of t::he attained realization. This is
referred to as the probing meditative observation ( mimaipsamanaskfira, gufincha
311Sans knt
. text m
. SHUKLA ( 1973:470u-49514) = T::J.579.470c -475a = D4036.l77b -
4 5 4
188b2. Parts of this segment have been edited and transl_ ated by VON ROSP ATT ( 1995 :231-
233, 224f., 225-230, 37, 153,183,220, and 221).
312 s kr' . s
ans It text m HUKLA (1973:495w51011) = T=t579.475a5-477c 1 = D4036.188br
195a6. The final part of the segment has been edited by SC::HMITHAUSEN (1982b).
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 145
zuoyi ~!H'f ,~:, dpyod pa 'iy1d la byed pa), which belongs to the pat~ o~ cultivat~on.
The practitioner comes to fully understand the nature of the affhct1ons, seemg
them as infestations, and thereby progresses through the levels of the path of
cultivation in a manner that is not unlike how the practitioner following the
mundane path sees the lower level to be given up as being coarse and the upper
level to be achieved as being serene. This involves disenchantment as well as
delight, and it is th~refore referred to a~ the m~di,tati~e ,o~s~rvation whi ch takes
hold of delight (ratJsaipgrahako manaskaral;, she le zuoy1 11r~1'F,'t's,, dga ba sdud
1
. di.a b~e d pa.
pa'lyi ) 313 .·
Eventually, the tremendous effort leads to the attainment of the ultimate form
of meditation, a penetrating, indestructible samadhi called the diamond-like
meditation ( vajropamafJ samfidhi, yimi jingfing sfinmadi Of,JYD:ili:!liffiJ~r:lJj:-fu, rdo Ije
Jta bu'!· ting nge 'dzin). This meditation eliminates the remaining sediments or
seeds of the afflictions and constitutes the meditative observation of the culmina-
tion of the practice (prayogani~fho manaskaralJ, jiaxing jiiiji'ng zuoyi ;/JO:ff ~~1'F
~' sbyor ba mthar thug pa 'i yid la byed pa). The ensuing result is the attainment of
arhathood, which is the seventh and final form of meditative observation called the
meditative observation whose fruit is the culmination of the practice (prayoga-
ni~fhaphalo manaskfiralJ, jiaxing jiujing gu~ zuoyi ;/JO:ffj'c~~{J::1c,, sbyor ba
mthar thug pa 'I' 'bras bu y1d la byed pa). Havmg thus led the practit10ner to com-
plete liberation from saipsfira, the ultimate goal for the srfivaka practitioner, the
supramundane path is complete.
The present volume does not contain any article that is/ exclusively focused on the
Sravakabhum1: However, given the prominence of the Sravakabhrlmibook, several
contributions in the present volume refer to it. Hidenori SAKUMA's article com-
pares the notions of fisrayaparivrtti found in the Bodhisattvabhiimi with those in
the Srfivakabhumi Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN refers to a number of occurrences of
the terms kusala and akusala in the book. Noritoshi ARA.MAKI discusses the book's
chronology in terms of the YBh's overall compilation history. Martin DELHEY
presents its available editions and translations. Peter SKILLING extracts and
translates a scriptural quotation from the Mayfijfilasiltra occurring in the book.
Yasunori SUGAWARA and Alexendar VON ROSPATT demonstrate that there exists
a number of parallel passages that are shared by the Sravakabhilmi and the
Bhavanfimayi BhiimilJ. Florin DELEANU examines the m~ditative system of the
Bodhisattvabhumi as an ideological link between the Srfivakabhiimi and the
ViniscayasaipgrahaIJi Sungdoo AHN summarizes the process of realization propa-
gated in the book, particularly its model of seven meditative observations. Finally,
Sangyeob CHA translates and explains the book's teaching on the nine aspects of
resting the mind pertaining to samatha meditation.
313
It may be noted that the fourth and fifth types of meditative observation, i.e.,
mimaf!lsamanaskara and ratisalJlgrahako manaskaraiJ, are here explained in the reverse
order of how they were presented above in the context of the segment on the mundane
path.
146 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Basic Section Book Eleven - The Fourteenth Foundation
(14) Pratyekabuddhabhumi
Dujue di (11}Jl::t-fu)
Rang sangs rgyas kyi sa
Following the Sravakabhiimis extensive exposition of the Sravakayana, the brief
Pratyekabuddhabhiimi book, meaning The Foundation [Concerning] the Solitary
Buddha, introduces the second of the three yanas presented in the YBh, namely
the apriroach of the solitary buddha (pratyekabuddha, dujue Jlljl, rang sangs
rgyas). 14 The book has five points: (1) the [pratyekabuddha's] predisposition
(gotra, zhongxing fltt, rigs), (2) path (marga, dao ~' Jam), (3) practice (samud-
agama, xi~' yang dag par 'grub pa), (4) abode (vihara, zhu {±, gnas pa), and (5)
conduct ( caritra, xing fr, rgyu ba). Someone possessing the predisposition of a
pratyekabuddha has previously experienced Awakening and as a consequence has
naturally few afflictions. The pratyekabuddha avoids crowds and takes pleasure in
solitude, exhibits little compassion and is not inclined to teach others, and is of
mediocre aptitude and has a temperament of pride.
Concerning the paths and attainments of pratyekabuddhas, a practitioner so
predisposed comes to learn when a buddha is present in the world, which only
takes place once in every one hundred aeons. Receiving teachings from the buddha,
the pratyekabuddha practitioner matures his or her mind and gains expertise in the
aggregates, the constituents of perception, the perceptual domains, dependent
arising, what does and does not constitute a basis, as well as the existential facts.
Some pratyekabuddha practitioners study these topics with the buddha merely in
order to achieve Awakening by themselves (pratyekabodhi, dujue puti Jlfjl~}J!,
rang byang chub) in the future. Other pratyekabuddha practitioners are able to
attain the higher levels of the preparatory path during their training, but are unable
to gain thorough comprehension ( abhisamaya, xianguan fj!ft, mngon par rtogs pa)
of the nature of phenomena, which they consequently have to attain by themselves
in future lives. The remaining pratyekabuddha practitioners reach thorough
comprehension resulting in a level of fruition during their training with the buddha
but do not manage to attain full arhathood, which they consequently have to attain
by themselves later on. The first type of practitioner, who puts off all attainment to
the future, is compared to the single horn of a rhinoceros (kha(jgavi~aJJakalpa,
linjiao yu M~UfrJ, bse ru ltar spyodpa) in that his or her abode is always in solitude,
living alone. The two other types of practitioners, who have achieved some form of
attainment during their training, are called "solitary victorious ones" (pratyekajina,
buxing yu -tfBfrUJW, rang rgyal ba). They may prefer to live in solitude or within a
group [constiting of other practitioners]. The conduct of a pratyekabuddha is to
live near an inhabited area, where alms may be obtained. When the pratyeka-
buddha goes begging for alms, s/he keeps him- or herself controlled and well-
restrained. S/he feels compassion when seeing someone experiencing misfortune,
and shows pity in a bodily manner without giving verbal teachings. In order to turn
those with hostile minds around, s/he might display miracles.
314
Sanskrit text and English translation in YONEZAWA (1998) = T1579.477cr478b 1 =
D4035 .279a5-280bs.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 147
Aside from Martin DELHEY's remarks on available editions and translations, the
present volume does not contain any article that deals directly with the Pratyeka-
buddhabhiimi.
Basic Section Book Twelve - The Fifteenth ~oundation
(15) Bodhisattvabhiimi
Pusa di (~]1,1:t-fu)
Byang chub sems dpa 'i sa
The Bodhisattvabhiimi, meaning The Foundation [Concerning] the Bodhisattva, is
the last of the three books in the Basic Section that deal with the three paths of
specific types of practitioners. This book presents the path of ~he bodhisattva,
whose type of practice belongs to the Mahayana, the Great Vehicle. It therefore
stands in contradistinction to the two preceding books elaborating the practices of
the sravaka and the pratyekabuddha, viz. the Sravakabhiimi and the Pratyeka-
buddhabh iimi With the Bodhisattvabhiimi, the Basic Section's exposition of the
three vehicles ( triyana) thus becomes complete.
The Bodhisattvabhiimi is the longest book in the Basic Section, which perhaps
suggests the general bias of the YBh as a whole toward the M~hayana, at le_a~t i?
terms of the text in its final historical redaction. Like the Sravakabhiim1, 1t 1s
printed in a separate volume in the Tibetan version of the text, and Xuanzang's
Chinese translation spans fifteen fascicles in the Taisho edition. Overall, the book
is divided into three main parts called Yogasthanas (yziqie chu f1frj{JJD~, rnal 'byor
gyi gnas), which may generally be taken as meaning 'sections on yoga'. The third
y ogasthana is followed by a short, additional section entitled the Anukramapafala,
which falls outside the tripartite Y ogasthana division. Each Y ogasthana is further
subdivided into "chapters" (pa/ala, pin 6"o, le'u).
• Y ogasthana I: "the yoga-section concerning the basisp ( adhiirayogasthana,
chiyujia chu :f:~f1frl{JJD~, gzhi'i rnal 'byor gyi gnas)
• Y ogasthana II: "the yoga-section on the subsidiary factors ensuing from the
basis" ( adharanudharmayogasthana, chi sulfa yujia chu t~~i:tJ1frl{!JD~,
gzhi'imthun pa'i chos kyi rnal 'byor gyi gnas)
• Y ogasthana III: "the yoga-section on the culmination of the basis"
( adharani~fhayogasthana, chi ji'iij1'ng yujia chu ~~:Jt:E1frl{!JO~, gzhi'i rnal
'byor gyi gnas tha ma)
• Anukramapafala: "[the chapter on] the sequential structure of the Bodhi-
sattvabhiimi" ( *anukramapafala, pusa di yi cidi ~~till~~~' byang
chub sems dpa 'i sa 'i go rims)
The Bodhisattvabhiimi commences by enumerating ten General Topics ( dasamo
315
dharmaiJ, shi fa +it, chos bcu po) that are covered in the book. The first
General Topic will be presented in the first Yogasthana, the General Topics 2-5
will be treated in the second Y ogasthana, while the General Topics 6-10 will be laid
out in the third Y ogasthana.
315 Sanskrit text in ROTH (1975-1976) = T1579.478b12.11 = D4037.la2.4,
148 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
• General Topic 1: the basis [for being a bodhjsattva] (adhara, chi:}~, gzhj)
• General Topic 2: the characteristics [of a bodhjsattva] (iJnga, XJang,f§,
rtags)
• General Topic 3: the classes [of bodhisattvas] (pak~a, fen fr-,phyogs)
• General Topic 4: the [bodhjsattva's] exalted conviction ( adhyasaya, zeng-
shang yile f1t_t,'GJ~, lhagpa'i bsampa)
• General Topic 5: the sojourns [of a bodhisattva's practice] ( vihara, zhu 1±,
gnaspa)
• General Topic 6: the [bodhisattva's] rebirths ( upapattJ; sheng :±., skye ba)
• General Topic 7: [how the bodhisattva engages in] leading [sentient
beings to perfection] (padgraha, sheshou fflr·j;t, yangs su 'dzjn pa)
• General Topic 8: the levels [of bodhisattvas] (bhiimj, di :1:-ili, sa)
• General Topic 9: the [bodhisattva's] practices ( caiya, xingfi, spyodpa)
• General Topic 10: [the bodhisattva's] ascension [to the result of becoming
a buddha] (pra ti§i/hii, 1ianli ~.:IL, rab tu gnas pa)
I. The First Y ogasthana: Adharayogasthana
The first Yogasthana (I) is entitled 11 the yoga-section concerning the basis"
( adhiirayogasthana, chi yujia chu :}~fifr111JD~, gzhi'i rnal 'byor gyi gnas). It gives an
exposition of the first of the ten General Topics, namely (General Topic 1) the
basis [for being a bodhisattva] (adhara, chi f¥, gzhJ). The 'precondition' or 'basis'
(adhiira, chit~, gzhi) is said to pertain to three general aspects, that is, (A) the
basis of being endowed with a unique [and inborn] predisposition for becoming a
bodhisattva ( bodhisattvasya svagotram, zhii pusa zicheng zhongxing ~~a §1
f.itt, byang chub sems dpa 'i rang gi rigs), (B) the basis of initially engendering the
* le 'u) presents the unique [and inborn] predisposition required of a practitioner in
resolve [to achieve full Awakening] (prathamas cittotpiidaiJ, zuichii fiixin i&f}]~{;\,
dang po sems bskyed pa), and (C) the basis of [practicing] all the factors leading to
Awakening (sarve bodhipakwa dharmiiiJ, yiqie put! fen fa -W~mfr-1t, byang
chub kyj phyogs kyj chos thams cad). From among these, the predisposition is in a
sense the most significant aspect, since it constitutes an indispensable basis for
becoming a bodhisattva without which the two other aspects cannot be successful.
Hence, it is said that someone who lacks this unique predisposition ( agotrastha,
zhu wzi zhongxing f_:tffi€f.itt, rigs la gnas pa ma yin pa) will never [become a
bodhisattva nor] reach full Awakening, even ifs/he would attempt to engender
bodhicitta and attempt to observe the bodhisattva practices.
Following the general introduction, the three aspects of the basis are pre-
sented in the course of the eighteen chapters (1-18) (pafala, pin tfo, le'u) that make
up the first Yogasthana (I). The first aspect, i.e., (A) being endowed with the
unique [and inborn] predisposition for becoming a bodhisattva, is discussed in the
first chapter entitled (1.1) "the chapter on predisposition" (gotrapafala, zhongxing
pin f!lHiJb, rigs kyi le'u). The second aspect (B) of engendering the resolve to
achieve full Awakening is such a large topic in Buddhist Mahayana literature that it
is here presented through no less than fifteen chapters, covering various aspects
pertaining to bodhicitta. These chapters include: (1.2) "the chapter on engendering
the resolve" (cittotpiidapafala, fiixin pin ~,C,\tfo, sems bskyed pa'i le'u), (1.3) 11 the
chapter on the benefit for oneself and others" (svapararthapafala, zitali pin El ftgffj
tfo, bdag dang gzhan gyi don gyi le'u), (1.4) "the chapter on the nature of reality"
( tattviirthapafala, zhenshiyi pin ffif.lf ~tfo, de kho na 'i le 'u), (1.5) "the chapter on
spiritual power" (prabhiivapafala, weili pin OOG1Jrfn, mthu'i le'u), (1.6) 11 the chapter
on development" (panpiikapafa}a, chengshou pin frx1~tfr:i, yangs SU smin pa'i Je'u),
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 149
(1.7) "the chapter on Awakening" (bodhipafala, puti pin #tl!tfr:i, byang chub kyj
Je'u), (1.8) "the chapter on the predisposition of having the [necessary] strength"
(balagotrapafala, Ji zhongxing pin jJfitttfr:i, stabs kyj rjgs kyi le'u), (1.9) "the
11
chapter on gene;osity" (dii1!}P~fal~, shipin;f;ffitfu,. sbyinpa:·1e'u), (1.\0) the chapter
on discipline" (silapafala,pe pm tt\Gtfo, tshul khnms kyi le u), (1.11) the chapter on
endurance" (k~iintipafala, ren pin ?t'Z,r:'f111, bzod pa'i le'u), (1.12) "the chapter on drive"
( vfryapafala, jfngji'n pin fl~rfu, brtson 'grus kyi le'u), (1.13) "the chapter on medi-
tation" (dhyiinapafala,jinglii pin W¥Jfitfo, bsam gtan gyjje'u), (1.14) "the chapter on
insight" (praj.iapafala, hui pin ~tfo, shes rab kyi le'u), (1.15) "the chapter on the
[four] bases for gat?ering [students]': (salJlgrahavastupafala, _she shi pin fflr$tfo,
bsdu ba'i dngos po'I le'u), and (1.16) 'the chapter on venerat10n, servmg, and the
immeasurables 11 (piijasevapramaJJapafala, gongyang qinJi'n wziiJang pin 1~iUJHJiffi€
.mtfr:i, mchod pa dang bsten pa dang tshad med pa'i le'u). Finally, the third g~neral
aspect of the basis for being a bodhisattva, namely (C) all the factors lea~mg to
Awakening, is presented in the first Yogasthana's two final chapters, which are
called (1.17) "the chapter on the factors leading to Awakening" ( bodhipakwapafala,
put! fen pin ~:f1i!7J"@, byang chub phyogs kyi le'u) and (1.18) "the chapter on the
qualities of a bodhisattva" ( bodhisattvagul}apafala, pusa gongde pin -t:_t~JJJtltfn,
byang chub sems dpa 'i yon tan gyi le 'u).
1.1 The Gotrapafala
The (1.1) "chapter on predisposition" (gotrapafala, zhongxi'ng pin f.it1Jb, rigs kyi
316
order to be able to engage in the practice of a bodhi'iattva. The expression
'unique predisposition' (svagotra, zicheng zhongxing ~ *f.itt, rang gi rigs) seems
to imply that the practices and spiritual goal of the sravaka and the pratyeka-
buddha are similar even though their manner of achieving them differs, whereas
the path and goal of the bodhisattva stand fundamentally apart from those.
The chapter begins by elucidating two aspects that characterize the predisposi-
tion of a bodhisattva. First, the bodhisattva's predisposition is established as an
original nature (prakrtisthaip gotram, benxJ'ng zhu zhongxing 4:ti{±f.mtt, rang
bzhin gyis gnas pa 'j rigs), meaning that it is a particular [inborn] trait nestled in the
character of such predisposed persons that has always been present in them as an
inherent quality throughout rebirth after rebirth. Secondly, the Gotrapafala
chapter states that the bodhisattva's predisposition is accomplished ( samudanitalJl
go tram, xfsuocheng zhongxi'ng ~ pfrnxfitt, yang dag par bsgrubs pa 'j rigs) through
repeated cultivation of beneficial qualities. It is added that the word 'predisposi-
tion' (gotra) should be understood as meaning a 'seed' ( bija, zhongzi f.i~, sa ban),
a 'fundamental constitution' ( dhatu, jje ~' khams), or an 'original nature' (prakrtj,
xing'['i, rang bzhjn). It is then explained that the seed must be seen as being latent
and subtle for as long as the bodhisattva-predisposed person has not yet achieved a
result of the bodhisattva path, probably referring to achieving some level of a
316 Sanskrit text in WOGIHARA (1930-1936:3-11) = T1579.478c1r480b22 = D4037.2b3-
7a5. It should be underlined that though the above introductory parts of the Bodhi-
sattvabhumi are here presented as preceding the first chapter, the text contains no clear
demarcation of the place at which the first Yogasthana and the Gotrapafala (I.1) begin; for
this reason the introductory parts could also be seen as being included in the Gotrapafala.

150 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
bodhisattva's realization. When a bodhisattva has reached a result of the bodhi-
sattva path, the seed is no longer latent and must be seen as being manifest.
Next, the text presents the person endowed with the bodhisattva's predisposi-
tion as being vastly superior to sravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and all ordinary sen-
tient beings. A fundamental difference between these types of practitioners is that
sravakas and pratyekabuddhas do away with the afflictive hindrance (ldesavaraIJa,
fannao zhang J;]:['['~~f, nyon mongs pa 'i sgrib pa) but do not remove the cognitive
hindrance U.ieyavaraIJa, su6zhi zhang pfr9(0~f, shes bya'i sgrib pa), whereas bodhi-
sattvas eliminate both types of hindrances. Consequently, the chapter presents
four points on which the bodhisattva surpasses the sravaka and the pratyekabud-
dha. The first point of superiority is that the bodhisattva is naturally of keen
aptitude ( tik~IJendriyalJ, JJ'gen ffJtlt dbang po mo ba), while the pratyekabuddha is
of mediocre aptitude (madhyendriyalJ, zhonggen $flt dbang po 'bring) and the
sravaka is of weak aptitude (mrdvindriyalJ, ruangen ~flt dbang po rtul ba). The
second point of superiority is that the practice (pratjpatti, xing fr, sgmb pa) of a
sravaka or a pratyekabuddha is done for their own benefit ( atma-hitaya), whereas
the practice of a bodhisattva is done not only for the benefit of him- or herself but
also for others ( atmahitayapi parahitaya, yi neng zili yi neng Jita ~FE§ gJ 5ffj~rj§f fj
1-tl!., bdag la yang phan pa dang gzhan la yang phan pa), namely for the benefit and
well-being of all sentient beings. The third point of superiority is that sravakas and
pratyekabuddhas possess expertise (kausalya, shanqiao ~J5, mkhas pa) only in
five topics - namely, in the aggregates, the constituents of perception, the percep-
tual domains, dependent arising, what does and does not constitute a basis, and the
existential facts - while the expertise of a bodhisattva extends to all fields of
knowledge. Finally, the fourth point of superiority is that while sravakas and
pratyekabuddhas achieve the respective results (phala, gu6 *' 'bras bu) of the
lesser types of sravaka or pratyekabuddha Awakening ( bodh1; puti -g.r!, byang
chub), the bodhisattva achieves the unsurpassable perfect and complete Awake-
ning [of a buddha] ( anuttaralJl samyaksaipbodh1; anoudu6lu6 sanmiao sanputi ~
fi~DL=.~ - :gm, bla named pa yang dag par rdzogs pa 'i byang chub).
A person endowed with the predisposition of a bodhisattva exhibits six signs of
this predisposition. These are deep-seated tendencies or fondness for engaging in
the six perfections (paramita, bolu6mi'du6 r~mm~, pha ro/ tu phyin pa), viz.
generosity (dana, shi"Mfi., sbyinpa), discipline (sila,jie mZ, tshul khrims), endurance
(k~anti, ren ?2< bzod pa), drive ( virya, jfngjin ffl;iffi, brtson 'grus), meditation
(dhyana, jinglii pin !Wfll, bsam gtan), and insight (praj.ia, hui rl., shes rab). In
short, a person having the predisposition of a bodhisattva exhibits great care for
others, is adverse to causing harm, never wishes to harm those who have done him
or her wrong, is naturally hardworking and vigorous when it comes to doing
something meaningful and beneficial, is unperturbed in the face of difficulties,
finds joy in practicing in solitude, feels intense compassion for those who suffer,
and has a great capacity for understanding, remembering, and realizing the
Buddhist teachings. These features are explained at some length in the chapter.
Next, the text shows the situation of a person who possesses the bodhisattva
predisposition but does not yet practice the path to buddhahood. It is explained
that such a person might to some extent fall under the sway of the afflictions and
may even occasionally be reborn in the lower realms, but that due to his or her
inherent goodness and compassion the unpleasant experiences s/he endures in
those realms tend to be less severe and longwinded than the sufferings encoun-
tered by other beings. Once s/he has been reborn in a state where it is possible to
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 151
pursue the goal of buddhah.ood, there a~e still four addit.i~nal. condition~ that may
prevent him or her from domg so. The first adverse condition 1s present m the case
when the person does not manage to meet with a buddha or bodhisattva teacher
(kalyal}amitra, shan zhishi ::g~O~l, dge ba'i bshes gnyen) who ~~n impart p.roper
instruction in the path to Awakening. The second adverse condition occurs m the
case when the person meets such a teacher but does not learn the path properly.
The third adverse condition is present if the person meets a teacher and learns the
path, but fails to practice it with sufficient commitment and drive. The fourth
adverse condition pertains to the case when the person meets a teacher, learns the
path, and practices it diligently, but fails to cultivate t~e factors leading to Awake-
ning for a sufficiently long time to reach full Awakenmg. At the end of the above
explanation, the text contrasts the situation of a predisposed person with that of a
person who lacks any form of predisposition [for Awakening] (asati gotre, wu
zh6ngxing biiteqielu6 fmtitttm~{nam, rigs med pa), whether it be lack of a
sravaka, pratyekabuddha, or bodhisattva predisposition. It is declared that
a person lacking any form of predisposition will never be able to reach Awakening.
1.2 The Cittotpadapafala
The (I.2) "chapter on engendering the resolve" ( cittotpadapafala, faxin pin jti[.i'rf1J,
sems bskyed pa'i le'u) presents how a bodhisattva initially forms an intention to
reach full Awakening in order to lead all sentient beings to this exalted and libe-
rated state. 317
First, the bodhisattva's initial engendering of the resolve ( bodhisattvasya_
prathamas cittotpadalJ, pusa zuichu fiixin ~)lji-&1-JJ~il}, byang chub sems dpai
dang po'i sems bskyed pa) is described in terms of five characteristics (pa.ica-
Jaksana, wii zh6ng XJang .E].IJ§, mtshan nyid Inga). (1) Its nature (svabhava, zixing
s '[i.,' ngo bo nyid) is that it is the first and most basic form of aspiration (samyak-
pral)idhana, zhengyuan IE!r$i, yang dag pa 'i smon Jam) in the bodhisattva. (2). Its
expression (akara, xing xiang fit§, mam pa) is that it assumes the form of a wish,
where the bodhisattva formulates his or her intention to reach full Awakening in
order to lead all sentient beings out of suffering by attaining the exalted state of a
buddha. (3) Its foci (alambana, suoyuan pfr~, dmigs pa) are the state of Awake-
ning and all sentient beings. (4) Its quality (gul)a, gongde J}Jft, yon tan) is that it is
positive since it incorporates all factors leading to Awakening. (5) Its distinction
( utkar~a, zuisheng i&OO, khyad par du 'phags pa) consists in being the highest kind
of aspiration, namely one that transcends all mundane as well as supramundane
aspirations.
Second, another characterization of the bodhisattva's initial engendering of the
resolve is provided in the form of four analogies. (1) It is described as constituting
an entry ( avatarasalJlgrhita, quru su6she )00)\_pfrffli, Jug par bsdus pa), because
engendering the resolve is the way to enter the Mahayana. (2) It is compared to a
root (mula, genben t.&7-f, rtsa ba) in the sense that it is like a root for growing the
fruit of full Awakening. (3) It is also compared to an outcome (n~syanda, dengliu
q;1frE, rgyu mthun pa), since it is the outcome of compassion. (4) The final analogy
317 Sanskrit text in WANGCHUK (2007:368-275) = T1579.480b2s-482b29 = D4037.7a6-
12a4 (critical Tibetan edition in W ANGCHUK, 2007:382-389).
152 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
compares it to a foundation (saqmisraya, yizhi {ixll., rten) in that the engendering
of the resolve is the basis for accomplishing benefit for sentient beings as well as for
undergoing the training of a bodhisattva.
Third, it is stated that (1) the resolve may succeed in leading the bodhisattva
out of sa!J1slira (nairyaJJika, y6ngchu 7](t:8, nges par 'byin pa) or (2) may not
succeed in doing so ( anairyaJJika, bu y6ngchu 1( 7J<te, nges par 'byin pa ma yin pa).
In the latter case, the resolve may be lost forever or it may be regenerated at a later
point.
Fourth, the text clarifies the manner in which the resolve is engendered by pre-
senting (A) four outer settings or conditions (pratyaya, yuan~' rkyen), (B) four
internal causes (hetu, yin lz;I, rgyu), and (C) four powers (bala, Ji)], stabs). From
among (A) the four outer settings or conditions, (1) the first possible condition or
outer setting is to see or hear about the miracles and powers exhibited by buddhas
or bodhisattvas and consequently to feel confidence in the qualities of Awakening
and wish to reach this state. (2) The second possible outer setting is to receive
instructions from the collection of bodhisattva teachings ( bodhisattvapitaka, pusa
zang~~jjl, byang chub kyi sde snod), to feel faith therein, and consequently to
engender the resolve. (3) The third possible outer setting is to see how sentient
beings suffer at a time when such teachings are coming to an end in the world and
consequently to engender the resolve to reach Awakening in order to bring these
teachings back into the world for the sake of helping sentient beings. (4) Finally,
the fourth possible outer setting is to see how sentient beings are terribly tor-
mented by intense afflictions during a degenerative age ( kaJayakala, zhu6e sh) 1~
~t!t, snyigs ma'i dus) and consequently to engender the resolve in order to bring
the possibility of Awakening back into the world. (B) The four inner causes that
must be present for the bodhjsattva to engender the resolve in a successful manner
include (1) being endowed with the bodhisattva predisposition, (2) coming under
the care of a spiritual teacher who is a buddha or bodhisattva, (3) feeling compas-
sion toward sentient beings, and ( 4) being undaunted by the many hardships and
sufferings that a bodhisattva has to undergo for a long time in order to reach the
full Awakening. The chapter explains these causes in some detail. ( C) As for the
four powers that boost the engendering of the resolve, (1) the first is the bodhi-
sattva's own power (adhyatmabala, zili §11], nang gi stabs) of wishing to reach
Awakening. (2) The second is the power that the bodhisattva obtains from others
(parabala, tali {-tg1J, gzhan gyi stabs) in his or her wish to reach Awakening. (3)
The third is the causal power (hetubala, yin Ji lz;l1J, rgyu'i stabs) that the bodhi-
sattva derives from the inspiration of meeting buddhas and bodhisattvas, hearing
praises about their qualities, or receiving teachings from them. (4) The fourth is
the power of practice (prayogabala, jiaxfng Ji 1JOfr1J, sbyor ba 'i stabs) that the
bodhisattva gets from relying on a teacher, listening to teachings, and continuously
practicing the bodhisattva training. It is added that a resolve engendered through
the first and third powers becomes firm, whereas a resolve brought about through
the influence of only the second and fourth powers is unstable.
Fifth, the chapter presents four causes that can lead the bodhisattva to give up
the resolve ( cittavyavrttikaraJJa, yinyuan ming li'ng pusa tui put! xin lz;l~~g-%~~
itf~m{}, sems ]dog pa'i rgyu). These include (1) lacking the predisposition of a
bodhisattva, (2) coming under the influence of bad teachers, (3) feeling only little
compassion for sentient beings, and (4) being fearful of the prolonged hardships
and sufferings that a bodhisattva has to undergo.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 153
Sixth, the text states that a bodhisattva who has managed to engender a firm
resolve develops two unusual qualities. (1) The first unusual quality is that the
bodhisattva cares for and protects all sentient beings as if they were his own wife or
close relatives (ka(jatra, juanshii ~~' chung ma). (2) The second unusual quality
is that the bodhisattva does not become stained by negative emotions when viewing
others as being his own wife or close relatives. This involves a good intention of
wanting to benefit sentient beings and to lead them to happiness and security.
Seventh, the text, moreover, explains that a bodhisattva having a firm resolve
engages in two practices (prayoga,j1axfng;/JDfr, sbyor ba). The first practice is daily
to cultivate the intention to benefit sentient beings and lead them to happiness.
The second practice is daily to do whatever actually can be done to accomplish this
goal. In this way, the bodhisattva builds up a practice that increasingly matures
him- or herself and brings benefit to others. Thus, the cause of the bodhisattva's
practice, which is the resolve for Awakening, and its result, which is full Awakening,
surpass the aspirations, practices, and fruits attained by the sravakas and pratyeka-
buddhas. The benefit of having engendered such a resolve is that the bodhisattva
instantly becomes someone worthy of others' admiration. Moreover, the bodhi-
sattva's resolve becomes a cause of great strength and perseverance, for example
enabling the bodhisattva to need little sleep, and protects the bodhisattva and
others against outer and inner harm. If the bodhisattva occasionally is reborn in a
hell realm, the protective force of the resolve will shield the bodhisattva, causing
the suffering experienced there to be less intense and of shorter duration. In such a
case, the bodhisattva uses the painful experience to foster weariness with saipsara
and to increase compassion for sentient beings.
1.3 The Svapararthapafala
The first Yogasthana, which is devoted to explain the first of the ten General
Topics, namely General Topic 1 "the basis [for being a bodhisattva]," has up till
now finished presenting the first of the three aspects of the basis, viz. (A) being
endowed with the unique [and inborn] predisposition for becoming a bodhisattva
(chapter I.1 ), and has begun on the very extensive explanation on the second
aspect, (B) engendering the resolve to achieve full Awakening (chapters 1.2-1.16).
The previous chapter 1.2 explained how the resolve to achieve full Awakening is
initially engendered. Starting with the present chapter, i.e., chapter 1.3 called "the
chapter on the benefit for oneself and others" (svapararthapa/ala, zitali pin El {-tg5ffj
if10 , bdag dang gzhan gyi don gyi le'u), an additional explanatory structure is intro-
duced, which organizes the material to be presented in the remainder of the first
Yogasthana. It covers the remaining chapters on the second aspect (B) of engen-
dering the resolve (chapters 1.2-1.16) as well as the two final chapters on the third
aspect (C) dealing with all the factors leading to Awakening (chapters 1.17-1.18).
This additional structure pertains to how the bodhisattva must engage in the
practice of a bodhisattva ( bodhisattvacarya, pusa xfng ~Rifr, byang chub sems
dpa'i spyod pa) once the resolve to reach full Awakening has initially been engen-
dered, and this is presented in a structure of three basic facets (points Ka, Kha, and
Ga). First, chapters 1.3 to 1.7 explain point (Ka): what the bodhisattva must train in.
Secondly, chapters 1.8 to 1.16 teach point (Kha): how the bodhisattva trains.
Thirdly, chapters 1.17 and 1.18 clarify point (Ga): who is involved in this training.
The explanation on point (Ka), what the bodhisattva must train in, includes
seven undertakings (Ka 1-7). Chapter I.3 presents the bodhisattva's training for his
or her own [spiritual] benefit (svartha, zili ~ 5flj, bdag gi don) as well as the benefit
154 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
this brings to others (parartha, lita frJ{-tll, gzhan gyi don); these make up the first
two undertakings (Ka 1-2). Chapter I.4 explains the bodhisattva's training in
[realizing] the nature of reality (tattvartha, zhenshfyi ~-~, de kho na 'i don), 318
which is the third undertaking (Ka 3). The fourth undertaking (Ka 4), spiritual
power (prabhava, we17i ~jJ, mthu), is introduced in chapter I.5. Chapter I.6
expounds the fifth and sixth undertakings (Ka 5-6), namely that the bodhisattva
must train in developing sentient beings (sattvaparipaka, chengshzi y6uqfng f!)G~~
lf·[w, sems can yangs SU smin par bya ba) and must also learn to develop the
qualities of a buddha in him- or herself (atmano buddhadharmaparipakalJ,
chengshzi zi f6fa n\G~§{~it, rang gi sangs rgyas kyi chos yangs su smin par bya
ba). The seventh and final undertaking (Ka 7) is the highest and complete Awa-
kening ( anuttara samyaksaipbodhilJ, wushang zhengdeng pziti ~l:iE~~m, b/a
named pa yang dag par rdzogs pa 'i byang chub), and this is the topic of chapter I. 7.
With these structural outlines of the first Yogasthana thus indicated, the third
chapter on the benefit for oneself and others ( svapararthapatala, zitali pin § {-tllf rJ
ifr:i, bdag dang gzhan gyi don gyile'u) commences by stating that the explanation of
the present chapter on the first two undertakings of a bodhisattva (Ka 1-2) will
cover ten features, which are grouped in five pairs. 319
The first pair concerns the features of how the bodhisattva must ensure that his
or her religious activities are meaningful for others and at the same time also
meaningful for him- or herself. On the one hand, the activities must not be exclu-
sively for the benefit of oneself (kevalalJ svarthal;, chzin zili M~ § f[j, rang gi don
'ba 'zhig) but must be tied up with a benefit for others (parasaipbaddha, gong lita
~f[j{-tg, gzhan dang 'brel pa). The bodhisattva is required to recognize situations
where s/he undertakes a religious activity, such as studies, teaching, stupa worship,
or meditation, merely out of self-interest; for example, hoping to gain personal
pleasure, riches, respect, veneration, celestial rebirth, or submission of others.
Having recognized such tendencies, the bodhisattva must give them up. On the
other hand, the bodhisattva's activities ought not to be done exclusively for the
benefit of others (kevalalJ pararthalJ, chzin lita r,tf rJ@, gzhan gyi don 'ba 'zhig) but
must equally be tied up with the bodhisattva's own spiritual progress or benefit
(svarthasaipbaddha, gong zJ'Ji ~ § frJ, bdag gi don dang 'brel pa). Activities that
are done for the benefit of others but are not meaningful for the bodhisattva, and
which therefore are to be avoided include, e.g., giving [alms, etc.] to someone who
holds wrong views and/or does not believe in karmic causality, as well as teaching
the Dharma to someone who either has violated the disciplinary code or who does
not practice. 320
318
Literally, tattvartha means "the meaning of reality," where the word "meaning" is not
intended in the sense of why existence takes place but rather in the sense of what consti-
tutes ultimate reality. To avoid potential misunderstanding of the expression, tattviirtha
has here been rendered as "the nature of reality."
319
Sanskrit text in WOGIHARA (1930-1936:22-36) = T1579.482cr486b 6 = D4037.12a4-
20b4.
320
The Chinese and Tibetan translations parse this Sanskrit sentence differently. The
present reading of the sentence follows the Tibetan interpretation, while the punctuation in
WOGIHARA's Sanskrit edition agrees with the Chinese translation.
The Yogiiciirabhumj and Its Adaptation 155
The second pair of features is concerned with clarifying the notion 'benefit' or
'meaningful' ( artha, Ji f[j, don) involved in acting for the benefit of oneself and
others. On the one hand, benefit for oneself and others means that the activities
that the bodhisattva engages in should lead to well-being (hitanvaya, liyi zh6nglei
frJti:ttfl~J[, phan pa 'i rgyu). That is to say, the activities should be blameless and not
mixed in with afflictions such as hatred or desire, and they should lead to well-
being either in the present rebirth or in a future life, or they should lead to ultimate
peace, i.e., nirvaJJa. On the other hand, benefit means that the bodhisattva's
activities should be wholesome and thereby lead to happiness (sukhanvaya, anle
zhonglei ~~rm,JL bde ba 'i rgyu) in the form of welfare and the overcoming of
suffering.
The third pair concerns how the benefit created by the bodhisattva is com-
prised by causal as well as resultant features (hetuphalasaipgrhita, yin she gu6 she
~~*~' rgyu dang 'bras bur bsdus pa). First of all, the bodhisattva's beneficial
activities of non-harming, generosity, and so forth, are causes for karmic matura-
tion (vipakahetu, yi shzi yin~~~~. rnam par smin pa'i rgyu). The activities will
correspondingly lead to fruits of karmic maturation ( vipakaphala, yi shi gu6 ~~~
:W:, rnam par smin pa 'i 'bras bu) with the result that the bodhisattva in future
rebirths will enjoy a long and healthy lifespan, good looks, high social status, riches,
trust-inspiring speech, a good reputation, male gender, ability, and strength. The
text here provides many details on these results. Through these positive outcomes,
it is said that the bodhisattva will be able to perform even greater benefit for others,
whereas without such karmic results the bodhisattva would not be able to accom-
plish much for others. Secondly, the bodhisattva's practice of the three perfections
of generosity, discipline, and endurance are causes for creating merit (pu]Jyahetu,
fzi yinm~, bsod nams kyi rgyu), while the practice of the perfection of insight is
the cause for gaining knowledge (jiianahetu, zhi yin ~~' ye shes kyi rgyu). His or
her practice of the perfections of drive and meditation is a cause for creating both.
As a result of merit (punyaphala, fzi gu6 m~, bsod nams kyi 'bras bu), the bodhi-
sattva is able to gather £large social following that is free from intentions of doing
harm, s/he becomes free from excessive suffering, and is able to benefit sentient
phala, zhi gu6 ~*'
beings according to their individual needs. Enjoying the fruit of knowledge (jiiana-
ye shes kyi 'bras bu), the bodhisattva develops all sorts of
expertise and reaches full Awakening.
The fourth pair covers the features of how the self-benefit and other-benefit
created by the bodhisattva pertain to the present life ( df${adharmika, xiafa :EJVt,
tshe 'di pa) as well as to future lives (samparayika, houfa 11'dt, tshe rabs gzhan pa).
What pertains to the present life includes enjoyments derived from craftsmanship
and human endeavor, the results derived from actions done in former lives that
ripen in the present rebirth, the joys that come from skills in meditation, and - in
the case of a bodhisattva in his final rebirth - the attainment of final nirvaJJa. What
pertains to future lives includes future enjoyments in the realm of sensual desire,
good rebirths with a strong and healthy body, and rebirths in the higher subtle
realms of meditative absorption.
The fifth and final pair explains the features of how the self- and other-benefit
~*~'
created by the bodhisattva is bound to be either temporary ( anatyantika, bu bijing
gtan du ba ma yin pa) or lasting ( atyantika, bijing *jt, gtan du ba). The
enjoyments which the bodhisattva encounters or creates in the realm of sensual
desire, the good rebirths that are attained, and the achieved mundane results are
all temporary and transient. Conversely, the transcendent results that are attained
156 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
by fully eliminating afflictions and practicing the eightfold path of the noble ones
are lasting and timeless.
These were the ten features of the first undertaking in which a bodhisattva
must train, that is, in creating benefit for oneself and others.
1.4 The Tattvarthapafala
The third undertaking that the bodhisattva must train in (Ka 3) is to understand
the nature of reality (tattvartha, zhenshf yi ~JUJ, de kho na'i don). This is the
( tattvarthapafala, zhenshfyi pin ~-~~r: t,
topic of the fourth chapter (1.4) called the "chapter on the nature of reality"
de kho na 'i Je'u).
321
Fundamentally, the nature of reality is said to have two complementary facets.
One facet is the being ( bhutata, zhenshfxing ~jf·['i, yang dag pa nyid) of pheno-
mena, pertaining to the way these truly are (yathavadbhavikata, nisuoyou XI'ng PD
J5filiftt, JI ltar yod pa). The other facet is their entirety (sarvata, yiqieXI'ng-t1]1['1,
thams cad nyid) pertaining to their extent of being (yavadbhavikata, jinsuoyou XI'ng
mJ5filift1, ji snyedyod pa).
What is meant by the expression "the nature of reality" is multivalent and so the
text distinguishes four different usages. First, reality ( tattva, zhenshf ti, jf, de kho
na) may denote what is commonly accepted in the world (lokaprasiddha, shijian
jfcheng zhenshf wrs~@n\G~jf, Jig rten gyi grags pa), namely the way in which
language conventionally refers to objects, e.g., saying "this is earth and not fire."
Secondly, reality may denote what can be logically established (yuktiprasiddha,
daoJJ jfcheng zhenshf ili~@ft<:~JL rigs pas grags pa), namely all the assump-
tions about the nature of things that are derived from reasoning based on reliable
sources of knowledge (pramaIJa, Jiang:;_, tshad ma), including direct perception,
inference, or trustworthy testimony. Thirdly, reality can be understood as that
which is perceived by the knowledge achieved by those who have eliminated the
afflictive hindrance (klesavaraIJavisuddhij.ianagocara, fannaozhang jing zhi suo-
xfng zhenshf f]['['~~~~pfifr~jf, nyon mongs pa'i sgrib pa rnam par dag pa'i
shes pa 'i spyod yul). Those who have eliminated the afflictive hindrance are the
sravakas and pratyekabuddhas, and for them the nature of reality is the four
existential facts of the noble ones, viz. suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the
path. Lastly and most importantly in the present context, reality may denote that
which is perceived by the knowledge achieved by those who additionally have
eliminated the cognitive hindrance (jiieyavaraIJavisuddhijiianagocara, suozhi zhang
j1'ngzhi suoxfng zhenshf pfi~D~~,~ pfifr ~-, shes bya 'i sgrib pa rnam par dag pa 'i
shes pa 'i spyod yul). Those who have eliminated not only the afflictive hindrance
but also the cognitive hindrance are the awakened bodhisattvas and buddhas. By
realizing the insubstantiality of phenomena ( dharmanairatmya, fa wuwo 1!:~f'<;,
chos bdag med pa), they have achieved full knowledge of the ultimate reality,
namely the inexpressible nature of all phenomena ( sarvadharmaIJaIJl nirabhilapya-
321
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:37-57) = T1579.486b9-491b 5 = D4037.20b 4-32a 1• The newer
Sanskrit edition by TAKAHASHI (2005:83-117) was not available to me.
The Yogiiciirabhumj and Its Adaptation 157
svabhavata, ylqie fa lfyan ziXI'ng
,. bony1"d) .322 -
-tmt:m s j§ ti, chos thams cad brjod du med
pa1ngo
When the ultimate reality is said to be inexpressible, this implies that it is
without the duality ( advaya, wzi 'er ~-=--., gnyis su med pa) of existence ( bhava, you
1§, dngos po) and non-existence (abhava, feiyou J~lif, dngos po med pa). The
nature of existence is that of a verbal designation (prajiiaptivadasvabhava, jiashu6
ziXI'ng 1~§3ts Ji, 'dogs pa 'i tshig gi ngo bo nyid). It refers to the notion of a given
entity that ordmary people have entertained for a long time and it is the root of the
proliferation of all ideas. Its opposite is non-existence, which is the verbal designa-
tion for the absence of something. To be without duality means that an entity
possessing the characteristics of being a phenomenon ( dharmalak~IJaSaIJlgrhitam
vastu, faxiang suoshe zhenshfxI'ng shi 1!;f-§pfiffli-~Jftt~, chos kyi mtshan ny1'a
kyis bsdus pa 'i dngos po) is free from either designation of existence or non-
existence ( bhavabhavabhyaIJ1 virnimuktaIJ1, you jf feiou erju yuanlf l§2sz.1Fl§ f~
Ji/U, yod pa dang med pa las rnam par grol ba). 23 The text declares that non-
=
duality is what constitutes the Middle Path (madhyama pratipad, zh6ngdao $ill,
dbu ma 'i lam). It is noteworthy that this explanation of avoiding the two extremes
of existence and non-existence constitutes a philosophical take on the Buddha's
famous practical approach of the Middle Path to religious practice of avoiding the
two extremes of sense-indulgence and self-denial.
Bodhisattvas need to train themselves in knowledge of the highest reality, since
in~ight (p!ajiia, hui ~, shes rab) into reality is "the great method" (mahan upayaiJ,
da fangbian J\:JJ~, thabs chen po) they need to use in order to attain full Awa-
ken.ing. !he bodhisattva must practice this method throughout many saqisaric
rebirths m order to develop the buddha-qualities in him- or herself and others. In
the course thereof, the bodhisattva does not follow the approach of the sravakas or
pratyekabuddhas consisting in feeling weariness with saIJlsiira and striving for
nirvaJJa, because if the bodhisattva were to attain nirviiJJa quickly, s/he would not
have sufficient time to develop the buddha-qualities in him- or herself and others.
Instead, the bodhisattva maintains an ascertainment of emptiness ( sunyatadhi-
mok~a, k6ng shengjie ~MlfW, stong pa nyid la mos pa). This ascertainment
ena~les the .bodhisattva to practice while neither striving for nirvaIJa nor fearing it.
Havmg cu~tIVated knowledge of the insubstantiality of phenomena for a long time,
the bodhisattva eventually comes to understand the inexpressible nature of all
phenomena as it truly is (yathabhuta, ru shf PDJf,ji lta ba bzhin du). Consequently,
the bodhi'iattva no longer conceptualizes any phenomenon as being anything,
except for perceiving a given thing as such, a mere presence ( vastumatra, wei'shi Ol
$, ~ngo~ po tsam), the mere being as such ( tathatamatra, weizhenni OiaPo, de
bzhm ny1d tsam). Not thinking of the thing as such ( vastumatra) and its being as
such ( tathatamatra) as constituting two separate entities, the bodhisattva sees that
322
For t~e notion of inexpressibility, see the three articles by TAKAHASHI (1999a;
1999b; 2000) m Japanese.
~ ~ In view of this definition, it may be worth keeping in mind that Xuanzang's YBh-
2
~rad1tion came to be known in China as the Faxiang school (Faxiangzong i!t§*), meaning
the school concerned with the characteristics of phenomena." For a detailed analysis of the
term 'entity' or 'thing' ( vastu, shi $, dngos po), see the present article by Koichi T AKA-
HASHI as well as TAKAHASHI (2001).
158 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
all phenomena are the same in nature. Consequently, nirvaJJa and saf!1sara are not
different to the bodhisattva and s/he has thus attained the highest equanimity
( upek~a, she~, btang snyoms), seeing the equality of everything and all.
With the knowledge of equanimity as a basis, the bodhisattva becomes able to
strive untiringly without pride or weariness. First and foremost, s/he strives for
expertise in all fields of knowledge, which will allow the bodhisattva to assist others
in gaining understanding and helping them to resolve their doubts. Gradually, the
bodhisattva attains great power of mindfulness, fostering ever-increasing good
qualities. Also, the bodhisattva seeks to become free from craving, to be restrained
and forbearing, to have minimal anger, and to cause minimal harm. S/he trains in
meditation to clear away tiredness and to further insight into the ultimate reality.
By relying on friendliness and compassion without guile or deceit, s/he tries to be
of assistance to everyone to whatever extent possible. S/he has much gratitude to
those who help. S/he is forbearing to those who are hostile, and if possible tries to
transform them.
The text now returns to clarify the previously used phrase "the inexpressible
nature of all phenomena." When it is said that the nature of all phenomena is
inexpressible (sarvadharmaJJaip nirabhilapyasvabhavata, yiqie fa Jfyfm zixing-tJ]
1:!m § § ti, chos thams cad bijod du med pa 'i ngo bo nyid), it means that words,
labels, and categorical terms that attempt to describe phenomena as having parti-
cular features (svalak~aJJaprajiiaptir dharmaJJaip, yiqie fa jiali zmang -tJJ1:!®JL
§ if'§, chos rnams kyi rang gi mtshan nyid du 'dogs pa) are nothing but [artificial]
designations (prajiiaptimatra, weijiajianli Ul-W1~JL, btags pa tsam). The inexpres-
sible nature of all phenomena does not involve an intrinsic essence (svabhava,
zixing § ti, ngo bo nyid) existing in and of itself. It cannot be denoted by any
notion within the range of linguistic expressibility ( vaggocara, yan suoxfng j§ pfifr,
ngag gi spyod yuf), and it is not a referent of speech ( vagv1~aya, "i2an jingjie § ~W,
ngag gi yuf) that exists apart from that verbal notion or name. 24 Although things
do not possess any intrinsic essence corresponding to the manner in which they are
spoken of, it is also not the case that a nature is not found at all. Rather, a nature is
discovered, when the meditator has abandoned all notions forming superimposi-
tion of what does not exist ( asadbhii.tasamaropasaJ!1grahavivaijita, If zengyi shf wu
wangzhf ~lttH::a:W~~f)t, rang gi mtshan nyid kyis yod pa ma yin pa la sgro btags
pa'i legs par ma zin pa spangs pa) or denial of what does exist (bhzitapavada-
saipgrahavivaijita, lf siinjian shfyou wangzhf mtii~Jf 1§~$A, yang dag pa la skur
ba btab pa'i legs par ma zin pa spangs pa). That is the ultimate nature of all phe-
nomena (paramarthikaiJ svabhavaiJ sarvadharmaJJam, zhii. fa shengyi zixing ~1:!!m
~§ti, chos thams cad kyi don dam pa 'i ngo bo nyid), which is the experiential
object only for non-conceptual knowledge (nirvikalpasyaiva jiianasya gocaraiJ, wu
fenbie zhi suoxfng jingjie ~5t}jU~pfrfr~W, rnam par mi rtog pa'i ye shes kho
na 'i spyodyuf).
324
The summary here reads the Sanskrit sentence in the manner in which it is parsed in
the Tibetan translation, which also agrees with FRAUWALLNER's (1969:275) German
translation. Xuanzang's Chinese translation (T1579.488a14-1 5) says that it neither involves
any self-nature, nor any self-nature existing apart from that [name], but it is [only) an object
of speech, a referent of speech.
The YogacarabhtJmj and Its Adaptation 159
At the same time, it is possible to misunderstand the Mahayana doctrine of
emptiness, particularly if it is taken to imply that there is no real basis for language
whatsoever (prajfiaptivadanimittadhi~thanaip prajiiaptivadanimittasaipmsrayam,
yu Jiashuo xiang chu yu Jiashuo xiang yi 1Jt1IN85lif§~1JtffelgJU§fN, 'dogs pa 'i tshig gi
mtshan ma'igzhi 'dogs pa'i tshig gi mtshan ma'i rten). However, there is a basis for
language. It is a given thing-in-itself in the sense that there is something really
existing in that it possesses an inexpressible nature (nirabhilapyatmakataya para-
marthasadbhzitaip vastu, Jfyan zixI'ng shengyi fa.x1'ng /fl§ § tilm~i:!ti, bijod du
med pa 'i bdag nyid kyis don dam par yod pa yang dag pa 'i dngos po). The text here
explains in more detail the nature of the misunderstanding of emptiness by ex-
plaining it as amounting to a denial of things as such ( vastumatra, weishi UlJJ,
dngos po tsam). It points out that those who misinterpret the Mahayana teaching
of emptiness in this manner wrongly assert that everything consists exclusively of
words or purely of verbal designations (prajiiaptimatra, weijiai fli®, btags pa tsam)
and thus wrongly deny any form of ultimately existing reality, i.e., any basis for
linguistic propositions. 325 This is the most extreme form of nihilism (pradhano
nastikaiJ, zuiJfwu zhe :ftt.i~:f§-, medpar lta ba 'i gtso bo), which should be rejected.
The text here instructs that those who propagate such views should be completely
avoided, since this view is exceedingly destructive. In short, emptiness according to
the Bodhisattvabhumi means that 'something' is empty of something else [and not
that it is empty in and of itself]. This 'something' is what remains ( avasi~ta, yu ~'
]hag ma), and it is real and true (sad ihasti, shfshiyouf!f..Ifi:_1§,yangdagpar yod do).
That is said to be the correct way to enter into a realization of emptiness. The text
then cites and explains three scriptural passages to support this interpretation of
emptiness as signifying an inexpressible reality.
Since unawakened sentient beings ( bala, yufrJ iffit~, byis pa) do not know
reality as it truly is, eight types of ideas ( vikalpa, fenbie jJ"JjU, rnam par rtog pa)
arise in them: (1) the idea of an intrinsic nature (svabhavavikalpa, zixI'ng fenbie §
'f°15t53U, ngo bo nyid du rnam par rtog pa), which consists in labeling a given
phenomenon with a name; 326 (2) the idea of differences and individuation ( vise~a-
vikalpa, chabie fenbie ~J5U5t}jU, bye brag tu rnam par rtog pa), characterizing the
named phenomenon as having specific features; (3) the idea of conceiving of
wholes (p'lndaarahavikalpa,
• • b"
zonab
zhf fenbie *,!$Jt5t53U, ril par 'dzin pa 'i rnam par
377
rtog pa), namely the notion that a group of phenomena make up a larger entity; -
(4) the idea of an "I" (aham iti vikalpaiJ, wo fenbie tt5t}jU, bdag go snyam pa'i
rnam par rtog pa), conceiving of the body and mind as constituting a self; (5) the
erroneous idea of "mine" (mameti vikalpaiJ, wosuo fenbie ttPfrn"JjU, bdag gi
snyam pa'i rnam par rtog pa), thinking of things related to the self as constituting
possessions; (6) the idea of likes (priyavikalpa, ai fenbie ~5t53U, sdug par snam
par rtog pa), considering a given phenomenon to be pleasant and agreeable; (7)
the idea of dislikes ( apriyav1kalpa, fei ai fenbie jp~jJ'-JjU, mi sdug par rnam par
rtog pa), viewing something as unpleasant and disagreeable; and (8) the idea of
325
The sixth-century, Indian Madhyamaka commentator Bhaviveka took this passage
as expressing a critique of the Madhyamaka tradition of Mahayana Buddhism and reacted
to it with a strong criticism (BUESCHER, 2008:174 n.3).
326
For a study of this passage, see IKEDA (1999).
327
On piIJ{jagniha, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:515 n.1414).
 160 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
neither of these ( tadubhayaviparito vikalpaiJ, b!Ju xiangwei fenbie f~1~,t§~:5l3U,
de gnyi ga las bzlog pa 'i rnam par rtog pa), i.e., evaluating something as being
neither pleasant nor unpleasant.
These eight types of ideas are, in turn, the source Uanaka, neng sheng ~g~,
skyed pa) for three processes ( trayii1pIIp vastiiniim, siin shi -= ~' dngos po gsum).
(1) To begin with, the first three types of ideas concerning intrinsic nature, indi-
viduation, and wholes give rise to a basis ( adhiffhana, suoyi pfr{~, gnas) or focus
( alambana, suoyufm ffrfl, dmigs pa) for the proliferation of [further] ideas ( vikal-
paprapaiica, fenbie xilun n"-3U/iji@, rnam par rtog pa spros pa). That is to say,
these three kinds of ideas construct entities that become objects to be labeled by
names, such as "visual forms'' and so forth ( vastu riipiidisaipJ.iakam, wei se deng
xiang shi wei suoyuan §;B~1~$~1~*-f, dngos po gzugs la sags pa'i ming btags
pa). (2) Secondly, the fourth and fifth ideas concerning "I" and "mine" give rise to
the belief in identifying [oneself] with the body ( satkiiyadr-Jfi, saJiayeJian ]3,ijfil[!m~'
Jig tshogs la lta ba), which is the root of all other mistaken beliefs, and give rise to
self-conceit ( asmimana, woman ix;'['f, nga o snyam pa 'i nga rgyal), which is the root
of pride and all other forms of conceit. (3) Finally, the sixth, seventh, and eighth
types of ideas concerning likes, dislikes, and neutrality respectively give rise to
desire, aversion, and stupidity (ragadvefamoha, tiinyu chenhui yuchi ~~§j;~~
~' 'dod chags dang zhe sdang dang gti mug rnams). Those three processes are, in
turn, what brings about all worlds with sentient beings and their outer, physical
environment ( sarvasattvabhiiJanalokaiJ, yiqie youqing shijian Ji qi shijian -w~,r,~
fitFsibt:E!fitFsi, sems can dang snod kyi Jig rten thams cad), causing the entire
mode of sarpsaric evolution (pravrttipak-Ja, liuzhuan pin fa ifrE$$, Jug pa'iphyogs)
to appear. Put briefly, the evolution is binary. On the one hand, there is an idea
( vikalpa, fenbie zixing 5t3U § tt rnam par rtog pa). On the other hand, there is
something present ( vastu, shi $, dngos po) that serves as the basis or focus for
that idea. Since time without beginning, these two have stood in a relationship of
mutual causation. Earlier ideas cause the present things to manifest, and these in
turn become the objects for new ideas, and so forth.
To understand reality, the bodhisattva needs to comprehend the sarpsaric evo-
lution thoroughly. Consequently, s/he trains him- or herself in four investigations
(paryefaJJii, xzinsi or xzinsi ~JriJ, yangs su tshol ba) that result in four types of
co?1plete knowledge [of !~ings] as th~y really are (yathiibhiitfgariJnana, rush! zhi
tzOlt~t&, yang dag pa JI lta ba bzhm du yangs su shes pa).- 8 (1) Relying on an
investigation of the names [for things] (niimaparyefaJJii, ming xunsi ~W,~, ming
yangs su tshol ba), the bodhisattva gains complete knowledge resulting from the
investigation of names [seeing the names] just for what they are ( nama1ja1Jagataip
yathiibhiitaparijiianam, ming xunsi suoyfn rush! zhi ~W,~,Pfr5 [~D1l'9&, ming tshol
bar gyur pa yang dag pa Ji lta ba bzhin du yangs su shes pa), namely just names
(niimamiitra, weiJian ming Uft~~. ming tsam). (2) Relying on an investigation of
things ( vastuparyefal}ii, sh] xunsi lJW.,~, dngos po yangs SU tsho] ba), the bodhi-
sattva gains complete knowledge resulting from the investigation of things [seeing
things] just for what they are ( vastvefaJJagataip yathabhiitaparij.ianam, shi xunsi
suoyfn rush! zhi $;eyJ~tpJr5 [tzDJf 9&, dngos po tshol bar gyur pa yang dag pa Ji Jta
328
For a broader discussion of the four investigations and the four types of complete
knowledge, see the present article by Noritoshi ARAMAKI.
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 161
ba bzhin du yangs su shes pa), namely a mere }?[esence or a thing-in-itself ( va~tu-
,-tra wei jian shi al~$, dngos po tsam).- S/he understands that the thmg
::nd; apart from any label that may be superimp~sed <?_TI~ and_ that the thing as
such actually is inexpressible ( nirabhilapya, xing /Jyan '[1:Wt ~, bIJod du med fa). (3)
Relying on an investigation ~! ve~bal desig~at~~ns ~~g~e~tm~ a~d ~~t:!y;g an
intrinsic nature (svabhavapra1naptiparyefa1Ja, zwngpalI xuns1 § [i.ixJL~,c.i,, ngo
bo nyid du btags pa yangs su tshol ba), the _bodh_isattva g~ins compl~te ~owle?ge
resulting from the investigation of such des1gnat10ns _[ se~mg th.~_~es1gnat10ns] Just
for what they are (svabhiivaprajiiaptyaIJiigataip ya~~ab~u~~f!~r1Jnanaml namely as
being a mere designations (prajiiaptimatrata, we1 you pi/J rifE~®JL, b~ags pa
tsam). Consequently, s/he regards the n~tion of a~ intri~sic_ nature to be 1ll~sory
like a hallucination or a dream. (4) Relymg on an 1~vest1ga!~on ~f verbal ~es1¥~a-
tions expressing individuation and differences ( v1se~apra1naptiparyefa1Ja, ~wng
jiali xzinsi § '[1.-Wl:U:.~J~t bye brag tu btags pa ;:ongs .su ~shol ba), the bo':1h1s~ttva
gains complete knowledge resulting from the m~~st1gat1~~ of such_ des1gnat10n_s
[seeing the designations J jt~~: ~or /wh_at t~e~ ar~ ( VfSe~~pra1nap/_!!J:.f;/ataip yat!~-
bhiitaparij.ianam, chab1e pall xuns1 suoym rush1 zh1 ~3UixJL~,c.iJiJr5 [~Dtif s,
bya brag tu btags pa tshol bar gyur pa yang dag pa Ji /ta. ba bzhin du yo1!gs su shes
pa), namely as mere designations. ~or examp~e, ~ t~mg may be designated as
existing or non-existing. However, smce the th1~g-m-1tself does not re~lly cor~e-
spond to the manner in which it is designated, 1t actually ~annot b~ said to e~st.
Yet since the thing-in-itself is present in a manner that 1s mexpress1ble, the th1~g
can~ot be said not to exist. Similarly, in the ultimate analysis, a thing cannot be said
to possess a physical form, but from a conventional point ?f vi~w it ~lso ca~n~t be
said not to have a physical form. In all such cases of des1gnat1ve d1fferent1~t10ns,
the thing is non-dual (advayartha, buer zhi yi ~=z~,. ff!YlS SU n:e~ pa'l don),
i.e., it is not really identical with either of the two poss1b1hties of ex1stmg or non-
existing, and of having or not having. By gaining the four types of complete know-
ledge [of things] as they really are, the bodhisattva understands the nature of. t?e
eight kinds of ideas and stops entertaining them. Wit~ this knowledg~, the ent1!1es
and conceptual processes arising therefrom, along with all the _ensum~ suf~ermg,
will not occur in the future. Without these entities, no further ideas will anse. In
this way, the bodhisattva enters the cessation of the pr~li~eration of id_eas (pra-
parinirviiJJa of the Mahayana ( mahiiyiinaparinirvapa, dasheng da ban mepan
*~1m_~, theg pa chen po yangs su mya ngan las 'das pa).
**
paiicanirodha, xilin mie ~§fill1~, spros pa 'gag pa) and !his, 1s w~at _con~~1t~tes the
..
The chapter ends with outlining the special int~llectual a~d supernatural a~1lt-
ties along with other good qualities that the bodhisattva achieves by fully cultiva-
ting knowledge of reality.
I.5 The Prabhavapafala
The fourth undertaking that the bodhisattva must train in (Ka 4) is spiritual ~~wer
(prabhiiva, weili mzn'
mthu), 330 which is explained in the (I.5) "chapter on spmtual
329
See FRAUWALLNER (1969:267, 269).
The Sanskrit term prabhiiva literally means "bringing forth" or "manifesting" _in the
330
sense of manifesting special powers. This semantic nuance is clearly reflected m the

162 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
power" (prabhavapafala, we1li pin ~jJif0 , mthu'i le'u). 331 A bodhisattva who has
attained mastery in meditation, and whose mind has become workable and highly
developed, is capable of accomplishing benefit merely by wishing for it and relying
on his meditative ability. This is the spiritual power of a noble one. The YBh
distinguishes five groups of spiritual power.
(1) The first group is different forms of clairvoyance ( abhijiiaprabhava,
shentong weili t$:iffi~jJ, mngon par shes pa 'i mthu), which includes six subtypes
(a-!)- (a) One is the knowledge of manifesting (jiiiinasfik$atkriyii, zhi zuozheng ~
11:~i, shes pa mngon sum du bya ba) perceptions of accomplishment (rddhivi$aya,
shenji'ng t$:t.i, rdzu 'phrul gyi yul), i.e., miracles of altering or transcending the
physical properties of things and manifesting new things, such as persons, voices, or
objects. The passage exemplifies at length a whole range of such powers. It is said
that the miraculous powers are used in order to instill faith in sentient beings, help
them to enter the Dharma, and alleviate their suffering. (b) Another type of
clairvoyance is the memory of former lives (piirveniviisa-anusmrtJ: suinian suzhu
1§1~1@1:1, sngon gyi gnas rjes su dran pa), that is, recalling the former reincarna-
tions of oneself and others in full detail. This is a power that a buddha or bodhi-
sattva uses to instill faith in others, inspire them to feel weariness with saipsara,
and to account for the karmic background of events, e.g., in the form of telling
jataka stories and the like. (c) Then, there is the clairvoyance of super-hearing
( divyaip srota, tian er :::RII=, Iha 'i ma ba), by which a buddha or bodhisattva has the
ability at will to hear sounds and speech at any distance throughout any realm in
the world that are spoken by any kind of being, and fully to understand their
intention and motivation. ( d) The clairvoyance of seeing deaths and rebirths
~ cyutyuJJ_apadadarsana, jian sfsheng J!JE{t, 'chi 'pho ba dang skye ba mthong ba)
1s the ab1hty to see when and how sentient beings will die, perceive those who have
deceased, and fully to know how they will get reborn in the future. ( e) Then there is
t~e claivoyance of knowing the thoughts, wishes, aspirations, abilities, predisposi-
tions, temperaments, emotions, and innermost mental states of others ( cetah-
paryiiyajiiana, zhi xin chabie 9;0i[>~3U, sems kyi rnam grangs mkhyen pa). (f) The
cla~1:7oyance of knowing the end of sa.qisaric corruption ( iisravak~ayajiiana, Joujin
zh1 iffiit~~' zag pa zad pa mkhyen pa) means that a buddha or bodhisattva clearly
~ows _when and how he himself or others have attained or will attain complete
hberat10n from saipsiira and precisely on which method they will need to rely to
achieve this end. Yet, in spite of having this knowledge, the bodhisattva does not
effect his own liberation from samsiira, since he wishes to remain in samsiira in
order to go on benefiting others. For this reason, the latter type of clairva"yance is
considered the greatest of them all.
, (2) The second group is the power of the Dharma ( dharmaprabhiiva, fa weili
t!~jJ, chos kyi mthu), which refers to the power of the six perfections (paramita
b6lu6miduo 1EzJlm§:t, pha rol tu phyin pa). Generosity, discipline, endurance:
drive, meditation, and insight have the power to overcome their opposites. They
Chinese translation "demonstrating powers" ( we1JJ m'x.1J), but not in the Tibetan translation,
which merely means "power." On the related word prabhavjta, see SCHMITHAUSEN
(1969a:109ff.) and SEYFORT RUEGG (1969:347ff.).
331
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:58-77) = Tl579.49lb13-496b23 = D4037.32ai-42b3.
The Yogacarabhzimi and Its Adaptation 163
have the power to develop the requisites needed for attaining Awakening, to
a1so 1 . h f
care for oneself and others, and to bring great resu ts 1.n t e u!ure .. , _ _. ,
(3) The third group is ~ailed innat~ pow_er .(~aha;aprabhava, ;u sh.eng .wei/1 {~
:±.J~J~jJ, Jhan cig skyes pa'I mthu), which s1gmfies all the many special s1g.ns a1:d
events that occur after a bodhisattva has gone thr~ug? count.less har? reb1~ths m
benefit sentient beings and has reached his fmal rebirth dunng which he
or d er to · · h' f" 1
will attain buddhahood. The passage elucidates how a bodhisattva m 1s ma
·rth goes through a series of special events such as those that are known from
re b1 , · · db
the life-story of Buddha Sakyamuni, ~~d ho~ each of these steps 1s accompame y
particular miraculous signs and ausp1c1ous circumstance~.
(4-5) The two final groups make up a companson between the powe~s
assessed by buddhas and bodhisattvas and by sriivakas and pratyekabuddhas. It 1s
~istinguished which powers are unique ( asii~hiiraIJa, bu gong~~' !hun mo_ng ma
yjn pa)'to buddhas and bodhisattvas and which are common (sadharaIJa, gong fr;;,
thun mong ba) to all four types of practitioners. On the one hand, buddhas and
bodhisattvas possess all three forms of power, viz. the power of clairvoyance, the
power of Dharma, and the innate power. Their powers a~e limit.less and en_comrass
an endless number of beings, in that they have all sentient bemgs as the1~ ~bJect,
regardless of the realm in which these beings dwell. On the other hand, sravakas
and pratyekabuddhas do not possess the power ?f Dharma an~ the innate power,
but only the power of clairvoyance. However, thelf power of clairvoyance, although
covering a large number of worlds, is limited in its scope. and does not cover .all
realms. This is because sriivakas and pratyekabuddhas mamly are concerned ~1th
liberating themselves from saipsara and their clairvoyance is consequently confmed
to the worlds of a single realm.
1.6 The Paripakapafala
The fifth and sixth undertakings in which a bodhjsattva must train (Ka 5-6) are to
develop sentient beings (sattvaparipiika, chengshu y6~q_fng JtZ1~ff'['ff, _sem_s can
yangs su smin par bya ba) as well as !o develop Jhe q~al~tleJ ~f ~ !uddh~, m him- or.
herself ( atmano buddhadharmapanpiikal;, chengshu z1 fofa !tZ!~ § {iftlt:, rang ~1
sangs rgyas kyi chos yangs su smin par bya ba). Both these aspec~s are p_re_sented m
the sixth chapter (1.6) called the "chapter on development (panpakapafala,
chengsh6u pin ,~1~h'ro, yangs su smin pa'i Je'u). 332 The development is explained in
six points: (1) the nature that must be present for development to take place, (2)
the person to be developed, (3) differences in development, ( 4) the ~e!hods for
developing, (5) the person who develops others, and (6) the charactenstics of the
person who has become developed. . .
First, the nature ( svabhiiva, zix1'ng § tt ngo bo nyid) or basis for development
is that a given person is endowed with the predestiny ( bhavya, you kiinren f§flHf,
skal pa dang Jdan) 333 or ability (pratibala, you da shili f§l(~jJ, mthu yod pa) to
actualize the elimination of the afflictive and cognitive hindrances. Whether or not
such a person has already entered the Dharma, s/he must already possess an inner
seed (bija, zhongzi f_i-f, sa ban) of positive qualities that has formed due to
m WOGIHARA (1930-1936:78-87) = T1579.496b23-498c11 = D4037.42br47b5.
333 Cf. fn.240.
164 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
having cultivated many positive actions. His or her body and mind are thus apt for
removing the hindrances and are ready to engage in the needed practices; The
person has become mature, like the scab on a wound that is ready to fall off, a clay
dish that has dried and is ready to be used, or a fruit that has ripened and is ready
to be eaten.
Secondly, the persons to be developed (paripacyapudgala, suochengshu biite-
qielu6 p)Tf$GJ~ii~{1Jait yangs su smin par bya ba'i gang zag) are of four kinds: (1)
those who possess the predisposition (gotra, zhongxing fitt, rigs) for becoming
sravakas and are led into the Sravakayana by the Buddhas and bodhisattvas; (2)
those who possess the praryrekabuddha-predisposition and are led into the Pra-
tyekabuddhayana; (3) those who possess the buddha-predisposition and are led
into the Mahayana; and (4) those who are without any spiritual predisposition and
are led to attain rebirth in a higher realm.
Thirdly, differences in development (paripakaprabheda, chengshu chabie f$GJ~
~55U, yangs su smin pa'i rnam par dbye ba) are related to six aspects. (1) Having
been born as a human being with good qualities, the person to be developed must
possess a suitable aptitude (indriyalJ, gen tlt dbang po) strengthened by steadfast-
ness and dilligence. (2) Such a person must also have developed the roots of
positive qualities (kusalamt1la, shimgen ~t!t dge ba'i rtsa ba) in the sense thats/he
has become naturally disinclined to engage in afflictions and negative actions. (3)
His or her intelligence Uiiana, zhihui ~~' shes pa) must be sufficiently developed
to be able to understand the teachings and attain insight. The person's develop-
ment may become (4) weak, (5) middling, or (6) great depending on for how long
s/he formerly has cultivated the aptitude, the roots of positive qualities, and intelli-
gence, as well as on the extent to which these causes for development have ripened.
Fourthly, the methods for developing (paripakopaya, chengshu fangbian !'PG~
1J ff, yangs su smin par bya ba 'i thabs) include 27 ways in which a buddha or
bodhisattva may try to assist and develop others. (1) To grow the basic element
( dhatupu~/1; ;ie zengzhang Jf.Ji~, khams brtas pa) is constantly and deliberately
to cultivate the inner seeds of beneficial qualities. (2) To furnish present conditions
( vartamanapraryrayopasaiphara, xian yuan sheshou :EJUtmst, da ltar gyi rkyen nye
bar bsgrub pa) is to adhere to a correct teaching. (3) To enter (avatara, quru mA,
Jug pa) is to abandon the life of a householder and take up ordination. ( 4) To feel
joy (ratigraha, she le m~, dga, bar 'dzin pa) is that the meditator rejoices in the
fact thats/he has turned away from a path leading to suffering and has embarked
on a path leading to happiness. (5) The starting point (adiprasthana, cht1fa chu f)]
~W&, dang par Jug pa) is to feel weariness with salpsara and appreciate the bene-
fits that come from practicing. ( 6) The secondary point ( anadiprasthana, lei chufa
chu Jpt)J~W&, dang po Jug pa ma yin pa) is to encounter a proper teacher and
receive explanations. (7) To purify oneself for a long time ( visuddhidiira, yuan
qingjing ~m1¥, rnam par dag pa thag ring ba) is to practice slowly as a prede-
stined person over the course of many lives. (8) Alternatively, to purify oneself for
a short time ( suddhyasanna, ;i'n qlngJi'ng m}i1'¥, rnam par dag pa thag nye ba) is to
practice quickly. (9) To practice (prayoga, jiaxfng JJDff, sbyor ba) is to apply
oneself wholeheartedly to the training. (10) The mindset (asaya, yiyao ;!~, bsam
pa) is a steady faith in the three jewels and the practice. (11) To provide alms
( ami~opasarphara, cai sheshou ~tmst, zang zing nye bar sgrub pa) is to give food,
drink, and other necessities to those in need. (12) To provide the Dharma ( dhar-
mopasarphara, fa sheshou ttmst, chos nye bar sgrub pa) is to make the teachings
available to others. (13) To attract others by means of [signs of] accomplishments
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 165
(rddhyavarjanata, shentong yfnshe t$.iffl5 rm, rdzu 'phrul gyis 'dun par byed pa) is
to perform miracles for the sake of instilling faith in the Dharma in others. (14) To
teach the Dharma ( dharmadesana, xuanshuo zhengfii 1rgJfrfit:, chos ston pa) is
to give teachings that help others benefit themselves. (15) To explain the hidden
teachings (guhyadharmakhyana, yfnmi shuo iii ~&g,ftjt;, gsang ste chos brjod pa)
means to clarify the vast and profound Dharma to those who are intelligent enough
to understand these aspects. ( 16) To explain the extensive teachings ( vivrta-
dharmakhyana, xianliao shuo fa :ffi'fTi,n1t;, rnam par phye ste chos b1jod pa)
means to explain the Dharma in its full extent to those able to receive such teach-
ings. (17) To have a weak practice (mrduprayoga, xiapfnjiaxing "TfoJJDfi, sbyor
ba chung ngu) is to practice in a manner lacking application and zeal. (18) To
have a mediocre practice (madhyaprayoga, zhongpfn jiaxfng CflrfoJJDfi, sbyor ba
'bring) is to practice with partial application and zeal. (19) To have a first-rate
practice (adhimatraprayoga, shangpfn jiaxfng _tdliJJDfi, sbyor ba chen po) is to
practice with application and zeal. (20) Learning (sravaJJa, tingwen i!!\M, thos pa)
means to receive the Buddha's teachings as found in the siitras and so forth, and to
memorize and recite these. (21) Understanding ( cinta, slwei JG!jft, sems pa) means
to ascertain the meaning of the teachings by oneself. (22) Meditating ( bhavana,
xiiixf ~i~, bsgom pa) is to cultivate tranquility, insight, and equanimity. (23) To
gather [students] (sa1pgrahava, sheshou m'.:€, sdud pa) is to be an acarya or abbot
who serves others devotedly without ulterior motives, while caring for those in
need by giving medicine, nursing, clothes, etc. (24) Suppressing (nigrahaJJa, xiang-
fu ~{f:, tshar gcod pa) means to control and ward off afflictions and negative
tendencies in oneself and others. (25) Self-development (svaya1plqta, zi chengshzi
gi !'$G1~, bdag nyid kyis yangs su smin par byed pa) means that whatever beneficial
conduct the practitioner teaches and admonishes others to follow is also applied to
oneself. (26) To seek to develop others (paradhye$a1Ja, qfng ta chengshu g!flli!'PGJ~,
gzhan dag la 'tshol ba) means to have a strong affection for others and to train
them in the methods of the Dharma. (27) To develop both ( ubhaya, ju chengshzi
{Jf$GJ~, gnyi gas bya ba) is to develop oneself as well as others.
Fifthly, the person who develops [others] (paripacakapudgala, neng chengshzi
biiteqielu6 ~gf$GJ,Mi~{1Ja&, yangs SU smin par byed pa 'i gang zag) is a bodhisat-
tva abiding on one of the various bodhisattva-levels ( bhrlmi, di tili, sa) starting
from the level of an unawakened bodhisattva all the way up to the level of a
bodhisattva who has reached perfection. The text here lists a series of six levels,
which will be explained in further detail in the third Yogasthana of the Bodhi-
sattvabhiimi The six bodhisattva-levels (bhum1; di tili, sa) are: (1) the level of
practicing with ascertainment ( adhimukticaryabhumi, shengjie xfng di M}f§~fitit
mos pas spyod pa'i sa), (2) the level of pure exalted conviction (suddhadhyasaya-
bhum1; j1'ng shengyiyao di f¥MJJ!~t-tg, lhag pa'i bsam pa dag pa'i sa), (3) the level
of accomplishing practices (caryapratipattibhumi, xfng zhengxfng di fiiEfitili,
spyod la Jug pa 'isa), (4) the level of certainty (niyatabhiim1; duo jued1'ng di !!!i:R:5£
ttE, nges par gyur pa'i sa), (5) the level of practicing with certainty (niyatacarya-
bhumi, jueding xfng zhengxfng di i:R:5EfiIEfitili, nges pa'i spyod pa'i sa), and
 166 Ulrich Tirnrne KRAGH
(6) the level of reaching per~ection (I11~fhagamanabht1m1: dao ji'u;i'ng di iU:ii:JtfiH,
mthar thug par 'gyur ba 'i sa).-' 34
Finally, there are various characteristics of those who have been developed
(paripakvapudgalalak-JaIJa, yi chengshu biiteqielu6 xiang Bn\G1toot~{}JD!U§,
yangs su smin pa 'i gang zag gi mtshan nyid). A sravaka of weak development has
only brought forth weak aspiration and practice. S/he might be reborn in a lower
realm, and in the present reincarnation will not attain the result of the ascetic
practice, let alone IllivaIJa. A sravaka of mediocre development has produced
mediocre aspiration and practice. S/he will not be reborn in a lower realm and will
in the present life attain some results of the ascetic practice but will not attain
nirvaIJa. A sravaka of great development has engendered great aspiration and
practice. Such a person will attain nirvaJJa in the present incarnation. The same
three degrees of accomplishment apply to the pratyekabuddhas, since the practice
of a pratyekabuddha is basically the same as that of a sravaka with the only diffe-
rence between them being whether or not they rely on a teacher when practicing
during their final reincarnation. A bodhisattva who remains on the level of practi-
cing wit_h ascertainment is of some yet still weak development. S/he still risks being
reborn m the lower realms and spends the first immeasurable aeon in the course of
a bodhisattva's development on practicing beneficial actions and cultivating good
qualities. A bodhisattva who has reached the level of pure exalted conviction is of
mediocre development. Such a great being will no longer be reborn in the lower
realms and spends the second aeon on practicing beneficial actions and cultivating
good qualities. Finally, there is the bodhisattva who has reached any of the levels of
certainty up to the level of reaching perfection. Such a bodhisattva, who is one of
great development, will not be reborn in the lower realms and spends the third
aeon in the course of a bodhisattva's development on practicing beneficial actions
and cultivating good qualities. In this context, a short explanation is given as to how
a bodhisattva, depending on his or her developmental level, is able to employ the
aforementioned 27 methods for developing others.
I. 7 The Bodhipafala
The last of the chapters explaining the undertakings in which a bodhisattva must
train (Ka 7) is. (I.?) Jfle "chapter on Awakening" ( bodhipafala, putf pin =;;~£,
bya1!g chub ky1 le u). It presents the goal of the bodhisattva's path, namely the
attamment of the full Awakening of a buddha.
Th~ ~hapter commences by defining Awakening ( bodhi, putf 1¥tft, byang chub)
as enta1lmg tw~-~es o~ elimination (prahaJJa, duan ~' spangs pa) and two types
of knowledge Unana, zh1 ~' ye shes). The two types of elimination are the elimina-
tion of the afflictive hindrance (klesavaraJJaprahaJJa, fanniio zhang duan Jjj~~i~,
334
It should be noted that a preliminary stage called "the level of having the predisposi-
ti?n" (got~abhiimi) is added before the six levels when the levels are presented and
discussed m later parts of the Bodhisattvabhiimi ( see the Viharapatala 11.4 and the
Bhiimipafala 111.3), thereby giving a total of seven levels. For a general· discussion of the
system of bodhisattva levels or stages in the YBh, see the present article by Noritoshi
ARA MAKI.
335
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:88-94) = Tl579.498c 19 -500b 7 = D4037.47b5-51a7•
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 167
nyon mongs pa 'i sgrib pa sfangs pa) and !he elimi~a~ion of the c~?niti:e hindrance
(jiievavara1;apraha1Ja, suozhi zhang duan pfiJOp!;!~, shes bya 1 sgnb pa spangs
pa)."3 36 The two types of knowledge are th~ unbl~~ished knowled~e ~ntet?ered by
any affliction, which eme~ges after havmg/ el~mmated th~_ ~ffhctiv: h1~dra~ce
(ldesavaraIJaprahaIJac ca Illrmalaip sarvaldesaI11ranubaddha;nanam, fannao zhang
duan gu bij1'ng if gou yiqie fanniio bu suffu zhi '.Kl'['~pfffiitz ~j[:lilfJ§-tJ];tJ['['~
O
;f~*-f~, nyon mongs pa'i sgrib pa spangs nas dri ma med cing nyon mongs pa
thams cad dang r/es su 'brel pa med pa 'i ye shes), and the unhindered knowledge
that is unimpeded with regard to all cognitive objects, which emerges after having
eliminated the cognitive hindrance (j.ieyavaraJJaprahaIJac ca sarvasmiip j.ieye
apratihatam anavaraJJa.f.ianam, su6zhi zhang duan gu yzi yiqie su6zhiwu 'ai wuzhang
zhi pfT~Ortffii!iJ: ~~-tJ]pfr~LI~u.i~~~, shes bya 'i sgrib pa spangs nas shes bya
0
thams cad la thogs pa med cing sgrib pa med pa'i ye shes). Essentially, the know-
ledge in question is complete omniscience (sarvaj.iana, yiqie zhi -tl]~, thams
cad mkhyen pa), and the passage presents and explains a number of terms used to
describe such knowledge, including a brief outline of buddha-qualities, which will
be laid out in more detail in a later chapter.
Next, the chapter recounts seven superiorities (sapta paramata, qi zh6ng
zw'sheng tfilfilW, dampa bdun) that qualify the supreme Awakening. The first is
the bodily superiority (asrayaparamata, su6yi zuisheng pfT{~m!W, sku dam pa),
meaning that a buddha's body is adorned with the special marks of a great being.
The second is the superiority of a buddha's practice (pratipattiparamata, zheng
xfng zw~r;heng IEfrlfiiW, sgrub pa dam pa), namely that a buddha accomplishes
,,.ast benefit not only for himself but for the whole world. The third is the superio-
rity of attainment (saippattiparamata, yuanmiin zwsheng li11illf1M1, phun sum
tshogs pa dam pa), denoting that a buddha is unmatched by any other type of
spiritual practitioner in terms of his understanding, discipline, and conduct. The
fourth is the superiority of knowledge (j.ianaparamata, zhi zwsheng ~lfi~, ye
shes dam pa), given that a buddha's knowledge is unrivalled since he is endowed
with complete knowledge of phenomena, the meanings [of words], derivative
analyses [of the etymologies of words], and complete certitude. The fifth is the
superiority of spiritual power (prabhavaparamata, weI1i zuisheng ~)J:®:~, mthu
dam pa), expressing that a buddha possesses unlimited clairvoyance as explained
above. The sixth is the superiority of elimination (prahaJJaparamata, duan zui-
sheng ffilfiiW, spangs pa dam pa), namely that a buddha's elimination is un-
matched, since he has completely removed the afflictive as well as the cognitive
hindrances. Finally, the seventh is the superiority of the sojourns [of the practice]
( viharaparamata, zhu zuisheng {±Jfi~, gnas pa dam pa), meaning that a buddha's
position is unrivalled, since his level of attainment goes beyond the abodes of even
the highest sarµsaric gods.
Furthermore, the YBh recollects the qualities of a buddha as these are expres-
sed in the so-called "itipi so formula," a formula appearing in several stltra scrip-
tures, which still today is often recited by the saligha-members in Theravada and
Mahayana Buddhist countries. The formula runs as follows: "Thus indeed is that
Blessed One, the one who has gone forth correctly: He is the Worthy One, fully
336
For a study of the two hindrances in Yogacara literature, see the present article by A
Charles MULLER.

168 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
enlightened, fully endowed with knowledge and pure conduct, the one gone forth
to happiness, the knower of the world, the incomparable, the guide for men to be
tamed, the teacher of gods and men, the Awakened One, the Blessed One" (ity apj
sa bhagavaips tathagato 'rhaip samyaksaipbuddho v1dyacaraIJasarppannaiJ sugato
lokavM an~{faral; puru$adamyasarathjiJ sasta devanaip ca manuwanaip ca buddho
bhagavan). The text briefly explains each of these epithets of the Buddha.
The chapter ends with a treatment of the appearance of a buddha. In some
aeons (kalpa, Jie :t}J, bskal pa) not even a single buddha appears, whereas in other
aeons many buddhas appear. Moreover, there can only be a single buddha in one
world-system (lokadhatu, shijie tttW, ji"g rten gyi khams) at any given time, and
such a world-system is then called a buddha-field ( buddhak$etra, f6tii {~±, sangs
rgyas kyj zhing). A buddha-field encompasses what in Buddhist cosmology is called
a great trichiliocosm ( tnsahasramahasahasra, sanqjan daqjan - -=f ::k-=f' stong
gsum gyj stong chen po), which is a world-system having just one celestial realm of
the highest order, viz. the so-called suddhavasa and brhatphala heavens. Like a
canopy, these heavens stretch out above a billion (i.e., 1000 x 1000 x 1000) worlds
belonging to the realm of sensual desire, each world complete with its own Mt.
Meru and four continents, etc. There are countless such world-systems in all
directions and each world-system can house one buddha. In this way, many bodhi-
sattvas can reach the full fruition of their practice at the same time by appearing in
different world-systems. The passage includes a short discussion of why only a
single buddha can appear in one world-system at any given time and gives a brief
statement that a fully enlightened buddha can never be female but is invariably
male. It is here said that during their progressive practice spanning three countless
aeons, bodhjsattvas may be reborn as women during the first countless aeon, 338 but
will thereafter always be born male. The typically misogynistic reason given is that
the female gender (matrgrama, nif yfqje miiyixing ft-WB@di, bud med thams
cad) inherently has more afflictions (pralqtya bahuldesa, duo fannao xing JHJi'['~
tt rang bzh1n gyis nyon mongs pa mang ba) and is of lesser intelligence ( du$praj.ia,
duo ehui ~~ri, shes rab 'chal ba).
I.8 The Balagotrapafala
Having thus laid out the point (Ka) on the seven undertakings in which a bodhj-
sattvamust train (chapters I.3-I.7), chapters I.8-I.16 present point (Kha) explaining
how the bodhjsattva trains. The point commences with (I.8) the quite substantive
"chapter on the predisposition of having the [necessary] strength" ( balagotrapafala,
331
ns19.499b19-21: 8~m111aJf51n::m:tzo* ff!IE~'i: E!l3fiooJ1~ ~WI
0 0 0 O
tlrnmw
L3t:A: §fifffiEJJ± :XAgffi 1*7 ° ~111DJt D4037.49ar49b 1:
0 0 O O
'cJj Jtar
bcom ldan 'das de ni
de bzhin gshegs pa dgra bcom pa yang dag par rdzogs pa 'i sangs rgyas rig pa dang zhabs su
Jdan pa/ bde bar gshegs pa Jig rten mkhyen palskyes bu 'dul ba 'i kha lo sgyur ba/ bla named
pa/lha dang mi rnams kyi ston pa/ sangs rgyas bcom ldan 'das. For an exegetical example of
this formula, which is well-known in Pali as well as Sanskrit Buddhist literature, see chapter
four in LAMOTTE (1944).
338
Concerning the three countless aeons, see the summary given in the last paragraph
on chapter I.7 of the Bodhisattvabhumi, i.e., the Paripakapa{ala.
'
The YogacarabhtJmj and Its Adaptation 169
Ii zh6ngxing pin jJfittRo, stabs kyj rigs kyj Je'u), meaning a predisrosition
for becoming a buddha that consists in developing the necessary strength.33
The present chapter gives an exposition of the preliminary qualities or
strengths that a bodh1sattva, who is endowed with a predisposition for the Maha-
yana path and who has engendered the initial resolve for Awakening, must develop
in order to set out on the spiritual journey. The needed strengths are sixfold: s/he
should (1) possess extensive confidence, (2) be on a quest for the Dharma, (3) have
the ability to teach the Dharma, (4) be engaged in a practice of the Dharma that is
in accordance with the Dharma, (5) have proper competence in giving instructions
and guidance, and (6) engage in bodily, verbal, and mental activities that are
guided by methods.
First, extensive ascertainment ( adhjmuktJbahula, shengjje duo )m~~~, mos pa
mang ba) means that the bodhjsattva should have developed faith in eight things.
Initially, the bodhisattva must have faith in the qualities of the three jewels of the
Buddha, Dharma, and sailgha, the mentioned spiritual powers of the Buddha and
bodhjsattvas, the nature of reality as it was explained above, as well as various
forms of causes and effects. Moreover, the bodhjsattva must feel confident that
s/he has the ability to achieve the spiritual goal to be accomplished, i.e., the highest
Awakening, and that s/he possesses the right method for achieving this goal,
namely the bodhjsattva training. Finally, the bodhjsattva needs to place trust in the
teachings of the Dharma, such as the discourses, songs, prophecies, and so forth. 340
It is said that extensive confidence comes about only through prolonged habitua-
tion and deep patience.
Second, the bodh1sattva should be on a Dharma-quest ( dharmapaiye$fi; qjzi fa
3J<Y:!, chos 'tshol ba), meaning thats/he always strives to obtain knowledge of the
Buddhist teachings as well as of all other fields of learning. This point is treated in
a particularly extensive manner in the present chapter. As for Buddhist teachings,
the bodhisattva strives to learn both the corpus of bodhisattva-teachings ( bodhj-
sattvapjfaka, pzisa cang fa =g=~:Jli:t, byang chub sems dpa 'i sde snod) as well as
the corpus of sravaka-teachings (sravakapifaka, shengwin cang fa VM:ili:t, nyan
thos kyj sde snod). It may here be observed that the stipulation that bodhjsattvas
are required to study both kinds of Buddhist teachings may explain why the YBh as
a Mahayana treatise includes detailed explanations not only on the Mahayana but
also on the Sravakayana and Pratyekabuddhayana. The passage goes on to clarify
that the bodhjsattva-teachings (bodhjsattvapifaka) refers to the so-called "exten-
sive passages" ( va.ipulya, fangguang 15flt shin tu rgyas pa) from among the
aforementioned twelve branches of the Buddha's words. 341 As for other fields of
learning these include treatises of the outer sciences ( biihyakani sastraJJi, wailim Ji-
§'HH, phyj rol gyj bstan bcos) such as treatises on logic (hetusastra, yinlun lz;I~, gtan
tshigs kyj bstan bcos), language (sabdasastra, shenglun §§#a, sgra'i bstan bcos),
O
~ and healing ( vyadhjdkjtsasastra, yifang Jun '&n§ffil, gso ba 'i bstan bcos). They also
include mundane topics of practical skills (laukikanj si1pakarmasthanani, shijjan
gongye chu Jun filfs~T*~§ffil, Jig rten pa'i bzo dang las kyj gnas shes pa), for
339 WOGIHARA (1930-1936:95-113) = Tl579.500b -505a = D4037.5lar6la7.
9 14
°
34 For the twelve branches of the Dharma, which start with the discources, songs, and
prophecies, see the list on p.114.
341 See p.114.
170 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
example the crafts of a goldsmith, blacksmith, and jeweler. In short, all these forms
of learning arc encompassed by the five "fields of knowledge" ( r.,;idyasthana, ming-
chiz Sjj~, rig pa'i gnas), which were summarized above in the Srutamayi BhumiiJ,
and the present chapter provides a short description of these different sciences. At
this point, the passage goes into a long digression explaining a system of ten types
of causes ( dasa hetavalJ, shi yin +12s1, rgyu bcu po), four conditions ( catvaraiJ.
pratyayaiJ, si yuan !Z9*&, rkyen bzhi), and five types of effects (paipca phalam; wu
gu61i*, 'bras bu Inga). The ten types of causes are: (1) the cause for applying a
conventional designation (anuvyavaharahetu, sufshu6 yin ~i>tlz;I, Ijes su tha snyad
'dogs pa 'i rgyu), (2) the cause for [conceptualizing a] dependency [between two
entitites] (apek~ahetu, guandaiyin #JHilz;I, ltos pa'i rgyu), (3) the projecting cause
[for producing a future result] (ak~epahetu, qianyin yin $5 [lz;i, 'phen pa'i rgyu),
(4) the supportive cause (parigrahahetu, sheshou yin ffli'.3Z:lz;I, yangs SU 'dzin pa 'i
rgyu), (5) the productive cause (abhinirvrttihetu, shengqi yin .1J]!z;!, mngon par
'grub pa 'i rgyu), (6) the leading cause ( avahakahetu, yfnfa yin 5 [~[2sl, 'dren pa 'i
rgyu), (7) the cause for making distinctions (pratiniyamahetu, dingbie yin 5EJ5Ulz;I,
so sor nges pa 'i rgyu), (8) the contributive cause (sahakarihetu, t6ngshi yin ~$!z;I,
lhan cig byed pa 'i rgyu), (9) the obstructive cause ( virodhahetu, xiangwei yin ~mt
lz;I, mi mthun pa'i rgyu), and (10) the non-obstructive cause (avirodhahetu, bu
XJangweiyin ~.f§:itlz;I, mi mthun pa med pa'i rgyu). The four conditions are: (1)
the causal condition (hetupratyaya, yin yuan lz;I*&, rgyu'i rkyen), (2) the immedi-
ately preceding condition (samanantarapratyaya, deng wzijian yuan ~~FR~~'
mtshungs pa de ma thag pa'i rkyen), (3) the focal condition (iilaipbanapratyaya,
su6yuan yuan pfr~*&, dmigs pa 'i rkyen), and (4) the governing condition ( adhi-
patipratyaya, zengshang yuan :ttrl __t~, bdag po'i rkyen). The five types of effects
are: (1) the ripening effect (vipiikaphala, y1'shti gu6 ~~*' rnam par smin pa'i
'bras bu), (2) the corresponding effect (ni.syandaphala, dengliti gu6 ~1frE*, rgyu
mthun pa'i 'bras bu), (3) the disjunctive effect (v1saipyogaphala, lixi gu6 MfE~::~t
bral ba 'i 'bras bu), (4) the result of human effort (puru~akiiraphala, shiyong gu6 ±
*'
ffl skyes bu byed pa 'i 'bras bu), and (5) the governing effect ( adhipatiphala,
zengshang gu6 ti __t*, bdag po'i 'bras bu). The passage explains in detail how the
different types of causes and conditions apply to outer causation, as in the case of
rice and barley farming, as well as inner causation in the form of the twelve links of
dependent arising. These models are intended to lay out all the causal processes
involved in sarµsaric obscuration (saipklesa, zaran m*, kun nas nyon mongs pa)
and nirval)ic purification ( vyavadana, qingjing iiij, rnam par byang ba), and
thereby elucidate the full extent of the bodhisattva's knowledge. The exegesis of
the five types of effects touches briefly on the topic of 22 types of agency or faculty,
where a cross-reference for additional information is given to the Vastusaipgra-
hal}i compendium, i.e., the last of the five compendia of the Supplementary
Section that follows after the Basic Section of the YBh. Unless the cross-reference
itself is a late interpolation, it could perhaps suggest that the present chapter's long
digression on these causal models was written after the composition of the
VastusaipgrahaJJi, which, as noted above, is generally considered a relatively early
layer of the YBh. The explanation on the bodhisattva's quest for Dharma ends with
an instruction on how the bodhisattva should strive to listen (sruta, wen~, thos pa)
to the teachings with great devotion, free from all afflictions, and with undivided
attention. The final passage also discusses the reasons why the bodhisattva seeks to
study not only the Buddhist teachings, but also logic, language, medicine, and
various mundane crafts.
The Yogiiciirabhumi and Its Adaptation 171
The third type of strength that the bodhisattva needs to develop is the ability to
teach the Dharma to others ( dharmadesaka, shu6 fa §nit, chos ston pa). The
bodhisattva teaches to others what s/he has learned and teaches what is of benefit
to them. Such teaching should be done in an appropriate manner without sitting on
a high seat, without ulterior or mundane motives, with friendliness and compassion,
and by following the scriptures.
Fourth, practicing the Dharma in accordance with the Dharma ( dharmanu-
dharmapratipattJ; xiuxing fa sulfa xing V1fi1t~1tfi, chos kyi Ijes su mthun pa'i
chos bsgrub pa) means that the bodhisattva puts the Dharma that s/he has studied
into life by understanding it, cultivating it in meditation, giving up what should be
given up, and by developing what should be developed. Having explained how the
bodhisattva should correctly contemplate and understand ( saipyakcintana, zhengsi
IEJ!t legs par sems pa) the teachings in solitude, the segment turns to presenting
meditation ( bhavana, zhengxiu IEni, bsgom pa) in terms of the contemplative
practices of tranquility (samatha, shemata ~-1fu, zhi gnas), meditative insight
( vipasyana, piboshena ~f!it~H[.), lhag mthong), repeated practice of samatha and
vipasyana csamathavipasyanabhyasa, xiuxi shemata piboshena {11~~JJH1P.~f!ft~
J~, zhi gnas dang lhag mthong la goms pa), and enjoying samatha and vipasyanii
(samathavipasyanabhirati, le xiiixf shemata pfboshena ~ni~~~@mmt*!~,
zhi gnas dang }hag mthong la mngon par dga' ba). Short definitions are provided
for these four aspects of meditation, along with a little explanation on how the
mcditator attains purification, meditative ease, and vision of knowledge.
Fifth, to have proper competence in giving instructions and guidance ( saipyag-
avavadanusasanyaip sthita, zheng jiaoshou jiiiojie lE~~,x~, legs par gdams pa
dang Ijes su bstan pa la gnas pa) means that the bodhisattva relies on the right
approach when teaching others. Before imparting instructions ( avavada, jiaoshou
fy:~, gdams ngag), the bodhisattva, relying on social interaction or meditative
intuition, needs to ascertain the recipient's mind, aptitude, intention, latent afflic-
tions, as well as which meditation instruction is suitable for the student, namely
whether the student ought to use the contemplation of loving kindness, the medita-
tion on dependent arising, the meditation on the elements, or another type of
meditation. As for giving guidance ( anusasana, jiiiojie ~~, 1:jes su bstan pa), the
bodhisattva in particular admonishes the students to avoid blameworthy behavior
and encourages right behavior.
The sixth and final strength that the bodhisattva needs is to engage in bodily,
verbal, and mental activities comprised of methods aimed at helping others
( upayaparigrhitaip bodhisattvanaip kayavalimanaskarma, fangbiiin su6she shen yii
yi ye jj"1£pfrfflrJ}!ffi,'G,*, thabs kyis yangs su zin pa'i lus dang ngag dang yid kyi las
can). Essentially, this entails that the bodhisattva employs the four bases for
gathering students ( catvari saipgrahavastuni, si zh6ng sheshi !Z9:flfflr$, bsdu ba 'i
dngos po bzhi). These four include: (1) caring for others and guiding them by
means of generosity ( dana, bushi 111JJffi, sbyin pa), (2) affectionate speech (priya-
vadita, aiyii ~§ft, snyan par smra ba), (3) meaningful activities ( arthacarya, fixing
f[jfi, don spyod pa), and (4) working and practicing together (sa1-~1anarthata,
t6ngshi ~$, don mthun pa).
1.9 The Danapafala
While the Balagotrapafala (I.8) explained what may be regarded as the preliminary
and broader steps of the bodhisattva's manner of practice, the following six chap-
ters (I.9-I.14) provide an exposition of the classical Mahayana model of spiritual
I
172 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
application, namely the bodhisattva's practice of the six perfections (~afpiiramita,
Jiu b6Ju6midu6 /\)El~~~' pha rol tu phyin pa drug), viz. generosity, discipline,
endurance, drive, meditation, and insight. The first among these is (I.9) the "chap-
tf.-" tJ
sb,ym
• pa 11e
/ f /u) .342
0
• ( - ,J..-
ter on generosity" danapafala, s111 pm 1JIB1=11=1,
v
The chapter elucidates the perfection of generosity ( diinapiiramitii, shi b6lu6-
mkfu6 Jjfil)Rl~~~' sbyin pa'ipha rol tu phyin pa) under nine headings: (1) the
nature of generosity ( svabhiiva, zixI'ng § tt ngo bo nyid), (2) its complete range
(sarva, yiqie -t)], thams cad), (3) its difficulty (du~kara, nanxfng ftfi, dka' ba),
(4) its universal application (sarvatomukha, yiqie men -t)]F,, th~1?1_S cad kyi sgo
nas), (5) the case of an advanced practitioner (satpuru~a, shansh1 ~±, skyes bu
dam pa), (6) all its varieties (sarviikiira, yiq1e zhong -t)]f~, rna1!1.f!~,!h~ms cad),
(7) the case of the destitute and those in need ( vighiitiirthika, swqw ~>K, phongs
shing 'dad dang ldan pa), (8) the giving of happiness in this life and the next
(ihamutrasukha, cishi tiishi le .tlttitfifttit~, 'di dang gzhan du bde bar 'gyur ba),
and (9) its purified form ( visuddha, qingjing ;15$, rnam par dag pa). The ~a?1e
nine headings are likewise employed in the subsequent chapters when explammg
the remaining five perfections.
First, the nature of generosity is that the bodhisattva gives to others whatever
they need. In doing so, the bodhisattva remains free from attachment and enter-
tains no regard for his or her own possessions or body. Also, the bodhisattva
upholds the vows s/he has taken, has knowledge of the teachings, pays attention to
the result of his or her actions, and gives only things that are proper to give.
Second, the complete range of generosity means that the bodhisattva gives
inner as well as outer things. The inner thing denotes the bodhisattva's own body,
e.g., donating body parts, blood, or even the whole body in order to alleviate
starvation or the like. Outer things denote material possessions and so forth. It is
· stipulated that the bodhisattva only gives when s/he sees that the gift will benefi~
the receiver, bring happiness, and will not cause any damage. Further, the bodh1-
sattva does not give things that may be used to produce harm, such as weapons,
poison, or alcohol, or things that due to their very nature involve violence, s~ch as
drinks or foods consisting of live animals. Along such lines, the passage provides a
fairly long list of things that the bodhisattva is not supposed to give, briefly dis-
cussing various examples in order to delimit the range of the bodhisattva's practice
of generosity, making this point by far the longest explanation in the present
chapter. To ensure that the practice of generosity is pure, the bodhisattva remains
completely free of all mundane and supramundane desires and attachments,
including the wish that the generosity will bring him or her health, beauty, or
wealth in the bodhisattva's own future lives. S/he does not hope for a result, but
dedicates all generosity towards attaining buddhahood. The bodhisattva also prac-
tices generosity with regard to knowledge by giving Dharma-teachings or ma~ng
teachings available to others. In this context, the passage makes several sect~~an
stipulations regarding that the bodhisattva should not promote books conta~mng
non-Buddhist teachings. Finally, the passage explicates four factors that hmder
generosity, viz. not having a former habit of being generous, possessing very few
things that can be given away, being attached to things that are nice, and entertain-
342
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:114-136) = Tl579.505a 22 -510b 28 = D4037.6lar73b6.
The Yogacarabf11Jmj and Its Adaptation 173
ing a hope for gaining wealth in the future. To overcome such limitations, the
passage discusses a number of ways of practicing generosity intelligently, for
example as it may be practiced by the bodhisattva who has gone into solitude.
The third point concerning the difficulty of practicing gen~rosity briefly pre-
sents three common challenges. The first is to be able to give what others request
while having to accept the difficulty this may cause for oneself, fearing that giving it
away may cause a loss or harm to oneself. The second is to be able to give away
what others request while having to give up attachment to things that one holds
dear. The third is to be able to give teachings that others request, while having to
accept giving these freely in spite of all the efforts and hardships that one had to
undergo oneself to get them.
Fourth, the universal application of generosity briefly states that the bodhi-
sattva gives generously to anybody who requests something, whether or not the
person is related to or dependent on the bodhisattva, such as a family member or
someone who works for the bodhisattva.
Fifth, the case of an advanced practitioner pertains to giving gifts to out-
standing individuals (satpuruJa, shanshi ~±, skyes bu dam pa), which the bodhi-
sattva must do in an especially reverent way. The bodhisattva, feeling faith and
devotion, presents a gift to outstanding individuals by giving it personally with his
or her own hands and at the most suitable time, making sure that it absolutely does
not cause any harm or discomfort to others.
Sixth, the explanation on all the varieties of generosity consists in a short enu-
meration of thirteen aspects of practicing generosity, namely: giving without
cC'ncern for reputation, giving with a pure heart, giving with joy, giving repeatedly,
giving to those who are worthy, giving to those who are not worthy, giving every-
thing, giving to all, giving at all times, giving whatever is irreproachable, giving
away people or animals as gifts, giving away places, and giving away wealth and
grain.
Seventh, as for the case of the destitute and those in need, the chapter enume-
rates different kinds of things that the bodhisattva might donate to those who have
need for such articles. The gifts mentioned here include food, drink, vehicles,
clothes, ornaments, all kinds of tools and utensils, perfumes, garlands, fragrant oils,
shelter, and light. Surprisingly, medicine and medical treatment are not mentioned
in this list.
The eighth point in the chapter concerns providing means for happiness in this
life and the next. It is here specified that the bodhisattva gives away anything that
may bring happiness, distinguishing three aspects thereof, viz. material gifts, the
gift of fearlessness, and the gift of the Dharma. The giving of material gifts is to
donate anything that is good and pure without stinginess and without hoarding
anything for oneself. The giving of fearlessness is to offer protection to someone
fearing wild beasts, the ruler, robbers, or the elements. Both these types of gifts are
said to give happiness in this life. Thirdly, the gift of the Dharma is to give Buddhist
teachings, instruction in the practices, and so forth. This type of gift is said to bring
happiness in future lives.
The ninth and last point of the chapter deals with the purified and perfected
practice of generosity. This is presented in ten aspects, each of which is explained
or discussed in brief: to be swift with one's generosity without holding back; to give
without considering it special but also without thinking that it is useless; to give
c?ntinuously without first saving up for a long time; to give without haughtiness,
nvalry, or thinking that the recipient now owes one something in return; to have no
174 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
concern for getting praise and a good reputation; to give without regret and not to
feel depressed subsequently; to give without considering one's gift to be out-
st~nding; to give freely without rejecting anybody whether friend or foe; to give
w1tho~t hope for r:ward or return of the favor; and to give without hope for
accrumg good karmic results. In these ten ways, the bodh1'sattva strives to keep his
or her practice of generosity pure.
!he chapter ends by saying that having perfected the practice of generosity by
relymg on these nine points, the bodhisattva will in the future attain the perfect
and complete Awakening of a buddha.
1.10 The SDapafala
The (I.1~). ''chapter on discipline" (silapafala, jie pin tBGfo, tshul khrims kyi Je'u) is
: expos1t10n o~ the P:rfection of disc.ipline J{11aP_aramita, jie b6lu6mklu6 fJxi~§
1:1:l- 1§, tshul khnms ky1 pha rol tu phym pa). This chapter has served as a special
focus of study in the ensuing Yogacara traditions of India, East Asia and Tibet
· · 344 • Dharma, from time to time engaging in social interaction, praising the good
and was the subJect of several commentaries. It 1s structured along the' same nine'
point~ as found in all the chapters on the six perfections (I.9-I.14).
First, the nature (svabhava, zixing §I'f'i, ngo bo nyid) of discipline means: (1)
that the bodhisattva receives vows in a proper fashion from another person holding
these vows, (2) thats/he has a pure motivation, (3) thats/he restores any vows that
s/he has broken by relying on the required confessional rites, and (4) that s/he
exerts conscientious care not to break the vows [again].
Second, the complete range (sarva, yiqie -tl], thams cad) of discipline of a
bodhisattva involves discipline practiced by the householder-section [of the
Buddhist community] (grhipak~agata, zaijia fen ft~n\ khyims pa 'i phyogs su
gtogs pa) as well as discipline practiced by the renunciant-section [of the Buddhist
communi~] (pravrajitapak~agata, chzljia fen tB~::51, rab tu byung ba'iphyogs su
gtogs pa), 1.e., monks and nuns. 345 Both forms of discipline may be further subdi-
~~~:d ~to_ three typ~~. The fi.rst type. is the discipline of vows (saipvarasila, lilyf
346
pe 1ff~t!X:, sdom pa 1 tshul khnms), which means that the bodhisattva upholds one
~f the seven sets of pratimok~a vows, namely the vows of a monk, a nun, [a Eroba-
t10nary nun], a male or female novice, or a male or female lay practitioner. 47 The
second type is the discipline of gathering beneficial actions (kusaladharma-
343
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:137-188) = T1579.510cr523a14 = D4037.73brl01b 6 . For
another summary and a study of this chapter, see the present article by Michael
ZIMMERMANN.
3
~ See, e.g., the remarks given on the Indian commentaries in the present paper by
Martm DELHEY. Other commentaries have also been written in Chinese and Tibetan .
345
• Conce~ni~g the division between householders and renunciations, see the present
article ~y Nonak1 HAJ<;AMAY';. HAKAMAYA also discusses how this division pertains to the
categones of saipvarasila, kusaladharmasaipgrahakasila, and sattvarthakriyasila, and trans-
lates short excerpts concerning these types of sila. For an explanation of these terms see
below in the main text. ' In this regard, see the remarks on the various Indian traditions of the bodhi-
346 F
or a study of these three types, see the present article by Michael ZIMMERMANN.
347
_ Se~ the present article by Noriaki HAKAMA YA. The category of probationary nuns is
not hsted m the present passage of the YBh, although it is implied in that the passage refers
to the seven sets of pratimok~a vows, which include this category.
The YogacarabhOmj and Its Adaptation 175
saipgrahakaip silam, she shanfa jie tifa}:ttBG, dge ba 'j chos sdud pa 'j tshul khrims).
It means that the bodhisattva for the purpose of attaining great Awakening accu-
mulates beneficial actions with body and speech. This may include studying the
teachings, practicing meditation, and from time to time paying respect to the
teachers (guru, zunzhiing W:R, bla ma). It also includes caring for the sick, prai-
sing those who show good qualities, and rejoicing in the good actions done by
beings everywhere. Whatever beneficial actions the bodhisattva does, s/he dedi-
cates them all to the attainment of Awakening, ands/he regularly performs aspira-
tion prayers and makes offerings to the Three Jewels. The third type is the disci-
pline of acting for the benefit of sentient beings (sattvarthakriyasila or sattvanu-
grahakaip silam, ra6yi y6uqfng jie !i~B'[WtBG, sems can la phan 'dogs pa 'i tshul
khrims). This type, in turn, consists of eleven kinds of benefit: being helpful to
others, caring for the ill, giving secular and religious teachings, returning favors,
protecting others against dangers, alleviating sufferings associated with belongings
and relatives, providing tools to those in need thereof, guiding others with the
qualities of others, with a good intention gently admonishing others to avoid
baneful activities and instead do beneficial activities, and leading others away from
baneful actions while instilling faith by miraculously making them see the hell-
realms or other realms of the afterlife. To maintain such discipline, the bodhisattva
upholds a pure motivation, completely disregards all worldly gain and praise, and
perceives him- or herself as dwelling in solitude even when actually living among
others. The bodhisattva does not feel daunted or depressed, since s/he considers
that even the greatest bodhisattvas were once mere ordinary persons and that they
successfully progressed in their training. Along such lines, the chapter explains in
quite some detail how the bodh1'sattva maintains a pure attitude, acts conscien-
tiously, avoids speaking or acting negatively, assists and cares for all beings, is a joy
and rejoices, and thereby perfects the training in all three aspects of discipline.
The passage also includes an explanation on how the bodhisattva should take
the bodhisattva-vow, providing clear details on the performance of the concrete
ceremony. 348 Thereafter, the segment enters into a very detailed discussion of the
potential transgressions of the bodhisattva-vow. To begin with, four acts consti-
tuting [total] defeat ( catvaralJ parajayikasthaniya dharmaiJ, tashengchu Iii [9f~f-tg
WJW&z:t, pham pa'i gnas Jta bu'i chos bzi),349 i.e., the four gravest trangressions, are
explained. These include, (1) to belittle others and exalt oneself in hope of gain
and favor, (2a) coldheartedly to turn away the destitute, those suffering, or those
worthy of compassion without giving them any alms due to attachment to
belongings, or (2b) out of envy related to the Dharma, not to share Dharma-
teachings with someone who has correctly sought teachings and properly entreated
the bodhisattva to teach him or her, (3) out of anger, to beat, harm, or injure others
showing no mercy and to refuse to stop holding a grudge even after the other
person has sincerely admitted his or her fault, and (4) to disparage the bodhisattva-
348
dttotplida ritual procedure and their treatment by Tibetan scholars in WANGCHUK (2007:
176-189).
349
Concerning the obscurity of the Sanskrit term, see the short remarks by EDGERTON
(1953.11: 342 s.v. parajika).
176 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
teachings and instead put faith in, delight in, and promote those who distort the
genuine Dharma-teachings. 350 The segment goes on to discuss a long list of lesser
transgressions ( apatt1; weifan ~j8, nyes pa), some of which display sectarian bias,
given that several blameworthy actions are said not to constitute a transgression, if
they are done towards persons of other faiths. The segment also explains how to
restore a vow by means of confession after a transgression has occurred. Finally, it
ends with a short exposition of three types of refinement that are achieved by the
bodhisattva who practices discipline in a perfect manner.
Third, the difficulty ( du$kara, nanxfng ftfi, dka 'ba) of practicing discipline is
explained in three points: (1) it is difficult to adopt the discipline ofvows for some-
one who is very wealthy and powerful, (2) once the bodhisattva has taken a vow,
s/he is willing to undergo any difficulty to uphold it and never breaks it, no matter
what cost this might entail for his or her own well-being, (3) s/he accepts the
difficulty involved in avoiding even the slightest transgression or slip of conduct,
and accordingly keeps up constant mindfulness and conscientiousness in all doings.
Fourth, the universal application (sarvatomukha, yiqie men -tor~, thams cad
kyi sgo nas) of discipline is briefly presented in four overall types. The first type is
the adopted discipline ( samatta1J1 silam, zhengshou Jie IESz:ilx:, yang dag par bslang
pa 'i tshul khrims) consisting in the three aspects presented above, i.e., the disci-
pline of vows, of gathering beneficial actions, and of acting for the benefit of
sentient beings. The second type is called natural discipline (prak[tisila, benxingjie
::$:'l'itBG, rang bzhin gyi tshul khrims), which means that someone who possesses the
predisposition of a bodhisattva has an innate tendency to act in a pure manner.
The third is the so-called accustomed discipline ( abhyasta1J1 sila, chuanxfjie $~
ilx:, goms pa 'i tshul khrims), signifying a natural tendency in the bodhisattva to
avoid baneful actions and engage in beneficial actions due to the training in the
three aspects of discipline that the bodhisattva has undergone in his or her former
lives. The fourth is called the discipline involving methods ( upayayukta!J1 silam,
fangbian xiangying jie Jff£t§fflilx:, thabs dang Jdan pa 'i tshul khrims), which
denotes the manner in which the bodhisattva performs the four bases for gathering
[students] ( catvari salJlgrahavastiim; si she shi [9~$, bsdu ba 'i dngos po bzhi) in
order to inspire and lead others to perform beneficial actions. These four bases will
be presented in more detail below in the Sa1J1grahavastupafala chapter (1.15).
Fifth, advanced practitioners (satpuru$a, shanshi ~t, skyes bu dam pa)
uphold their own discipline, guide others to adopt some type of discipline, praise
the practice of discipline, set an inspiring example for practicing discipline, are
delighted to see anything that accords with the Dharma, and restore their own
discipline if any transgression has occurred.
Sixth, all the varieties ( sarvakara, yiqie zh6ng -tl]t_i, rnam pa thams cad) of
discipline encompass thirteen aspects, which, on the one hand, is a list of six
qualifying phrases used to describe the character of discipline and, on the other
hand, is a sevenfold list of different aspects of discipline. The six qualifying
phrases - which are briefly justified in the passage - describe the bodhisattva's
discipline as being: (1) dedicated (paril;amita, huixiang ®~, *yangs su bsngo
°
35
For these four transgressions, see WANGCHUK (2007:191-192) and the present
article by Michael ZIMMERMANN.
The Yogiiciirabhumi and Its Adaptation 177
ba), 351 (2) broad ( visada, guangb6 )Jiff, rgya che ba), (3) based in inoffensive
pleasure ( anavadyamodasthaniya, wzizui huanxi chu ~$IX:~~' kha na ma tho
ba med pa dang rab tu dga' ba'ignas dang mthun pa), (4) constant (satata, heng-
ch;ing '[g,m,, rtag tu byedpa), (5) firm (dr<jha,jiangu ~~, brtanpa), and (6) the
ornament of [all] discipline ( sila1J1kara, shilu6 zhuangyan Ju xiangying F iiHif JiU:t
t§JT!, tshul khrims kyi rgyan dang Jdan pa). The sevenfold list of different aspects
of discipline include: (1) discipline of abstention (nivrttisila, zhfxijie rr,~,ilx:, Jdog
pa 'i tshul khrims), (2) discipline of [beneficial] activities (pravrttisila, zhuanzuo jie !
ljiff'f-~, )"ug pa'i t'ihul khrims), (3) discipline of safeguarding (arak$aka!J1 silam, . I
fanghu jie ~E~~' kun nas bsrung ba 'i tshul khrims), (4) discipline of developing
the signs of a great person (mahapuru$alak$a1Javaipakya1J1 silam, dashi xiang
yish6ujie :*±t§::W,~ilx:, skyes bu chen po'i mtshan rnam par smin par byed pa'i
tshul khrims), (5) discipline of developing a higher mind (adhicittavaipakyalJl
[silamj, zengshang xin yish6u jie ti _b[;\~,~~' Jhag pa 'i sems rnam par smin par
byed pa 'i tshul khrims), ( 6) discipline of developing a desirable course of existence
(iJ{agativaipakyalJl [silamj, ke'ai qu yish6u jie uJ~m::W,~~. sdug pa'i 'gro ba
rnam par smin par byed pa 'i tshul khrims), and (7) discipline of developing benefit
for sentient beings (sattvarthavaipakyalJl [silamj, Ji y6uqfng y1'sh6u;ie fljff'[W::W~
~' sems can gyi don rnam par smin par byedpa 'i tshul khrims).
in need ( vighatarthika, sw'qiu ~*'
The seventh point concerning discipline in the case of the destitute and those
phongs shing 'dod dang Jdan pa) pertains to
how the bodhisattva should treat others in the same way as s/he would like to be
treated him- or herself. Thus, just as the bodhisattva would not like to be exposed
to killing, stealing, sexual abuse, lies, slander, hurtful words, senseless talk, and
violence, s/he should decide never to inflict such misdeeds on others. In the present
volume, Michael ZIMMERMANN characterizes the above statement as an instance
of the Golden Rule known in a number of world religions. 352
Eighth, the fact that discipline gives happiness in this life and the next (iha-
mutrasukha, cishi tashi le !itfilffufil~, 'di dang gzhan du bde bar 'gyur ba) pertains
to: avoiding what should be avoided; allowing what should be allowed; gathering
what should be gathered; holding back what should be held back; engaging in a
pure bodily, verbal, and mental conduct; and having a discipline endowed with
generosity, endurance, drive, meditation, and insight.
The ninth and final point of the Silapafala chapter is the presentation of disci-
pline in its purified form ( visuddha, qingjing 1W~, rnam par dag pa). At this
advanced stage, discipline is said to be well-observed, not too slack, not too extre-
mely pursued, without laziness, observed with vigilance, properly applied, observed
thoroughly throughout all daily activities, observed through a right livelihood, with-
out the extremes of pleasure-seeking and self-deprivation, leading to emancipation,
and unfailing in all undertakings.
The chapter ends by stating that such perfect discipline will ultimately lead to
the full and complete Awakening of a buddha. In the meantime, the practice of
351
The extant Sanskrit text and the Tibetan version are both slightly corrupt in this pas-
sag~. The Tibetan version omits the word *yongs su bsngo ba, which is attested by the San-
skrit and Chinese versions.
352
.See also SCHMITHAUSEN's article (2007b) on the Golden Rule in Buddhist texts.
 178 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
discipline will bring the bodhisattva many benefits that will enable him or her
continuously to practice and perfect the discipline in every rebirth.
1.11 The ~tipafa]a
The (1.11) "chapter on endurance" (k$iintipafala, ren pin ,2f0 , bzod pa'i Je'u)
elaborates the perfection of endurance (~'iiintiparamitii, ren b6lu6midu6 2iBl§
~:§}, bzod pa'i pha rol tu phyin pa). 353 The chapter is structured along the same
nine points as the previous perfections, namely the Diinapafala (1.9) and Silapafala
(1.10).
First, the nature ( svabhiiva, zixing § ti, ngo bo nyid) of endurance is defined
as t~e patient bearing or forgiveness (mar$aIJa, kiinren :!:i(J, ;i' mi snyam pa)3 54 of
an~ mt~?-tional or inadvertent wrongdoing inflicted by another person (pariipakiira,
yuanha1 ?@~, gzhan gnod par byed pa). Such forbearance must be done with an
attitude free from any hope of reward, must be purely motivated by compassion,
and must fully forgive the wrongdoing in its entirety.
. Second, the complete range (sarva, yfqie --l;l], thams cad) of endurance per-
tams to householders as well as renunciants, and covers three general types: (1) the.
endurance of patiently bearing wrongdoings inflicted by others (pariipakiira-
mar$al)iik~iinti, nai ta yuanhai ren m1-tl2.?i.&~2, gzhan gnod pa byed pa la Ji mi
snyam pa 'I bzod pa), (2) the endurance of accepting sufferings ( dul;zkhadhiviisanii-
k$iinti, iinshou zhong kii ren 'i$;'!st);)<.=/!!i?8, sdug bsngal dang du Jen pa'I' bzod pa),
a~d (3) th~ endurance of resolving to comprehend the Dharma ( dharma-
mdhyiiniidh1mok$ak$iinti, fa sf shengjie ren i!J'&,)mf§~,2, chos la nges par sems pa
la mos pa 'I' bzod pa). A substantial part of the chapter consists in explaining these
three types in detail.
. Th~ fir.st type of endur~nce, namely the endurance of patiently bearing wrong-
?omg~ mfl1cted by _others, !s at the outset explained in terms of three general ways
m which ~he bodh1sattv_a views the hardships caused by others' wrongdoings. First,
the_ bodhisattva may thmk that the hardship simply is the karmic result of negative
~cti_?ns s/he has committed in former lives and hence in actuality the harm is self-
!nfl1cted. Consequently, the bodhi'iattva considers the person who at present
mdu~~s the hardship as not carrying any blame. Secondly, s/he may think that all
conditioned phenomena are suffering in nature and knowing this s/he understands
th~t there is nothing special or different about the present instance of suffering.
Th1rdl~, the bodhisattva may think that while a sriivaka undergoes a great many
hardships to reach nirviil}a for his or her own sake, a bodhisattva who strives to
accomplish benefit for all sentient beings should be prepared to undergo even
greater hardships. Following the above threefold explanation, the text gives a
longer presentation involving five reflections that the bodhisattva may entertain to
353
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:189-199) = Tl579.523aw525b 29 = D4037.l0lb 6-107a4 • The
term ~~:int~ ma~ ~n som~ contexts be translated :"ith endurance, which emphasizes the
bodhisattva s ab!hty patiently to tolerate hardships. In other contexts, it means 'for-
bearance' or 'patience'. The English translation 'endurance' is employed here, but the other
meanings of the original term should also be kept in mind.
354
':"7hile the ~anskrit and ~hi~ese terms mar~aIJ:i and k:inren denote to patiently bear
a suff~rmg, the Tibetan term JI m1 snyam pa means 'non-retaliation' (literally, "not [giving
back] m equal measure").
The YogacarabhiJmj and Its Adaptation 179
patiently bear wrongdoings. The first is the thought of [others having been] dear
[to oneself] in former lives (pzlrvajanmasuhrtsaipjiia, susheng qfnshan xiang ©±
*J?.~1~, sngon gyj tshe rabs su snying du sdug par gyur pa 'i 'du shes). This means
that the bodhisattva thinks that the person who is inflicting the wrongdoing may
have been his or her own parent, child, relative, or spiritual teacher in some former
life, and therefore should not be seen as an enemy at present. The second is the
thought ofregarding [the whole event] as mere phenomena (dharmamiitranusiirfIJf
saipjiia, sui5hun wei Iii xiang ~H~Oi)!!Jl, chos tsam gyi rjes su 'brang ba 1· 'du shes).
Here, the bodhisattva patiently endures a wrongdoing by thinking that all the
elements of the given event are merely conditioned factors coming together, which
do not involve any self, creator, or doer. The third is the thought of impermanence
( am'tyasaipjiia, wzichang xiiing ~'mJ~, mi rtag pa 1· 'du shes), meaning that the
bodhisattva thinks that everything is impermanent and would any way eventually
come to an end or die, and that there really is no enduring substance or essence in
the event that would serve as an object for anger or retaliation. The fourth is the
thought of suffering ( duiJkhasaipjiia, kii xiiing =/!!if~, sdug bsngal ba 'i 'du shes),
where the bodhisattva contemplates that everyone, even the most fortunate, are
constantly exposed t9 the suffering of suffering, the suffering of change, and
existential suffering, 3.-, 5 and that there consequently is no point in retaliating in
order to try to remove suffering. The fifth is the thought of being married [to all
sentient beings ]35 6 (parigrahasaipjiiii, sheshou xiiing fflrst!~, yangs su bzung ba 'i
'du shes). In this case, bodhisattvas should think that since they have engendered
the resolve to achieve Awakening for the benefit of all sentient beings, they must
constantly strive to act for the benefit of others and regard all beings as their own
wives. Consequently, they decide not to act for their own benefit by retaliating but
instead patiently endure and forgive the wrongdoings that were inflicted upon
them. Endurance (k$iinti, ren (2,, bzod pa) is here explained as meaning not to
become angry, not to retaliate, and not to hold a grudge.
The second general type of endurance, the endurance of accepting sufferings,
means that the bodhisattva considers the fact that for the sake of pursuing short-
term pleasure s/he was earlier willing to accept all sorts of hardship and distress.
Consequently, as a bodhisattva seeking ultimate happiness, s/he should now be
willing to accept even greater hardships and sufferings in the pursuit of beneficial,
spiritual activities. The segment then presents eight major sources of hardships in
the bodhisattva's life, each of which is further subdivided into various aspects. (1) If
the bodhisattva has taken up ordination as a monk or a nun, the first source of
hardship that the bodhisattva must accept is the difficulty involved in obtaining
almsfood, robes, medicine, utensils, and beddings. (2) The second source of
hardship to be accepted is the mundane events of not getting what one wants,
infamity, criticism, suffering, illness, things coming to an end, aging, and death. (3)
355
On these forms of suffering, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1977).
356
The Sanskrit expression pangraha literally means "taking hold of' and could here
also be translated as "the thought of taking hold of (all sentient beings]." However, as the
ensuing explanation refers to viewing all sentient beings as being one's own wife (kacjatra,
qlnjuim ii#, chung ma), it makes sense to translate parigraha in its specialized meaning of
"marrying." It may be added that the Chinese translation, unlike the Tibetan version, does
not render kacjatra as "wife" but as "relative" ( qinjuan ~ff).
180 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
The third source of hardship to be accepted is the different physical activities that
the renunciant has to perform, such as walking, standing, sitting, and lying down.
For the monk or nun, these activities are strictly regulated and must be practiced
with simplicity and austerity, for example, by using only a primitive seat or by
sleeping on a bed made only of straw or leaves. (4) The fourth source of hardship
to be accepted is the difficulties involved in following the Dharma. Such hardships
may be felt when venerating the Three Jewels and the teacher or when having to
stand while the teacher is standing. Also, the bodhisattva has to accept hardships
connected to giving teachings, doing recitations, staying in solitude, and practicing
contemplation and meditation. (5) The fifth source of hardship to be accepted is to
lead the life of a renunciant. This entails that the bodhisattva has to give up the
beautiful attire of a layperson, look unattractive with shaven head, wear simple
robes, depend on others for alms, practice chastity, refrain from dance and enter-
tainment, and be separated from family and dear ones. (6) The sixth source of
hardship to be accepted arises from the bodily exhaustion and the mental commo-
tion involved in striving to perform beneficial actions, while (7) the seventh source
is the difficulties involved in acting for the benefit of sentient beings as outlined in
the Silapafala. (8) Finally, the eighth source of hardship to be accepted is the
difficulty involved in obtaining necessities, whether the bodhisattva is a renunciant
or a householder.
The last general type of endurance is the endurance of resolving to compre-
hend the Dharma. This refers to the manner in which the bodhisattva patiently
strives to understand the Buddhist teaching in its entirety by gaining confidence in
the qualities of the Three Jewels, the nature of reality, the spiritual powers of
buddhas and bodhisattvas, cause and effect, the spiritual goal that should be attai-
ned, the methods for attaining that, and the various topics of learning.
Third, the chapter briefly presents the difficulty ( du~kara, nanxfng Jiff, dka'
ba) of practicing endurance. It is said that [in the beginning] the bodhisattva is able
to endure the wrongdoings only from persons or other beings whose powers are
weak. When the bodhisattva has become a powerful person, s/he [is also able to]
endure [wrongdoings from persons who are equal to] him- or herself. 357 The most
difficult wrongdoings to endure are said to be those done by inferior persons,
perhaps referring to socially inferior persons.
Fourth, the universal application (sarvatomukha, yfqie men -tJJr~, thams cad
kyi sgo nas) of endurance is explained as meaning that bodhisattva patiently bears
wrongdoings done by anybody, whether this person is a friend, enemy, or neutral
person, and whether the person is an inferior, equal, or superior.
Fifth, endurance in the case of an advanced practitioner (satpuru~a, shanshi ~
±, skyes bu dam pa) means seeing the multiple benefits that come from being
patient. The benefits include having few enemies, experiencing few conflicts,
having peace of mind, dying without regrets, and obtaining a good rebirth. Seeing
these benefits, the advanced meditator always practices endurance, inspires others
357
The present sentence is somewhat opaque in the Sanskrit and Tibetan versions,
since it is only said that the bodh1sattva "endures him- or herself' (svaya!J1 kJamate). The
Chinese translation interprets the sentence by adding several words, saying that the
bodhisattva who is a ruler must endure wrongdoings from the side of people in his own
court, such as ministers or servants.
The Yogacarabhiimj and Its Adaptation 181
to do the same, and rejoices when meeting someone exhibiting patience and en-
durance.
The sixth point on endurance in all its varieties ( sarvakara, yiqie zhong --t}Jf_i,
rnam pa thams cad) outlines different motivations fostering endurance. Endurance
may be motivated by fear, love, a wish for spiritual perfection, striving to practice
the Dharma, a natural propensity for endurance stemming from having cultivated
it in former lives, or knowing that the nature of phenomena is inexpressible. In this
way, the bodhisattva patiently bears hardships and wrongdoings in any situation, in
any place, and at all times.
Seventh, the case of the destitute and those in need ( vighatarthika, sw'qiu ~sj-c,
phongs shing 'clod dang ldan pa) pertains to how endurance should involve feeling
great compassion for those who inflict wrongdoings due to their sufferings, just as
the bodhisattva also should feel compassion for those who are unable to uphold a
proper discipline.
Eighth, as for how endurance brings happiness in this life and the next (iha-
mutrasukha, clshi tashi le ll:ct!f:1-tgfil~, 'di dang gzhan du bde bar 'gyur ba), the
chapter explains that the bodhisattva who practices endurance patiently bears any
form of hardship caused by heat, cold, hunger, thirst, insects, wind, sun, or snakes,
along with all sorts of bodily and mental fatigue. The bodhisattva furthermore
accepts the existential sufferings of birth, aging, sickness, and death. In this manner,
the bodhisattva never engages in negative actions motivated by wanting to avoid
such hardships and sufferings, and for this reason s/he finds happiness both in this
life and the next.
Ninth, endurance in its purified form ( visuddha, qingj1'ng if~, rnam par dag
pa) entails that the bodhisattva in the face of being wronged never feels the wish to
retaliate, never becomes angry, and never regards anyone as an enemy. Regardless
of the conflict, the bodhisattva will continue to strive to benefit the person who in-
flicted such harm. Practicing endurance in this precise manner will result in
attaining complete and perfect Awakening of a buddha.
1.12 The V-nyapafala
The (1.12) "chapter on drive" ( viryapafala, jfngjin pin ffiiltrPP, brtson 'grus kyile 'u)
presents the perfection of drive ( viryafs:aramita,Jingj1'n b6Ju6midu6 fflilti~m~~.
brtson 'grus kyi pha rol tu phyin pa). 58 Similarly to the explanations on the above
three perfections, the chapter is structured along the same nine points.
First, the nature (svabhava, zixI'ng EJtt ngo bo nyid) of drive is said to consist
in a strong mental energy or enthusiasm ( cittabhyutsaha, xin yonghan 1[}~ 1
[~,
sems mngon par spro ba) aimed at gathering endless beneficial qualities and
performing actions for the benefit of sentient beings, which in turn leads to intense,
unceasing, and unfailing bodily, verbal, and mental activities.
Second, the complete range ( sarva, yiqie -tJ], thams cad) of drive includes
three main types: (1) the armor-[like] drive (saIJ1nahavirya, huanjiiijfngj1'n :fff Eflffl
.ii, go cha'i brtson 'grus), (2) the drive for gathering beneficial qualities (kusala-
dharmasaIJ1grahakaIJ1 [viryamj, she shan Iii Jingj1'n fflr~itJ~.ii, dge ba 'i phyogs kyi
chos sdud pa), and (3) the drive devoted to acting for the benefit of sentient beings
358
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:200-206) = Tl579.525cr527b 7 = D4037.107a4-1lla1.
182 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
(sattvarthaknyayai fviryamJ, raoyiyouqingJingjin i!~:liE~'lirJ:ii, sems can gyi don
bya ba). All three types pertain to householder- as well as renunciant-bodhisattvas.
Armor-like drive means to hold a long perspective, in which the bodhisattva thinks
that s/he is willing to strive day and night for thousands of aeons for the sake of
liberating just a single sentient being from saipsfira, and that s/he will go on doing
so until all beings have attained perfect and complete Awakening. Keeping such
unfathomable exertion in mind, the bodhisattva spares no effort in doing the
utmost in present spiritual undertakings and in the actions to help others. There is
no effort s/he is unwilling to undertake, and s/he never feels daunted or downcast
by the scope and demand of these activities. The drive for gathering beneficial
qualities is explained as enthusiastically engaging in the practice of all six perfec-
tions in a manner that is unshakeable, impassioned, measureless, endowed with
methods, of right effort, continuous, and without any self-glorification. The
explanation on the drive devoted to acting for the benefit of sentient beings is
identical with the explanation on the discipline of acting for the benefit of sentient
beings (sattvarthakriyasila), as found under the ,,third type in the second point of
the chapter on the perfection of discipline (Silapafala 1.10), where additional
details on eleven kinds of benefit are given.
Third, the difficulty (du$kara, nanxing flfr, dka' ba) of practicing drive is
threefold. The first is for the bodhisattva unceasingly to devote him- or herself to
cultivating beneficial qualities without any thought of hoarding necessities - such
as food, clothes, or bed - and without any thought of self. The second difficulty is
to be constant and keep up such tremendous drive at all times. The third difficulty
is to practice it in a balanced manner without ever putting too little effort or
overdoing anything. The bodhisattva becomes able to overcome these three diffi-
culties by relying on his or her spiritual power, compassion for sentient beings, and
insight.
Fourth, the universal application (sarvatomukha, yiqie men -tJJF~, thams cad
kyi sgo nas) of drive is explained as meaning that drive is aimed at four goals.
These are to avoid any form of negative action or state of mind, to embrace all
forms of positive actions and states of mind, to purify all bodily, verbal, and mental
actions, and to increase intelligence and insight by studying, understanding, and
meditating on the Dharma.
Fifth, in the case of an advanced practitioner (satpuru$a, shanshi :g±, skyes
bu dam pa), drive is said to be effortless, balanced, unwaning, unfailing, and
intensely applied, thereby leading to perfect and complete Awakening.
Sixth, drive in all its varieties (sarvakara, yiqie zhong --tJ]f_i, rnam pa thams
cad) entails a short explanation on how drive can be constant, zealous, effective,
applied, free of anger, and perfectionist. These qualities, in turn, lead to drive that
is applied willfully, evenly, in a special manner, like someone whose head is on fire,
in accordance with learning, involved in training, and accomplishing all goals.
Seventh and eighth, drive to help the destitute and those in need ( vighatarthika,
sw'qiti ~"SJ(, phongs shing 'dod dang ldan pa) and how drive brings happiness in
this life and the next (ihamutrasukha, cishi tashi le Jitt!tfmfil~, 'di dang gzhan du
bde bar 'gyur ba) are not explained in this chapter but arc merely said to be similar
to the explanation furnished in the chapter on endurance (I.11 ).
Ninth, the final point pertains to drive in its purified form ( visuddha, qingjing
mift-, rnam par dag pa). Here, the chapter shortly explains how such advanced
drive involves ten qualities: (1) it is adaptable in overcoming various afflictions, (2)
it is cultivated through prolonged practice, (3) it never slackens, (4) it is well-
The Yogacarabhtlmi and Its Adaptation 183
adopted through proper learning, (5) it is timely in that effort is put into the right
type of practice at the right time, (6) it is endowed with understanding the signs of
the different stages of practice, (7) it is unwaning, (8) it is never deficient in prac-
ticing with care and conscientiousness, (9) it is balanced in its application, and (10)
it is fully dedicated to achieving great Awakening. Relying on such drive, the
bodhi,attva will achieve complete and perfect Awakening.
1.13 The Dhyanapafala
The (I.13) "chapter on meditation" ( dhyanapafala, jinglii pin "fwr!ii?r:1, bsam gtan gyi
le 'u) presents the perfection of meditation ( dhyanalaramita, Ji'nglii b6lu6mklu61w
fi:iEliHl~, bsam gtan gyi pha rol tu phyin pa). 35 It follows the same nine points
as the previous four chapters on the perfections (I.9-1.12).
First, the nature ( svabhava, zixing § tt ngo bo nyid) of meditation is to rest
the mind ( cittasthiti, xin zheng anzhu 1C,\IE~f±, sems gnas pa) in a manner where
there is a beneficial, mundane, or supramundane one-pointedness of mind
( cittaikagrya, xin yijing xi'ng ,C,,-±lti, sems rtse gcig pa) in a bodhisattva, who has
previously studied and understood [the teachings] of the bodhisattvapifaka. Such
resting of the mind may either be associated with samatha or vipasyana meditation,
or with the combination of the two.
Second, the complete range (sarva, yiqie -tJ], thams cad) of meditation fun-
damentally pertains to the basic division into mundane and supramundane medita-
tion. This division is mentioned in the present context but is not elaborated upon.
Instead, the chapter explains at length another division of meditation into three
types: (1) meditating for the sake of remaining happy in the present life (df${a-
dharmasukhaviharaya dhyanam, xianta le zhu Jinglil :EJVt~f:twJ1t tshe 'di la bde
bar gnas par bya ba 'i bsam gtan), (2) meditating for the sake of building up the
meditative qualities of a bodhisattva ( bodhisattvasamadhigw;anirharaya dhyanam,
neng yin pusa dengchi g6ngde j1'nglii fig,§ r~~~fg:i;f_Jff;,W}JI, byang chub sems
dpa'i ting nge 'dzin gyi yon tan sgrub pa'i bsam gtan), and (3) meditating for the
sake of acting for the benefit of sentient beings ( sattvarthakriyayai dhyanam, raoyi
youqing jinglii ~i:tdtfi!WJ:I, sems can gyi don bya ba'i bsam gtan). The first
refers to a meditation that is devoid of all concepts, giving rise to bodily and mental
ease, utterly serene, without self-enfatuation, free of moods, and devoid of any
characteristic. The second is a meditation that is able to enter into the special
states of deep meditation, i.e., samadh1: taught exclusively as a Mahayana practice
unknown to sravakas and pratyekabuddhas. The third refers to how the bodhi-
sattva employs meditation to benefit sentient beings in the eleven ways outlined in
the chapter on the perfection of discipline (1.10).
Third, the difficulty (du$kara, nanxing Ufr, dka' ba) of practicing meditation
is again threefold. The first difficulty is that the bodhisattva - once s/he has
attained a deep level of pacific meditation that completely transcends sensual
desire - decides once again to take up rebirth in the realm of sensual desire out of
compassion for sentient beings, which is motivated by seeing a great need for hel-
ping and benefiting others. The second difficulty is that the bodhisattva - unlike
359
WOGIJ-IARA (1930-1936:207-211) = T1579.527b 15 -528b 24 = D4037.lllai-113as. For
an annotated French translation, see DEMIEVILLE (1957).
184 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas - needs to accomplish the countless and
unfathomable meditative absorptions known exclusively to the Mahayana tradition.
The third difficulty is that the bodhisattva on the basis of meditation needs to
attain unexcelled complete and perfect Awakening.
Fourth, the universal application (sarvatomukha, yiqie men --1;7JF1J, thams cad
kyi sgo nas) of meditation is briefly said to mean that meditation may involve
discernment and discursiveness, happiness, bliss and delight, and equanimity.
Fifth, in the case of an advanced practitioner (satpuru$a, shanshi ~±, skyes
bu dam pa), meditation is said to be free of moods and endowed with friendliness,
compassion, joy, and equanimity.
Sixth, meditation in all its varieties ( sarvakara, yiqie zhong --1;7Jf.i, rnam pa
thams cad) denotes that meditation may be beneficial, neutral, pertaining to
samatha practice, pertaining to vipasyana practice, done for the sake of perceiving
what is of benefit for oneself and others, done for the sake of accomplishing the
qualities of the spiritual powers of clairvoyance, focused on names, focused on
meanings and referents of names, focused on the characteristic of samatha,
focused on the characteristic of perceiving, focused on the characteristic of equa-
nimity, done for the sake of remaining happy in the present life, or done for the
sake of acting for the benefit of sentient beings.
Seventh, meditation done for the sake of the destitute and those in need
( vighatarthika, sw'qiti ~:sjZ, phongs shing 'dad dang ldan pa) may involve blessing
with mantras in order to subdue poisons, spirits, and so forth, healing diseases
caused by disturbed elements, producing rain in a time of drought and famine,
protecting against man-made or non-man-made dangers, gathering food and drink
for those in need, producing wealth for the destitute, reprimanding the careless,
and accomplishing various actions for the benefit of others.
Eighth, in terms of how meditation gives happiness in this life and the next
(ihamutrasukha, clshi tashi le .ll:ct!t{-ttt:tt~, 'di dang gzhan du bde bar 'gyur ba), the
chapter in general mentions that the bodhisattva may use his or her meditative
power to guide sentient beings through the performance of miracles, guide sentient
beings through the miraculous events occurring when teaching the Dharma, cause
evil-doers to perceive the netherworlds [that they risk being reborn in due to their
negative actions], inspire confidence in those lacking confidence, causing memory
to arise in those who have forgotten, present faultless literary compositions of
philosophical treatises, poems, or mnemonic lists in order to preserve the Dharma,
benefit sentient beings through various secular crafts and sciences, and radiate
light-rays that soothe the unbearable sufferings of sentients beings born in the
netherworlds.
Ninth, the purified form ( visuddha, qingjing if§, rnam par dag pa) of medi-
tation includes: (1) meditation free of moods which is mundanely pure, (2) medita-
tion free of afflictions which is supramundanely pure, (3) meditation which is
perfected in terms of the preparatory practice, (4) meditation which is perfected in
terms of the actual practice, (5) meditation which is perfected in terms of the
highest kind of actual practice, (6) meditation which is perfected in terms of
entering into, abiding in, and arising from the meditation, (7) meditation which is
perfected in terms of reentering absorption when one has gone out of the medita-
tion, (8) meditation which is perfected in terms of mastery over clairvoyance and
the ability to appear in various shapes, (9) meditation which is pure in terms of
being free from all views, and (10) meditation which is pure in terms of having
The Yogacflrahhumi and Its Adaptation 185
abandoned all afflictive and cognitive hindrances. Such meditation leads to perfect
and complete Awakening.
1.14 The Praj.iapafala
The (1.14) "chapter on insight" (prajiiapafala, hui pin -~o,
shes ra~ kyi le'u)
resents the perfection of insight (prajiiaparamita, ~ui b6lu~midu6 ~1~f{Hff§',
~hes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa) follo~~ng the same nme headmgs as the above five
chapters on the perfections (I.9-I.1~); . . . .
First, the nature ( svabhava, zwng §3 t~, ngo bo nyid) of msight is that the
bodhisattva engages in the five fields of knowledge 361 in order to comprehend all
objects of knowledge. , . .
Second, the complete range (sarva, yiqie --1;7], thams cad) of msi~h.t enc?m-
asses both mundane and supramundane insights, and may be subdivided mto
ihree general types. The first is called insight aimed at objects of knowledge for the
sake of awakening to arid understanding their reality (jiieye tattvanubodhapr_a-
tivedhaya prajiia, neng yti suozhi zhenshf sufjue tongda hui ~gtf~pfT~D~W~Jtw
~§, shes bya la de kho na khong du chud cing rtogs par_ bya ba_'J shes ~ab)_. ~ere,
the bodhisattva follows the Middle Path in order to realize reality, which 1s mex-
pressible, beyond concept, and free from any i~t~llectual a~d ~motion~l pr?lifera-
tion. The second is called insight aimed at gammg expertise m the five fields of
knowledge and the three classes in the proper manner that they are taught
(paiicasu ~a ya__thanirdife~1! v1d~a~fh~n~~u tr1!u c~ ~afi$u ka,usa1J:akn";r_a[!i f!raJii:J,
neng yti ru suoshu6 WU mmgchu J1 san JU zhong ;uedmg shanq1ao hw f'i[:jll ~ tzD?Jrm
_liB]~2?c=::::Jllrp1~5E~J7~, Ji skad bstan pa'i rig pa'i gnas Inga po rnam~ dang
tshogs gsum la mkhas par bya ba['i shes rabj). In this instance, the bodhisattva
strives to master all these fields of learning in order to reach perfect and complete
Awakening. The three classes ( traya/;l rasaya/;l, san ju -=::..~, tshogs gsum) are
explained as referring to the class of phenomena_ that involve me_aning, those ~hat
do not involve meaning, and those that neither mvolve nor not mvolve meamng.
The third is called insight aimed at acting for the benefit of sentient beings (sattvar-
thakriyayaiprajiia, neng zuo yiqie youqing yili hui tm1t--1;7J~'fW~trJ., sems can
gyi don bya ba 'i shes rab), which is said to refer to knowl~dge of the eleven aspects
of acting for sentient beings explained previously in the Silapafala (1.10).
Third, the difficulty ( du~kara, nanxfng Jlfi, dka' ba) involved in perfecting
insight is briefly listed as the three difficulties of gaining deep knowledge of the
selflessness of phenomena, of gaining knowledge of all the methods needed to
train sentient beings, and of gaining knowledge that is unobstructed by all cognitive
hindrances.
Fourth, the universal application (sarvatomukha, yiqie men --1;7JF1J, thams cad
kyi sgo nas) of insight refers to the insight obtained from listening to all the
teachings of the sravaka and bodhisattva baskets of teachings, the insight obtained
from understanding these, the insight of knowing which actions are to be under-
taken and which are to be avoided, and the insight obtained from meditation.
360
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:212-216) = Tl579)28b26-529c13 = D4037.113as-1l5b4.
361
See the summary given earlier under the Srutamayi BhOmiiJ.
 186 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Fifth, insight in the case of advanced practitioners ( satpuru~a, shanshi ~±,
skyes bu dam pa) has been attained through proper studies, is endowed with
proper analysis, entails knowledge of the methods for benefiting oneself and others,
involves a proper ascertainment of the nature of phenomena, and is free from all
afflictions. It may also be said to be profound, skillful, innate, endowed with trans-
mission, and endowed with realization.
Sixth, insight in all its varieties ( sarvakara, yiqie zh6ng -f;Jjf_i, rnam pa thams
cad) encompasses knowledge of the existential facts of suffering, the origin of
suffering, the end of suffering, and the path leading to the end of suffering, know-
ledge of perishing in perfection and knowledge of non-arising. Further, it encom-
passes knowledge of phenomena, ensuing knowledge, knowledge of the relative,
knowledge of clairvoyance, knowledge of characteristics, knowledge preceding the
ten powers, and knowledge skilled in the four kinds of reasoning.
( nghatarthika, suiqiu ~*'
Seventh, insight used for the sake of the destitute and those in need
phongs sh1'ng 'dad dang Jdan pa) means to know
properly the bodhisattva-teachings, including knowing synonymous and related
terms, definitions, meanings, the derivation of words, knowing how to teach, how
to debate, and how to instruct householders as well as rulers.
Eighth, insight bringing happiness in this life and the next (ihamutrasukha,
cishi tashi le ilttl:t{i:flf:!t~, 'di dang gzhan du bde bar 'gyur ba) means that the
bodhisattva by fully knowing the five fields of knowledge is capable of teaching and
guiding those who need instruction, and thats/he therefore inspires and brings joy.
Ninth, the purified and perfected form ( visuddha, qlngjing mif, rnam par dag
pa) of insight includes knowing reality as it is and in its full extent, understanding
the workings of cause and effect, knowing what is to be accepted and rejected,
knowing the methods that are to be practiced or avoided, and knowing defilement
and purification. The bodhisattva who possesses such insight will reach perfect and
complete Awakening.
The chapter ends with a short statement saying that the compilers of the text
extracted the pertinent information on the nine points for each of the six perfec-
tions from various siitra scriptures and put them together, since the siitras do not
contain such explanations in a systematic form. It is also said that the account of
the difficulties involved in practicing the various perfections have been inspired by
the narratives found in the Jiitaka texts.
1.15 The SaJpgrahavastupafala
The exposition of the six perfections is followed by the (1.15) "chapter on the [four]
bases for gatherin1 [students]" ( saipgrahavastupafala, she shi pin 31-$£, bsdu ba 'i
36
dngos po'i le'u). This chapter presents four special behaviors called "the four
bases for gathering [students]" ( catuiJsaipgrahavastu, si zh6ng she shi [9f_i31-$,
bsdu ba 'i dngos po bzhi), which the bodhisattva adopts to care for his or her
students: (1) generosity, (2) affectionate speech, (3) meaningful activity, and (4)
having common aims (samiinarthata). 363 The exposition of this topic partly follows
362 W (
363
OGIHARA 1930-1936:217-230) = T1579.529C15-533a23 = D4037.115b4-l23a5.
For the textual background of these four bases in the Aiiguttaranikaya and the
Saiigitiparyaya, see KRAGH (2006:206-208). See also the present article by Lambert
The Yogiiciirabhumj and Its Adaptation 187
the same nine headings as the above chapters on the perfections (I.9-1.14) and the
topic thus seems to constitute an extension of or supplement to the practice of the
perfections. . . . _ _ .
The first of the four bases for gathering, viz. ( 1) generosity ( dana, sh1 Dffi, sbym
pa), is not presented separately here, since it was already explained above in the
context of the first perfection (I.9). _
Secondly, the exposition of (2) affectionate speech (priyaviiditii, ai'yii ~aR,
snyan par smra ba) follows the nin~ ,headings seen in th~ previous ~hapters (I.9-
1.14 ). Thus, the nature (svabhava, zmng EHi, ngo bo nyid) of affect10nate speech
is to speak in a way that is pleasant, sincer~; in accordance wit~ the Dharm_a, and
meaniligful. Its complete range (sarva, ylq1e -f;JJ, thams cad) mcludes delightful
and joyful words that praise, encourage, and inspire others to practice the Dharma
properly, as well as speech consisting in giving Dharma-teachings. Its difficulty
(du~kara, nanxfng Jffrr, dka' ba) is to spe~k affecti?nately and meaningful~y to
killers and enemies, to those who are exceedmgly stupid, or to those who are highly
deceitful. Its universal application (sarvatomukha, ylqie men -f;J]r~, thams cad
kyi sgo nas) includ~s teaching .the Dharma in order t? help others .aban~on the
obscurations and gam good rebirths, to make them realize the four existential facts
of the noble ones, to lead them away from misconduct and inspire them to take up
a proper conduct, and to resolve their doubts and unclarities. An advanced practi-
tioner (satpuru~a, shanshi ~±, skyes bu dam pa) uses affectionate speech to
teach the Dharma in a manner that explains the original occasion for the Buddha's
teaching, how it led others to going forth and seek liberation, how it is reliable, how
it brings one forward, and how miracles appeared when the teaching was originally
taught. As for all its varieties (sarviikiira, ylqie zh6ng-Wf_i, rnam pa thams cad),
affectionate speech is described as being permissive or censoring, and correct when
presenting the synonyms, characteristics, etymological derivations, and subdivi-
sions of doctrinal terms. Moreover, it may be described as being delightful, joyful,
those in need ( vighatiirthika, suiqiu ~*'
assuring, logical, admonishing, and so forth. When speaking to the destitute and
phongs shing 'dad dang ldan pa), the
bodhisattva's speech is always free from lying, slander, hurtful words, and senseless
talk, and the bodhisattva thus rightly expresses what is seen, heard, understood,
and perceived. Affectionate speech brings happiness in this life and the next
(ihiimutrasukha, cishi tiishi le Jl:ttl:t{ifttl:t~, 'di dang gzhan du bde bar 'gyur ba),
because it teaches the Dharma that ultimately removes all suffering. The perfected
and purified form ( visuddha, qlngjing if1', rnam par dag pa) of affectionate
speech involves teaching the Dharma in the proper manner as it was discussed in
the Balagotrapafala chapter (I.8).
Thirdly, the nature of (3) meaningful activity (arthacaryii, Ji xfng fljfi, don
spyod pa) is that the bodhisattva - after having given formal teachings to the
students with affectionate speech - pragmatically guides them in their Dharma-
practice compassionately and without material concern. Its complete range is to
develop those who have not yet developed themselves and to liberate those who
have become developed. The difficulties involved in performing meaningful
activities include helping those who have never before built up the roots of benifi-
SCHMITHAUSEN (fn.289) with further reference to the Abhidharmasamuccaya and the
Mahayanasutralarµkarabhawa.
 188 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
cience in themselves, helping those who are very wealthy and attached to their
belongings, as well as helping those who adhere to non-Buddhist views or those in
whom such views previously were very ingrained. Its universal application is to lead
those with little faith to develop faith, lead those of bad conduct to a good conduct,
lead those of little insight to deep insight, and to lead those with addictions to
develop renunciation. The advanced practitioner helps others accomplish benefit
in a manner that is timely, sensible, gentle, and compassionate. All the varieties
include meaningful activities that perfectly gather those who should be gathered,
hold back those who should be held back, teach them without hostility, allow them
to enter the doctrine, properly develop them in terms of all three vehicles, liberate
them, allow them to go forth via the inferior vehicle or via the great vehicle as
appropriate in each case, and guide them properly to build up and guard the
requisites for practice, enter into retreat, become one-pointed in meditation, purify
the hindrances, and meditate with proper observation. Meaningful activity towards
the destitute and those in need means to free them from entanglements in shame-
lessness, being without scruples, laziness, sleepiness, agitation, regret, envy, and
stinginess. It brings happiness in this life and the next because it leads to aban-
doning the ten unwholesome actions along with drinking alcohol. The pure and
perfected form of meaningful activity is irreproachable, irreversible, progressive,
comprehensive, suitably applied, compassionate, untiring, humble, unconcerned
with making material gain for the bodhjsattva him- or herself, and completely
based in friendliness.
Fourthly, (4) having common aims (samanarthata, t6ngshi ~$, don mthun pa)
is briefly explained as meaning that whatever beneficial aims and activities the
bodh1sattva leads others to adopt, s/he also applies equally to him- or herself.
Likewise, whatever negative aims and activities s/he tells them to abandon, s/he
equally abandons them him- or herself.
The chapter ends with an explanation on how the bodh1sattva in various ways
fully accomplishes the six perfections and the four bases for gathering students in
terms of each of the nine points presented in these chapters and how this accom-
plishment will lead to perfect and complete buddhahood.
1.16 The Piijasevapramapapafala
The current chapter marks the end of point (Kha) covering chapters I.8-1.16
explaining how the bodhjsattva trains. The (1.16) "chapter on veneration, serving,
an~ t?e i~m~asurables" (piijasevapramaJJapafala, gongyang qinjin wtiliang pin 1:Jt
-~,lr~.mm:i, mchod pa dang bsten pa dang tshad med pa'i le'u) discusses three
practices consisting of venerating the [Three] Jewels (ratnapiijii, gongyang sanbao
1:Jtll-=::.Jf, dkon mchog mchod pa), serving and relying on a spiritual teacher
(kalyii1Jam1traseva, qinjin shany6u iJHlI~ti., dge ba'j bshes gnyen la bsten pa),
and cultivating the [four] immeasurable [attitudes] (apramiipa, xiii wuliang ~i~.m,
tshad medpa). 364
The first practice is venerating the Three Jewels. The first of the Three Jewels
that the bodhjsattva venerates is the Buddha ( tathagata, niJ;ij :tm~5fz. de bzhin
gshegs pa). The bodhisattva venerates the Buddha in a variety of ten ways: (1)
364
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:231-249) = Tl579.533br537b8 = D4037.l23a5-132b 7•
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 189
venerating the Buddha's body (sariraptlja, shelilu6 gongyang a~:f!Jltf:Jtfl, sku la
mchod pa) by directly venerating the form of the Buddha's body ( tathagata-
r,Jpakaya, nilh ses~en PP.:¥'§.!}, _de _bzhi13 gshegs pa'i gzugs kyi sku); (2) venera-
ting a reliquary (ca1tyapu1a, zhJduo gongyang mU3",1:Jtll, mchod rten la mchod pa)
by paying homage to a burial mound (sttlpa, siidiib6 *~~1El, fl!Cho~ rte1!)'3
[shrine] hall (gaha, kan ;&, gtsang khang phyur bu), a [teachmg] dais (kufa, ta1 ~.
gtsang khang), an old reliquary (purapacaitya, gu zhkluq i&mU g,, mchod rten
rnying pa), or a new reliquary (abhinavacaitya, xin zhiduo 1frmU3",, mchod rten sar
pa); (3) venerating while facing [the Buddha's body or a reliquary] (sarpmukhaptlja,
xianqjan gongyang fJJruf:Jtll, mngon sum du mchod pa), which is said to represent
the worship of all buddhas or reliquaries of the past, present, and future; (4)
venerating without facing [the Buddha's body or a reliquary] ( vimukhaptlja, bu
xianqian gongyang ~:!:J!M1:Jtll, mngon sum ma yin par mchod pa), where the
bodhjsattva mentally directs his or her worship to the buddhas and reliquaries
everywhere; (5) veneration done by oneself (svayarplq"tapuja, z1'zuo g6ngyang §H'f
{;!tit bdag gjs byas pa 'j mchod pa), where the bodhisattva performs offerings on
his or her own; (6) veneration done by making others participate (parakarita-puja,
jiao ta gongyang ~f-tgf:Jtll, gzhan byed d~ fug pa.'i mchod pa), where ~he. bodhi-
sattva invites and enables others to part1c1pate m the act of worsh1ppmg the
Buddha or a reliquary; (7) veneration with wealth and respect (labhasatkarapiijii,
caijing gongyang ~;f~1:Jtll, rnyed pa dang bkur sti'i mchod pa), where veneration
with wealth involve offerings, which are presented to the Buddha or a reliquary,
consisting of things that may subsequently be useful for the sailgha such as robes,
food, seats, medicine, and so forth, pleasant things such as incense, perfume, music,
umbrellas, banners, lamps, and so forth, precious articles such as gold, silver, jewels,
and so forth, and veneration with respect consists of making prostrations, standing
up, holding the palms together, singing various praises, and so forth; (8) grand
veneration ( udarapiija, guangda gongyang Jl::*:1:Jtll, rgya chen po'i mchod pa),
where the bodh1sattva carries on all the forms of worship described above for a
long time and very extensively; (9) undefiled veneration ( asarpkh~fapiija, wu ran
gongyang ~m1:Jtfl, kun nas nyon mongs pa can ma yin pa 'i mchod pa), where the
bodhisattva performs the offerings with his or her own hands while maintaining a
pure, focused, and highly devoted state of mind, using only the best and most
suitable substances, and visualizing that s/he multiplies into countless bodies that
all perform offerings in the same way; and (10) veneration by means of practicing
(pratipattiptlja, zhengxfng gongyang iEfi13tfl, sgrub pa'i mchod pa), where a
bodh1sattva, who does not have any material possessions to offer, instead regards
his or her contemplative and disciplinary practices as an offering and way of
showing respect. These are the manners in which the bodhisattva venerates the
Buddha, who is the first of the Three Jewels (triratna, sanbao ~ Jf, dkon mchog
gsum). In the same way, the bodhisattva venerates the two other Jewels, viz. the
Dharma and the sailgha. The passage ends by describing six special attitudes that
the bodhisattva should maintain while performing such veneration.
The second practice is serving and relying on a spiritual teacher. A bodhisattva
may become a spiritual teacher (kalyapamjtra, shany6u ~11., dge ba 'i bshes gnyen,
literally 'beneficial friend') when s/he possesses the needed qualifications. As a
teacher, the bodhisattva needs to be well-observed in the bodhjsattva-discipline,
intelligent and well-educated in the doctrine, experienced in meditation, endowed
with realization in the meditative practices of samatha as well as vipasyana, com-
passionate, without attachment to the present life yet caring for others, confident
190 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
in giving teachings, patient, enduring, untiring, and able to give clear explanations.
Moreover, the bodhjsattva-teacher should wish that others may find benefit and
happiness, know how to bring them benefit and happiness, know how to teach
them the methods that bring benefit and happiness, be powerful and untiring, and
be impartial in teaching everyone whether they are inferior, middling, or excellent
(hinamadhyamavj§j~fa, He zhong sheng ~tpf.!Jj, tha ma dang 'brjng dang khyad par
du 'phags pa). The bodhjsattva-teacher who possesses such qualities inspires faith
in others not merely by teachings but also via his or her own life-example in that
s/he maintains a pure conduct and is balanced, without deceit, free of envy, always
satisfied, and has few personal needs. Behaving in such a manner, the bodhisattva
then performs the duties of a teacher by admonishing others, recalling the
teachings [as they were given to him or her], imparting instructions, guiding stu-
dents, and teaching the Dharma. A bodhjsattva-trainee needs to rely on such a
teacher and should render services to him or her in return for having received the
teachings. Serving the teacher (kalyiiIJamjtrasevii, qinjin shanyou *JHli~~' dge
ba'i bshes gnyen la bsten pa) includes caring for the teacher, for example, by
nursing the teacher when s/he is sick, showing respect by standing up, prostrating,
and so forth, giving gifts, and listening attentively to the teachings. When the
teacher teaches, the student should listen while thinking that it is rare to receive
Dharma-teachings, that it is a special and precious occasion for obtaining insight
and knowledge, that it is the cause for reaching the perfect and complete Awake-
ning of a buddha, and that it leads to numerous other good benefits. Also, the
student should avoid viewing the Dharma-speaker with a negative attitude, such as
seeing him or her as someone deficient in discipline, of low social status, ugly,
speaking badly, or having poor lecturing skills. The argument is here given that the
true Dharma is not afflicted by any such personal shortcomings in its speaker. In
this way, the bodhjsattva-trainee should learn from a genuine bodhisattva-teacher.
The third practice is cultivating the [four] immeasurable [attitudes]. The four
immeasurable [attitudes] ( catviiry apramiiIJiini, si wuliang iz:g~;_, tshad med pa
bzhi) are: (1) friendliness or loving kindness (maitri, cf~. byams pa) of wishing
others to be happy, (2) compassion (karuIJii, bej 1J, snying rje) of wishing others to
be free from suffering, (3) delight or sympathetic rejoicing (mudjtfi, xf "'g, dga' ba),
which is to rejoice in the good actions done by others, and (4) impartiality or
equanimity ( upek~ii, she~' btang snyoms) in applying the above attitudes equally
to all sentient beings without distinguishing between friends and enemies, higher
and lower, and so forth. 365 To begin with, the chapter explains that each of these
four attitudes may be focused on sentient beings (sattviilambanam; youqing yuan
wuliang 1§ [W~~;, sems can la dmjgs pa), focused on the [selfless] phenomena
1 stantly undergo, the bodhisattva cultivates great compassion thoroughly and pro-
[that constitute sentient beings] ( dharmiiJambanani, fa yuan wuliang 1:t~~:lt,
chos la dmigs pa), or be entirely non-referential ( aniiJambanam; wuyuan wuliang
~~~;_, dmigs pa med pa). This is followed by a lengthy explanation on various
types of suffering ( du,{lkha, kii 3, sdug bsngal), where suffering is subdivided into
110 different kinds. 366 The explanation of suffering is relevant for defining the
365
The chapter's explanation on the four immeasurable attutides has been edited in
Sanskrit and translated into German with ample annotations by MAITHRIMURTHI (1999:
306-327).
366
For the full list, see MAITHRIMURTHI (1999:308-314, 319-324).
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 191
cial kind of compassion that characterizes a bodhisattva, namely what is called
speeat compassion (mahakaruIJa,- d'b-· a ei +;:J~ . . .1.
/\.,Q"' snymg IJe cuen po.
) G reat compas-
g:on is directed particularly towards 19 out of the 110 types of suffering, that is to
si y the bodhisattva is especially compassionate towards sentient beings who are
:~r~ented by: (1) sufferins con~isti~g i~ the ka~~ ripening of de~usion (salp-
mohavipiikalJl du,{lkham, yuchi yishou ku ~ltW,~!5, rnam par smm pa rmongs
pa can gyi sdug bs1!g_aJ), (2) suffering associate? with the ~ature o! hardship that
festers in all cond1t1oned phenomena ( sa1J1skaradu,{lkhatasa1J1grhita1J1 dulJkham,
xfng kii suD she k~ fi=@f pfr •.E, 'du byed kyj s~ug bs'!;ga]:!_~togs pa 'i sdug bsngaJ),
(3) endless suffermg ( atyantika1J1 du,{lkh~m, b1png ku ~ % ~' gt~n d~dug b~1!gaJ),
(4) suffering as a cause [of more suffenng] (hetudulJkha, ym ku kS!t5, rgyu1 sdug
bsngaJ), (5) the suffering of being [re]born (jiitiduiJkha, sheng kii ±E, skye ba'i
sdug bsngal), ,( 6) sufferi~g of ,~elf--!!:flicted ha:m (~vaya1[1Jq-taupa-kra11,7:ixa1J1
duhkham, zizuo bi nao ku gf f'Fi~it['~t5, bdag nyid kyis gnod pa byas pa1 sdug
bs;gal), (7) suffering following from a lapse of discipline (siJavipattidulJkha, fie
shuiiisiin kii ~~.J:_g=@f, tshul khrims nyams pa'i sdug bsngal), (8) suffering follow-
ing from a lapse in the [right] view (dr~tjvjp_attidulJkh~,jian shuaisiin k~ .%~t.W~,
Jta ba nyams pa'i sdug bsngal), (9) suffenng stemmmg from an earlier [karmic]
cause (piirvahetukalp dulJkham, su yin kii fEikSIE, sngon gyi rgyu las byung ba'i
sdug bsngal), (10) massive suffering (mahad dulJkham, guangda kii ~*N, sdug
bsngal chen po), which is intense, manifold, and uninterrupted for a long time, (11)
the suffering of the hell-realms (narakalp dulJkham, naluojia kii j}p~:ifilIE, sems
can dmyal ba 'i sdug bsngaJ), (12) suffering associated with good rebirths
(sugati'ia1J1g[hlta1J1 du,{lkham, shanqu SUD she kii ~~pfrfl-=@f, bde 'gror gtogs pa'i
sdug bsngal), (13) all suffering derived from misbehavior and misguided sp~ritual
practices (sarvii1J1 vipratipattidu.lJk/lam, yiqie xiexing suD sheng kii -W!~hPfr±
=@r, Jog pa zhugs pa rnams las byung ba'i sdug bsngal thams cad), (14) all suffering
derived from involvement [in S81J1Siira] ( sarvalp pravrttiduiJkham, yiqie Jiuzhuan kif
--l;JJifrVlif=@f, Jug pa'i sdug bsngal thams cad), (15) suffering of ignorance (aj.iiina-
duhkha, wuzhi kii ~~E, mi shes pa'i sdug bsngaJ), (16) suffering associated with
th; growth [of the afflictions] ( aupacayika1J1 dulJkham, zengzhang kii ti} ~=g, rgyas
pa las byung ba 'j sdug bsngal), (17) suffering that is a consequence [of saiµsaric
existence as such] (anu~aligikalp duiJkham, suizhu kii ~~E, rjes su 'brel pa las
byung ba 'j sdug bsngal), (18) suffering consisting in [painful] sensations ( vedayita-
du!Jkha, shou kii 3it=@f, tshor ba'i sdug bsngaJ), and (19) suffering of [dormant]
debilitations (dau~fhuJyaduflkha, cuzhong kii llmE, gnas ngan Jen gyi sdug
bsngal). In consideration of these immense sufferings that sentient beings con-
foundly throughout hundreds of thousands of aeons, to the extent that the bodhj-
sattva gladly would give up his or her own life in hundreds of rebirths in order to
save others from suffering and thats/he would gladly endure any kind of hardship
or torment to help others. There is nothing that such a bodMsattva would not give
up to help others, no effort s/he would be unwilling to undertake, no harm s/he
would not avoid, no meditation s/he would not immerse him- or herself in, and no
insights/he would not strive to achieve. For this reason, it is said that the Awaken-
ing of a bodhisattva rests on compassion. The cultivation of these four immeasur-
able attitudes is said to lead to instant happiness in this life, vast accumulation of
merit, development of a firm wish to reach Awakening, and ability to carry the
sufferings of others.
 192 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
. 1.17 The Bodhipakgapafala
Together with chapter 1.18, the (1.17) "chapter on the factors leading to Awake-
ninf (bodhipakJyapafala, p~tf fen pin ~m:B-£, byang chub phyogs kyi le'u)3 67
be~u~s the presentation of pomt (Ga) regarding who is involved in the bodhisattva
tram1~g and the presentation of the third general aspect of the basis for being a
bo_dh1sattva, namely (C) all the factors leading to Awakening. Chapter 1.17 con-
t~ms a comprehensive explanation on a whole array of practices, which may be
viewed as a general survey of the bodhisattva path, covering sixteen elements in the
bodhisattva's training.
The_ first e~eme~t is to have conscience and a sense of embarrasment ( hri-
~aJJ_atrapya, cankw 'tififf'r*: ngo t~ha shes pa dang khrel yod pa). Conscience (hri,
~an_ tlfIH, ngo tsha ~hes pa) 1s explamed as an inner sense of knowing by oneself what
1s nght and _what 1s wrong. Embarrasment ( vyapatrapya, kui '[*, khrel yod pa) is the
f~ar _of havmg one's faults exposed and being criticized by others. These sensitivi-
ties 1~pel the beginner-practitioner to engage in what is good and avoid what is
negative.
··- T~e s~c?nd elem~nt is the development of firm strength ( dhrtibaladhanata,
pan lJ c~1. xmg ~:1:Jt~'['±, brtan pa 'i stabs bskyed pa). Firm strength refers to an
mner ability that ts suf~iciently steady in the bodhisattva-aspirant, so that s/he may
control t?e del~ded mmd and completely desist from engaging in afflictions. Such
stren~th 1s dev~loped when encountering various sufferings in salpsiira, recognizing
negative behaviors that are to be controlled, accepting to be reborn in samsara for
a long tim~ in order to ben_efit ot~ers, being publicly questioned by opponents
when teachmg the Dharma m public to a large audience, and receiving vast and
profound Dharma-teachings.
!he third e~e?1ent is to d~velop tirelessness (akhedata, wuyan ,C/~~' mi skyo
ba) m all beneficial undertakmgs. The predisposed bodhisattva naturally possesses
su~h. strength, bu_t th~ ~ind can become further emboldened through constant
tra~mng, develop1~g ms1ght, and cultivating compassion, resulting in a strong
at~1tude of unwearmess, where the bodhi'iattva never gives in to depression (kheda,
yan ~' skyoba).
,,_ Th~_ fo~rth ,ele~ent _is, to gain= ~1wledge in the various fields of learning
(sa~tra;nata, shanzh1 zhu Jun ~~D~allff, bstan bcos shes pa). To begin with, the
tram~e _should learn to read and write, understand the meaning and proper pro-
nunciation_ of word~, and then go on to study all five branches of learning, including
the Buddhist teachmgs as well as mundane sciences and crafts.
,.. The fifth element is to know ~~e world (lokaf.iata, shanzhi shifiiin ~~Dittrs~,
pg ~ten shes pa). Here, the practitioner comes to see how samsara is an endless
a_nd msecure cycle of birth, aging, death, and rebirth, as well as how the world over
time_ goes _up and d?w_n in terms of the length of lifespan, the situation of people,
the ~ntens~ty of afflictions, the prevalence of wrong views, and the occurrence of
famm~, disease, and warfare in a given epoch. Understanding the world, the
bodhisattva also comes to appreciate the spiritual path that leads to liberation
from sa1J1siira. Further: th_e bodhisattva should learn about the process of sensory
perception, the funct1onmg of the four elements, and the misconception of
367
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:250-284) = Tl579.537b 10-545b21 = D4037.132brl49b3 •
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 193
believing in a permanent self or soul. Knowing the ways of the world, s/he becomes
368
able to distinguish good qualities from bad ones.
The sixth element is that the bodhisattva leans on the four reliances ( catvari
pratisaral)iini, si yf 12:.91~, rton pa bzhi). These are (1) to rely on the meaning and
not on the words if doubts arise when studying the teachings, (2) to rely on logic
and not on the person giving the teaching if doubts arise when trying to make sense
of the teachings, (3) to rely on scriptures of definitive meaning and not on scrip-
tures of provisional meaning if contradictions are seen when comparing the
teachings, and (4) when in doubt to rely on the essential understanding one has
achieved oneself and not merely on knowledge one has heard from others. In brief,
there are four authorities (pramiiJJya, Jiang ;_, tshad ma nyid) that may provide
reliable knowledge, namely the meaning of what is said, reasoning, the teacher,
and the understanding one has achieved through meditation. By relying on these,
the bodhisattva dispels all confusion.
The seventh element is that the trainee masters the four analytical knowledges
(catasro pratisalpvidalJ, si wuai fie [9~fii:m, so so Y.ang ~ag 1;ar/if_fva, bzhi).
( 1) Analytical knowledge of the Dharma ( dharmapra tJsalpvid, fa wua1 pe $~®!
~4, chos so so yang dag par rig pa) means to be familiar with all the different
enumerations of related terms (paryaya, yimen ~r~, rnam grangs). (2) Analytical
knowledge of the meaning ( arthapratJsalpvid, yi wuaipe ~~®'E~lt-, don so so yang
dag par rig pa) is to be familiar with all the different definitions (lakJaJJa, yixiang
~ftj, mtshan nyid) of terms. (3) Analytical knowledge of derivative analysis
(niruktipratiSalpVlG, cf wuaijie ~~~1i_m~lt-, nges pa 'j tshig SO SO yang dag par rig pa)
is to understand all the different etymological interpretations (nirvacana, shi cf f$
5gJ, nges pa'i ngag) of terms. (4) Finally, analytical knowledge of rhetoric (prati-
bhanapratisalpvid, bian wuaj fie ~¥~u.i~lt-, spobs pa so so yang dag par rig pa)
comes from knowing all the various subdivisions of terms (prakiirapadaprabheda,
pinbie ifo3U, rnam pa rab tu dbye ba). Mastering these four types of analytical
knowledge, the bodhjsattva gains expertise (kausalya, shanqiao ~J1;, mkhas pa) in
five areas of knowledge, to wit, the aggregates (skandha, yim ~' phung po), the
constituents of perception ( dhatu, fie W, khams), the perceptual domains ( ayatana,
chu wR, skye mched), dependent arising (pratityasamutpada, yufmqf ~~' rten
cing 'brel bar 'byung ba), and what does and does not constitute a basis ( sthana-
sthana, chu feichu ~j~~' gnas dang gnas ma yin pa).
The eighth element is that the aspirant gathers the requisites for Awakening
( bodhisalpbhara, putf zilifmg #miUi, byang chub kyi tshogs), i.e., the requisite
of merit (puJJyasalpbhiira, fude zfliang mitii*-1, bsod nams kyi tshogs) and the
requisite of knowledge U.ianasalpbhara, zhihui zfliang ~~~;{;:, ye shes kyi
tshogs). The two requisites are not explained here, but the reader is referred to
chapter three of the Bodhisattvabhilmi, the Svapararthapafala (1.3), for further
detail. It is added that the accumulation of these requisites gradually increases as
the bodhisattva practices throughout three immeasurable aeons.
The ninth element is to practice the thirty-seven factors of Awakening
(saptatriipsad bodhipakwa dharmiilJ, sanshfqi putf fenfa -+-t#mn1t, byang
368 The segment includes a paraphrase of a passage from the Ma1Juwakasrltra, which
has been studied by TAKAHASHI (2009) in comparison with a similar paraphrase given in
Vasubandhu Kosakara's Abhidharmakosabha~ya.
 194 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
chub kyi phyogs kyi chos sum cu rtsa bdun po). Relying on the four analytical
knowledges, t~e bodhisattva fully understands these thirty-seven factors as they are
taught in the Sravakayana. 369 However, it is said that s/he does not actualize them
(na cainaip sak~atkarot1; er bu zuozheng m=Fff"F~, de dag mngon sum du ni mi
byed do). Although no reason is given, this is presumably because their actualiza-
tion would result in premature liberation from saipsara, thereby hindering the
bodhisattva from realizing the goal of remaining in saipsara in order to benefit all
sentient beings. Instead, the bodhisattva applies the Mahayana view to these
factors, seeing each phenomenon, such as the body, as having a nature that is free
from all concepts and ultimately inexpressible.
The tenth element is the bodhisattva's meditative practice of tranquility
(samatha, zhi l.C, zhignas). On the relative level, the bodhisattva fully understands
the sravaka path and the existential facts it teaches concerning suffering, the origin
of suffering, the end of suffering, and the path leading to that end. The
bodhisattva's non-conceptual contemplative focus on the doctrinal points taught in
the sravaka teachings constitutes the meditative practice of tranquility in the
Mahayana tradition. In other words, the bodh1sattva's meditative practice of
tranquility is essentially the same as that of the sravaka path, but the bodhisattva
engages in these in a special way bringing in a Mahayana Prajfi.aparamita under-
standing. Thus, when practicing tranquility meditation, it is said that the Mahayana
practitioner develops the meditation to encompass four aspects: (1) the tranquility
meditation should be preceded by understanding the ultimate and conventional
aspects [of the meditative focus] (paramarthikasaipketikajiianapiirvaipgama,
shengyi shisti zhi qifmxfng MJ~fil{B-~ITTifi, don dam pa dang brdar btags pa 'i shes
pa sngon du 'gro ba); (2) it should result from understanding the ultimate and the
conventional aspects [of the meditative focus] (paramarthikasaipketikajiianaphala,
shengyi shisti zhi gu6 MJ~fil{B-~*' don dam pa dang brdar btags pa'i shes pa'i
'bras bu); (3) the meditator should strive not to entertain any notion involving
conceptual proliferation ( sarvaprapaiicasaipjiiasv anabhogavahana.[i, pii yzi yiqie
xilun xiang zhong wzi gongyong zhuan ~"15~-tJ]fx~ifaf&lt:p~JjJffl,J, spros pa'i 'du
shes thams cad la lhun gy1s grub par Jug pa); and (4) the meditator should dwell in
a state wherein everything becomes a single taste of equanimity flowing from the
signlessness and pacification that appear with the non-conceptual mind that rests
in the inexpressibility of things as such ( tasmiips ca nirabh1Japye vastumatre nir-
nimittaya ca nirvikalpacittasaiptya sarvadharmasamataikarasagami, Ji yzi rtishi Ji
Y1n w6!sk~ y6~ ":1y6u xiang w~ s!!__6 fenbie qi xin jijing quxiang yiqie fa pingdeng
xmg y1we1 sh1 xmg !!P"f5~Po~m § ttiJJ EE~l:H§~Pfr:5t55U ~/L\~Witmri§J-
O O
tJJ$:Zf5:~tt-115rdttt bijod du med pa 'i dngos po tsam de la yang! mtshan ma
med pa 'iphyir rmam par mi rtog pa 'i sems zhi bas chos thams cad mnyam pa nyid
du rogcigpar 'gro ba can).
The eleventh element is the bodhisattva's practice of insight meditation
( vipasyana, guan fi, lhag mthong). While the Mahayana practitioner's samatha
practice is focus,ed on the relative level of the thirty-seven factors of Awakening as
taught in the Sravakayana, the Mahayana practitioner's vipasyana practice is
focused on the ultimate level of the thirty-seven factors of Awakening, employing a
369
See t he above summary o f the second Yogasthana of the Sravakabhiimi,
,
where they
are listed and explained.
The Yogacarabhzlmi and Its Adaptation 195
penetrating understanding of how these factors truly are by observing their inex-
pressible nature that is beyond conceptual designations. Again, the meditator
develops the meditation to encompass four aspects: (1) the insight meditation
should be preceded by tranquility meditation endowed with the four above-
mentioned aspects ( etaccaturakarasamathapiirvaipgama, Ji si xing zhi dao qifmxing
~P!l.9fr1U1[ITTYfi, zhignas sngon du 'gro ba mam pa bzhi po de nyid); (2) it should
be free from the extreme of clinging to untrue presumptions or superimpositions
with regard to all phenomena (sarvadharme~u samaropasadgrahaiptavivarjita, yzi
yiqie 1a yuanli zengyi buzheng zhi bian "15~-Wi!:iiMti~~IEvijj, chos thams
cad h sgro 'dogs par 'dzin pa 'i ngan pa 'i mtha 'mam par spangs pa); (3) it should be
free from the extreme ofclinging to untrue denials [with regard to all phenomena]
( apavadasadgrahaiptavivarjita, yuanli siinJian buzheng zhi bian :iiMtii~~IE$Jt
JI, skurba 'debs par 'dzinpanganpa'imtha'rnamparspangspa); and (4) it should
encompass immeasurable ways of presenting the classifications of phenomena
( apramaIJadhannaprabhedavyavasthananayanugata, &W~H~~_.m~1!~53U 'ii!: O
]lJj!_JOOyj>, chos rab tu dbye ba mam par gzhag pa 'i tshul tshad med pa dang ldan
pa).The twelfth element is the bodhisattva's expertise in the methods ( upayakau-
salya, fangbian shan qiao 1ff]!~J:7j, thabs la mkhas pa). This point is explained at
length in the chapter. To begin with, a distinction is made between inner and outer
facets of expertise in the methods. The inner facets relate to the bodhisattva's
realization of the teachings. Since the bodhisattva views sentient beings with com-
passion, s/he never abandons saipsara. Since s/he sees all conditioned phenomena
as they truly are, s/he is consciously reborn in saipsara with a mind free from
defilements. Since s/he eagerly desires the buddha-wisdom of the highest Awake-
ning, the bodh1sattva's drive is tremendous. The outer facets of the bodhisattva's
expertise in the methods pertain to how s/he develops and trains sentient beings by
relying on special techniques. For example, the bodhisattva ensures that even the
smallest roots of beneficial actions in sentient beings yield immeasurable results,
e.g. simple acts of generosity such as feeding animals. This is achieved by teaching
the doer of the beneficial action to dedicate it (paripamana, huixiang ~ri§J, yangs
su bsngo ba) to the attainment of perfect and complete Awakening. Further, the
bodhisattva leads others to obtain vast and immeasurable roots of beneficial
actions with minimal effort by teaching the Buddhist methods. The text here
mentions an array of common Indian non-Buddhist ascetic and religious practices,
such as fasting, doing yoga exercises, sitting in fire, pit-burial, and Vedic recitation,
and how the bodhisattva in each case may teach such practitioners corresponding
Buddhist methods. Further, the bodhisattva exemplifies and teaches to others a
variety of simple meritorious practices, such as venerating the Three Jewels,
recollecting their qualities, rejoicing in the good done by others, cultivating kind-
ness and compassion, confessing faults and negative actions in front of the Buddha,
and so forth, ands/he inspires faith by performing various miracles. Moreover, in
order to remove antagony in those who are antipathetic to the Buddha's teachings,
introduce those who are open-minded to the teachings, train those who have been
introduced, and liberate those who have been trained, the bodhisattva employs six
special methods. (1) The first is the method of treating people in a welcoming
manner, which literally is called "the method of rubbing in the direction of the hair"
(anulomika upaya.[i, suishun huitong tangbian shanqiao ~H~it:iffin{J!~J5,
mthun pa 'i thabs). This technique is used to overcome antagony and encourage
open-mindedness to the teachings. It also pertains to reassuring those who feel
 196
Ulrich Timme KRAGH
disturbed and apprehensive when hearing the profound teachings on selflessness
an~ emptiness, by informing them of the actual intended meaning of such sutras,
which the pa_ssage shortly explains. (2) The second is the method of keeping people
attracted ( v1bandhasthayi upayaiJ, gong]] yaoqi fangbian shanqiiio ±f:}'.[~$JJt{·icR
~JZ:: 'kh . . /', _::,,...~,/j ~
= J, ,y1g c11!g sdod pa 'i th abs) by _caring for them and protecting them in worldly
~at~er~, ensurmg t~ey have everythmg they need, provided that they adopt a given
d1sc1plme and practice. (3) The third is the method of dealing with insubordination
( visabhagasaya upayaiJ, yifen yiyao fangbian shanqiiio ~:5t~~1J{J!~J7, mi
mthun pa 'i bsam pa 'i thabs), where the bodhisattva temporarily withholds mundane
care and protection from someone who has received help but failed to follow the
expected discipline and practice. It is emphasized that the bodhisattva does so not
out o~ anger b_ut ~ith the intention ultimately to help the person give up the
negative _behavior m question. (4) The fourth is the method of punishing ( ava-
~fa1Pbha1a upayaiJ, bipo su6sheng fangbian shanqiao ~:i§pfr~15 {J!~J7 nan thur
las _byung ba 'i thabs), where the bodhisattva who is a ruler or kin~ threatens a
subJ~ct who has done something very negative or criminal with physical or material
pumshment, such as beating, giving a fine, sending the person away, etc., in order
to prevent such negative behavior from occurring again. (5) The fifth is the method
of_rewarding (k[tapratik[tika upayaiJ, shien baoen fangbian shanqiiio ,trm,lg!J&)et15
~~J7, byas pa la Jan ]don pa or byas pa la Jan glon pa), where the bodhisattva
praises someone who ~as helped and benefited others in various ways, but it is
stressed that the bodhisattva should not reward good behavior by giving material
w~al~~- ( 6~ Th~, sixth, an~ fin~_!P!, is the pure method ( visuddha upayaiJ, jiujing
V
qmgpng fangb1an s~anq1ao ~J'/!..1f=lf¥1Jf1!~J7, rnam par dag pa'i thabs), which
refers to ho": a r~ahzed bodhisattva descends from the Tu~ita heaven and appears
as a buddha m this world, performing the twelve great deeds .
. _The ~hir!e~nt~ ,:~ment is the bod~isa~tva's mastery of retentiveness ( dharaJJi,
m1ao tudluom frj,P~Mtffi, gzungs), which 1s here presented as pertaining to four
3 0
L
asp,,ect~. : ; (1 ~e first is call~d retentiven_ess of the teachings ( dharmadharaJJi, fa
tudluom 1.tP~*'iffi, chos ky1 gzungs). This means that the bodhisattva attains a
special _power of memory and insight, through which s/he is able permanently to
memonze endless books and teachings very precisely right down to the Jetter
merely by hearing them once without needing to recite them or commit them to
me~o~: Et. ,'E?e second ~s called reten~iveness of meaning ( arthadharaJJi, yi
t~dluom ~p~*'iffi, don gy1 gzungs), refernng to a similar special ability to memo-
nze the me~mn~ of t~achi~gs.p) Jah~~ird is called retentiveness through mantras
(man~radhara1J1,. zhou tud!uo~1 .11Jt:MEffi, gsang sngags kyi gzungs). Here the
bodhisattva attams a meditative power, whereby s/he is able to bless mantra- ·
syllable~ in order to p~cify adversities and epidemics of sentient beings. (4) The
fourth 1s called retentiveness aimed at attaining the endurance of a bodhisattva
(bodhisattvak~antilabhaya dharaJJl, ~gf~~~,Brtmm, byang chub sems dpa'
bzod pa 'thob par byed pa 'i gzungs). It is said that an advanced bodhisattva who
P?ssesses insight and stays in solitude, who does not speak idly and does not show
~1m- or_ h~rself to ~thers, whose intake of food is regulated, careful, and taken in a
smgle s1ttmg, who 1s devoted to meditation, and who sleeps minimally at night can
37
°For a short study of this passage, see BRAARVIG (1985:19-20).
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 197
one of the many dharaJJi formulas taught by the Buddha, such as tadyatha
~s_e 1·tikitibhih ksantipadani svaha. The practitioner then understands that just as
itiflJ . . . . . 11 . d "d f . h
these syllables have ~o ~eal 1:1eanmg,_ a phe~omena ~re evm . o an m erent
ture and their reality 1s ultimately mexpress1ble. This penetratmg comprehen-
n_a is called the endurance of a bodhisattva and by attaining this the practitioner
sion quickly accomphsh
will · the pure ~xa 1t~ d mot1vat!on
· · an d rea~ h t h ~ en d_ura?c~
ociated with the level of practicmg with ascertamment ( adh1muktJcaryabhum1,
::eogjk xfng di ijw~¥frtlli, mos pas spyod P_~ 'i sa). The text also mentions th~~ to
ster retentiveness in general, the pract1t10ner has to possess four quaht1es,
:~vy
mamely (1) to be without strong attachment to sensual pleasures, (2) to be without
of the achievements by others, (3) to give all ki~ds of alms and be ge~ero~s
without feeling regret, and (4) to take great pleasure m the Dharma, especially m
the bodhisattva teachings. . . . .
The fourteenth element is to engender bodh1sattva-asp1rat10ns ( bodh1sattva-
pra1Jidhana, zheng yuim ~I~, byanf c~ub sems dpa 'i s1:1on lam), which includ~s
five types. ( 1) The first 1s the aspiration of engendenng the resolve to attam
Awakening ( cittotpadapraJJidhana, fiixin yuan ~ 1 L\iJ[, sems b~ky~d pa 'i smo~ lam),
i.e., to give rise to bodhicitta. (2) This is followed by_!he aspirat10n of wantmg to
take rebirth ( upapattipraJJidhana, shou sheng yuan s't~iJ[, skye ba 'i smon lam),
where the bodhisattva wishes to be reborn in good saqisaric existences in order to
benefit sentient beings. (3) The third is the aspiration of engagement (gocarapraJJi-
dhana, su6xfng yuan pfrfiJJ[, spyod yul gyi smon lam), namely the wish to study the
teachings and practice meditation. ( 4) The fourth is called perfect aspiration
( samyakpraJJidhana, zheng yuan r::EJJ[, yang dag pa 'i smon Jam), which is the wish
to gather all the beneficial actions of a bodhisattva and build up all good qualities.
(5) The last type is called great aspiration (mahapraJJidhana, da yuan ::kl!, smon
Jam chen po), which consists in a variety of special wishes to venerate the Buddha,
learn and protect his teachings, to be reborn as a buddha in his final existence, to
perform all the multifarious activiti~s of. a bodhisattva, to ~evelop a~d train all
sentient beings, to establish the teachmgs m all worlds, to punfy an entire buddha-
field, to undertake all the intentions of a bodhisattva, to accomplish the results of
all the intentions, and to attain perfect and complete Awakening.
The fifteenth eleme11;t ~ for the ~odhisattv,a t? acco1:1plis_h meditative ~bsorg;
tion (samadhi, sanmad1 -=*±lli, tmg nge 'dzm), which 1s of three kmds.
(1) Meditative absorption into emptiness (sunyatasamadhi, k6ng sanmadi ~ - *
tm, stong pa nyid kyi ting nge 'dzin) means that the mind rests ( cittasya sthiti};l, xin
zheng anzhu ,L<1E~{:t, sems gnas pa) in an understanding of seeing things as
having an inexpressible nature. (2) Meditative absorption into wishlessness ( apra-
IJ1hita1J samadhilJ, wu yuan sanmadi ~11-=.*tlli, smon pa med pa 'i ting nge 'dzin)
means that the practitioner sees the many faults that come from the afflictions and
sufferings associated with misinterpreting the inexpressible nature of things, and
with such realization the mind rests in that state without wishing for anything. (3)
Meditative absorption into imagelessness ( animittal;i samadhiiJ, wuxiang sanmadi
mt§-)¥ttg, mtshan ma med pa'i ting nge 'dzin) means that the mind rests in
tranquility while observing the inexpressible nature as it is after having let go off all
371 For the three kinds of siimadhi, see the present article by Florin DELEANU.
 198 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
the i~ages [arising from] the proliferation of thoughts. The text briefly explains-
why Just these three types of meditative absorption are mentioned and no other
types.
The sixteenth and final element is that buddhas and bodhisattvas teach four
summary statements ( catviirimam· dharmoddaniini, si zh6ng fa watu6na [9f_lj!D(l;1
:ft!fi¥J, cha~ kyi mdo bzhi) in order to purify sentient beings. These four ar-:
~~! e;e~th1~g condit~o~~d is~mp~manent (anityaiJ saivasaipskaralJ, ylqie zhu xfng
JI~sh1 wuc~~ng -~~1T~7E~ ffi, 'du byed thams cad la mi rtag go), (2) every-
th1~g/.~~1!.~I~n!? Is suffermg ( duiJkhalJ saivasaipskariilJ, ylqie zhu xing jiexJ kii -
~~fTs ,D,7E~, 'du byed thams cad sdug bsngal bab), (3) all phenomena are
With~u\ a lr:man~nt] self ( anatmanaiJ saivadharmalJ, yfqie zhu fa jie wuy6u WO
,,~~rt~ "'/~"f~, ~~o~ tk~ms ,cad !:._1ag med pab), and (4) niivaJJa is peace
(saiptaip mrvaJJam, mepanppng r3:!.~t0llw, mya ngan las 'das pa ni zhi bab). The
four summary statements are explained in some detail.
1.18 The Bodhisattvagupapafala
The. current cha~ter is the last part of the first Y ogasthana called "The Yoga-
~ect1on Concermng t_h_e Basis [for b~ing a bodhisattva]." It is entitled the (1.18)
c~a~:, o~~hi qualities of a bodh1sa~t_va" ( bodhi~att;7at~1Japafala, ptisa g6ngde
pm 1=1 ~BEJ}Jf,~P.P, byang chub sems dpa 1 yon tan gy1 le u), and presents four lists
of good qualities that charact~rize the bodhisattva who has successfully engen-
dere~ the. resolve for ~wakenmg and followed the training of a bodhisattva as
descnbed m the precedmg parts of the first Y ogasthana.
. The first list consists of seven s_ets (A-G) of five qualities (1-5). (A) To begin
w~t}i, such an advanced bodhisattva possesses five astonishing qualities
( ascazyadbhuta dharmaiJ, shen xiqf fa !f::m~it, ngo mtshar rmad du byung ba 'i
chos), namely (1) that s/he for no rea~on is affectionate towards all sentient beings,
(2) that s/he bears the endless suff~r~ng of saipsara in order to benefit the beings,
(3) that s/h~ ~nows methods for trammg them in spite of their many afflictions and
the great d1ffI_culty t_her~ is in tr~i~ing them, (4) that s/he has penetrated into the
~ature ~f reality, which IS most difficult to realize, and (5) thats/he is endowed with
mconce1vable spiritual powers. (B) Secondly, the advanced bodhisattva also
P~_sse!~s five qualities of bei~g un~~pressed ( ~nascaryadbhuta dharmalJ, bu xJqf fa
:::f::mr=ur!, ngo mtshar ma ym pa I chos), which serve as the basis for the above
astonishing qualities. Thes_e include (1) that the bodhisattva chooses to forgo own
~omf?rt and pleasure and mstead chooses to undergo the suffering that is involved
~n trymg to ~elp others. (2) Further, in order to help others, s/he chooses to remain
m_ sa_ipsiira m spite of knowing the faults of Saipsara and the great qualities of
mivaJJa. (3) S/he chooses to teach sentient beings verbally in order to help them
develop, alt~ough the bodhisattva's knowledge is of a bliss that is non-verbal.
(4) S/he dedicates to others the roots of beneficial actions, which s/he has accumu-
lated. through_ the practice of the six perfections, and thus chooses to forgo the
karmic benefits s/he could personally have obtained thereby. (5) Finally, s/he
chooses to take on the duties to be done by others and turns the benefit s/he
creates therefrom into a benefit for others. (C) Thirdly, the advanced bodhisattva
372
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:285-300) = Tl579.545b24-549b 8 = D4037.l49b3 -157a6 •
The Yogacarabhfimj and Its Adaptation 199
- aintains impartiality (samacitta, xin pfngdeng ,[)Zp-~, sems snyoms pa) toward
:ntient beings in five ways. (1) The bodhisattva is impartial in wanting to help all
ntient beings on the basis of how s/he at the outset engendered the resolve to
::ach Awakening for the benefit of all. (2) Likewise, the bodhisattva's compassion
mbraces everyone. (3) The bodhisattva's love for others is such that s/he regards
:veryone as if they were his or her one and only child. ( 4) Understandi~g that th_e
notion of a 'sentient being' is merely a label affixed to dependently ansen condi-
tioned phenomena, s/he has realized the_ equality in th~ nature of_ a_ll bei°:gs.
(5) Finally, the bodhisattva's attitude of actmg for ~he ben~flt ?f others 1s impartial,
because s/he sees that just as s/he helps one sentient bemg m the same way s/he
should help them all. (D) Fourthly, the advanced bodhisattva does five kinds of
actions to benefit sentient beings (sattve~u saivopakarakriya, y6uqfng neng zuo
yjqie raiyi zhj shi ~'[WMgf1=-tJJwl1iiEL *' sems can rnams la ... phan 'dogs pa 'i bya
ba thams cad). These include (1) showing the right livelihood, (2) showing the
actions that bring benefit to those who are engaged in non-beneficial actions, (3)
serving as a protector for those who suffer and are without a refuge, (4) sho~,ring
the path that leads to happiness, and (5) teaching _the methods of th_e three,,ve~1cles.
(E) Fifthly, the advanced bodhisattva shows gratitude (pratyupakara, choubao WM
f~, Jan du phan 'dogs pa) in five ways to sentient beings who hel~ _him or her. S(he
does so (1) by connecting them with his or her own good quaht1es, (2) by bemg
committed to fostering their good qualities, (3) by helping those who suffer and are
without refuge, (4) by venerating the buddhas, and (5) by venerating those who
recite, write, or hold the Buddh.a's teachings. (F) Sixthly, the advanced bodhisattva
always wishes for five things, viz. (1) to encounter the buddhas who appear~~ the
world, (2) to hear the bodhisattva-teachings from them, (3) to possess the spmtual
powers needed to develop all sentient beings,. ( 4) to /a!tain p~rf~ct and compl~te
Awakening, and (5) to lead a complete gathermg of sravaka-d1sc1ples after havmg
attained full Awakening. (G) Seventhly, there are five ways in which the bodhi-
sattva's actions to benefit others are never futile ( avandhyo 'rthakriyaprayoga, bu
xu raoyiy]jia ~lilltm:@:1J0fi, don bya ba'i sbyor ba ... 'bras buyod par gyur), namely
(1-2) that the bodhisattva right from the outset wishes to bring benefit and happi-
ness to sentient beings, (3-4) that s/he understands benefit and happiness as they
really are, and (5) does so with a mind free from error. The text here refers the
reader to the PujasevapramaJJa-pafala (1.16) for further explanations.
The second list is a fourfold enumeration (A-D) d~tailing qualities to be up-
held as well as faults to be abandoned by the bodhisattva. (A) At the outset, five
ways in which the advanced bodhisattva's practice is completely right ( bodhi-
sattvasya sarvasamyakprayoga, yiqie pusa wu dao Jiaxfng -t7]~~~1¥U1JDff,
byang chub sems dpa'i yang dag pa'i sbyor ba thams cad) are mentioned first.
These refer to that the bodhisattva's practice (1) is carefully maintained, (2) is free
from anything blameworthy, (3) is endowed with the power of introspection, (4) is
of completely pure intention, and (5) is fully guarded against any potential lapses.
(B) Secondly, the text presents five factors that constitute a setback for the bodhi-
sattva (hanabhagiya dharmalJ, shuntui fen fa /l~~:5Nt, 'bri ba dang mthun pa'i
chos): (1) to disrespect the Dharma and its reciters, (2) to be careless or sluggish,
(3) to be engrossed in the afflictions, ( 4) to be engrossed in wrong behavior, and
(5) to be arrogant by looking down on other bodhisattvas and seeing the Dharma
as being faulty. The bodhisattva progressively turns away from these negative
attitudes by fostering their opposite qualities of excellence ( dharma vise~abhagiyalJ,
shunsheng fen fa ll~W:5tit, chos rnams khyad par du 'gro ba dang mthun pa).
200 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
(C) Thirdly, there may be five faults in the bodhisattva that resemble qualities
(gw;iapratinlpaka bodhisattvadofaiJ, xiangsi gongde -t:tfslflm1f_ti]JH~HijW{f, yon
tan ltar bcos pa'i byang chub sems dpa'i skyon). These include: (1) doing harmful
actions when reproaching persons engaged in highly negative behaviors, (2) acting
in a pure manner in order to deceive others, (3) becoming a scholar (pap(jita)
through knowledge derived from the doctrines of the materialists (lokayata) and
other non-Buddhist (tirthika) dogmas, (4) overdoing positive actions such as giving
something improper, and (5) promoting false doctrines by teaching them as though
they were the true Dharma. In contradistinction to these, there are five genuine
bodhisattva-qualities ( bhuta bodhisattvagupalJ, zhenshf gongde ~'.l)}Jtt, byang
chub sems dpa'i yang dag pa'i yon tan), which simply are the opposite of the five
faults that resemble qualities. (D) Fourthly, a short list is given showing how the
bodhisattva develops sentient beings ( vinayana, shan tI"iw fri ~§}m{x, 'dul bar byed
par) by training them in ten retreats. These include: (1) to retreat from negative
behavior, (2) to retreat from sensual pleasures, (3) to retreat from downfalls, (4) to
restrain the senses, (5) to maintain attentiveness, (6) to retreat from gatherings [of
people], (7) to retreat from wrong discernment once the practitioner has entered
physical retreat, (8) to retreat from the hindrances, (9) to retreat from outbursts of
the afflictions, and (10) to retreat from [dormant] debilitations associated with the
afflictions.
The third list details five other aspects (A-E) of the bodhisattva's advanced
development. (A) The first point concerns the manner in which buddhas predict
( ry,akrti, shiJU ji §t~~' lung bstan pa) the maturation and final Awakening of a
bodhisattva. (B) Secondly, the text explains the bodhisattva's definitive advance-
ment (myatipata, duo yzijueding E!.~#!:5E, nges par zhugs pa) in terms of predis-
position, engendering the resolve for Awakening, and performing irreproachable
activities to benefit others. (C) Thirdly, five necessary engagements (avasya-
karapiya, ding su6 ying zuo JEpfrff!{'p, nges par bya ba) of a bodhisattva are
enumerated without which full Awakening cannot be reached: (1) initially to
engender the resolve for Awakening, (2) to feel compassion for sentient beings,
(3) to have a burning drive for Awakening, (4) to learn all five branches of learning,
and (5) to be untiring. (D) Fourthly, the text lists five constant engagements
(satatyakarapiya, chang su6 ying zuo m'Pfrff!{'p, rtag par bya ba) of a bodhisattva,
namely (1) never to be careless, (2) always to protect sentient beings who are
suffering and without any refuge, (3) to venerate the Buddha, (4) to recognize
downfalls, and (5) to apply bodhicitta to all outer and inner activities. (E) Fifthly,
there are ten things that the bodhisattva considers foremost (pradhanasa1J1mata,
zaiyzi zw'shang tt1Y~i&.J:, gtso bar 'dad pa). S/he sees: (1) the bodhisattva-
predisposition as foremost among all predispositions, (2) the resolve for Awake-
ning as foremost among all aspirations, (3) drive and insight as foremost among the
perfections, (4) affectionate speech as foremost among the bases for gathering
students, (5) the Buddha as foremost among all beings, (6) compassion as foremost
among the immeasurable attitudes, (7) the fourth meditation as foremost among
all meditations, (8) the meditative absorption of emptiness as foremost among the
three meditative absorptions, (9) the absorption of cessation as foremost among all
absorptions, and (10) expertise in the pure method as foremost among all expertise
in the methods.
The fourth list concerns seven aspects (A-G) associated with gaining know-
ledge and teaching the Dharma. (A) First, there are four things that can be termi-
nologically determined (prajiiaptiry,avasthana, shishe jianli ~§~Y!]'[, gdags pa
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 201
rnam par gzhag pa) only by buddhas and bodhisattvas, namely (1) the various
sections of the teachings, (2) the various types of truths or existential facts, (3) the
four reasonings, and (4) the three vehicles. (B) Secondly, the bodhisattva engages
in the four investigations (paryefapa, xfnsi ~,ErJJ, yangs su tshol ba) and attains the
four complete knowledges of these as they are (yathabhiitaparijiiana, rrishi biim
zhi PDJf~~D,jilta ba bzhin duyongs su shes pa) in terms of (1) names, (2) things,
(3) verbal designatio~~:i portray.ing a self-na~ure,. an? (4) verbal designations
portraying differences. · (C) Thirdly, by knowmg five 1mmeasurables (apremeya,
wriliang ~_;, dpag tu med pa), the bodhisattva gains expertise in everything:
(1) the immeasurable constituent of sentient beings, (2) the immeasurable con-
stituent of the world, (3) the immeasurable constituent of phenomena, (4) the
immeasurable constituent of those who are to be trained, and (5) the immeasu-
rable constituent of methods for training. These categories, some of which were
mentioned in the Manobhrlmi, are here explained in some detail. (D) Fourthly,
five great effects stem from the fact that buddhas and bodhisattvas teach the
Dharma to sentient beings ( dharmadesanayalJ vipulalJ phalanusa1J1saiJ, da gu6
shengli 7(:5RMftlJ, chos bstan pa'i 'bras bu'iphan yon rgya che ba), namely (1) that
some beings develop the immaculate eye of the Dharma when they hear the
teachings, (2) some obtain the end of corruption, (3) some engender the resolve
for Awakening, (4) some attain the endurance of a bodhisattva, and (5) the
Dharma remains in the world for a long time by being transmitted via teaching,
recitation, and practice. (E) Fifthly, there are seven greatnesses ( mahattva, .dim'ng
7('['1, chen po) associated with the bodhisattva-vehicle, which is why it is called the
Great Vehicle (mahayiina, dasheng **' theg pa chen po), namely the great scope
of (1) its teachings, (2) engendered resolve, (3) confidence, (4) motivation, (5) the
gathering of its requisites, (6) the time it takes, and (7) its realization. (F) Sixthly,
there are eight Dharmas that comprise the Mahayana in its entirety ( sarvasya
mahiiyanasya sa1J1grahalJ, she yiqie dasheng m-~w**· theg pa chen po thams
cad sdud par byed pa). These are (1) the teachings of the bodhisattvapifaka, (2) the
teachings from this pifaka on the nature of reality as well as on the vast and unfa-
thomable spiritual powers of buddhas and bodhisattvas, (3) properly listening to
these teachings, (4) properly understanding them, (5) feeling confidence in them,
(6) taking up a form of meditative cultivation based thereon, (7) accomplishing the
result of this cultivation, and (8) thereby becoming liberated from sa1J1sara.
(G) Seventhly, bodhisattvas who train in this way reach perfect and complete
Awake-ning and there are ten kinds of bodhisattvas. These include: (1) those
predestined for the Mahayana, (2) those who have entered the path, (3) those
without pure conviction, (4) those with pure conviction, (5) the unmatured, (6) the
matured, (7) those without definitive advancement, (8) those with definitive
advancement, (9) those bound with a final rebirth, and (10) those who are in their
last rebirth. These steps are explained with reference to the special system of levels
of the path ( bhumi, di j:-tg, sa) presented in the Bodhisattvabhrlmi to be explained
below. The chapter ends with a short paragraph discussing the name bodhisattva,
373
For an outline of these, sec the above summary of the Tattviirthapa{ala (I.4) of the
Bodhjsattvabhumi For a discussion, see the present articles by Noritoshi ARAMAKI and
Florin DELEANU.
202 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
how it applies to the different levels of bodhjsattvas mentioned here, and providing
a series of epithets that are often used for bodhjsattvas in the scriptures.
IL The Second Yogasthana: Adharanudharmayogasthana
While the first yoga-section presented the basis or provision for being a bodhj-
sattva explaining the predisposition, the engendering of the resolve for Awakening,
and the practices leading to Awakening, the second yoga-section augments the first
section by clarifying subsidiary elements. It is entitled "the yoga-section on the
subsidiary factors ensuing from the basis" (adharanudharmayogasthana, chi suffa
yujia chu t=;f PJli!fiTofjJ[J~, gzhj'i mthun pa 'i chos kyj rnal 'byor gyj gnas). From
among the ten General Topics covered in the Bodhjsattvabhumj book, the second
Yogasthana explicates General Topics 2-5, viz. (General Topic 2) the characteri-
stics [of a bodhisattva] (JjJiga, xiang t§, rtags), (General Topic 3) the classes [of
bodhisattvas] (pak§a, fen fj, phyogs), (General Topic 4) the [bodhjsattva's] exal-
ted conviction ( adhyasaya, zengshang yi'Je ~ _b6';J~, /hag pa 'j bsam pa), and
(General Topic 5) the sojourns [of a bodhjsattva's practice] (vjhara, zhu 1±, gnas
pa).
The second Yogasthana consists of four corresponding chapters explaining
these four General Topics, viz. (II.1) the chapter on the characteristics of a bodhj-
sattva (bodhisattva/Jngapafala, pusa xiang pfn =g:~.,t§£, byang chub sems dpa'i
rtags kyi le'u), (II.2) the chapter on the classes [of bodhisattvas] (pak§apafala, fen
pin fi~o, phyogs kyj le'u), (II.3) the chapter on the [bodhjsattva's] exalted convic-
tion (adhyasayapafala, zengshang yi'le pin ~__t~~&b, /hag pa'j bsam pa'i le'u),
and (II.4) the chapter on the sojourns [of a bodhisattva's practice] ( vjhara-pafala,
zhu pin 1±£, gnas pa'i Je'u).
11.1 The Bodhisattvalingapafala
The (II.1) "chapter on the characteristics of a bodhisattva" ( bodhisattvaliiigapafala,
pusa xiang pfn ~~;t§£, byang chub sems dpa'i rtags kyj Je'u), which explicates
(General Topic 2) the characteristics [of a bodhisattva] (liJiga, xiangf§, rtags), lays
out five distinctive traits defining a bodhjsattva. 374 The five distinctive traits are: (1)
compassion ( anukampa, a1inin R~, snying brtse ba), (2) affectionate speech
(prjyavadita, iJjyu ~~.g, snyan par smra ba), (3) courage ( vairya, yongmeng ~1tih,
brtan pa), (4) openhandedness (muktahastata, shu shou hui shi ~f.=f.Jlnffi, lag
rkyong ba), and (5) an ability to unravel deep underlying meanings (gambhirartha-
sa1pdhinirmocanata, neng jje shen shen yHJ miyi ~~~,tti*~l.12&'~, don dang
dgongs pa zab mo nges par 'grel pa).
The chapter structures its explanation of the five distinctive traits under five
points, viz. (A) their nature (svabhava, zixi'ng fltt ngo bo nyM), (B) their foci or
referents (adhj§fhana, yichu 1~~' gnas), (C) their results and benefits (phalanu-
sa1psa, guoli *llJ, 'bras bu'iphan yon), (D) their sequence (anukrama, cidi ;x~,
go rims), and (E) their inclusion (sa1pgraha, she fflr, bsdu ba). Each point (A-E)
includes explanation of all five distinctive traits (1-5).
(A) As for the natures of the five distinctive traits of a bodhisattva, compassion
has a dual nature, namely an intentional aspect and a pragmatic aspect. Its inten-
374
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:301-306) = Tl579.549b 1r550c3 = D4037.157a6-l60a 1•
The YogacarabhtJmj and Its Adaptation 203
tional aspect is the intention to help and bring happiness to others. Its pragmatic
aspect is to do whatever possible with body and speech in order to accomplish this
intention. The nature of affectionate speech is to speak in a manner that brings joy
a.nd. is helpful. The nature of courage is to have a character that is steady, without
timidness, and able. Openhandedness is to be very generous in a manner that is not
at all d~filed by afflictions. The ability to unravel deep underlying meanings implies
possessmg the knowledge that comes from applying the four analytical know-
ledges. 375
(B) Compassion relates to five referents in that it is directed towards sentient
beings who ex~erience suffering, are locked in negative behaviors, are lustful and
pro?1i~cuous,3 6 are .stuck in in.correct spiritual practices, or are bound by the
affhct10ns and ensumg tendencies. Affectionate speech is concerned with expres-
sing the right form of conversation, joy, consolation and encouragement, restric-
tion, and instruction. Courage is concerned with developing firm strength as
explained in the Bodhjpak§yapafala (1.17). Openhandedness involves being gene-
rous continously, joyfully, respectfully, unafflictedly, and without attachment. The
ability to unravel deep underlying meanings concerns explaining the profound
sut~as tau~h! b?' the Buddha that propound emptiness and dependent arising, the
vanous d1sc1plmary downfalls presented in the Vinaya, the characteristics of
phenomena laid out in the mnemonic lists of the Abhidharma, the hidden intended
meaning of the teachings, and the definitions, meanings, derivative etymologies,
and subdivisions of all Dharma terminology.
( C) In terms of their results and benefits, compassion leads the bodhisattva to
ac~omplish all _goals that bring benefit without ever feeling downcast and depressed.
It 1s also ment10ned that the Buddha taught that friendliness causes the body to be
impervious to poisons, weapons, and so forth. Affectionate speech leads to giving
up the four negative types of speech and to use speech in a way that is beneficial for
oneself and others. The steadiness of courage leads to giving· up laziness and
apathr, and developing a mind that takes joy in practicing the discipline of a
bodhisattva and that possesses endurance and drive. The results and benefits of
op~nhan?edness and the ability to unravel deep underlying meanings were ex-
plamed m the Prabhavapafala (I.5) under the rubrics of the spiritual powers
associated with generosity and insight.
(D) The sequence of the five distinctive traits is such that the bodhisattva first
exhibits compassion, whereby s/he cares for and wishes to help sentient beings. In
order to ~uide them to practice· beneficial actions and relinquish negative actions,
the bodhisattva then develops affectionate speech. This is followed by the courage
to undergo the various hardships that are involved in helping and guiding them.
Thereupon, the bodhjsattva practices openhandedness to care for his or her
followers _materially and otherwise, and in order to teach them the right methods,
the bodhisattva finally develops the ability to unravel deep underlying meanings.
375
Concerning the four analytical knowledges, see the summary of the Bodhipakffa-
pafala, chapter 1.17 of the Bodhisattvabhumi
376
From a social-historical perspective, it may be interesting to note that the text here
exemplifies being lustful and promiscuous (pramatta) by giving a list of entertainers, such
as actors, dancers, performers, and comedians.
204 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
(E) Finally, the five distinctive traits may be included in the ca~egories of ~he
six perfections (paramita), in that compassion is pa~t of the I?er.fe~t1on of ~e~1ta-
tion affectionate speech is included in the perfections of d1sciplme and msight,
cou;age is part of the perfections of drive, endurance, and insight, openhandedn~ss
belongs to the perfection of generosity, and the ability to unravel deep underlymg
meanings pertains to the perfections of meditation and insight.
11.2 The Palcyapafala
The (II.2) "chapter on the classes [of bodhisat~as ]" (pak~apafala, fen pi1! :B-&b,
phyogs kyi Je'u), which explicates (General Topic 3) the classes [~f bodhis~ttvas]
(palcya, fen )t, phyogs), distinguishes two overall types ?f bodh~~~.t__tv~s, VI~~~
practitioners belonging to the group of hous~holde.rs (frh1pak~a, z_a1pa fen 7=t%.7J ,
khyim pa 'i phyogs) and those with monastic ordmatlon belongmg .to the gW?P
of renunciants (pravrajitapak~a, chujia fen te~:B-, rab tu byung ba'I phyogs). It
then presents four Dharmas (fa 1t, chos), i.e., spiritual practices, that are com-
monly undertaken by both types of bodhisattvas. _ _
The first practice is the performance of good de~ds (suk_rtakarmantata, s~an
xiu shiye ~{l~*~t las kyi mtha 'legs par byas pa). It 1s exp lamed that a b~dh~sa~-
tva practices the six perfections under any circumstance in a manner that Is d1sc1-
plined, perfect, continual, and impeccable. . / _ .,
The second is to develop skillfulness and expertise (kausalya, fangb1an shan-
qiiio JJ{fgJ5, mkhas pa). Bodhisattvas enable others to help themselve~ through
their skillfulness in methods that dispel resistance in those who are hostile to the
Dharma, allow those who are open to enter the Dharma, train those who have
entered the Dharma, and liberate those who have been trained. They refute the
wrong assertions of others through their expertise in all mundane sciences. They
ensure that lapses in their practice of the bodhisattva-discipline o! vows never
occur or immediately restore and maintain their discipline through skillfulness and
expertise in paying attention to transgressions. They achieve all wished-for goals in
the future through skillfulness in making aspiration prayers. Also, they teach the
Dharma in perfect accordance with the audience's predispositions, aptitudes, and
confidence with expertise in the three vehicles.
The third is to care for others (paranugraha, raoyi yu ta ~ME~{-tg, gzhan la
phan 'dogs pa), which in brief means to help and guide others through the four_
bases for gathering students ( catvari sa,pgrahavastuni, si she shi [9fflr*, bsdu ba'I
dngos po bzhi). 378 For a longer explanation, the present chapter refers the reader
to the Svapararthapafala (1.3). . / , / .,
The fourth is to perform dedicatory transfer (panJJamana, wudao h~mang ~
{iLJ§lfil["q], yangs su bsngo ba), where the bodhi,;;attva dedicates all good act10ns done
in the past, present, and future, e.g., all the activities a~complished.by the perfor-
mance of good deeds, applying skillfulness and expertise, and canng for others,
377
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:307-311) = Tl579.550c5 -55lc 7 = D4037.l60a1-l62a~. The
division of householder and renunciant bodhisattvas is discussed in the present article by
Noriaki HAKAMAYA on the basis of the Silapafala (1.10).
378
For an explanation of these, see the Saipgrahavastupa/ala (1.15).
The Yogacarahhumi and Its Adaptation 205
towards the great goal of attaining the perfect and complete Awakening of a
buddha, without wishing for any sarp.saric result.
The chapter ends by stating that all bodhisattvas, whether they are house-
holders or renunciants, strive towards and achieve Awakening purely by means of
these four practices. However, though they perform the same practices, it is
declared that renunciant bodhisattvas are vastly superior to, more outstanding, and
nobler than householder bodhisattvas. Five reasons are given for this. First, it is I'
said that renunciant bodhisattvas - unlike householder bodhisattvas - are not i
fettered by the shortcomings and limitations of raising a family. Secondly, they are
free from the afflictions and sufferings stemming from having to provide for a
family by engaging in farming, business, or the affairs of the kingdom. Thirdly, they
are much more self-controlled given their steadfast practice of celibacy. Fourthly,
in view of these freedoms they are able to progress faster and more easily on the
path. Finally, their words are better received and respected by others in light of the
respectability of their strict ascetic discipline.
,
II.3 The Adhyasayapafala
The (II.3) "chapter on the exalted conviction" (adhyasayapafala, zengshangyi'Je pln
~_t'.@~&b, lhag pa'I· bsam pa'i le'u), which explicates (General Topic 4) the
, [bodhisattva's] exalted conviction ( adhyaiaya, zengshang yile ijf...t~~' Jhag pa 'i
~sampa} presents the bodhisattva's pure motivation and mindset and how it is put
mto life.- 7
To begin with, it is said that the bodhisattva feels seven forms of tenderness
( vatsalya, lianmin '[~~, mnyes gshin pa) towards sentient beings, namely a tender-
ness that is fearless, befitting, untiring, unsolicited, profitless, extensive, and
nondiscriminating. A bodhisattva who has such a feeling is said to have the highest
form of good intention.
Moreover, the bodhisattva possesses exalted conviction (adhyasaya, zengshang
yile fj _t'.@~, lhag pa 1· bsam pa). This is defined as an ascertainment, thorough
comprehension, and certainty in the Buddha's teachings derived from faith and
analysis of the Dharma. The chapter lays out fifteen forms of exalted conviction (1-
15), which are put into life through a series of ten activities (krtya, neng zuo trn1r,
bya ba). With (1-3) conviction in the Three Jewels, s/he applies him- or herself to
gathering the requisites for Awakening by venerating the Three Jewels. With (4)
conviction in the discipline of vows, the bodhisattva takes and upholds the vows of
the bodhisattva-discipline without allowing any transgression to occur even at the
cost of his or her life. With (5) conviction in the practice of the perfections, the
bodhisattva conscientiously and carefully practices the six perfections. With (6)
conviction in the nature of reality, the bodhisattva remains in samsara without
entertaining any afflicted state of mind in order to help sentient beings, but without
abandoning nirvaJJa. With (7) conviction in the spiritual powers of the buddhas
and bodhisattvas, s/he makes known his or her faith in the teachings and strives to
cultivate its meaning in meditation without settling for a mere intellectual under-
standing. With (8) a conviction of wanting to help sentient beings accomplish what
379
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:312-316) = Tl579.55lc9-552c 18 = D4037.l62a3-l64a5 .
206 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
380
is beneficial, (9) of wanting to care for them and make them happy, and (10) ~f
being non-materialistic without desire for profit or hope for pleasant results of his
or her actions, the bodhisattva undertakes all sorts of actions that help sentient
beings without becoming downcast or depressed. With (11) a steady conviction of
aiming for the highest and complete Awakening, the bodhisattva keeps up a fierce
and consistent drive without weakness or letting go. With (12) an unerring convic-
tion aimed at acquiring perfect knowledge of the methods for benefiting beings
and reaching Awakening, s/he thoroughly practices the teachings and quickly
reaches clairvoyance, without settling for a trifling or lesser result. With (13) the
impure conviction pertaining to the level of practicing with ascertainment and (14)
the pure conviction pertaining to the level of pure exalted conviction up to the level
of practicing with certainty, the bodhisattva progresses through the path. The latter
form of conviction is characterized as 'checked' (nigrhita, y1'ng diaofu ~§JWl{:*, tshar
gcad pa), since it is attained via careful examination of reality .. Finally, wi!h (15) ~he
exceedingly pure conviction pertaining to the level of reachmg perfect10n, which
may be characterized as 'spontaneous' (sahaja, jzlsheng {Jt~, lhan cig skyes pa)
since it appears naturally, the bodhisattva attains the perfect and complete Awa-
kening of a buddha in order to benefit humans and gods. The chapter ends by
declaring that it is through these fifteen types of exalted conviction that all
buddhas of the past, present, and future attain Awakening.
11.4 The Viharapafala
The fourth and final chapter of the second Yogasthana, which explicates (General
Topic 5) the sojourns [of a bodhisattva's practice] ( vihara, zhu {.±., gnas pa), is
somewhat longer than the three preceding chapters. It is entitled (II.4) "chapter on
the sojourns [of a bodhisattva]" (viharapafala, zhu pin {_1=.£, gnas pa'i le'u). 381 It
lays out thirteen levels or 'sojourns' ( vihara, zhu {±, gnas pa) that subsume all the
progressive practices and accomplishments of a bodhisattva ( bodhisattvacarya,
pusa xfng ~~fi' byang chub sems dpa 'i bslab pa).
The first is the sojourn of [having] the predisposition (gotravihara, zhongx1'ng
zhu fffi'[1:{±, rigs la gnas pa). It refers to the level of a potential bodhisattva who
possesses the predisposition for becoming a bodhisattva but who has not yet
engendered the resolve for Awakening nor begun to practice the path. It is ex-
plained that such a person inherently is endowed with bodhisattva qualities in the
sense that s/he has an innate goodness, which will come to fore when the person
begins to practice. S/he is endowed with the seeds for all the buddha-qualities,
which lie dormant in the body.
The second is the sojourn of practicing with ascertainment ( adhimukticarya-
vihara, shengjie xfng zhu rm~~fi{±, mos pas spyod pa la gnas pa). It refers to the
level of a bodhisattva who has engendered the resolve for Awakening for the first
time and who practices the path with impure conviction, 382 i.e., before reaching the
°
38
For a thorough discussion of the word 'beneficial' (kusala), see the present article by
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN.
381
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:317-358) = T1579.552c20-562c 19 = D4037.l64as-l85b7.
382
For the convictions mentioned here and below, see the Adhyasayapafala (11.3).
The YogiiciirabhzJmj and Its Adaptation 207
first breakthrough to direct realization. At this level, the bodhisattva's meditative
cultivation remains limited, unstable, and uncertain.
The third is the sojourn of joy (pramuditavihara, Ji huanx! zhu ~~~{±, rab
tu dga' ba la gnas pa). It refers to the level where the bodhisattva practices with
pure conviction, i.e., with a first glimpse of direct realization. The bodhisattva's
meditative cultivation has now become vast, uninterrupted, and certain.
Th~ fourth is the sojourn of higher discipline (adhisilavihara, zengshimgjie zhu
±.ffL~{±, lhag pa 'i tshul khrims la gnas pa). It is the level of practicing a cultivated
form of discipline on the basis of pure conviction.
The fifth is the sojourn of higher mind ( adhicittavihara, zengshang xin zhu ~
L l}1±, lhag pa'i sems la gnas pa). This is the level of practicing all stages of
1
mundane meditation on the basis of higher discipline in its purest form.
The sixth is the sojourn of higher insight associated with the factors of Awake-
ninf ~ bodhipak_syapratisaipyukto 'dhipraj.iavihara, juefen xiangy1'ng zengshang hui
zhu :fl:5tt§~~L~{±, byang chub kyiphyogs dang ldan pa 'i lhag pa 'i shes rab la
gnas p~). It is the level of analyzing the thirty-seven factors of Awakening in order
to reahze the truths, after the practitioner has perfected the knowledge derived
from mundane meditation.
The seventh is the sojourn of higher insight associated with the truths
(satyapratisaipyukto 'dhipraj.iavihara, zhudi xiangy1'ng zengshang hui zhu ~~t§
l®fi L~1:~, bde ba dang ldan pa 'i lhag pa 'i shes rab la gnas pa). It is the level of
fully reahzmg the truths as they are on the basis of having analyzed the factors of
Awakening.
~he eighth is the sojourn of higher insight associated with the arising and
ceasmg of dependent arising (pratityasamutpadapravrttiniv_rttipratisamyukto
. I
'dhiprajiiavihara, yuanqiliuzhuan zhixixiangying zengshang hui zhu ~,eE1frE,t.Lt}§:.C
t§~~ L~{±, rten cing 'brel par 'byung ba la Jug pa dang ldog pa dang ldan pa 'i
/hag pa'i shes rab la gnas pa). It is the level wherein the practitioner after having
mastered the truths sees how suffering arises when the existential facts are not
understood and how suffering comes to an end when the existential facts are
understood.
T?e ninth is t~e soj?urn free fro1?- conceptual characteristics where the path is
steadily followed mtentlonally and with effort ( sabhisaipskaraiJ sabhogo nischidra-
D?argavahan? n_(!nimitto viharaiJ, you jiaxing you gongyong wzixiang zhu ~1JDfi~
mJ:¥.H~rsiwJb~~"~t§f_1=., mtshan ma med pa la gnas pa mngon par 'du byed pa
dang b~as sh11!g rtsol ba dang bcas pa la rgyun chags kyi lam la Jug pa). Here, on
the basis of his mastery of the three kinds of higher insight, the bodhisattva con-
~tantl~ cultivat_es ~on-co_nceptual insight into the reality of all phenomena as it truly
1s, while applymg mtentlon and effort. The bodhisattva's meditative cultivation has
now become immeasurable, uninterrupted, and certain.
The ~enth is the sojourn free from conceptual characteristics where the path is
automatically followed spontaneously and effortlessly ( anabhisaipskaro 'anabhoga-
;_argavahano n_ir1!imitta eva viharaiJ, wu jiaxfng wzi gongyong WUXJang zhu ~1JDfi
;\\\ij]Jtrn~irnm!lR:~~,,~t§{_1=., mtshan ma med pa la gnas pa nykf mngon par 'du
byedpa med cing lhun gyis grub pa 'ilam la Jug pa). On this level, the bodhisattva is
able to walk the path spontaneously and effortlessly due to mastery of the former
level.
• • V T~e eleventh is the sojourn of analytical knowledge (pratisaipvidvihara, wu 'iii
Jl~ zhu ~fiiWH:=t so so yang dag par rig pa la gnas pa). Here, the bodhisattva uses
his great mastery of insight and meditation to teach the Dharma to others with full
208 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
exposition of ;elated terms, their meanings, their derivative analyses, and subdivi-
• 383
SlOnS. h
The twelfth is the highest and perfected bodhisattva sojourn ,(pa!!__ma. panm~-
· .
panno bodhisattvaviharalJ, zw'shang chengman pusa zhu mt--1.rrtt~~l31j1:, byang
chub sems dpa'ignas mchog yangs su grub pa). Thi_s level is th~ culmmat1on of the
bodhisattva's path, where he receives the cons~cratlon of the highest a!1d comp~ete
Awakening. Thereafter, he is in his final rebirth or he only has a smgle rebuth
remaining before entering ~irvaIJa. _ _ . _ ,, ,, . , /,
The thirteenth is the soJourn of a Tathagata ( tathagato viharaiJ, rulai zhu -PD3K
{J:, de bzhin gshegs pa'i gnas). At this point, the bodhisattva _has finally become ~
buddha, and after manifesting perfect and complete Awakenmg under the bodhi-
tree he performs all the various deeds of a bu~dka. . .
The chapter provides a very length~ descnptl?~ of each so3ourn m terms o~ the
qualities and characteristics the bodhisattva e~lub1ts on each level. It ends ~1th a
short explanation somewhat similar to that given at the end of the Bodhipafala
(I. 7), saying that the bodhisattva progresses through these stages over the cours~ of
hundred of thousands of aeons, which in general can be summed up as spannmg
three countless aeons. After having become a practicing bo_dhisattva. by engen-
dering the resolve for Awakening for the fi~st time, the bodhisattva ~bides ~n the
second sojourn of practicing with ascertamment _throu?hout th~ first s~nes of
countless aeons, culminating with attaining the thud sojourn of Joy. Durmg the
second series of countless aeons, the bodhisattva gradually progresses fro~ t~e
third sojourn of joy up to the ninth sojourn free from. conceptual characteristics
where the path is steadily followed intentionally and with effort. In the cours~ of
the third series of countless aeons, the bodhisattva dwells _on t~e. three ~mal
sojourns before finally attaining the sojourn of a Ta~~aga~a durmg his fmal rebirt~.
It is here also explained how the afflictive and cogmtlve hmdranc~s are removed m
the course of these aeons, 384 and how the sojourns of the bodhisattva path com-
pares with the stages of the sravaka path.
III. The Third Y ogasthana: Adharani~thayoga~th'?a
The third Y ogasthana is entitled "the yoga-section on the culmmah?? of the basis .
( adharani~fhayogasthana, chf jiuji'ng yu1ia ~hu :t~~_'.~Jf.J{}JO~, _gzhi '1 rnal 'byor [!Yi
gnas tha ma). The section is concerned with the five re1!1ammg Genera~ Top1 cs
covered in the Bodhisattvabhumi, namely (General Topic 6) the [bodhisa~tva s]
rebirths (upapa:ti, shen.f ±., ~kye ba), (Ge~eral Top~c 7) [ho': t~e bof!:isattva
engages in] leadmg [sentient bemgs to perfection] (par_igraha, sheskou. ~:z-, yongs
su 'dzin pa), (General Topic 8) the levels [?f bodhis~ttv~s] ~~humi, di :f:W,, sa),
(General Topic 9) the [bodhisattva's] practices (cal)'a, XJng fJ, spyod pa): and
(General Topic 10) [the bodhisattva's] ascension [to the resu~t of becomm¥ a
buddha] (prati~fha, jianli ~}L, rab tu gnas pa). Correspo~dmgly, the ~echon
contains six chapters, which are (111.1) the chapter on re~IIth ( up~patflpafala,
sheng pin ±db, skye ba 'i Je'u), (111.2) the chapter on leadmg (pangrahapafala,
383
For the four types of analytical knowledge, see the Bodhjpakwap~fala (1.17).
384
On the topic of the removal of the hindrances, see the present articles by A. Charles
MULLER and Sungdoo AHN.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation
209
sheshou pin :ti-~£, yongs su 'dzin pa'i le'u), (III.3) the chapter on the levels
( bhull}ipafala, /i P!n /.Ji£, sa 'i le'u), (III.4) the chapter on the practices
( cal)'apa_tala, xwg pm fT m1, spyod pa 'i le 'u), (III.5) the chapter on the marks and
secondary feat~~es yak~al}anuvyan/anapafala, ;ianli'pin 911Li:fb, mtshan dang dpe
byad bzang p01 le u), and (III.6) the chapter on the ascension (pratjsfhapatala
;ianlipfn 9lfro~, rabtugnaspa'ile'u). 385 •• • '
III.1 The Upapattipafala
Th~ (III.I~ ''chapter on rebirt~" (upapattipa[ala, sheng pin ±.rPo, skye ba'i Je'u),
which exph~ates (Gen~ral ~op1c 6) the [bodhisattva's] rebirths (upapatti, sheng ~'
skye ba), bnefl~ descnbes f1v~ forms of rebirth that a bodhisattva might take over
the course of his or her practice durin~ the three countless aeons in order to help
and bring happiness to sentient beings. 86
_The f~r~t form is called rebirth pacify~ng harm (itis~lJlsamani upapatti-fi, chuzai
sheJ?g ~~~±., gnodpa yang dag par zhi bar byed pa'1 skye ba). During a time of
famme, great hardship, ~r calamity, the bodhisattva makes a wishing-prayer and is
then reborn as a large ammal, such as an enormous fish, in order to feed with his or
I her own flesh those who suffer. During an epidemic, the bodhisattva makes a
wis~ing-pr~yer a~d might then be reborn as an accomplished physician able to cure
the 111. D~nng a time of gre.at ~trife when a people is tyrannized by an enemy army,
the ~odh1sattva ma~e.s a ~1shmg-prayer and might be reborn as a righteous ruler
who 1s able to mobilize his or her people and pacify their enemies. Further, in
order to help those holding wrong views who wish to be reborn in heaven the
bo_dhisattva might make a wishing-prayer to be reborn in that place in ord~r to
gmde them. The te_xt states that wishing-prayers can thus be very powerful when
they a~e ac~ompamed by strong compassion. The bodhisattva is born countlessly
many times m such forms of rebirth.
T~e- secon? _form is . cal~e,~ rebirth assuming a corresponding form ( tat-
sabh~ganu~~rtJm upapattJ, ~uilei sheng ~~±., de dang ska] ba mnyam par mthun
." p~r Jug pa i skye ba). Havmg made w1shmg-prayers, a bodhisattva who has ob-
tamed mastery may take rebirth among animals, gods, yak~as, nagas, half-gods, etc.,
who han!1 and oppres_s each other, or among brahmans holding wrong views,
people with bad behavior, or those engrossed in seeking sensual pleasures. After
1 havm~ been b~rn as one of !hem, the bodhisattva becomes their leader and guides
t~em ~n adoptmg a better hfe. The bodhisattva is likewise born countlessly many
times m such forms of rebirth.
The third form is called rebirth into greatness (mahattvopapatti; dash] sheng
*~±., chen por skye ba). Here the bodhisattva is reborn in circumstances where
s/he a~toma!ically beco_mes an _outstanding and excellent individual, having an
ex~eptio:11~1 lifespan, social standmg, power, and so forth, and uses his or her life to
brmg spmtual benefit to him- or herself and others. The bodhisattva is also born
countlessly many times in such forms of rebirth.
385
Th Ch' ·
e me~-~ tr~n~latio~~es ~ot have..5eparate titles for chapters III.5 and III.6, but
386them bothpanh pm (J!J.L.i:ii:i), 1.e., the chapter on the ascension" ( *pratJsthiipatala).
labels
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210 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
The fourth form is called rebirth with authority ( adhipatyopapatti, zengshimg
sheng ttf r±, bdag par skye ba). This refers to bodhisattvas wh~ have attairn~d the
sojourn of joy or any of the following sojourns up to th.e highe_st bodh1satt:7a
sojourn. During these levels, the bodhisattva may be re~orn m any kmd of supenor
rebirth and may rule over the entire world, such as bemg born as a leader of the
gods, etc. . . _ . .
The fifth form is the bodhisattva's fmal rebirth ( carama bodh1sattvopapatfl,
zuihou sheng -.mti!t±, byang chub sems dpa 'i tha ma 'i skye ba), which is whe_n a
bodhisattva who has perfected the path is reborn as a prince or the son of a pr~me
minister and then abandons the world, achieves perfect and complete Awakemng,
and performs the deeds of a buddha.
111.2 The Parigrahapafa}a
The second chapter, which explicates (General Topic 7) [how the bodhisattva
engages in] leading [sentient beings to perfection] (parigr~a, sheshou -~'
su 'dzin pa), is entitled (III.2) "chapter on leading" (pangrah~pafala, shesho_u pm
ron~
387 Its topic is how all the practices of a bodhisattva
m,II?. 1=1 vonus su 'dzinpa'i Je'u).
:Jll!f>Z-r::tr::t,r o· . . f . ( p~s spyod pa 1~ gnas.pa) corresponds to the second level of practicing with ascer-
may be subsumed under six ways of leading sentient bemgs to per ection sam-
yaktvaparigraha, wudao sheshou ffiH¥~-~' Y.ang ~ag par yangs SU 'dzin pa).
The first is called leading all sentient bemgs simultaneously ( sakrtsarvasattva-
parigraha, dim pii sheshou lt!][~fil~, sems can tams cad ~ig car yang~ su ~zin pa).
When the bodhisattva engenders the resolve for Awakemng for the first time, the
bodhisattva regards every sentient being as if it were his own wife and wishes to do
everything possible to lead all beings to happiness. . . _ ,
The second is called leading through authority ( adh1patyapangraha, zengshang
sheshou tirtil~, bdag pas yangs SU 'dzin pa). When the bodhisattva becomes
the head of a household, the bodhisattva leads the family and the workers of the
estate and cares for their welfare. Likewise, if the bodhisattva is reborn as a king,
he leads the subjects of the kingdom with his authority, acting always in accordance
with the Dharma and promoting the teachings. . , ,, , ,
The third is called leading an assembly ( upadanapangraha, shequ sheshou tA
1f3Ztil~, 'dzin pas yangs su 'dzin pa), which refers to residing ove~ a per~ect cong!e-
gation of practitioners. The bodhisattva resides over t~e gathenng while applymg
all the spiritual practices and disciplines perfectly on him- or herself an~ cares for
the others without wishing any profit for him- or herself. The text descnbes some
further details of how the bodhisattva should lead the congregation.
The fourth is called guiding for a long time ( dirghakalikam upada1!am, chang
shi sheshou ~~-~' yun ring po'i yangs su 'dzin pa). When the bodh1sattv~ cares
for individuals who develop slowly, s/he is willing to care for them for a long time. /
The fifth is called guiding for a short time ( adirghakalikam upadanam, duan sh1
sheshou ~llB~til~, yun ring po ma yin pa 'i yangs su 'dzin pa),. referring to how the
bodhisattva needs to guide certain individuals only shortly, srnce they are already
quite developed. , , , , 131 /.
The sixth is called final guiding ( caramam upadanam, zuihou sheshou retJifl
~, yangs su 'dzin pa tha ma). This is the case when the bodhisattva cares for an
387 WOGIHARA (1930-1936:362-366) = Tl579.563b2r564c19 = D4037.l87a4-l89b1.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 211
individual wh~ is already very advanced. Here the bodhisattva needs to teach only
vef):' s~ort~y, smce the student already possesses the maturity to reach the state of
punty m his or her present rebirth.
The c~apter ends by explaining twelve forms of limitation or opposition that
the bodhisattva may encounter in his or her work of leading others, with advice on
how to overcome these.
111.3 The Bhiimipafala
The (III.3) c~apter on the levels" ( bh_iimipafala, di pin t-tga=b, sa 'i le 'u), explicating
11
(General Topic 8) t?e ~evels [of bo'!hisattvas] (bhiimi, di~' sa), explains how the
seven level~ ( bhum!, d1 till, sa), which were first mentioned in the Paripakapafala
(I.6), are ~rnked w~th the thirteen sojourns ( vihara, zhu {t., gnas pa) that were
presented rn the Viharapafala (II.4). 38
I' (1) Th~ first sojourn of [having] the predi~position (gotravihara, zhongxing zhu
Writt, r!gs_Ja g1!,as P_a) co_rresponds to the f1rst level of having the predisposition
(f?trab~um1, zhoJ?gxmg d1 f.1 [:itlli, _rigs kyi sa). (2) The second sojourn of prac-
1
ticmg with ascertamment ( adh1mukt1caryavihara, shengjie xfng zhu JmMfif±, mos
tamment (~dh1n:ukt1cary_abhiim1: shengjie xfng di Jm~ltfitlli, mos pas spyod pa 'i sa).
(3) The th1rd ~oJ_ourn _of JOY (pram_uditavihara, Ji huanxl zhu fgiftti'{t, rab tu dga'
~a lagn!s pa!, is 1de~tica,l t? th~ ~~lf~.!_vel of pure exal~ed conviction (suddhadhya-
sayabhum1, pn'? shen_gy1yao ~1 @]m,u;Ji!~!lli, }hag pa'i bsam pa dag pa1· sa). The
fo:1rth t? t~~, nm!h soJou~ns, viz. (4) the sojourn of higher discipline ( adhiSJ1avihara,
z~ngshan,%}1e zhu ~_t~{t, lhag pa1· tshul khrims la gnas pa), (5) the sojourn of
higher mmd (a?h1c1ttavih~ra, zengshang x1n zhu ttf ri(A:t, Jhag pa'i sems Ia gnas
pa), (6) the SOJO~rn of higher insight associated with the factors of Awakening
(~odh1pakwapraf1Salpyukto 'dhiprajfiavihara, juefen xiangy1'ng zengshang hu] zhu
11::B-t§JJiUI_t~{±, byang ~hub kJ:iJJ_hyogs dan'? Jdan pa 'i lhag pa 'i shes rab la gnas
pa), (7) the _soJ~~rn. of higher msight associated with the truths (satyaprati-
saipyukto 'dhpra;nm;_ihara, zh_iidi xiangy1'ng zengshang hui zhu ~~t§ff!ttf _t~{±,
bde ~a dang fdan pa 1 J~~g pa 'I shes r~b la gnas pa), (8) the sojourn of higher insight
assocrn~e~ wi~h th~ ansmg and ceasmg of dependent arising (pratityasamutpada-
p~avrttJ1!1v_rtfIP_ratJ!a1Pyu~;o 'dhiprajiiavihara, yuanql Jiuzhuan zhlxi xiangy1'ng
~engshang hUJ zhu ~mtJrLff Jt}@J~~ttf _t~{±, rten cing 'bre} par 'byung ba }a
JUf pa dang ]dog pa dang ldan pa 1 lhag pa 'i shes rab la gnas pa), and (9) the
~oJour_n free from c~nceptual characteristics where the path is steadily followed
/ m~e~tl~nally_ ~nd wi!h ..~ff_?rt ~sabhisa!J!skarap !abhogo nischidramargavahano
~1rn1i;;tto viharaiJ, you paxmg you gongyong wuxiang zhu lf1JDf=rlfJJJ ffl ~Fs~wR:~
:tlff11,J§{_t, mtshan ma med pa lagnas pa mngon par 'du byedpa dang bcas shing
rtsol ba dang bcas pa la rgyun chags kyi lam la Jug pa) are all subsumed under the
fo~~h level of acc~mplis~ing practices ( caryapratipattibhiimi, xfng zhengxfng di fi
IE~-:r~-tg, spyod la ;ug pa1 sa). (10) The tenth sojourn free from conceptual charac-
tenstlcs_ where the path is automatically followed spontaneously and effortlessly
( a!!abk1sa1Ps-'f~~o 'an~bhoga!!}__argavahano nir_ni1!1itta eva viharaiJ, wzi Jiaxfng wzi
gongyong WUXJang zhu ~1Jm-r~wm~rs~wR:ili~"~tl=H:t, mtshan ma med pa la
388
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:367-370) = T1579.564C27-565c12 = D4037.l89b1-19la3.

212 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
gnas pa nyid mngon par 'du byed pa med cing lhun gyis grub pa'i lam la Jug pa)
belongs to the fifth level of certainty (niyatabhilmi, duo jueding di ~1J(JE~lli, ng_es
par gyur pa'i sa). (11) The eleventh sojourn of analytical knowledge (pratJsaqJVJd-
vihara, wuai jie zhu ~®I~~{t, so so yang d~g par Ilf pa la gn_as f!a) .co~r~s~onds /to
the sixth level of practicing with certamty (myatacaryabhum1, 1uedmg xmg
zhengxfng di 1J(JEfiiEfitlli, nges pa'i spyod p~'i.sa). Finally, (~2) the ~i~hest an~
perfected bodhisattva sojourn (paramaiJ panm$panno bodh1sattvaviharaiJ, zw-
shang chengman pzisa zhu i&--1.J=$Gyij-;;~1:t, byan_g chub sems df!a 'j gnas m~hog
yangs su grub pa) along with (13) the thirteenth so1ourn of a Tathagata ( tathagato
viharah, rzilai zhu ~D:3Kf.1:, de bzhin gshegs pa'i gnas) equal the seventh level of
reachi~g perfection (ni$/hagamanabhumi, dao jiujing di ¥Lln~tlli, mthar thug par
'gyur ba 'i sa). . .
This is followed by an explanation on how the bodhisattva no longer will be re-
born as a result of negative actions in the three bad forms of rebirth ( apaya, equ ~
~, ngan song), i.e., rebirth as a hel~-b.eing, ?host,_ or a3Jmal, ~nc~ ~e has ~eac?e,d
the third level of pure exalted conviction ( suddhadhyasayabhum1, png ~hengyiyao
di i$lm5iJJttg, Jhag pa 'i bsam pa dag pa 'i sa) given the degree of ment that has
been accumulated at this stage. However, out of his free will, the bodhisattva may
nonetheless choose to stay in those states as a visitor out of compassion for others,
if he sees that this would be beneficial in terms of striving towards complete
Awakening.
The chapter ends with an exposition of ten qualities that purify the levels
( bhiimivisodhana, jingxiii di fa 1*1~ttgy:t;, sa rnam par sbyong. b~ 'i chos). !hese
were also presented in the Viharapafala (II.4) as a means for p~nfymg the s~Journs.
They include (1) faith as the antidote against a lack of commitment. and faith,. (2)
compassion as the antidote against the wish to harm .others, (3) ki~dness as .the
antidote against malice, ( 4) detachment and generosity as the antidotes ag.amst
attachment to possessions and one's own life, (5) tirelessness as !he a~tidote
against hurting others and ill-achieved gains, (6) knowledge of the vanous fields of
learning as the antidote against unskillful practice, (7) knowledge of the world as
the antidote against being influenced by others, (8) conscience and embarrassment
as antidotes against carelessness and laziness, (9) the development of firm stre~gth
as the antidote against the inability to bear the suffering of salpsara for a long time,
and (10) veneration and worship of the Buddha as antidotes against having doubts
and uncertainty about one's teachers.
III.4 The Caryapafala
The (III.4) ''chapter on the practices" (caryapafala, xfng pin ff@, spyod pa'i le'u),
which explicates (General Topic 9) the [bodhisattva's] practices (caJYa, xfng f-i,
spyod pa), sums up all the practices of a bodhisattva that are performed on the
389
various levels into four overall groups.
The first overall group is the practice of the perfections (paramitacarya,
b6Ju6midu6 xfng 1~mm~fi, pha rol tu phyin pa'i spyod pa). It includes the
practice of the six perfections, along with the four additional perfections of exper-
389 WOGIHARA (1930-1936:371-374) = T1579.565cw566c4 = D4037.191aT192b5.
The Yogacflrabhumj and Its Adaptation 213
tise in the methods, aspiration, power, and knowledge. These four additional per-
fections are briefly explained.
The second overall group concerns the practice of the factors of Awakening
( bodhipak~yacarya, pzitf fen fa xfng i=r t1!£r"i:t:fi\ byang chub kyi phyogs dang
mthun pa 'i spyod pa), which encompasses practicing the thirty-seven factors of
Awakening, the four investigations, and the four complete knowledges of things as
they really are.
The third overall group is the practice of clairvoyance ( abhijiiacarya, shent6ng
xfng 1$:imfi, mngon par shes pa'i spyod pa), which refers to the six types of clair-
voyance explained in the Prabhavapafala (1.5).
The fourth overall group is the practice of developing sentient beings ( sattva-
paripakacarya, chengshzi y6uqfng xfng fflG~~~'[Wfj, sems can yangs su smin par
bya ba 'j spyod pa), encompassing the endless number of beings to be trained and
the endless number of methods used for training them, as it was explained in the
Paripakapafala (1.6).
The chapter ends by giving more details on the topic of the perfections, inclu-
ding the reason for calling them paramita and the reason for their progression in
terms of what they remedy, how they arise, and what results they bring about.
111.5 The Laicyapanuvya.ijanapafala
Chapters III.5 and Ill.6 in unison explicate (General Topic 10) [the bodhisattva's]
ascension [to the result of becoming a buddha] (prati~fha, jian11 ~JL, rab tu gnas
pa). The (III.5) "chapter on the signs and secondary features" (iak$aJJanuvyaiijana- I.
pafala, jianli pln ~JL@, mtshan dangdpe byad bzangpo'i le'u) begins the presen- I'
tation of the buddha-qualities that manifest when the bodhisattva reaches the end
of his path and becomes a buddha on the sojourn of a Tathagata ( tathagatavihara,
rzilai zhu ~0*1±, de bzhin gshegs pa 'i gnas), also known as the level of reaching
perfection ( ni~fhagamanabhiim1: dao jiiij1'ng di ¥U~~Jili, mthar thug par 'gyur ba 'i
sa). 390 The exposition of these qualities continues in chapter six (Ill.6), the chapter i I
on the ascension (prati~fhapafala), and it is very likely that chapters five and six
originally constituted a single longer chapter, as it is still the case in the Chinese
translation of the text.
The qualities are subsumed under 140 exceptional buddha-qualities (catvaril!]-
sad uttaram aveJJikaf!J buddhadharmasatam, bai sishf bu gong Fofa sl2E+:=f:#-fiJt
1:t:, sangs rgyas kyi chos ma 'dres pa brgya bzhi bcu). Chapter five is concerned with
explaining the first two groups from among these, viz. the thirty-two signs of a great
person and the eighty secondary features.
The thirty-two signs of a great person ( dvatrif!Jsan mahapuru$alak~aJJani, san-
shf'er dazhangfu xiang -+~*3t~if§, skyes bu chen po'i mt5han sum cu rtsa
gnyis) are a series of bodily marks that appear on the body of an advanced bodhi-
sattva or a tathagata, indicating auspiciousness. They are here listed as follows: (1)
his feet stand firm and have level tread; (2) a thousand-spoked wheel appears
clearly in the lines of his hands and feet; (3) his fingers and toes are long; (4) his
heels are extended; (5) his hands and feet are soft and delicate; (6) his hands and
feet have membranes [between the fingers and the toes]; (7) his feet are level; (8)
390
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:375-383) = T1579.566c5-568c19 = D4037.l92b5-l97a4.

214 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
he has [short] shanks like the eIJa antelope; (9) his body is unbent; (10) his genitals
are covered by a sheath; (11) [the trunk of his body is evenly] round like a banyan
tree; (12) [he is surrounded] by [a halo of] light [extending] two arn:i-lengt~s [out
from his body]; (13) the hair on his body grows upwards; (14) the hair on his body
grows singly; (15) each body-hair is dark and curls clockwise; (16) his skin resem-
bles gold; (17) his skin is so smooth that particles of dust do not stick to him; (18)
his body has seven protruding parts, namely the two arms, the two legs, the two
shoulders, and the neck; (19) his chest is like that of a lion; (20) his shoulders are
well-rounded; (21) the space between his shoulderblades is well filled out; (22) his
limbs are long and straight; (23) he has forty even teeth; (24) his teeth are not
separated by [big] gaps; (25) his teeth are very w~ite; (26) h~s jaw is like tha_t of a
lion; (27) his tongue is long and slender; (28) his tongue 1s so long t~~t 1t can
extend all over his face to the hairline; (29) his tastebuds are most exqms1te; (30)
his voice is sonorous like the voice of Brahman, melodious like the pleasing song of
the cuckoo, and resounding like a kettledrum; (31) his eyes are very dark; and (32)
his eyelashes are long like those of a cow, there is a protusion on the crown of his
head, and a small tuft of white hair, resembling a conchshell, grows on his forehead
curling clockwise.
The eighty secondary features ( asity anuvyaiijanam; bash! sufhao )\+~H,
dpe byad bzang po brgyad cu) is a list of the main outer anatomical features of the
body. The original motive behind this canonical list is not explained here, but the
list seems to suggest that a buddha's body is free from any kind of deformity or
handicap, and it might also have served an iconographic purpose or been an aid for
contemplative visualization. The eighty secondary features include: ( 1-20) fingers
and toes with knuckles and nails; (21-28) palms, top of the hands, soles, and top of
the feet; (29-34) l9wer legs, knees, and thighs; (35-40) forearms, elbows, and up~er
arms; (41-42) hips; (43-44) testicles; (45) penis; (46-4 7) buttocks; (48-50) waist,
abdomen, and navel; (51-56) sides of the rib-cage, armpits, and nipples; (57-60)
chest, heart-region, neck, and back; (61-62) two rows of teeth; (63) gums and
palate; (64-65) the lips and the surrounding area; (66) the cheeks; (67-68) two si~es
of the jaw; (69-70) the eyes and eye-regions; (71-72) eyebrows; (73-74) nostnls;
(75) forehead; (76- 79) temples and ears; and (80) the top of the head with its h~ir.
It is stated that these thirty-two signs and eighty secondary features begm to
appear on the body of a bodhisattva possessing realization who has reached the
level of pure exalted conviction ( suddhadhyasayabhum1; Jing shengyiyao di iW!m~
~t-tg, ]hag pa 'i bsam pa dag pa 'i sa) and then become increasingly manifest ~nd
complete until the bodhisattva becomes a buddha seated on the seat of Awakenmg
under the bodhi-tree.
Each of the thirty-two signs is said to be the manifestation of the bodhisattva
having accomplished certain positive actions in his former lives and the text ~ays
out these causal relationships, which is a teaching given in the Lak~aJJasutra (1.e.,
the Pali Lakkhanasuttanta of the Dlghanikaya). For example, the firm and level
tread of the feet is a sign of having become well-established in the discipline of
vows, endurance, and relinquishment, while the wheels that appear on the soles
and palms are said to have been caused by having cared for one's parents and
having protected beings from harm in various ways. In a similar manner, the
chapter goes on to specify the positive actions that serve as the causes for e~ch of
the thirty-two signs. It is thus explained how the signs represent the great ment and
spiritual qualities gathered over three immeasurable aeons by the bodhisattva,
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 215
helping countless beings, and resulting in his attainment and manifestation of the
complete and perfect Awakening of a buddha.
111.6 The Prati~{hapafala
The (III.6) "chapter on the ascension" (pra{jffhapafala, jianli f/n 9!}'[£, rab tu
gnas pa'i Je'u) is the final chapter of the third yoga-section. 91 It continues the
explanation on the buddha-qualities begun in the previous chapter. The LakfaIJil-
nuvyaiijanapafala (III.5) presented the first two categories subsumed under the 140
exceptional buddha-qualities, viz. the 112 bodily characteristics included under the
32 signs of a great person and the 80 secondary features. The Prati~fhapafala (III.6)
lays out the remaining nine categories.
The third category of buddha-qualities is the four kinds of 'perfection' or 'com-
plete purity' in every regard ( catasralJ sarviikiiriil;z pansuddhayaiJ, si yiqie zh6ng
qingJi'ng [9--f;lJfim~, rnam pa thams cad yangs SU dag pa bzhi). The first is
called complete purity of the [physical] basis ( asrayaparisuddhi, yiqie zh6ng suoyi
qingJi'ng --l;l]ffipfr'f.&/!1¥, gnas yangs su dag pa). This means that all debilitations
of the afflictions along with all their dormant tendencies have entirely terminated
in the body and the buddha has thereby gained the ability freely to choose his
embodiment or reincarnation according to his own wish as well as how long he lives
and how he dies. The second is called complete purity of the focus ( alambana-
pansuddhi, yiqie zhong suoyuan qingJ1ng -~-l;l]l_mpfr~m~, dmigs pa yangs SU dag
pa), which refers to a full mastery of making [bodily] emanations, supernatural
alterations of physical reality, and miraculous manifestions of physical objects. The
third is called complete purity of the mind ( cittaparisuddhi, yiqie zh6ng xin qing-
jing --l;l]fi,C/mij, sems yangs su dag pa). This is complete riddance of all debili-
tations of the afflictions in the mind and the complete accumulation of the benefi-
cial roots. The fourth is the complete purity of knowledge (jiiiinaparisuddhi, yiqie
zhong zhi qfngj111g -t}Jf_i~m \~, ye shes yangs SU dag pa), referring to the
complete riddance of all debilitations of ignorance and a consequent mastery of
omniscience based on having fully removed the cognitive hindrance.
The fourth category of buddha-qualities is the ten powers of a Tathagata ( dasa
tathagatabalani, Rulai shfli ~o*+1J, de bzhin gshegs pa 'i stabs bcu), which are
ten types of special knowledge taught in the Dasabalasiitra scripture, to which the
passage refers. The first is the power of knowing what constitutes a basis and what
does not constitute a basis [for results of beneficial and baneful actions] (sthiinii-
sthanajfiiinabala, chu lei chu zhi Ji bt1Fbt1§'1J, gnas dang gnas ma yin pa mkhyen
pa'istobs). The second is the power of knowing each action (karmasvakajfianabala,
ziyezhi Ji §*-~jJ, las bdagg1rbya ba mkhyenpa'istobs). The third is the power
of knowing the absorptions into meditation, liberation, and concentration ( dhyiina-
vimokfasamiidhisamapattijfiiinabala, jI'nglii jkftu6 dengchf dengzhi zhi Ji wilm~Jt
~t~~~~jJ, bsam gtan dang rnam par thar pa dang ting nge 'dzin la snyoms par
Jug pa mkhyen pa'i stabs). The fourth is the power of knowing superior and
inferior aptitudes (indriyaparaparajiianabala, gen sheng He zhi Ji t.&!m~~jJ,
dbang po 'i mchog dang mchog ma yin pa mkhyen pa 'i stabs). The fifth is the power
of knowing the different degrees of ascertainment (niinadhimuktijiianabala, zh6ng
391 WOGIHARA (1930-1936:384-410) = Tl579.568cw575b = D4037.l97a -21lb1.
26 4
 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
216
zhong shengjie zhi Ji ;fi:fiWi~4~7J, mos pa sna tshogs mkhyen pa_'i.stobs). T~e
sixth is the power of knowing various constituents [in the sense of spmtual predis-
positions] (nanadhatuj.ianabaJa, zhong zhong jie zhi Ji :fi:fiJr:9@'1J, kha1:1~ sna
tshogs mkhyen pa 'i stabs). The seventh is the power of knowmg the [spmtual]
paths leading everywhere (sarvatragaminipratipaJj.ianabaJa, biim qu xfng zhi Ji~
mfr~j:J, thams cad du 'gro ba'i Jam mkhyen pa'i stabs). The eighth is the power
of knowing the recollection of former lives (purvenivasanusmrtijiianabaJa, su zhu
sufnian zhi Ji fEH:=t!fili:'ft~j:J, sngon gyi gnas Ijes su dran pa mkhyen pa 'i stabs). The
ninth is the power of knowing deaths and rebirths ( cyutyupapattij.ianabaJa, sfsheng
zhi Ji JE±.~j:J, shi 'pho dang skye ba mkhyen pa 'i stabs). The tenth is the power of
knowing the end of sarµsaric corruption ( asravak~ayaj.ianabaJa, Jim jin zh~ Ji iffim
~j:J, zag pa zad pa mkhyen pa'i stabs). The chapter gives a short exegesis of the
words used to describe the Tathagata in the opening section of the DasabaJa-
sl.ltra, 392 and then explains these powers at great length with regard to their nature,
subdivisions, exclusivity, sameness, functions, and the reason for their progressive
order.
The fifth category presents a buddha's four kinds of confidence ( catvari vai-
saradyani, si wusuowei rz.g~pfrN, mi Jigs pa bzhi). These are four promises that a
buddha implicitly makes to the assembly when he teaches. The first is the fact that
he has attained perfect and complete Awakening by having fully removed the
cognitive hindrance, which is a result that is not obtained by sravakas. The second
is the fact that he has attained complete liberation from the afflictive hindrance,
which is a result he has in common with sravakas. The third is the promise that the
path he teaches can deliver liberation from saipsara to those who desire liberation.
The fourth is the promise that by removing particular hindering factors the result
of the path will be achieved. . _.
The sixth category consists of three types of mmdfulness ( tmp smrtyupa-
sthanam~ san niim zhu -=.:'ft{±., dran pa nye bar gzhag pa gsum). These involve that
the Tathagata is fully mindful of how the people he teaches fare in their practice of
the path. Thus, he is aware that he has three kinds of followers. The first is a group
of followers who are completely successful in their practice, because they practice
correctly. The second is a group that is unsuccessful, in that they p~actice wro°:gly.
The third is a group that is partially successful, because they practice some thmgs
correctly and some things wrongly. _ . _
The seventh category is called the three discouragements ( triJJY arakwaJJJ, san
bu hu=~~' bsrung ba med pa gsum). This quality involves that the Tathagata is
keenly aware of any negative bodily, verbal, or mental behavior that his sravakas
entertain even if they try to conceal their faults. While the Tathagata does not
himself have any negative behavior, he discourages his followers from allowing
themselves to engage in such conduct. Based on their individual abilities, he
strongly admonishes them either to restrain themselves, overcome their bad habits,
or give up their bad habits and cultivate the opposite good habits instead.
392 Namely, dasemam· bhjk~avas tathagatasya baJanjyajlJ samanvagatas tathagato 'rha!Jl.
samyaksa!Jlbuddha udaram ar~abhaI[l sthanaI[l pratijanafj brahmaIJl cakra171 vartayat1
parj~adj samyaksjIJ1hanadaIJ1 nadatj/ See WALDSCHMIDT (1932; 1958). For onlme Sansknt
editions, http://fiindolo.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1 _sanskr/4_re11it/buddh/dbsu1-4u. htm
The YogacarabhtJmj and Its Adaptation 217
The eighth category consists of just a single quality, namely great compassion
(mahakaruJJa, daibei =*.1Jt thugs Ije chen po), which is endless and unparalleled.
The text here refers to the explanation already given in the PtljasevapramaJJapafaJa
(I.16).
The ninth category is never to be bewildered (asaipmo~adharmata, wu wangshi
fa ~'~~ f!, bsnyel ba mi mnga 'ba 'i chos nyid), meaning that any action done by
the Tathagata is done exactly at the right time, right place, right circumstance, and
right manner.
The tenth category is that the Tathagata has overcome all afflictive tendencies
( vasanasamudghatalJ, yonghai xiqi 7](~~~, bag chags yang dag par Jams pa) in
anything he does, including the way he moves, looks, speaks, or sits. In contrast
thereto, an arhat has also overcome the afflictions but may nonetheless behave in
subtly afflictive ways, e.g., in his or her bodily movements, way of looking, and so
forth.
The eleventh and final category is that the Tathagata possesses omniscience,
i.e., knowledge of all aspects and knowledge of what is supreme ( sarvakaravara-
j.iana, yiqie zhong miao zhi -W;f.lfr!P~, rnam pa thams cad dang mchog mkhyen
pa). Knowledge of the supreme means that the Tathagata fully knows which things
are meaningful. Knowledge of all aspects means that he knows which things are not
meaningful and which things are partially meaningful.
This sums up the 140 exceptional buddha-qualities. In his final rebirth, the
bodhisattva is born with the thirty-two signs of a great person and the eighty
secondary features fully developed. During that rebirth, the bodhisattva will
proceed to the seat of Awakening without relying on a teacher and will there fully
comprehend and cultivate the thirty-seven factors of Awakening. Sitting under the
bodhi-tree, he then enters the vajra-like meditation ( vajropamasamadh1: Jingang
yu d1'ng ~IMJUOiji]5£, rdo rje lta bu'i ting nge 'dzin), whereupon he immediately
perfects the remaining buddha-qualities of the ten powers and so forth. He has
then ceased to be a bodhisattva, a "striver for Awakening," and has instead become
a buddha, an "Awakened One." The bodhisattva who has reached the final level of
ascension also possesses very high qualities of knowledge and so forth, but the
qualities of a fully Awakened buddha are superior to those. The difference be-
tween the knowledge of a highly developed bodhisattva and a fully Awakened
bud~ha may be compared to looking in the dark, where one is able to see only to a
certam extent, as opposed to looking in full daylight, where one is able to see
everything clearly. The difference may also be compared to looking at something
far away as opposed to looking at something up close. Having attained Awakening,
the buddha then goes on to perform all the deeds and activities of a buddha in the
buddha-fields of the ten directions.
The chapter ends by stating that the Bodhisattvabhilmi book constitutes a
m~e~?~~c _!st of the b?dhisattva-canon ( bodhisattvapifakamatrka, prisa zang
madaiJpa. --g-~lfi1*'1'.ELf.lJW!, byang chub sems dpa'i sde snod kyi ma mo) or a
compendmm of the Mahayana (mahayanasaipgraha, she dasheng il=*.*, theg pa
chen po bsdus pa), and goes on shortly to declare the great merit that anyone, who
studies, recites, or teaches this text, accumulates.
218 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
The Anukramapafala
Though the previous chapter constitutes the formal end not only of the third
Y ogasthana but also of the Bodhisattvabhiimi book as a whole, it is in most
versions of the text393 followed by a short afterword, the so-called *Anukrama-
pafala (pusa di yi ckfi ~~tfuif:X~, byang chub sems dpa'i sa'i go rims), "[the
chapter on] the sequential structure of the Bodhisattvabhumi." 394 The Anukrama-
pafala could be seen as an extremely condensed summary of the whole Bodhi-
sattvabhum1:
To begin with, someone possessing the predisposition for becoming a bodhi-
sattva engenders the resolve for attaining the perfect and complete Awakening of a
buddha, and applies him- or herself towards bringing help and benefit to self and
others. To do so, the practitioner engages tirelessly in the methods that lead to the
freedom from corruption and that build up beneficial roots, which in turn lead to
buddhahood. In order to obtain these methods, the practitioner must first develop
trust in the teachings, analyze them, and thereby become able to teach them to
others. Putting the teachings into practice, the bodhisattva accumulates merit and
knowledge, which leads to the removal of sat:µsaric corruption. To achieve this
removal, the bodhisattva needs to abandon attachment to his or her own happiness
and to do so it is necessary to realize the shortcomings of saipsara and its suffering.
To acquire such understanding, the bodhisattva studies the various fields of
learning, thereby gaining deep knowledge of the world. With this knowledge, the
bodhisattva becomes able to dispel doubts in others, which leads to a further
accumulation of merit and knowledge in the bodhisattva and others. When these
requisites have been fully accumulated, the bodhisattva gains realization of the
truths and cultivates the factors of Awakening. The bodhisattva dedicates his or
her practice to the attainment of the nirvapa of the Mahayana, and thus does not
strive for the nirvapa of the sravakas or pratyekabuddhas.
The bodhisattva's expertise in the methods is derived from having studied the
teachings and retained them. To develop perfect memory, the bodhisattva relies
on retentiveness ( dharapi, tu6Ju6nf Wt~m. gzungs). In these ways, the bodhi-
sattva's practice differs from the path of the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas, and
consequently the spiritual qualities that the bodhisattva develops surpass the
qualities of the sravakas and pratyekabuddhas. These are the characteristics of a
bodhisattva, whether the bodhisattva is a householder or a renunciant.
Many of the articles in the present volume deal partly or fully with the Bodhi-
sattvabhumi Tilmann VETTER briefly compares the realization (abhisamaya) of
bodhisattvas presented in the Tattvarthapafala (I.4) with how this topic is taught in
Lokak~ema's Diwxing banruo }Ing (ll[fi~B*~' T224). Noriaki HAKAMAYA
discusses how the division between householder and renunciant bodhisattvas
applies to the different types of bodhisattva-discipline laid out in the Silapafala
(I.10). Hidenori S. SAKUMA considers the compositional layering of the YBh, inter
alia, by comparing the use of the term 'transformation of the basis (asrayapariv,rtti)
1
in the Sravakabhumi and the Bodhisattvabhumi Noritoshi ARAMAKI analyzes the
393
See the remarks made in the present article by Martin DELHEY.
394
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:411-412) = Tl579.575b 28 -576b 27 = D4037.211bi-2l3a7.
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 219
seven levels ( bhumi) presented in the Bhiimipafala (III.3) as well as select ele-
ments fro!11 the Tattvarthapafala (I.4 ), in particular the four investigations
(paiy~~aJJ~) an~-~~e four types .of complete knowledge of things as they really are
(yatkabhutapan1nana), al?ng with the relationship of these forms of knowledge to
the f1v~ categone~ of reahty (pa.icavastu). Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN briefly refers
to the .mter~retat10n of the term 'be1Jeficial' or 'wholesome' (kusala) presented in
the. Ottotpa.~apafala (I.2). and the Silapafala (1.10). Martin DELHEY surveys the
available ed1t10ns along with the classical and modern translations of the Bodhi-
sattvabhum1: Koichi TAKAHASHI examines the notion of vastu in the Manobhiimi
book, _which - ~s ~f9_?,oints out - is a key term in the Tattvarthapafala (I.4) of the
Bodh1sa.ttvabh~m1. Peter SKILLING analyzes the YBh's exegetical practice of
embe~~mg s~npt~ral sutra-passages with an example of the (Lesser) Sunyata-
Mahasutra cited m the Tattvarthapafala (I.4). Yasunori SUGAWARA presents
evi~en~e for certain _ter~inological and textual parallels between the Bhavanamayi
BhumilJ ~nd t~e ~ant1pafala (I.11). Alexander VON ROSPATT briefly refers to the
manner m which the Bhavanamayi BhumilJ makes references to the Bodhisattva-
bhum_i. _Lawrence Y.K. ~AU mentions three Chinese dissertations and publications
pertammg _to the Bodh1sattvabhumi, in particular to the Tattvarthapafala (I.4) and
the Bodh1pafala (I.7). Sungdoo AHN briefly discusses the manner in which
sravakas in the Tattvarthapafala (I.4) are said to eliminate the afflictive hindrance
(ldesavarap~) whereas _bo~hisattvas el~mina~e the cognitive hindrance (j.ieyavarapa)
and how th~s explanat10n 1s adopte? m Chmese Y ogacara commentaries. Seong-
cheol KIM hsts two Korean translations of the Tattvarthapafala (I.4) in his survey
o~ K?rean _Yogacara schola~ship. Pertaining to the dependency of the Mahayana-
sutralaipkara on the Bodh1sattvabhiimi, Leslie S. KAWAMURA provides a com-
parative table of contents of the two texts. 396 Ulrich Timme KRAGH mentions a
twelfth-century Tibetan commentary on the Bodhisattvabhumi and discusses how
the Bodhisattvabhumi is quoted in a twelfth-century textual corpus of the Tibetan
contemplative tradition.
Aside from these stray references, the present volume also includes two contri-
bu.tions that are wholly devoted _to the Bodhisattvabhumi, namely the papers by
Michael ZIMMERMANN and Flonn DELEANU. Generally speaking the research of
Michael Z IMMERMANN397 1s · '
focused on the textual-historical dimension of Indian
395
For the auth ors' ear1·1er study of vastu m
· the Bodh1sattvabhumi
· see TAKAHASHI
(2001). '
396
As noted by KAWAMURA, the table was originally produced by HAKAMAYA & ARAI
(1993~.
39
. Th~ Germ~n scholar Michael ZIMMERMANN is Professor of Indian Buddhism at the
~s1en-Afnka-Inst1tu~ of.the University of Hamburg (Universitat Hamburg). Since 2010, he
1s also ..Head of .the mstitute as well a~ Direct~r of the Center for Buddhist Studies (Zen-
trum f~r Bu?dh1smuskunde ). He studied Classical Indology, Tibetology, and Japanology at
t~e l!mvers1~ of Hamburg, where he received the MA degree (1996) with a thesis on the
m.ne 1llustratlons_ ~f bud~h~-nature in the Tathagatagarbhasutra and the PhD degree (2000)
with. a stud~, cnt~cal edition, and annotated translation of the same scripture (revised
ver~10n pu?hsh~d m 2002a). In 1996-1999, he spent extended periods as a research fellow at
Kyoto U~1ve~s11)'.' and the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at
Saka Umvers1ty m Japan. In 2000-2002, he served as faculty member at the University of
Hamburg and worked for the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project cataloging
220 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Mahayana Buddhism. His earlier publications have particularly been concerned
with the genesis of the buddha-nature theory ( tathagatagarbha) in India
(ZIMMERMANN, 2000a; 2002a; 2002b) and Buddhist ethics in relation to political
ideas and violence (ZIMMERMANN, 2000b; 2006a; 2006b; 2007; 2008). His current
article, which is ZIMMERMANN's first publication pertaining directly to the YBh,
provides an in-depth study of the Bodhisattvabhilmi's chapter on discipline
(Silapafala, I.10). After an introduction to and overview of the chapte.r,
ZIMMERMANN turns his attention to three passages in the chapter that deal m
different ways with the discipline of acting for the benefit of sentient beings
(sattvanugrahakaip silam). He then considers the agendas that the author/compiler
of the YBh may possibly have had in presenting discipline in the particular manner
in which it is done in this chapter of the text. Finally, he discusses how the terms
'beneficial' (kusala) and "skill in means" ( upayakausalya) are used in the text,
connecting his analysis with broader considerations of Buddhist ethics.
The present article by Florin DELEANU398 adopts a broader scope, considering
not just a single chapter of the Bodhisattvabhilmi but the book in its entirety,
pursuing the theme of the text's meditational system across all the chapters dealing
with the bodhisattva practices. DELEANU's earlier scholarship reveals a long-
standing academic interest in the topic of Buddhist meditation. In a series of
articles (DELEANU, 1992a; 1992b; 1993a; 1997; 2003), he began this investigati~n
by studying an early Buddhist scripture entitled .Anban shouyi Jing (j;(~~;i'J~,
texts. In 2002-2003, he was Director of the Nepal Research Center in Kathmandu and the
Nepalese branch of the Nepal-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project. In 2003, he held a
post-doc fellowship at the University of Munich (Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat
Miinchen), whereupon he the same year became Assistant Professor of Buddhist Studies at
Stanford University in the USA. He also served as Director of the Stanford Center for
Buddhist Studies (2005-2007). In 2007, he returned to Germany to take up the Professor-
ship of Indian Buddhism at the University of Hamburg. He has published two monographs
on the Tathagatagarbhasfitra (2002a) as well as Buddhism and violence (2006b), and
numerous articles dealing with Tathagatagarbha studies (1998; 1999; 2000a; 2000c; 2002b),
the Mahayana criticism of the Arthasastra (2000b ), Buddhism and violence (2002c ),
Buddhism and kingship (2007), Buddhist conceptions of punishment (2006a; 2008), and
Buddhist mysticism (2011).
398
Florin DELEANU is Professor of Buddhist studies and Director of the International
Institute for Buddhist Studies at the International College for Postgraduate Buddhist
Studies (00~~1ltt$*$1m*$ Kokusai Bukkyo-Gaku Daigaku-in Daigaku) in Tokyo,
Japan. He was born in 1959 in Romania and is now a naturalized resident of Japan. He
graduated from the Postgraduate School of Literature at Waseda University (l=pffBEB*$
Waseda Daigaku) in Tokyo in 1994 with a degree in Buddhist studies, where he subse-
quently worked as a Lecturer in the academic year of 1994-1995. He then served as ~acuity
member at Kansai Medical School (~E§~f-4*$ Kansai Ika Daigaku) located in Osaka,
Japan, in the period 1994-2001, whereupon he became Professor at the International
College for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies. After studying with Lambert Schmithausen
from 1998 onwards, he received the PhD degree in 2005 from the University of Hamburg in
Germany with a dissertation on the mundane path (laukikamarga) as presented in the
Sravakabhiimi book of the YBh. A revised version of the dissertation was published in
Japan in 2006. His main research foci are the history of Buddhist meditation in India,
Chinese translations of meditation treatises, and research into the psychology and
epistemology of meditation in general. For his publications, see below.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 221
T602) that was translated into Chinese by An Shigao in the second century CE,
being an early meditation text dedicated to the mindfulness of breathing and other
such contemplative practices - a text that also contains certain proto-Yogacara
399
materials. In 2000( a), he published a major study on Buddhist meditation
examining how particular forms of contemplation were associated with the rise of
the Mahayana in the early centuries CE, particularly as reflected in the Prajiia-
paramita. liter~ture. Th!s "":'as f?llowed by a st~d~ of a sli,ghtly later context, namely
tge way m which med1tat10n 1s presented w1thm the Sravakayana system in the
Sravakabhumi book of the YBh. The result of the latter investigation was pub-
lished ii} his 2006 monograph The Chapter on the Mundane Path (Laukikamarga)
in the Sravakabhum1; a veritable milestone in the study of the Sravakabhiimi that
not only provides an extensive analysis of sravaka meditation but also offers a
~ealth of textual background information on the YBh in general and the
Sravakabhumi book in particular. In an article of 2010, DELEANU attempted a
novel psychological and technique-based taxonomy of Buddhist meditations, and
further discussed the epistemological issue of the happiness to which meditation is
said to lead. In his present article, DELEANU moves his attention from the
Sravakabhumi to the Bodhisattvabhumi to examine the meditational system
presented in the latter book and the ways in which it differs from the sravaka
system. The author considers the concept of reality in the Tattvarthapafala (I.4 ),
the manner in which the bodhisattva should bring about knowledge of reality, and
how such knowledge should be cultivated through meditation based on the expla-
nations given in the Tattvarthapafala (I.4), the Dhyanapafala (1.13), and the later
chapters of the book. Since writing the present article, DELEANU (2012a) has
published a follo~-up study, wherein he surveys the overall meditative system
presented in the Sravakabhumi.
Basic Section Book Thirteen - The Sixteenth Foundation
(16) SopadhikaBhiimiQ
y OU yu yi di (~~{3xtfu)
Phung po dang bcas pa 'i sa
The ~hirteenth_ boo~ of the Basic Section, entitled The Foundation [Concerning}
Havmg an ExistentJal Substratum ( Sopadhika BhiimiiJ ), 400 is concerned with dis-
cussing the liberated state of the arhat, particularly as it pertains to an arhat who
~as a~tained liberation but has not yet died and entered parinirvaIJa. The discus-
sion 1s here framed in a larger context of considering what it is that forms the
remaining layer or basis for continued sarµsaric existence, namely the notion of
there being an existential substratum ( upadhi, yi {lx, phung po). The exposition
unfolds in three points.
399
For further background on DELEANU's interest in early Chinese meditational
systems, see DELEANU (2006.I:8-9).
400
Sanskrit and Tibetan editions by SCHMITHAUSEN (1991c) = Tl579.50.576b 28 -577a28
= D4035.280b 5-282a 6 •
222 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
The first point called a presentation of the notion of bhrlmi ( bhrlmiprajiiapti-
vyavasthiina, d1, shishe
' ,
aniI, J.'t2:.JJtl!ax.~
+J.hi;f.--fLr-!-,__L. d h ) 401 ·s
.lL, sar g ags pa rnam par gz ag pa , 1 a
short, general survey of how the notion of an existential sub~tratum relates to ~he
various topics that have been presented so far in the YBh. It ~s here stated ~hat ti:ve
of the seventeen bhumis presented in the YBh do not mvolve an existential
substratum. While no reason is given, the implied argument seems to be that these
five bhumis pertain to the stages of higher meditation and the path leading to
liberation and not to samsara. The five bhumis are the Acittikii BhiimilJ, the
Bhavanamayi BhumilJ, the Sriivakabhumi, the Pratyekabuddhabhiim1; and the
existential substratum (nirupadhika, wzi yzi yi ~~*'
Bodhisattvabhilmi Consequently, these five bhrlmis are said to be without an
phung po med pa), which is
a topic that will be elaborated upon in the fourteenth bo?k of .the Basic Section.
The twelve remaining bhumis all involve some form of existential substratum, the
sense of which will be defined below.
The second point of the book is called a presentation of the notion of pacific-a-
tion or discontinuance ( upasamapraj.iaptivyavasthana, jijing shishe iinli ;Rffiijjfilgi
'§::.JI., nye bar zhi bar gdags pa rnam par gzhag pa). The. differe~ce be~een bei~g
in a state that involves an existential substratum for contmued existence m sa!p.sara
and being in a state that does not involve any such substratum hinges on putting to
rest ( upasama, jijing ;Rffii, nye bar zhi ba) certain ne~ative fa~tors ass~xiated with
samsaric existence. In other words, the segment describes precisely which elements
ar~ pacified when the arhat attains the peace of nirvaIJa. It is said that there are
three things that are discontinued. A monk who has become an arhat and put. an
end to samsaric corruption has attained a lasting discontinuance of suffering
(duhkha, ktlt!f, sdug bsngal), of afflictions (Jdesa, fannao t~'['~, nyon mongs), and
of c~using harm to other sentient beings (sattvavihefha, bu siinnao youqfng ::f tiH~
~'[1, sems can rnams la rnam par 'tshe ba). The text here adds a fourth element to
the previous group of three, namely a discontinuance that takes the form of
complete equanimity or indifference ( upek~a, she t~, btang snyoms) with regard to
pleasant and unpleasant sensory experiences.
The third point is a general exposition of the notion of an existential substra-
tum ( upadhiprajiiaptivyavasthiina, yi shishe iinli {~:5t!!Ei*1L phung par gdags P_a
rnam par gzhags pa). An existential substratum ( upadh1; yi *'
understood as any element that supports continued sarpsaric existence m the sense
pkung po) 1s
of going on living and taking further rebirth in sa!p.siira a~ter. dying. ~roa~ly
speaking, there are eight kinds of existential substratum. The first i! the existential.
substratum for maintaining notions (prajiiaptyupadhi, shishe yi OOWi{~, gdags pa 'I
phung po). This refers to the five appropriating aggregates that form the basis
especially for the notion of a self or individuality, along with everyth~ng that. follows
from this notion. The second is the existential substratum for havmg social rela-
tions (parigrahopadhi, sheshou yi ti~{~, yangs su gzung ba 'i phung po). This
401
Generally, the word bhtlmi has in this introductory essay been translated with
'foundation' in the sense that each book of the YBh provides a certain foundation of
knowledge that is needed to practice yoga. In the present context, however, bhumi see11:1s
to connote a sense of the topics that are covered by the different books of the YBh, wherein
some topics pertain to stages of the path while other topics refer to particular functions of
the mind. Hence, in the passage at hand, the word bhumi has been left untranslated.
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 223
refers to the relations between oneself and one's family, workers, associates,
friends, and so forth. The third is the existential substratum for subsistence
(sthityupad~i, zhuchi yi 1.it~{I(, gnas pa'i phung po), namely the physical and
mental nourishment that a person needs to go on living. The fourth is the existen-
tia~.substratum for ~arpsaric invol~ement (pravrttyupadh1; Jirizhuan yi ifrEff{I(, Jug
pa 1 phung po). This has to do with consc10usness that is associated with matter
feeling, ideation, and conditioned factors, and it also involves the twelve Jinks of
depe~den! arf~~n~. !h~ fifth is the existen~~al substratum for obstruction ( antarayo-
padh1, zhanga1 y1 ~*it{I(, bar du gcod pa 1 phung po). Obstruction here pertains to
the so-called 'deadly forces' (mara, mo [I, bdud), in particular the deadly force of
the youthful gods [of temptation]. 402 The sixth is the existential substratum for
suffering ( du1Jkhopadh1; kiinao yi ~'f'~I(, sdug bsngal gyjphung po), including all
the manifold suffering experienced in the sarpsaric realm of sensual desire. The
seventh !s the existential substratum for enjoyment (ratyupadhi, shiyue yi j@·f~{~,
~ga' ba.'1 phu_ng po), namely the bliss of meditative absorption. The eighth is the
fm~l existential substra~um ( antya upadhifJ, houbian yi f!t~{~, tha ma 'l"phung po),
which_ denotes the contmuum of the aggregates of an arhat. These are, in general,
the different aspects that make up the substratum for continued existence in
sa!p.stira.
~ monk who has become an arhat has put an end to sarpsaric corruption and
re;11~ms on the level that still involves an existential substratum (sophadhika, you
yu Y1 ~~1~, phung po dang bcas pa). He is said to possess the first existential
substratum for notions as well as the eighth substratum, viz. the final existential
substratum. This implies that an arhat, who still is alive, is endowed with the five
ag?rega~es with which he was born. However, the arhat no longer possesses the
existential substrata for social relations, sarpsaric involvement, and obstruction. He
may or may not possess the remaining existential substrata for subsistence
suffering, and enjoyment, depending on his individual situation and spiritual
capability.
Aside f!?m Martin ~ELHEY's brief mention of the available Sanskrit manuscripts
and ed1t1on, the articles of the present volume do not give any reference to the
S0padh1"kii BhiimilJ.
Basic Section Book Fourteen - The Seventeenth Foundation
(17) Nirupadhika Bhlimi.(1
wu yu y1 di c~~1t<tm)
Phung po medpa 'i sa
The fourteenth and final book of the Basic Section is entitled The Foundation
[Concerning] Being Without an Existential Substratum. 403 This book presents the
stage of an arhat who has died and entered final and complete parinirvaJJa without
402
/_ For the_ four deadly forces (mara), see the summary of the second Yogasthana of the
Sravakabhum1.
403
Sanskrit and Tibetan editions by SCHMITHAUSEN (1991c) = Tl579.50.577a 29 -577c 16
= D4035.282a6-283a7•
224 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
leaving any substratum for continued sarp.saric existence. The exposition of this
topic is likewise done under three separate headings: _ . _ . ._ .
The first point is called a presentation of the not10n of bhum1 ( bhum1pra;naptJ-
vyavasthana, di shishe anli tt!Iat.1!5~*}'.[, sar gdags pa_ rnam par gz~ag pa), and thus
relates directly to the similar point made in the prev10us book. .It 1s re~te~ated that
among the seventeen bhumis presented in the YBh, there are five bhum1s th~t fall
under the category of not involving any existential substrat~m .. As me9t~oned
above, these are the Acittika Bhumil;z, the Bhavanamayf Bhumil;z, the Sravaka-
bhllm1: the Pratyekabuddhabhllmi, and the Bodhisattvabhum_1: . . The four compendia are:
The second point is a presentation of the notion of extmctlon or complet10n
(nirvrtiprajfiaptivyavasthana, ;i'mie shishe anli ~1~nt.!!g~*1L, mya ngan las 'das
par gdags par rnam par gzhag pa). Here _the. book _di~cusses th~ natu~e o~ ~!n~l,
nirvapa as being a state that is as much extmct1on as 1t 1s complet10n ~mrvrtJ, J!m1e.
~1~, mya ngan las 'das pa); both meanings are nuances of the Sans~nt te_rm mr:rrtI.
Two kinds of extinction/completion are distinguished. The first 1s extmc-
tion/completion consisting in utter peace (vyupasamanirvrtI;;i'ngjijimie ~~~1~,
nye bar zhi ba'i mya ngan las 'das pa) in that even the fi~e aggregates an.ct !he
discomfort and suffering they involve are no longer present m the state of mrvaIJa
without remainder (nirupadhise~e nirvaIJadhatau, wzi yzi [1 niepfn Jie.zhong ~~
{t<ilE~Jf.tp, phung po ]hag ma med pa'i mya ngan las 'das pa1 ~bymgs 1~). The
second is extinction/completion referring to the absence of everythmg detnmental
( avyabadhanirvrti, wzi siinnao j1'mie ~t~'['~~1~, gnod pa 1!1ed pa 'i_ mya ng~n las
'das pa), in that nirvaIJa is a state (1) that is not connected with any ~md of existen-
tial substratum and where all involvement with affliction and suffermg has ceased,
(2) that is characterized by a transformation of the basis ( asrayaparivrtti, zhuan !I
SUD xian ff{t<rfr~, gnas yongs SU gyur pa), and (3) that is without any sarp.s~nc
corruption. The text augments these definitions by adding s~ve~al short su_tra
quotati9ns. One of these scriptural passages declares that extmct10nl_co1:11plet~on
can never be fully accounted for in all its profundity, vastness, and m its be~ng
beyond measure. The text then defines each of ~hese qu~lities: T~e explanat10n
given for the word 'vastness' is that it designates mrvaIJa as mvolvm¥ immense good
qualities, thereby suggesting that nirvaIJa is clearly not understood m the sense of a
nihilistic nothingness. .
The third point is a presentation of the notion ?,f ~~la!e~ ter~s ~o! ~x!~c-
tion/completion (nirvrtiparyayapraj.iaptivyavasthana, pm1e y1men sh1she aniI f0Z.1~
:WF~nt.!!5~*}'.[, mya ngan las 'das pa 'i rnam grangs su gd~gs pa rnam par gzhag pa).
The segment presents several related terms (paryaya, yimen :WF~, rn~m grangs),
i.e., quasi-synonyms, that function as words describing n!ivaIJa. T?~se mclude the
lasting, the unchangeable, the eternal, that whose nature 1s u~mod1frnble: t?e place
of rest, the island, the shelter, the refuge, the final aim, secunty,. the ausp1~1~us, the
ultimate good, the good fortune, the immovable, the unbendmg, the ~hfficult to
behold, immortality, the sorrowless, the undying, the freedom from illness, ~he
incombustible, the diseaseless, the immutable, nirvaIJa, and freedom from prolife-
ration. Thus ends the final book of the Basic Section of the YBh.
Other than Martin DELHEY's mention of the available Sanskrit manuscripts and
edition, the articles of the present volume do not give any references to the
Nirupadhika Bhumil;z.
The Yogacarabhzlmj and Its Adaptation 225
- -----~-- ----~------- -------~~--~---
11.2 Yogacarabhiimi- The Supplementary Section
( Smpgrahapi)
The Basic Section of the YBh with its seventeen bhllmis is followed by an equally
large portion of the text that may be referred to as the "Supplementary Section."
This section, likewise spanning three volumes in the Tibetan version of the text and
fifty fascicles in the Chinese version, consists of four compendia ( SalJlgrahaIJi) that
provide additional material augmenting the teachings given in the Basic section.
1. The Compendium of Ascertainment ( ViniscayasaJ!lgrahapi, she jueze fen
~1:R:t!:5t, rnam par gtan la dbab pa bsdu ba)
2. The Compendium of Exegesis ( *VyakhyasaJ!lgrahapi, she shi fen tilff5t,
rnam par bshadpa bsdu ba)
3. The Compendium of Related Terms (Paryayasa1J1graha1Jf, she y1'men fen
:fil:WF~:5t, rnam grangs bsdu ba)
4. The Compendium of [Selected] Themes ( VastusaJ!]grahapf, she shi fen :fil
$7t, gzhi bsdu ba)
In comparison to the Basic Section which constitutes 49.9% of the entire text, the
ViniscayasaJ!lgrahaIJi forms 30.2%, the *VyakhyasaJ!]grahaIJi 1.6%, the Paryaya-
saJ!lgrahapf 1.8%, and the VastusaJ!]grahaIJi 16.5%.
Given the limitations of the present volume, a complete summary of the four
compendia can unfortunately not be offered here. The fol1owing part of the
introductory essay will only introduce each compendium in brief along with the two
articles in the volume that pertain to the ViIJJscayasaJ!]grahaJJi
Supplementary Section Part 1
. The ViniscayasaqigrahaJJl
The Compendium of Ascertainment ( ViniscayasaJ!lgrahaIJi, she jueze fen fili:R::t!
:5t, rnam par gtan la dbab pa bsdu ba) is by far the longest of the four compendia.
The compendium follows the overall structure of the Basic Section, covering some
of the same themes found in each of the seventeen bhllmis. It is divided into
thirteen large segments: 404
1.The Ascertainment of the Foundations Concerning the Fivefold Group of
Empirical Consciousness and Cognition ( *Pa.icavij.ianakayasamprayukta-
Manobhumi- Viniscaya), covering materials from bhllmis l-2 of the Basic
Section.
2. The Ascertainment of the Foundations Concerning Having Discernment
and Discursiveness and So Forth ( *Savitarkasavicaradibhllmi- Vimscaya),
covering bhllmis 3-5 of the Basic Section.
3. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning Meditative Absorption
( *Samahitabhumi- ViIJJscaya), covering bhumi 6 of the Basic Section.
404
For the page references for.each of these segments, see the table given on p.51.
1 I
I
226 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
4. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning Being Without Medita-
tive Absorption ( *Asamahitabhiimi-Viniscaya), covering bhiimi 7 of the
Basic Section.
5. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning Having Mentation
( *Sacittikabhiimi- Viniscaya), covering bhiimi 8 of the Basic Section.
6. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning Being Without Menta-
tion ( *Acittikabhiimi-Viniscaya), covering bhiimi 9 of the Basic Section.
7. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning What Is Derived from
Listening ( *Sriitamayibhiimi- Viniscaya), covering bhiimi 10 of the Basic
Section.
8. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning What Is Derived from
Understanding ( *Cintamayibhiimi-Viniscaya), covering bhiimi 11 of the
Basic Section.
9. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning What Is Derived from
Meditative Cultivation ( *Bhavanamayibhiimi-Viniicaya), covering bhiimi
12 of the Basic Section.
10. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning the Hearer
( *Sravakabhiimi- Viniscaya), covering bhumi 13 of the Basic Section.
11. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning the Solitary Buddha
( *Pratyekabuddhabhiimi-Viniscaya), covering bhiimi 14 of the Basic
Section.
12. The Ascertainment of the Foundation Concerning the Bodhisattva
( *Bodhisattvabhiimi- Viniscaya), covering bhiimi 15 of the Basic Section.
13. The Ascertainment of the Foundations Concerning Having an Existential
Substratum and Being Without an Existential Substratum ( *Sopadhika-
Nirupadhikabhiimi- Viniscaya), · covering bhiimis 16-17 of the Basic
Section.
The aim of the compendium is to provide ascertainment or clarification ( viniscaya,
jueze iRJl-:B-, rnampar gtan la dbab pa) of select points raised in the books of the
Basic Section. Essentially, the compendium constitutes a supplement to the Basic
Section, being a collection of related, miscellaneous materials that were not
included when compiling the explanations given in the Basic Section, in many cases
adding further explanation to particular difficult points.
The first segment of the ViniscayasalJlgraha!Ji concerning the Paiicavijiiana-
kayasamprayukta Bhiimip commences with a longer passage that clarifies the
notion of the latent consciousness ( alayavijiiana, alaiye shi j3i:ijfjlf~~' kun gzhi
rnam par shes pa). Consequently, the passage has been dubbed by modern scholars
"the Viniscayasa1J1graha1Ji alayavijiiana Treatise" or in short "the alayavijiiana
Treatise." 405 The alayavijiiana Treatise consists of three parts. The first part
referred to as the "Proof Portion" deals with presenting eight rhetorical arguments
for the existence of the alayavijiiana. The second part, called the "Pravrtti Portion,"
405
See SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a.I:10). For editions and translations, see the present arti-
cle by Martin DELHEY.
The YogacarabhOmi and Its Adaptation 227
explains the unfolding or functioning (pravrtti) of the alayavijiiana. The third part,
the "Nivrtti Portion," concerns the alayavi/iiana's collapse or cessation (nivrtti). 406
The present article by Martin DELHEY gives a thorough overview of the parts of
the text that have been edited and translated. Moreover, the present article by
407
William S. W ALDRON is a new study of the Pravrtti and Nivrtti Portions of the
alayavijiiana Treatise, examining the doctrinal developments of the Viniscaya-
sa1J1graha1Ji in comparison to earlier Abhidharma thought. In his earlier scholar-
ship, the author has already delved profoundly into the alayavijiiana Treatise and
associated passages in other works. In two articles of 1994 and 1995, he discussed
in depth the alayavijiiana and its doctrinal background in doctrines of conscious-
ness as espoused in early Buddhist scriptures and the Abhidharma tradition. The
two articles also paid attention to the manner in which the alayavijiiana is pre-
sented in the alayavijiiana Treatise by giving its summary. These initial forays into
the Buddhist sources dealing with mind were followed by W ALDRON's (2003a)
major monograph on alayavijiiana, entitled The Buddhist Unconscious: The
Alaya-vijiiana in the Context ofIndian Buddhist Thought. Therein, he first located
the doctrinal origins of the alayavijiiana within early Buddhist ideas of conscious-
ness, the continuity of existence, and human action, coupled with the psychological
problem-horizons that had been raised in the subsequent Abhidharma tradition.
The book also investigated the philosophical-doctrinal development of the alaya-
vijiiana within Indian Yogacara, dealing extensively with the alayavijiiana Treatise
(pp. 101-127), as well as with the later treatment of the notion of alayavijiiana
presented in the MahayanasiitralalJlkara and the MahayanasalJlgraha. An appen-
dix to the book (pp. 178-189) provided an English translation of the Pravrtti and
Nivrtti Portions of the alayavijiiana Treatise. Aside from these publications of
textual scholarship, WALDRON has also written extensively on the Indian Y ogacara
philosophy in dialogue with modern philosophy of mind and cognitive science. 408
The second article in the present volume that focuses particularly on the
ViniscayasalJlgraha!Ji is the contribution by Kazunobu MATSUDA (f_t}ffifD{s). 409
406
For the threefold division of the alayavifiiana Treatise, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a.
11:299-300, fn.226). For an edition and Japanese translation, see HAKAMAYA (1978; 1979;
both articles are reprinted in HAKAMAYA, 2001, along with a long addendum to the 1978
artic}~)T· h e Am encan
·
sch o1ar w·11·
1 mm S. W ALDRON 1s · Pro fessor of R e 1·1g10n
· · t he
m
Department of Religion at Middlebury College, Vermont, USA. He was born in Detroit in
1954 and graduated from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1982, followed by a year
of studies overseas at National Taiwan Normal University. He then became a doctoral
student in Buddhist and Japanese studies at the University of Wisconsin-Madison studying
in particular with Professor Minoru KIYOTA coupled with intensive periods of study in
India, Nepal, and Japan. He obtained the PhD degree in 1990 with a dissertation on the
alayavifiiana in Buddhist thought (revised version published in 2003). He joined Middle-
bury College in 1996. His research has focused on Indian Y ogacara theories of mind,
especially the concept of alayavifnana and its significance in light of Western philosophies
of mind and cognitive science.
408
See WALDRON (2000; 2002; 2003b; 2005; and forthcoming).
409
The Japanese scholar Kazunobu MATSUDA (born 1954) is Professor at the Faculty
of Buddhist Studies, Bukkyo University (f~~*~ Bukkyo Daigaku) in Kyoto, Japan. He
228 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
MATSUDA's previous scholarship includes many publications pertammg to the
Indian Y ogacara tradition, falling largely in two broad categories. On the one hand,
he has written a series of articles, especially in the earlier part of his oevre, exami-
ning particular Yogacara doctrinal concepts or textual passages, such as suitable
means ( anulomikopaya, MATSUDA, 1980), non-conceptual knowledge (1981 ),
alayavijiiana and kli$famanas (1982b; 1982c), dependent arising (1982a; 1983;
1986a), Vasubandhu and his works (1984a; 1984b; 1985; 1986a), and scriptural
quotations (1986b ). On the other hand, in his later scholarly output, he has pub-
lished a series of articles identifying and editing hitherto unknown Sanskrit frag-
ments of major Yogacara texts, including the ViniscayasaIJ1graha1Ji (1988; 1990),
J,
the ParyayasaIJ1graha1Jf (1990; 1994 the Sa!J1dhinirmocanasiltra (1995), and the
NirvikalpapravesadharaJJf ( 1996a). 41
MATSUDA's present article falls in the second category, as it provides editions
of Sanskrit fragments of the Sa!J1dhinirmocanasiltra. This siitra is quoted almost in
its full entire~ within the *Bodhisattvabhiimiviniscaya segment of the Viniscaya-
saIJlgrahal)i.41 The author identifies and edits two fragments stemming from the
National Archives of Kathmandu and the German Turfan Collection. The frag-
ment from the National Archives spans parts of two chapters in the siitra, namely
the Maitreya Chapter (no. 8) and the Avalokitesvara Chapter (no. 9). MATSUDA
(1995) has previously published the part of the fragment belonging to the Avalo-
kitesvara Chapter, and in the present article presents an edition of the part of the
fragment belonging to the Maitreya Chapter. The fragment from the German
Turfan Collection corresponds to passages from the Dharmodgata Chapter (no. 2)
and the Suvisuddhamati Chapter (no. 3), which was earlier published by WALD-
SCHMIDT (1971:180) but not identified. Additionally, MATSUDA discusses the
different styles of Sanskrit and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit found in the various
fragments, drawing conclusions that are significant for understanding the compila-
tion history of the siitra.
Aside from the articles by WALDRON and MATSUDA, there are ten further
articles in the present volume that make pertinent remarks on the Viniscaya-
saipgrahaJJi Noriaki HAKAMAYA comments on the function of serving monks
graduated from Otani University (*fr*~ Otani Daigaku), located in Kyoto, in 1977,
and received the PhD degree from the same university in 1982. His research has been
focused on Sanskrit and Tibetan texts of the Yogacara school, including discoveries of
Sanskrit manuscript fragments of Y ogacara treatises, such as the Viniscayasaf!]grahaIJf and
the PaI)'Elyasaf!]grahaIJf sections of the YBh. Besides his contribution to the field of
Y ogacara, he is currently participating in the international research project concerned with
Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts from Afghanistan and Pakistan found in the Sch(ilyen
Collection in Norway and elsewhere. For citation of his numerous publications, see below.
410
MATSUDA has also published Sanskrit fragments of several non-Yogacara texts; see,
e.g., MATSUDA (1990; 1997; 2000; 2002; 2006).
411
For a study of the Tibetan canonical and Dunhuang versions of this scripture, see
HAKAMAYA (1984, 1986a, 1987a, 1987b). For a thorough study of the sutra, including an
annotated Japanese translation of chapters six and seven, see HAKAMAYA (1994). For a
study of the vijnaptimatrapassage in chapter eight of the sutra, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1984).
For a discussion of the Saf!ldhinirmocanasutra's possible role in the formation of the
alayavjjiiana concept, with a theory that the siitra has priority over the so-called Initial
Passage of the YBh, see BUESCHER (2008:100-200).
The Yogacarabhllmi and Its Adaptation 229
expressed in the *Sravakabhiimi-viniscaya. Hidenori S. SAKUMA discusses the
ViniscayasaIJ1graha1Ji's presentation of the transformation of the basis ( asrayapari-
vrtti). Noritoshi ARAMAKI analyzes the possible compilation history of the com-
pendium and translates a longer passage on the afflictive cognition (kli$famanas)
from the *SacittJkabhiimi-viniscaya, which he argues constitutes the first and
original declaration of this concept. Koichi TAKAHASHI translates a passage from
the *Savitarkadibhiimi-viniscaya explaining a siitra-quotation concerning false
denial (apavada). Yasunori SUGAWARA translates a passus from the *Paiica-
vijiianakayasamprayukta-manobhiimi-viniscaya regarding the relationship between
the realization of emptiness and the sixteen aspects of realizing the four existential
facts. Jowita KRAMER translates and discusses a short definition of ignorance
(avidya) from the *Savitarkasavicaradibhiimi-viniscaya. Sungdoo AHN translates
and analyzes a passage on the moments of realization occurring on the path of
seeing ( darsanamarga) as explained in the *Paiicavijiianakayasamprayuktamano-
bhumi-viniscaya, along with its available Chinese commentaries. Makoto YOSHI-
MURA explains the seventh-century Chinese masters Fabao's O:tdf) and Lingrim's
(IUM) special interpretions of the terms "seeds for tathata as the referential con-
dition" (~PDJ=ifr~~f_i=_r zhenrzi suo-yuan-yuan zhongzi, *tathata-alambana-
pratyaya-bi}a) and "seeds for the afflictive and cognitive hindrances" ( *ldesavaraJJa 0
and *jiieyavaraJJabi}a), both of which occur in the *Paiicavijiianakayasamprayukta-
manobhiimi-viniscaya. Sangyeob CHA discusses Woncheuk's use of a passage from
the Samahitabhiimi-viniscaya dealing with being settled in meditation ( *dhyana-
sthiti). Finally, Seongcheol KIM cites a Korean MA thesis by SHIN Woonyon that
analyzes the relationship between the Sa!J1dhinirmocanasiitra and the Viniscaya-
saIJ1graha1Ji
Supplementary Section Part 2
The *Vyiikhyasmpgrah~
The Compendium of Exegesis ( *VyakhyasaIJ1graha1Ji, she shi fen ffli-~:5t, rnam
par bshad pa bsdu ba) is a short treatise generally concerned with how to present
the meaning of the siitras and more particularly with how to apply the principles of
rhetoric and logical argument when debating religious doctrine with others. It thus
bears a certain similarity to the passage on the knowledge of logical reasons
(hetuvidya) in the Sriitamayi Bhiimil;z of the Basic Section as well as with
Vasubandhu's treatise of rhetoric entitled VyakhyayuktJ: 412
Aside from Martin DELHEY's short remarks on the available scholarship on this
compendium, none of the articles in the present volume refer to the *Vyakhya-
saIJlgrahaJJL
Supplementary Section Part 3
The Pazyayasaipgrah~
The Compendium of Related Terms (ParyayasaIJ1graha1Ji, she y1'men fen ffli-~r5:tr,
mam grangs bsdu ba) is another short addendum. It provides explanations of
412
See the pertinent remarks in Martin DELHEY's article in the present volume.
230 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
assorted terms (paryfiya, yimen ~F~, mam grangs) related to the teacher, supe-
riority, insight, the teachings, generosity, discipline, and the Buddhist path. It also
forms a commentary on the so-called jfjpj so formula for recollecting the qualities
of the Three Jewels. 413
In the present volume, Martin DELHEY mentions the available studies and editions,
while Kazunobu MATSUDA refers to his earlier edition (1994) of a Sanskrit frag-
ment from this compendium.
Supplementary Section Part 4
The Vastuslllpgrahapi
The Compendium of [Selected] Themes ( Vastusa!pgrahapi, she shi fen f6$-5t,
414
gzhj bsdu ba) is a larger supplement that is divided into three parts. The first part
entitled "Compendium of [Selected] Themes Pertaining to the Siitras" ( *Siitra-
vastusaIJJgrahapi) is by far the longest segment of the text. It provides a synopsis of
the Buddhist Siitra scriptures, i.e., the Buddha's discourses, in particular the siitras
found in the Sa!pyuktagama corpus. The second part called "Compendium of
[Selected] Themes Pertaining to the Vinaya" ( *VinayavastusaIJJgrahapi) gives a
short synopsis of the Vinaya, i.e., the disciplinary rules for Buddhist monks. The
third part called "Compendium of [Selected] Themes Pertaining to the Lists [of
Abhidharma]" ( *Matrkavastusa!pgrahapi) consists of a brief synopsis of doctrinal
topics systematized in the Abhidharma texts.
In the present volume, five articles make remarks on the VastusaIJJgrahapI. Noriaki
HAKAMAYA refers to a siitra of the SaIJJyuktiigama that is also referenced in the
VastusaIJJgrahapI. Noritoshi ARAMAKI mentions the VastusaIJJgrahapi's treatment
of dependent arising, the text's model of consciousness, and its distinction of innate
and conceptualized notions of the self. Yasunori SUGAwARA refers to the Nagara-
siitra's account of how the Buddha observed dependent arising, which is expressed
in a parallel passage in the ~astusaIJJgrahapl. Michael ZIMMERMANN notes a
cross-reference given in the Silapafala (I.10) of the Bodhjsattvabhiimj to the
VastusaIJJgrahapi's differentiation of transgressions of varying strengths. Finally,
Lawrence Y.K. LAU mentions three Chinese magisterial theses that analyze the
relationship between the SaIJJyuktagama siitras and the VastusaIJJgrahapl.
413
For the itipi so formula (i.e., itipi so bhagava araha!J1 samma sambuddho ... etc. in
Pali, or iti hi sa bhagavalJl tathagato 'rhaJ!l samyak sa1J1buddho ... etc. in Sanskrit), see
fn.337 above and SKILLING (1994:265-309; 1997a:401-467).
414
Concerning the division in the Tibetan version of the text, see fn.89 and fn.92.
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 231
III. The Indian Yogacara Reception
Following the present volume's second overall section containing articles dealing
directly with the YBh, the third section of the volume consists of papers that are
concerned with the manner in which the YBh and the ensuing Yogacara tradition
was received and adapted in India in the period following the text's final redaction
in the fourth century. As noted in the beginning of this introductory essay, the
Indian reception history of the YBh may be compared to how the Ghaghara River
flows into the mighty Ganges; it is a process where the Ghaghara feds into a larger
river-system, not only adding its own silt and currents to the downstream flow but
also becoming part of a much larger deluge of religious, ritualistic, philosophical,
and mythological heritage. In simple terms, this Indian reception history shall here
be considered merely in terms of three broad areas of Buddhist literature and
thought.
The first general area in which the YBh exerted a clear influence was on some
later writings of the North Indian Mainstream Buddhist traditions. As is evident
from the above summary of the text, the YBh is a massive treatise that brings
togeth~r a wealth of material stemming from Mainstream as well as Mahayana
Buddhism. It was therefore only natural that the work caught the attention of
Main~treai:n Bud~hist scholars and in subtle ways began to impact their writings,
especially m the field of Abhidharma studies, being a genre from which the YBh
itself had borrowed so much. When judged from the historical perspective of the
sources that were preserved for posterity, the most prolific Mainstream Buddhist
sect in northern India at this time was the Sarvastivada school. This sect had a
strong presence particularly in the greater Gandhara region of present-day Paki-
sta~ and Afghanistan until the decline of monastic Buddhism in that part of the
Indi~ cultural sphere follo~ing the Hun invasion in the sixth century. In the period
leadmg up to the composit10n of the YBh, Sarvastivada acfiryas had produced an
abundant scholastic literature culminating in the encyclopedic Mahav1bhiisa
Abhidharma treatise, based upon which new digests and commentaries continu~d
to be written in the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries.
Chief among these later Mainstream Buddhist texts stands the Abhklharma-
kosa with its bh~~ya auto-commentary composed by Kosakara Vasubandhu (ca.
~50-42?), an a~ndgeme~t ~f Sarvastiva~a AbhMharma teachings in nine chapters
mtermmgled with Sautrantika and possibly also Yogacara doctrine. Vasubandhu's
w?r~ was followed ,by~ number .of dir~ct commentaries on !he Abhjdharmakosa by
Vi~itabhadra, Yasomitra, SthiramatI, Piir]).avardhana, Samathadeva, Dignaga,
Sanghabhadra, and anonymous authors, who either embraced or criticized the
~ext's ~ixture of Sarvastivada and Sautrantika explanations. Modern scholars,
mcludmg Kazunobu MATSUDA (1985), Noriaki HAKAMAYA (1986b), Robert
KRITZER (1999; 2005), and several others, have pointed to some passages in the
text that exhibit subtle influences from the side of the YBh. The text itself ascribes
eleven of these passages to "earlier masters" (piirvacaryaiJ), whom the commenta-
tor Yasomitra in one instance identifies as "the Yogacaras starting with the noble
Asanga" (piirvacfiiyfi yogacara aryfisaligaprabhrtayaiJ). It therefore seems that
certain doctrinal points from the YBh were received and adapted in Mainstream
Buddhist literature.
232 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
The YBh's influence on the Abhidharmakosabhawa is discussed in the present
article by Changhwan PARK (~;g-~). 415 PARK (2007 and forthcoming) has
previously analyzed this question at great length, particularly with regard to the
latter text's model of karmic causation. He demonstrated that many of the passages,
which are said to have been influenced by the YBh, in fact, are closely linked with
the Mainstream Buddhist Dar~tantika-Sautrantika tradition that preceded
Vasubandhu. According to PARK, the Sautrantika positions raised in the Abhi-
dharmakosabhawa mostly seem to have been derived from a now lqst work en-
titled *Sautrantikavibha~a composed by the Sautrantika-master Srilata, who
possibly was a slightly older contemporary of Kosakara Vasubandhu. In spite of the
work being non-extant, PARK provided an elaborate analysis of the text and its
relationship to the Abhidharmako/abhawa in his monograph by extrapolating
paraphrases and quotations from Srilata's work found in a commentary entitled
*Nyayanusara written by the Kashmirian Sarvastivada-scholar Sanghabhadra (ca.
420-480). It is notable that the reconstruction of these fragments is highly complex,
given that Sanghabhadra's text only is preserved in a Chinese translation (T1562).
In his monograph, PARK concluded that although it is evident that the YBh did
yield a certain influence on Vasubandhu's text, many of the shared passages are
also reflected in the preceding Sautrantika tradition; it therefore seems that a
cross-pollination of ideas took place between the Mainstream Buddhist Sautran-
tika tradition and the early Y ogacara school, which modern scholars may not yet
have fully understood. 416
In his present article, PARK turns to examining the identity of the "earlier
masters" (purvacaryalJ) by drawing attention to one of the eleven passages in
415
The Korean scholar Changhwan PARK is Professor of Indian Buddhism at
Geumgang University (:ili:IMJU::k~& Geumgang Daehakgyo) near Nonsan, South Korea.
He studied at Seoul National University, where he received a BA degree in philosophy in
1990 and an MA degree in oriental philosophy in 1993. Thereupon, he went overseas and
became a doctoral student at the University of California, Berkeley, where he studied with
Alexander VON ROSPATT and Padmanabh S. JAINI. During the course of his studies, he also
spent two years as a visiting student at Otani University (7CB-::kq: Otani Daigaku) in
Kyoto, Japan, where he learnt from Noritoshi ARAMAKI and Seiki MIYASHITA. In 2007, he
received the PhD degree from Berkeley with a dissertation on the Sautrantika theory of
seeds (revised version forthcoming in the series Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und
Buddhismuskunde published by Vienna University). Having returned to Korea, he joined
Geumgang Center for Buddhist Studies at Geumgang University as a Humanities Korea
Research Professor in 2008, where he also served as Vice-Director of the research center in
the period 2009-2010. In 2009, he became Reader in Indian Buddhism at Geumgang
University, and turned Professor of Indian Buddhism in 2011. His publications in Korean
focus on the Abhidharma, Sautrantika, and Yogacara traditions of Indian Buddhism,
covering the Sautrantika notion of alambana (2009), Vasubandhu's critique of atoms
(2010), and Vasubandhu and the Lalikavatarasutra (2011).
416
In his earlier work (forthcoming, chapters 3.3-4 and 4.2), PARK has hypothesized
that a common source for the Sautrantika as well as the Yogacara tradition may have been
Harivarman's *Tattvasjddhj ( Chengshi Jim ~'.l'!i, T1646). To investigate this issue,
attention may also be paid to the earlier, proto-versions of the YBh extant in Chinese
translations; see DEMIEVILLE (1954) and the present article by Nobuyoshi YAMABE.
The Yogacarabhzlmj and Its Adaptation 233
Vasubandhu's text presenting doctrinal interpretations ascribed to these masters. 417
The passage in question stems from the third chapter of the Abhidharma-
kosabhawa and concerns the formula of dependent arising (pratityasamutpada).
He links the passage with a similar explanation found in another of Kosakara
Vasubandhu's works, namely the Pratityasamutpadavyakhya, where the particular
exegesis of dependent arising is explicitly ascribed to the *Yaugacarabhumikas
(rnal 'byor spyod pa'i sa pa dag), i.e., adherents of the YBh. This ascription is
confirmed by the fact that a similar exegesis occurs in the YBh's *Savitarka
Savicaradi BhzlmilJ book of the Basic Section. Other scholars have used this
linkage as evidence to assert that Vasubandhu promoted the views of the YBh
when he wrote the Abhidharmakosabha~ya, though it is thought that Vasubandhu
did not dare to do so explicitly out of fear of alienating his Mainstream Buddhist
audience. They argue that it was for this reason that Vasubandhu only ascribed
these positions to the nondescript "earlier masters" and not definitively to the
Yogacaras. While PARK admits the YBh-connection of the passage at hand, he
calls the overall conclusion into question, namely that Vasubandhu was a Y ogacara
in disguise when he composed the Abhidharmakosabhawa. PARK shows that the
passage, in fact, is part of a larger context, where Vasubandhu puts forth a scrip-
tural critique of various positions, including Sarvastivada doctrine, the Sautrantika
analysis of Srilata, as well as the cited YBh-inspired passage. Consequently, he
concludes that it would go too far to assert that Vasubandhu was a Y ogacara in
disguise, since it is rather the case that Vasubandhu presented a variety of doc-
trinal positions, including some elements drawn from the YBh. It should be noted
that PARK's focus on Kosakara Vasubandhu ties his article closely in with the three
other papers concerned with this author found in the present volume, namely the
contributions by Hidenori S. SAKUMA, Hartmut BUESCHER, and Jowita KRAMER.
The second general area in which the YBh exerted an influence was on the
subsequent Mahayana Buddhist tradition, particularly on the large literature of the
Yogacara-Vijfianavada school that ensued from the composition of the YBh.
There appeared a series of texts that were closely linked with the Bodhisattva-
bhiimi book of the YBh. These virtual summaries of the Bodhisattvabhiim1: which
adapt and augment the book in various ways, include the Xiiinyang shengjiao Jun,
the Mahayanaszltralaf!1kara, the Mahayanasal!]graha, and the associated commen-
taries by Bha~yakara Vasubandhu. Additionally, the YBh exuded influence -
although to varying degrees - on the Yogacara-Abhidharma treatise Abhidharma-
samuccaya and a large number of other Yogacara-Vijfianavada works, such as the
writings of Bha~yakara Vasubandhu and the post-Abhidharmakosa texts by
Kosakara Vasubandhu. A certain Yogacara footprint can also be detected in the
epistemological Prama9a literature starting with the works of Dignaga and
Dharmakirti418 as well as in the writings of the Yogacara-Madhyamaka authors of
the seventh and eighth centuries, such as Jfianakirti, Santarak~ita, and Kamalasila.
417
For the discussion and translation of another of these purvacalJ!a-passages, see the
present article by Nobuyoshi YAMABE (analysis pertaining to entry no. 21 in his synoptic
table).
418
For an analysis of Dignaga as a Yogacara-Vijfianavada author, see SUGAWARA
(1987).
 234 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
The influence of the YBh on a later Yogacara text is the topic of the present
419
article by Jowita KRAMER. In her 2005 monograph entitled Kategorien der
Wirldichkeit im friihen Yogacara [Categories of Reality in Early Yogacara],
KRAMER presented an analysis, critical edition, and translation of a passage from
the YBh's ViniscayasaipgrahaJJf dealing with the five categories of reality
(paiicavastu, wushi .li~, dngos po Inga). Having gained access to newly available
Sanskrit manuscripts, she thereafter turned her attention to a text on the five
aggregates (skandha, yun fl, phung po) written by Kosakara Vasubandhu entitled
Paiicaskandhaka and examined it along with a vibha~a-commentary on the text
composed by the sixth-century Yogacara master Sthiramati. In 2008(a), she
published an introduction to the text along with a study of its section on physical
matter (nlpaskandha). She is now in the process of publishing a critical Sanskrit
edition of Sthiramati's work (KRAMER, forthcoming 1), an article examining the
treatise's section on the aggregate of consciousness ( vijiianaskandha) (KRAMER,
forthcoming 2012), as well as an article examing the sections on feeling ( vedana-
skandha) and ideation (saip/iiaskandha) (KRAMER, forthcoming 2). 420
In her current contribution, KRAMER analyzes the Paiicaskandhaka's section
on the fourth aggregate, the skandha of conditioned factors (saipskara). She
presents a very thorough analysis and synoptic comparison of the definitions of 51
factors associated with the mind ( caitasika dharmalJ or caitta) and fourteen factors
dissociated from the mind (cittaviprayuktaiJ saipskaralJ) given in Vasubandhu's
Paiicaskandhaka (supplemented by Sthiramati's Paiicaskandhakavibha~a), Asan-
ga's Abhidharmasamuccaya, Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakoiabhawa, the Basic
Section of the YBh, its ViniicayasaipgrahaJJi, and Sthiramati's Triipsikavi/iiapti-
bhawa. Her assiduous study reveals how complex the relationships between these
Abhidharma and Yogacara texts truly are. In numerous instances, whole defini-
tions or parts of definitions are appropriated verbatim from one text to another,
but it is nonetheless impossible to establish a single, overall principle and direction
of the borrowing. Rather, it appears that each text builds on a shared tradition yet
419
Dr. Jowita KRAMER is Departmental Lecturer for Buddhist Studies at the Univer-
sity of Oxford. She studied Indology and Tibetology in Germany at the University of
Gottingen (Georg-August-Universitat Gottingen, 1994-1995) and the University of
Hamburg (Universitat Hamburg, 1995-2000), from where she received an MA degree in
2000. Following her studies with Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN, she obtained the PhD degree in
2004 with a dissertation on the five categories of reality (pa.icavastu) (revision version
published in 2005). She then became a research fellow at the University of Munich
(Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Mi.inchen, 2004-2005 and 2009-2010) and the University
of Gottingen (2007-2008). In 2010, she obtained the Habilitation degree with a thesis on
Sthiramati's Pa.icaskandhakavibhll$!l from the University of Munich. She has served as
faculty member at the University of Copenhagen (K0benhavns Universitet, 2004-2005) and
the University of Heidelberg (Ruprecht-Karls-Universitat Heidelberg, 2008-2009), before
she joined Oxford University in 2011. The main focus of her research lies on Indian and
Tibetan Buddhism (with particular emphasis on the Yogiiciira tradition) and Tibetan
biographical literature. For her publications, see below. ·
420
KRAMER has additionally published in the Tibetan field, including a monograph on
the life and works of Glo bo Mkhan chen (2008b), the gsanyigof A mes zhabs (2008c), and
a database on A me zhabs' gsan yig available online at www.indologie.uni-muenchen.de/
personen/3_privatdoz/kramerjowita/projekte_kramer/gsan-yig/index.html
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 235
breaks away from it in certain regards. The relationship between the Abhidharma-
samuccaya and the Paiicaskandhaka seems somewhat closer, while the Paiica-
skandhaka's tie to the other texts is a bit looser. In this way, KRAMER's article
illustrates very well the high degree of complexity that comparative work on the
Abhidharma and Y ogacara texts involves. Consequently, KRAMER's contribution
goes to show why it philologically is so difficult to establish a clear compilation
history of a text such as the YBh or prove its effect on later Abhidharma and
Yogacara works. This is a problem related to the issue raised in the present articles
by Hidenori S. SAKUMA and Hartmut BUESCHER in the context of quest~oning the
approach of studying the interrelationships between these texts by drawmg on the
anecdotal evidence of each author's sectarian-affiliation.
The third general area in which the YBh and the ensuing Y ogacara-
Vijftanavada tradition exerted a clear influence was on the later Tantric tradition
of Indian Buddhism of the sixth to fourteenth centuries. The authors of the YBh
were definitely aware of certain early ritual tendencies in the Buddhism of the
second and third centuries that constituted the archaic forerunners for the later,
fully-developed tradition of esoteric Buddhism called the Mantra-Method
(Mantranaya) or the Vajra-Vehicle (Vajrayana). In two instance~, the Bo1hisatn:a-
bhumi book of the YBh mentions the performance of bestowmg blessmgs with
mantras (zhou 5--E, gsang sngags) in rituals carried out to subjugate harmful forces,
to heal disease and poisoning, or to produce rain. 421 Hence, it is evident that
mantra-based rituals were already in use during the fourth century when the YBh
reached its final redaction-stage.
The complex relations that evidently exist between the Y ogacara literature and
the multiple Tantric traditions of later Indian Buddhism constitute a topic of
inquiry that holds great significance for understanding the Yogacara adaption
history from the eighth century onwards. Nevertheless, it is only recently that this
important issue has begun to draw the merited attention of modern Buddhologists.
To introduce the emer£ing field of Tantric Yogacara studies, the pre~ent article_ by
Harunaga ISAACSON 4 exemplifies and discusses Yogacara traces m the Indian
Tantric literature of the eleventh century. In his earlier scholarship, ISAACSON has
421
See the summaries of the Dhyanapafala (1.13) and the Bodhipakffapafala (1.17).
422
Born in Kuma, Japan, in 1965, the Dutch scholar Harunaga ISAACSON is Professor
of Classical Indology at the University of Hamburg (Universitat Hamburg). He studied
Indian philosophy and Indology in the Netherlands with Professor Hans BAKKER at the
University of Groningen (MA 1990) and was awarded the PhD degree in Sanskrit by
the University of Leiden (1995) with a dissertation entitled Materials for the Study of the
Vaise~ika System. From 1995 to 2000, he was a post-doctoral research fellow at the Oriental
Institute of Oxford University. He then served as a faculty member in the early 2000s at the
University of Hamburg, whereupon he became Assistant Professor of Sanskrit at
the University of Pennsylvania in the USA. In 2006, he returned to Germany to take up the
Professorship of Classical Indology at the University of Hamburg. He is also presently
Director of the Nepal Research Centre in Kathmandu and General Director of the
Nepalese-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project. His main areas of research include
the Tantric traditions in pre-thirteenth century South Asia, especially Vajrayana Buddhism,
classical Sanskrit poetry, classical Indian philosophy, and Pur:lQ.ic literature. For his
publications, see below.
236 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
published extensively on the Tantric tradition. 423 After an initial broad survey of
the Indian Tantric transmission (ISAACSON, 1998a), he devoted a series of articles
to the writings by Tantric authors of the eleventh and twelfth centuries, such as
Abhayakaragupta (2001a) and especially the polymath Ratnakarasanti (2000;
2001b; 2002; 2007). Other publications have been concerned with an Indo-Tibeto-
Indian transmission lineage attested by the fifteenth-century master Vanaratna
(2008), with a Sanskrit codex containing a large collection of Hevajra sadhanas
(2009a), and with the historical development of the Tantric initiation ritual (2010).
In his present article, ISAACSON discusses doxographic attitudes toward the
Yogacara tradition expressed in Tantric texts of the eleventh century. He considers
how the Y ogacara view on a subtle level was advocated in the commentarial and
contemplative works by Ratnakarasanti, and thereby brings to fore the numerous
doctrinal elements of the earlier Mahayana tradition that were incorporated and
adapted in the Tantric literature. It should be noted that the writing style of
ISAACSON's paper differs from other articles in the volume, in that it is not an
article per se but an edited transcript of an oral lecture that he gave at the
Yogacarabhzlmi and the Yogacaras conference held in Seoul in 2008. Conse-
quently, the paper immerses the reader into the richness of selected Sanskrit
passages guided along by ISAACSON's astute reading.
IV. The East Asian Yogacara Reception
The YBh and the ensuing Yogacara tradition were by no means confined to the
Indian subcontinent. Rather, they belonged to a religious movement that spread
widely overland and overseas, transmitted by monks following the major geo-
graphic arteries of commerce far into Central Asia, East Asia, and possibly also
Southeast Asia. In terms of the river-simile used in this introduction to characte-
rize the study of the YBh and the Y ogacara school, the examination of these
developments stretching far and wide was compared to journeying downstream
along the Ganges, lastly leading the reader through the highly complex system of
multiple rivulets that the Ganges transforms into at the great Bengali delta of its
river mouth before entering the sea. Two such branches of rivulets are examined in
the present volume, namely the reception and appropriation history of the YBh
and the Yogacara tradition in East Asia and Tibet.
The most compelling impact of the Indian Y ogacara tradition on foreign soil
took place in China with the translations of numerous Y ogacara texts by the Indian
monk Paramartha (Zhendi ~~, 499-569) and the Chinese monk Xuanzang (1{~,
602?-664) in the sixth and seventh centuries. 424 The Chinese Buddhists, however,
423
Besides writing on the Buddhist Tantric tradition in India, ISAACSON has also pub-
lished on Indian epigraphy (~AKKER & ISAACSON, 1993), the Vai~esika tradition
(ISAACSON, 1993; 1994), the Saiva epic SkandhapurfiIJa (BAKKER, ADRIAENSEN &
ISAACSON, 1994; 1998b; BAKKER & ISAACSON, 2004), the commentarial tradition of the
Indian poetic tradition (GOODALL & ISAACSON, 2003), and the methods of textual criticism
(2009b). . Religion and the Honors program at George Washington University in Washington D.C.,
424
For a thorough study of Xuanzang and his many translations, see HAKAMAYA
(1981a; 1981b). Given that the Chinese import of the YBh and the Yogacara tradition has
been treated in the pertinent articles of the present volume, a description of this reception
history shall not be given here.
The YogacarabhzJmj and Its Adaptation 237
did not slavishly confine themselves to following the Indian transmissions, but
constantly engaged in vigorous activities of writing and debating. This was done to
arrive at a penetrating and unified understanding of Yogacara-Vijftanavada
thought and its yoga practice in order to eliminate the doctrine from any internal
contradiction within the wider scope of Buddhism promoted in the Middle King-
dom. Consequently, there was a long history of exegetical and philosophical
adaptation, which did not end with the Tang Dynasty when the Yogacarabhzlmi
was first introduced in its entirety. Rather, it continued directly or indirectly over
the longue duree of East Asian Buddhism right down to modern day.
The fourth overall section of the present volume consists of nine articles de-
voted to studying the reception and adaptation history of Y ogacara Buddhism in
East Asia. The first article is by the Chinese scholar Bing CHEN (~*~). 425 CHEN
briefly introduces the arrival of the Y ogacara tradition in China in the sixth and
seventh centuries, and then analyzes at length the Y ogacara revival that took place
in China in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. He vibrantly
describes the concerns of the many Chinese figures involved in reviving Y ogacara
thought- such as Taixii (tlillt, 1890-1947) and Ouyang Jian (~~$, 1871-1943) -
whose main objective was to advance the Vijftaptimatra view of "Consciousness-
Only" (nial weishi) as a viable alternative to modern materialism, science, religion,
and Western philosophy. His article offers a tour de force of the numerous major
and minor thinkers of the modern Chinese Y ogacara renaissance and the varying
trends of their writings and internal discussions, thereby exquisitely illustrating the
breadth and intellectual zest of the movement.
CHEN's article is followed by a second paper dealing with the modern Y ogacara
revival in China, namely the contribution by Byal A VIV. 426 A VIV's research is
425
Professor Bing CHEN (born 1945) is the Director of the Institute of Religious
Studies (*~-fiffJEpfr Zongjiao Yanjiusuo) at Sichuan University (ll9Jf [::k$ Sichuan
Daxue) in Sichuan Province, the People's Republic of China. After graduating from the
Chinese Department at Lanzhou University (~fr,[::k* Lanzhou Daxue) in 1968, he
entered the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences in 1978, where he taught world religion
and wrote a dissertation on Daoism in China. Thereupon, he worked as a scholar and
professor at Sichuan Research Institute of Culture and History (ll9JI f!g'X§:.ffl Sichuan
Sheng Wenshiguiin), Minnan Buddhist College (f$]ffi{~*~ Minnan F6xueyuan), and
Tibet University (c§~::k* Xizang Daxue), and was Associate Director of the Institute for
Chan Buddhism in Hebei (Yr:lf ~c:W$.fiffj'Epfr Hebei Chanxue Yanjiusuo). His research has
focused on Buddhism and religious psychology in contemporary China, and his mono-
graphs include Jin xiandai Zh6nggu6 F6jiao (i!I;l;fil{-l;'.;$00{~~) [Buddhism in Contem-
porary China] and F6jiao xinlfxue ({~~1[i,~$) [ The Psychology ofBuddhism]. He is also
an active promoter of Buddhism in China.
426
The Israeli-born scholar Eyal Aviv received the MA degree from Hebrew Univer-
sity (ti'l;,W1i':J !1'i:J37:1 ;"l!J'Oi:J'J1~;,, ha-Universita ha-Ivrit B'irushalayim) in Jerusalem (2001)
and the doctoral degree from Harvard University (2008) with a dissertation on Ouyang
Jingwu. In 2008, he became Assistant Professor of East Asian religion at the Department of
USA. His work has been focused on Chinese Buddhism, especially in the modern period,
highlighting the role of Indian Yogacara thought in the formation of modern Chinese
intellectual history. He is currently working on a book manuscript on the intellectual
biography of Ouyang Jingwu, a modern Chinese proponent of the Yogacara school.
238 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
particularly concerned with the Yogacara debates that have taken place among
Buddhist intellectuals in modern China. In his earlier publications, he has
considered the modern stances on the Y ogacara notion of religious inclination
created by having listened to the Dharma ( *srutavasana) (AVIV, 2009) and has
investigated the role that the laity has played in twentieth-century Chinese Bud-
dhism (2011). In his present article, A VIV commences by briefly surveying the
historical background of the Chinese Y ogacara tradition during its early phase in
the Tang dynasty and a revival that took place during the late Ming dynasty.
Thereupon, he examines the Y ogacara renaissance that flourished in the early
twentieth century. Unlike CHEN's article which focuses on the breadth of the
movement, A VIV's analysis goes in depth by honing in on the role that the YBh
played as a source in the writings of two major authors, Han Qingjing (~mi¥,
1884-1949) and Ouyang Jingwu (~p.£j[;~, 1871-1943). He ends by briefly discus-
sing how the interest in the study of the YBh waned in the intellectual circles
surrounding Han and Ouyang in the years that followed the work of these two
thinkers.
With the article by Lawrence Y.K. LAU (if¥Yc), 427 attention is given to the
vigorous academic developments of Yogacara studies that subsequently ensued in
mainland China, Taiwan, and Hong Kong after 1949. LAU has earlier published
quite broadly on the Yogacara-Vijfianavada tradition of East Asia, with articles on
the philosophical implication of Vijfianavada meditation (2007), the notion of
affliction (klesa, :,tJ['f'f£1 fannao) (2008), and two monographs concerning the afflic-
tive and cognitive hindrances ( avarapa, ~ zhang) (2012a; and forthcoming). In
2009, he was the guest-editor of a special issue devoted to East Asian Vijfianavada
in the Chinese Review of Buddhist Studies (¥J§g.{5't~Wf§' Hanyii F6xue pinglun)
(2009a), and in two recent publications he has provided a comprehensive survey of
Chinese scholarship on Buddhist logic and epistemology (LAU, 2009b; LAU &
TONG, 2012). LAU was invited to the present volume with the special request to
provide a thorough survey of Chinese-language Yogacara scholarship since 1949,
and he has fulfilled this task most admirably. His article not only offers an exten-
sive history of research of academic Y ogacara scholarship produced in China,
Taiwan, and Hong Kong throughout the last sixty years, but also contributes with
an astounding and exhaustive bibliography of some 330 pertinent books, articles,
doctoral dissertations, and MA theses. Great pains have been taken to transliterate
and translate all titles into English to facilitate ease and accessibility, with the
belief that the article and bibliography thus may be useful in providing an overview
of Chinese Y ogacara scholarship even to the reader who may not possess Chinese
language skills. LAU's perceptive discussion of research trends offers many insight-
427
The Chinese scholar Lawrence Y.K. LAU is Associate Professor of Buddhist philo-
sophy at the School of Philosophy at Fudan University (1f_fl::*:~ Fudan Daxue) in
Shanghai, China. He received the MA degree in 1996 from the Chinese University of Hong
Kong (Wmc:fJX::*:~ Xiang Gang Zhongwen Daxue) and the PhD degree in 2005 from the
Program of Philosophy and Religious Studies at Hong Kong University of Science and
Technology (Wmf-4:tsz:::*:~ Xiang Gang Keji Daxue) with a dissertation on the Mahayana
notion of avidya according to the East Asian tradition of sakara-vijiianavada. His scholar-
ship is concerned with Buddhist philosophy and epistemology, Indian philosophy, the
methodologies of Buddhist studies, Buddhist ethics, and engaged Buddhism.
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 239
ful observations about the character and quality of Buddhist studies in the
Chinese-speaking parts of the world, bringing out subtle differences in scholarship
particularly between Taiwanese and mainland centers of learning, as well as the
varying influence of Japanese scholarship on Chinese academics.
The volume's section on East Asian Yogacara has a shift in focus from the pre-
sent to the past with the contribution by Sangyeob CHA (~}AJ-~ ). 428 In his earlier
scholarship, after an article (2004) dealing with the stance on Yogacara found in
the writings of the Tibetan Buddhist master Tsong kha pa Bio bzang grags pa'i dpal
(1357-1419), CHA turned his attention to the Indian and Tibetan doctrines of
tranquility meditation (samatha, shemata ~!¥{-t:!1, zhi gnas) with a precursory
investigation published in 2005. In 2009, he brought out a major study of the
contemplative doctrine referred to above as "the nine aspects of resting the mind"
(navakara cittasthitilJ jiifzhong xinzhu flJ.iiC.{t, sems gnas rnam pa dgu). He
7
examined this doctrine as it is explained in the Tibetan treatise Lam rim chen mo
by Tsang kha pa in reliance on a variety of Indian sources, in particular the second
and third Y ogasthana of the Sravakabhumi book of the YBh, the Mahayana-
sutralalJlkara, the Abhidharmasamuccaya, and Kamalasila's Bhavanakrama. 429 In
his present article, CHA again takes up the nine aspects of resting the mind, this
time surveying the occurrences of this Indian doctrine in Chinese,., Korean, and
Central Asian Yogacara texts. The teaching is first attested in the Sravakabhumi,
which leads CHA in general to introduce Xuanzang's Chinese translation of the
YBh produced in 648 CE as well as Xuanzang's translation of the Xianyang sheng-
jiao Jun made in 646. He further discusses a host of Chinese-language commen-
tarial Yoga.cam literature written by the Sino-Korean author Woncheuk (lilJU
Yuance, 613-696), the Korean master Wonhyo (7C~ Yuanxiao, 617-686), the
Korean exegete Doryun (~{mt Daolun, ca. 650-730), and the Central Asian writer
Facheng O:t:m, a.k.a. 'Gos Chos grub, ca. 755-849). Aside from providing refined
introductions to the Chinese commentarial literature, CHA carefully translates all
the relevant passages on navakara cittasthilJ from the pertinent works.
428
The Korean scholar Sangyeob CHA, who was born in 1969, is Humanities Korea
Profess~r at Geumgang Center for Buddhist Studies at Geumgang University (~[lij]U::*:~t(,
'5 7J cH 2f ..iiI. Geumgang Daehakgyo) in South Korea and is the Head of the center's
research team for tathagatagarbha studies. He received the MA degree in 1999 from
Dongguk University C*~*~fX, %~cH~..nI. Dongguk Daehakgyo) in Seoul, followed
by the PhD degree in 2007 from the same institution with a dissertation on samatha
meditation practice, comparing the explanations given in Tsong kha pa's Lam rim chen mo
with related explanations from Indian Y ogacara texts, particularly the YBh. This made him
one of the first Tibetologists to be educated in South Korea. He joined the Geumgang
Center for Buddhist Studies in 2007 as a researcher and was promoted to Professor in 2011.
His research has mainly been concerned with meditation doctrines of the Yogacara
tradition in India and Tibet as represented in texts and Buddhist art, as well as the doctrine
of buddha-nature ( tathagatagarbha) especially as found in the commentarial writings on
the Ratnagotravibhaga by the Tibetan scholar Rngog Bio ldan shes rab (1059-1109). For
his publications, see below.
429
Additionally, CHA has published on the Tibetan elephant-taming illustrations of the
stages in samatha meditation practice (2010a) as well as on the dependency that Tsong kha
pa's treatise on manas and alayaviffiana ( Yid dang kun gzhi'i dka' 'grel) exhibits with regard
to Woncheuk's commentary on the Salpdhinirmocanasiltra (2010b ).
240 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
Following CHA's introduction to Yogacara meditation, the article by
A Charles MULLER430 turns to the question of how the mind is bound in sarµsaric
delusion, namely the doctrine of the two hindrances ( avarapa, zhang ~f, sgrib pa).
This is a problem that has preoccupied MULLER's scholarship for a long time. He
first took it up in his monograph (1999) on the Chan-related Chinese apocryphal
Srltra ofPerfect Enlightenment ( YuanjueJing lil'.W:*f, T842). Over the last decade,
he has published a series of articles (2000; 2003; 2006; 2007b; 2007c) devoted to
this topic, treating the issue from a variety of angles, particularly as adduced in the
writings of the Korean master Wonhyo. 431 In his present contribution, MULLER
begins by introducing the doctrine of the two hindrances and then discusses how
the exegesis thereon bifurcated respectively in Yogacara works and texts of the
tathagatagarbha tradition. He elaborates how the hindrances are laid out in the
early Yogacara sources - ranging from the vague and sketchy presentations given
in the YBh, the Saipdhinirmocanasrltra, and the Mahayanasaipgraha over to the
systematic expositions found in major works of the Chinese tradition, such as the
F6dijing Jim (1~t-tM~ti, *Buddhabhrlmisrltrasastra) and the Cheng weishi Jun,
while analyzing and translating the relevant passages in the course of his investiga-
tion.
Having thus considered the hindrances to Awakening, the subsequent article
by Sungdoo AHN (~Aj -¥-) 432 picks up the issue of how sarµsaric delusion is dis-
430
The American-born scholar A. Charles MULLER is originally from New York, but
has spent his entire professional career in Tokyo, presently being Professor in the Center
for Evolving Humanities at the University of Tokyo (JDJtk~ Tokyo Daigaku). His main
area of research is Korean Buddhism, having focused for more than a decade on the great
Silla scholar Wonhyo (617-686). His work with Wonhyo's essays and commentaries - most
importantly the /fang ui (=~~), along with further studies on the two hindrances - has
led him steadily deeper into Yogacara-related problems, many of these being rooted in the
YBh. He is also the man behind the Digital Dictionary of Buddhism (http://www.buddhism-
dict.net/ddb/), a major resource for Buddhist studies, and is a founding member of the
Yogacara Consultation section of the American Association of Religion (AAR). Moreover,
he is the founder of H-Buddhism (http://www.h-net.org/-buddhism/), the largest inter-
national online community for academic scholars of Buddhism.
431
Additionally, MULLER has previously published extensively on other aspects of
Wonhyo's writings (MULLER, 1995; 2000; 2007a; 2008) and on Woncheuk (2011). For his
recent translation and study of Wonhyo's Ijang ui (=~~), see MULLER & NGUYEN
(2011). Many of MULLER's publications are available in online versions at www.acmuller.
net/publications-etc.html.
m The Korean scholar Sungdoo AHN is Assistant Professor at the Department of
Philosophy of Seoul National University (J'l %-cR ~.ill. Seoul Daehakgyo) in South Korea.
He received a first MA degree (1982) in Korean Buddhism from the Graduate School of
Korean Studies and a second MA degree (1995) in Indian Buddhism from the University of
Hamburg (Universitat Hamburg), where he studied under Professor Lambert SCHMIT-
HAUSEN. In 2001, he completed the PhD degree in Hamburg with a dissertation on Yoga-
cara Buddhism. Having returned to Korea, he taught at Dongguk University (*~j;}J
;j-x, %-:i;-t:R ~ .ill. Dongguk Daehakgyo) and served as Assistant Professor of Indian Bud-
dhism at Geumgang University (~jlij]U:*~&, ~ 7Jt:R ~ JiL Geumgang Daehakgyo ), where
he also acted as the Director of the Geumgang Center for Buddhist Studies in the period
2007-2009. His research has been focused on Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, particularly on
the so-called five treatises of Maitreya, with the majority of his publications dealing with
The Yogacarabhumi and Its Adaptation 241
pose~ of by_ the ~:,acti~ione,r through the realization of truth on the path of seeing
( darsanamarga, pandao Rim, mthong lam). The exposition of the darsanamarga is
a problem that has previously been treated critically by Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
in an article from 1983 with special reference to the Abhidharmasamuccaya.
SCHMITHAUSEN argued that the Abh1i:fharmasamuccayabhawa presents four
originally discrepant definitions of the darsanamarga stemming variously from
different.Mainstream ~nd Mahayana Buddhist textual traditions without achieving
any consistent synthesis between them. He also examined how the Tibetan author
Busto~ Rin chen grub (~~90-1364! later attempted to unify these explanations by
regarding them as pertammg to different vehicles. Additionally, SCHMITHAUSEN
pointed. to three passages in the YBh, where an effort was made to begin to
harmomze these heterogenous modes of explanation.
In the present article, AHN takes up this problem of the darsanamarga defini-
tions and analyzes how the Chinese Yogacara commentarial tradition interprets
these passages. Unlike the Tibetan solution of seeing different definitions as
applicable to different vehicles, the Chinese commentators attempted to arrive at a
view of full r~co?cilement. By brin~ing all the definitions together into a single
model ~f realization, th~y fused Mainstream Buddhist and Mahayana terminology
and arnved at a synthesis that went much further than the integral tendencies seen
in !he _Y!Jh. AHN relies in this context particularly on Xuanzang's Cheng weishi Jun
(~O'llfijxN@), the writings of the Chinese commentator Ji(£, 632-682 CE), and the
works by the Korean exegete Doryun (m11m Daolun, ca. 650-730).
As such, AHN's study is the outgrowth and indeed culmination of several earlier
publications. He began to discuss the darsanamarga topic in two Korean articles
published in 2002(b) and 2004(b ). It is also a theme that appeared in several
passages of his large monograph (2003a) on the afflictions (klesa, fannao 1:JH~,
nyon mongs) and their antidotes (pratipak~a, dw'zhi ii1f=j, gnyen po) in Indian
Yogacara Buddhism, where he included Sanskrit and Tibetan editions and an
annotated German translation of several pertinent passages from the Savitarkadi-
bhumi of the Basic Section of the YBh as well as from the Viniscayasam-
grahapL 433 When the article by AHN is read in combination with SCHMITHAUSEN's
art~cle o~ 1983,. there e~erges a multifaceted discussion of darsanamarga interpre-
tat10ns m Indian, Chmese, and Tibetan Y ogacara, which might invite further
research in these traditions or suggest consideration in view of related genres, such
: ogacara Buddhism in India and East Asia. He is currently working on investigating the
m~ell~ctual_ processe~ involved in integrating Y ogacara notions and tathagatagarbha doc-
trine m Chma and Tibet. It is fair to say that AHN, given his extended period of study with
Prof~ssor SC~MITHAUSEN and ?ther scholars at Hamburg University, has played a major
~ole m educatm? a new generation of Korean scholars in the classical methods of philology
m accordance with the German tradition of Buddhology. ,
433
Aside from the mentioned publications, AHN has also written extensively on many
other aspects. ~f the Indian, Tibetan, and East Asian Yogacara doctrines, including
dependent ar!smg (prat~tyasamutpada, 2002c), the four beneficial roots (kusalamiila,
2003b ), negative tendencies ( anusaya, 2003c), the origin of the concept vifiiaptimatrata
(2004a), the theory of the three natures (trisvabhava, 2005; 2007b), the bodhisattva ideal
(2006; 20~8), the notion. of inexpressibility ( anabhilapyata, 2007a; 2007b ), the significance
of the Tibetan translation of Woncheuk's commentary on the Samdhinirmocanasiitra
(2009), and the critical methods of philology (2002a). ·
242 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
as the very large Sanskrit and indigenous Tibetan Abhjsamayalaipkara literature
on the stages of the path.
The tendency in Chinese Buddhism to create coherency between various doc-
trines of Indian Buddhism was not always accomodating for the Yogacara tradition
in China. In fact, Xuanzang's motivation behind traveling to India was to obtain
new Sanskrit texts and teachings by Indian masters in order to rectify what Xuan-
zang saw as imprecisions and misunderstandings in the Chinese Buddhist doctrine
of his time. Consequently, when Xuanzang returned to China and began to trans-
late and explicate the many new texts he had brought, several doctrinal points
caused outcries in the existing Buddhist establishment. One doctrine imported and
promoted by Xuanzang, which was looked upon with particular unease, concerned
the teaching on spiritual or religious predispositions (gotra, zh6ngxing fitt, rigs)
as presented in the Gotrabhiimi of the Sriivakabhiimi and other parts of the YBh,
as well as in the *Buddhabhiimisiitrasiistra ({iJtttM~§ilH F6diflng Jim, T1530) and the
Cheng weishi Jim (~~§i§nu T1585, *Vlj.iaptimatratasiddhisiistra). Without doubt,
the most contentious point in these texts was the existence of certain not predis-
posed persons ( agotrastha, bu zhu zh6ngxi'ng :::f{!Jiti, rigs med pa la gnas pa),
that is, people lacking any form of spiritual destiny or potential ( abhavya, wu
kiinneng ~tltfm, ska] pa med pa) who do not and will never possess the funda-
mental qualities needed to attain nirvapa or Awakening. Such explanations flew
straight in the face of well-established beliefs in the universality of the buddha-
nature ( tathiigatagarbha) taught to be innate in all sentient beings in several scrip-
tures that were particularly important to Chinese Buddhism, such as the NirviiIJa-
siitra, or the notion of a universal vehicle for all sentient beings propagated in the
Lotus Sutra.
The debates in Chinese Buddhism to which the introduction of the YBh and
related texts of the Y ogacara tradition led in the seventh century is the topic of the
present article by Makoto YOSHIMURA (tft1ii). 434 YOSHIMURA has previously
published extensively on the Chinese Y ogacara W eishi tradition (~~~if&)
during the Tang dynasty, covering such topics as Xuanzang's view on the three
turnings of the wheel of Dharma (1999), the Chinese subschools of the Weishi
tradition (2003a; 2004b ), the notion of 'mind' in the Chinese Shelun (H'f §nu~)
tradition of Mahiiyiinasaipgraha exegesis (2003b; 2007), as well as the theories of
buddha-nature, predisposition (gotra), and seeds (blja) in the Weishi school (2002;
2004a; 2006; 2009). In his present article, YOSHIMURA analyzes the seventh-
century polemical writings on the buddha-nature by Lingrun (llf~) and Fabao U:t
if) along with the apologetic Weishi rebuttals by Shentai Ct$~) and Huizhao (~
1E). He thereby explores the intellectual climate in which the YBh and the
Y ogacara transmission of Xuanzang were received.
The two final articles in the volume's section on the East Asian Y ogacara re-
ception are concerned with the modern academic study of Y ogacara ·Buddhism in
Korea and Japan. Together with the above-mentioned article by Lawrence Y.K.
434
Makoto YOSHIMURA was born in Tokyo in 1969. He received the doctoral degree
from the Graduate School of Arts and Letters at Waseda University (lpffs EB --Jc.'!f. Waseda
Daigaku) and is now Associate Professor of Chinese Buddhism at Komazawa University
(~1'--Jc.'!f. Komazawa Daigaku ), Faculty of Buddhism, in Tokyo. He has published widely
on Xuanzang and the Weish1 school in Chinese Buddhism during the Tang dynasty.
The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 243
LAU, these contributions are intended to introduce the contemporary East Asian
scholarship to the English reader.
The article by Seongcheol KIM (7tJ Ad 11) 435 offers a comprehensive survey and
history of Y ogacara scholarship in South Korea. In his own research, KIM has
previously published on a variety of topics on the early Indian Yogacara tradition,
covering the themes of conceptuality and non-conceptuality (2002; 2004a; 2004b ),
meditation on mindfulness of breathing (2007), the buddha-nature in the early
Yogacara tradition (2009a ), altruism and spiritual practice (2009b ), and the iilaya-
vij.iiina (2010a). In collaboration with colleagues from Geumgang Center for
Buddhist Studies, he (2010b) has also produced an annotated Korean translation
of Asvabhava's commentary on the Mahiiyanasaipgraha entitled Mahayiinasaip-
grahopanibandhana on the basis of the Tibetan text collated with the Chinese
translation. In 2006, KIM produced a thorough survey article in Korean providing a
complete history of Yogacara research in South Korea along with an exhaustive
bibliography covering pertinent academic books, articles, doctoral dissertations,
and MA theses until the year 2005. His contribution in the present volume is a
revised English version of the same article. The article introduces some 430
publications and theses, which have been furnished with English translations of
their titles in order to provide an overview and full reference guide to the non-
Korean reader. Given the centrality of the Yogacara tradition to Korean Buddhist
studies, KIM's insightful history of research leads the reader through some of the
main developments of Korean Buddhology from its earliest inception in the 1920s
and '30s, through its period of gradual development in the 1970s and '80s, until its
recent stage of intensive growth in the 1990s and 2000s, drawing out the topics that
have been of particular interest to Korean scholars. In the course of the review, the
author elucidates how Japanese, Chinese, and Western scholarship have
influenced Buddhist studies in Korea, while at the same time identifying areas
where Korean scholarship may still need to develop further.
It is a special honor to be able to include an essay by Leslie S. KAwAMURA
0-i:!JHm:!l), given436 the all-too-early passing of this great Yogacara scholar on
March 10, 2011. Through his article, which is here being published post-
435
The Korean scholar Seongcheol KIM received the MA (1996) and PhD degrees
(2005) from Dongguk University (*~*~fX, %~~~.iiI Dongguk Daehakgyo) in
Seoul with a dissertation on non-conceptual knowledge (nirvikalpaj'iiana) in the early
Indian Y ogacara tradition. He then joined Geumgang Center for Buddhist Studies at
Geumgang University (:sri!liffU--Jc.~f;Z, i?-7J-~~.iiI Geumgang Daehakgyo), where he is
Humanities Korea Professor and Head of the Indian research team. His research has been
focused on the Indian Yogacacara School, especially on its early spiritual practices and
theories.
436
Leslie S. KAWAMURA was Professor of Buddhist Studies in the Department of
Religious Studies, University of Calgary, Canada, and Director of the Living Dharma
Centre of the Jodo Shinshu Temples of Canada. He was born in Raymond, Alberta,
Canada in 1935. His father and mother had been sent from Japan to Canada to minister to
Japanese immigrants working in Western Canada, and his father, Reverend Yutetsu,
served the growing Jodo Shinshu community and established the Raymond Buddhist
Church. KAWAMURA followed in his father's footsteps and was ordained as a Jodo Shinshu
priest. Taking up the academic study of Buddhism, he earned an MA degree from Ryiikoku
University rn~B--Jc.'!f., 1961) in Kyoto, Japan, followed by a second MA degree from Kyoto
244 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
humously, 437 KAWAMURA was particularly happy to contribute with knowledge on
the Yogacara scholarship of his teacher, Gadjin M. NAGAO (:&~ff A, 1907-2005),
a major Buddhist scholar in the Japanese academic tradition of Sanskrit studies,
with whom he had studied at Kyoto University in the 1960s. After providing a brief
introduction to the beginnings of Buddhist Sanskrit studies in Japan with the
efforts by Bunytl NANJO (1¥f*:Xft1t 1849-1927), Junjir6 TAKAKUSU (~ffi /[~~£!~,
1866-1945), and Hakuju UI ('¥#{83, 1882-1963), 438 KAWAMURA discusses
NAGAO's significance for the study of Indian Buddhism. In particular, he focuses
on NAGAO's lifelong research on the Indian Yogacara text Maha.ya.nasiitra.-
larpka.ra, which is a work that is closely related to the Bodhisattvabhumi of the
YBh, translates the first two Sanskrit verses of the treatise with its prose commen-
tary, and provides an English translation of NAGAO's detailed Japanese notes and
remarks on this portion of the Indian text.
KAWAMURA's article is the culmination of a longer effort to make NAGAO's
learning available in English, given that NAGAO was one of the most renowned
Buddhist scholars of Japan in the twentieth century. In 1991, KAWAMURA pub-
lished a selection of revised English translations of Japanese articles by NAGAO
dealing with the Indian Madhyamaka and Yogacara traditions (NAGAO, 1991 ).
The same year he published an English translation of NAGAO's reading of the
eighth chapter of the Maha.ya.nasa1pgraha (KAWAMURA, 1991). KAWAMURA tells
the story of how NAGAO once stated that all his manifold studies of various Indian
Buddhist texts were ultimately aimed at arriving at a reading of the Maha.ya.na-
siitra.larpka.ra that would be as accurate as possible. In light thereof, KAWAMURA's
present article on NAGAO's scholarship on the latter text brings his endeavor to
introduce his teacher's Buddhist erudition to a highly suitable close.
University (J?:1mtk:*, 1964); for the latter degree, he produced a complete English
translation of Sthiramati's Trimsikabhawa commentary on Vasubandhu's Triip.sika. Upon
returning to Canada, he studied with the leading Buddhologist of the day, Herbert V.
GUENTHER, at the University of Saskatchewan, where he received the doctoral degree in
1976. The same year he became Assistant Professor and later full Professor (1983) in the
Religious Studies Department at the University of Calgary, where he remained for his
entire academic career of thirty-five years. He served as Head of the Department in the
period 1983-1988. In 2008, he became holder of the Numata Chair in Buddhist studies at
Calgary University and in 2010 received the Order of the University of Calgary in recogni-
tion for his outstanding service. His main research interest lay in the Yogacara tradition,
especially the early periods of Asanga and Vasubandhu, relying on sources in Sanskrit,
Chinese, Tibetan, Japanese, and French. He has also worked on the Tibetan Yogacara
commentarial tradition, focusing in particular on the commentaries on the Dharma-
dharmatavibhaga, the Madhyantavibhaga, and the Mahayanasiitralaipkara composed by
Mi pham 'jam dbyangs rnam rgyal rgya mtsho (1846-1912) (KAWAMURA, 1984; 2006). He
was also involved in the project of producing an English translation of the YBh for the
Numata Translation Series, where he was particularly engaged in translating the Bodhi-
sattvabhiimi book. His memory is now honored by annual memorial lectures at the Uni-
versi~ of Calgary.
4 7
The article was submitted to the volume in 2009. In 2010, KAWAMURA went over
and ~!'proved for publication the edited version of his paper.
4
- This part of KA wAMURA's article may fruitfully be supplemented by referring to
YUYAMA (1993).
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 245
V. The Tibetan Yogacara Reception
The YBh was transmitted to Tibet during the Yar klung dynasty (c.600-841 CE)
when a complete Tibetan translation of the treatise (D4035-4042) was made by the
Tibetan translators Ye shes sde and Cog ro Klu'i rgyal mtshan working in collabo-
ration with the Indian pap(jitas Prajftavarman, Surendrabodhi, and Jinamitra at
Bsam yas monastery in Tibet some time in the early ninth century. Ye shes sde
further translated two short Indian commentaries on the Silapafala of the Bodhi-
sattvabhumi (D4045, D4046). 439 Following the fall of the Tibetan Empire in 841, it
was first in the eleventh and twelfth centuries that the text began to receive more
attention by Tibetan scholars during the second spread of Buddhism in Tibet. In
the 1030s-40s, the Tibetan translator Nag 'tsho Lo tsa ba Tshul khrims rgyal ba
(1011-1064) translated a short as well as a very extensive Indian commentary on
the whole Bodhisattvabhiimi (D4044, 4047) under the guidance of the Indian
a.ca.iyas Santibhadra and Atisa Diparµkarasrijfiana (c.982-1054 ). 440 In the second
half of the eleventh century, the monk Po to ba Rin chen gsal (1027/1031-1105)
included the Bodhisattvabhiimi and the related treatise Mahaya.nasiitra.la1pka.ra
within the didactic set of the so-called "six Bka' gdams books" ( bka 'gdams gzhung
441
drug), which constituted the basic curriculum studied at various Bka' gdams
seminaries.
In spite of the prominence that apparently was afforded to the Bodhisattva-
bhiimi in the Bka' gdams curriculum, it seems that the book only was the object of
detailed study by few, since Tibetan writings on the text are rare, although a few
indigenous commentaries do exist. A Tibetan *pafijika. ( dka' 'grel) was written by
the twelfth-century Snar thang exegete Gtsan~ nag pa Brtson 'grus seng ge under
the title Byang chub sems dpa'i sa'i dka' 'grel, 4 2 and a Bodhisattvabhiimi summary
was penned by the Sa skya pa hierarch 'Gro mgon Chos rgyal 'phags pa (1235-
1280). 443 In spite of the relative dearth of actual YBh commentaries, quotations
from the Bodhisattvabhumi are not uncommon in indigenous Tibetan literature,
usually referring to the text with the abbreviated title Byang sa. Likewise, reference
is often given to the Sravakabhiimi under the shorthand title Nyan sa, when
explaining Samatha and meditations used as antidotes against specific afflic-
tions. 444 For example, the East-Tibetan Dge lugs pa scholar 'Jam dbyang thub bstan
439
Further remarks on the translations found in the Tibetan bstan 'gyur are given in the
present article by Martin DELHEY.
440
There is additionally a fifth Indian YBh commentary translated into Tibetan, name-
ly the undated *Yogacarabhfimjryrakhya (D4043), whose translator is unknown. It is an
incomplete exegesis of the Basic Section covering the Paiicavijfianakayasamprayukta
Bhiim1"/J, the Manobhiim1: and part of the Savitarkadjbhiimi
441
See KRAGH (forthcoming, chapter 6.2).
442
His commentary exists in a codex unicus published in the Bka 'gdams gsung 'bum
phyogs bsgrigs vol. 13, Sichuan: Dpal brtsegs bod yig dpe rnying zhib 'jug khang, 2006,
pp.647-743.
443
See Byang chub sems dpa 'i sa 'i sdom, in Sa skya bka' 'bum vol. 15 (TBRC W22271-
0776J, pp.468-491.
44
See, e.g., LHALUNGPA (1986:41-43). For the influence of the Sravakabhiimi on the
writings of Tsang kha pa, see CHA (2005; 2009). For Tsang kha pa's Yogacara writings on
manas and alayavijfiana, see CHA (2010b ).
246 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
nyi ma (1779-1862) of Bia brang bkra shis 'khyil monastery in A mdo wrote a short
exposition of the meditation doctrines given in the first Y ogasthana of the
Sravakabhllmi in a little treatise entitled Nyan thos kyi sa las rnal 'byor gyi gnas
dang po 'i bsdus don rab gsal me long. 445
In spite of the fact that the YBh was not among the key-treatises studied in
Tibetan monasteries, other Indian Yoga.earn works were widely read and com-
mented upon. Of the Vijfianavada texts closely related to the YBh, the Mahayana-
slltralaipkara (mdo sde'i rgyan or mdo sde rgyan) stands out as a work highly
beloved by Tibetan authors, who often referred to it. There are numerous Tibetan
commentaries on this text, e.g., the early ones composed by Rngog Lo tsa ba Bio
ldan shes rab (1059-1109), 446 Phywa pa Chos kyi Seng ge (1109-1169), 447 Se Spyil bu
ba Chos kyi rgyal mtshan (1121-1189), 448 Bcom ldan rig pa'i ral gri (1227-1305), 449
Rgyal sras thogs med bzang po (1295-1369), 450 'Jam dbyangs rin chen grags pa (14th
century), 451 Bsod nams rgyal mtshan (dates unknown), 452 and Byang chub skyabs
(14th century). 453 The Mahayanasaf!}graha, on the other hand, was less studied and
cited in the Tibetan tradition. Detailed commentaries on this work were written by
the Bka' dgams author 'Jam dbyangs rin chen grags pa (14th century) 454 and the
Rnyin~ ma polymath 'Ju Mi pham 'jam dbyangs rnam rgyal rgya mtsho (1846-
1912). 55 Other Yogacara texts that have been popular in Tibet are the Abhi-
dharmasamuccaya, the Madhyantavibhaga, and the Dharmadharmatavibhaga, for
each of which there exists a considerable commentarial literature. 456 The study of
Yogacara-Vijfianavada was reinvigorated in Tibet in the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries due to the instructive efforts in Eastern Tibet by the Rnying ma
and Ris med masters 'Ju Mi pham and Mkhan po Gzhan dga' ( a.k.a. Gzhan phan
445
See Rfe btsun Jam dbyangs thub bstan nyi ma dpal bzang po'i bka' 'bum vol. Kha
(TBRC W22204-5184), pp.201-224.
446
Mdo sde rgyan gyi don bsdus, in Bka'gdams gsung 'bum vol. 1, pp.207-253.
447
Theg chen mdo sde rgyan gyi legs bshad yang rgyan nyi 'od gsal ba, in Bka 'gdams
gsung 'bum vol. 7, pp.351-539; and Theg chen mdo sde rgyan gyi lus rnam bzhag, ibid.,
pp.539-572.
448
Theg chen mdo sde rgyan gyi don mdor bsdus bkrol ba ( also known as Spyi phu ba 'i
mdo sde rgyan gyi fikka ), in Bka 'gdams gsung 'bum vol. 29, pp.13-135.
449
Mdo sde rgyan gyi me tog ces bya ba 'i dka 'gnad, in Bka 'gdams gsung 'bum vol. 56,
pp.109-249.
450
Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan gyi 'grel ba rin po che 'iphreng ba, Bka 'gdams gsung
'bum vol. 60, pp.9-416.
451
Mdo rgyan gyi legs bshad bstan pa 'i nyi ma, in Bka 'gdams gsung 'bum vol. 18, pp.19-
337.
452
Theg pa chen po mdo sde rgyan gyi dka 'gnas bshad pa, in Bka 'gdams gsung 'bum
vol. 22, pp.129-323.
453
Mdo sde rgyan rtsa ba 'i le 'u nyi shu rtsa gcig pa le phran brgyad cu gya brgyad rnam
par bshadpa, in Bka 'gdams gsung 'bum vol. 25, pp.461-654.
454
Theg bsduskyirnam bshad, in Bka'gdamsgsung 'bum vol. 18, pp.341-500.
455
Theg chen bsdus pa 'i snying po mchan bcas, in The Expanded Redaction of the
Complete Works of 'Ju Mi-pham, Paro: Lama Ngodrup and Sherab Drimey, 1981, vol. 12
(TBRC W23468-2015), pp.517-670.
456
For the Abhidharmasamuccaya, see the present article by Leonard W.J. VAN DER
KUIJP.
The Yog:lcarabhumi and Its Adaptation 247
chos kyi snang ba, 1871-1927), who composed commentaries on the TriipiJka, the
Dharmadharmatavibhaga, the Madhyantavibhaga, the Mahayanaslltralaipkara,
and the Abhidharmasamuccaya. 457
The present volume's section on the reception and adaptation history of the
Yogacara tradition in Tibet begins with a survey article by Dorji WANGCHUK. 458
WANGCHUK here examines the position of the Yogacara tradition in Tibetan
Buddhism, mainly with reference to its philosophical system known as 'mind-only'
( cittamatra, sems tsam). He discusses how cittamatra is placed in Tibetan schemes
of vehicles (yana, theg pa) and doxographic systems (siddhanta, grub mtha'). He
then adduces a series of Tibetan debates on the question of whether the cittamatra
view should be considered superior or inferior to the Madhyamaka view. Finally,
he delves into Tibetan opinions on whether the cittamatra system should be
considered being of provisional ( neyartha, drang ba 'i don) or definitive meaning
(nitartha, nges pa'i don), and whether it should be deemed capable of bringing
about nirval).ic release. As is typical of WANGCHUK's immense grasp of Tibetan
literature, he draws to attention the writings of a whole array of authors hailing
from many different periods and from all the major traditions of Tibetan Bud-
dhism, such as Rong zom pa Chos kyi bzang po (11th century), 459 Bu ston Rin chen
457
For some of 'Ju Mi pham's Yogacara writings, see KAWAMURA (1984; 2006).
Generally speaking, a comprehensive survey and study of the textual history of Y ogacara
literature in Tibet is a relatively unresearched topic and remains a desideratum. Tibetan
doxographic schematics and attitudes towards the mind-only tradition ( dttamatra, sems
tsam pa) have been examined by Carola S. CARSTENS (2006) and Dorji WANGCHUK
(forthcoming).
458
The Bhutanese scholar Dorji WANGCHUK (born 1967) is Professor of Tibetology in
the Department of Indian and Tibetan Studies, the Asia-Africa Institute, at the University
of Hamburg (Universitat Hamburg). He completed ten years of traditional Buddhist
studies at the Tibetan monastic seminary Ngagyur Nyingma Institute in Bylakuppe, India
(1987-1997), which culminated in obtaining the monastic degrees of Mtha' bral smra ba'i
dbang phyug (1991), Phar phyin rab 'byams (1994), and Nges gsang legs bshad mdzod
'chang (1997). He then went to Hamburg University in Germany, where he studied under
Professor Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN and other faculty members of the department. There
he received the MA degree in 2002 with a thesis providing critical Sanskrit and Tibetan
editions and an English translation of the Cittotpadapafala chapter (1.2) of the Bodhi-
sattvabhrlm1: In 2005, he received the PhD degree with a dissertation on the notion of
bodhicitta in Indian and Tibetan Buddhism, which includes a study, critical edition, and
translation of a part of the Cittotpadapatala (revised version published in 2007). In 2009,
he became Professor at the department. In 2011, he was Numata Visiting Professor at the
Faculty of Religious Studies, McGill University, in Montreal, Canada. He is also a founding
member and the Director of the Khyentse Center for Tibetan Buddhist Textual Scholar-
ship at Hamburg University. His special field of interest lies in the intellectual history of
Tibetan Buddhism and in Tibetan Buddhist literature. Currently, he is preparing a mono-
graph on the perception and reception of Y ogacara in Tibet (WANGCHUK, forthcoming)
and is also engaged in a comprehensive study of the history of the *Guhyagarbhatantra in
India and Tibet.
459
For another publication on Rong zom pa, see WANGCHUK (2002). Concerning the
Rnying ma tradition in general, WANGCHUK has elsewhere written extensively on a variety
of topics, such as the Rnying ma interpretation of Madhyamaka (2000), Rdzogs chen
meditation practice (2001; 2003b ), the *Guhyagarbhatantra (2002), Rnying ma interpreta-
248 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
grub (1290-1364), Klang chen pa Dri med 'od zer (1308-1364), 460 Rgyal tshab rje
Dar ma rin chen (1364-1432), Mkhas grub rje Dge legs dpal bzang (1385-1438),
Glo bo mkhan chen Bsod nams lhun grub (1456-1532), Si tu Par:i chen Chas kyi
'byung gnas (1699/1700-1774), 'Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse'i dbang po (1820-1892),
and Mi pham Rnam rgyal rgya mtsho (1846-1912). 461
WANGCHUK's broader survey of attitudes towards the Y ogacara tradition in
Tibetan Buddhism is followed in the present volume by an in-depth study of
Yogacara elements attested in the writings of one particular writer, namely the
eleventh-centu~ Rnying ma master Rong zom Chas kyi bzang po, contributed by
Oma ALMOGI. 62 Rong zom pa has long been a special focus for ALMOGI's scho-
larship. In 2002, she published an article introducing the sources for his life and
works. In her large monograph of 2009(b ), she analyzed Rong zom pa's special
Y ogacara interpretations of knowledge (j.iana, ye shes) and buddhahood. She also
demonstrated that although Rong zom pa has often been said to be an adherent of
synthesized Yogacara-Madhyamaka philosophy, it is more accurate to characterize
him as a proponent of the so-called sarvadharmaprati~fhanavada ( chos thams cad
rab tu mi gnas par 'dod pa), i.e., the view that phenomena do not rest on any
substratum at all, representing a special reading of the Madhyamaka tradition. In
an article of 2010, she analyzed this interpretation in further detail in contradistinc-
tion to its counterpart, the so-called mayopamadvayavada (sgvu ma /ta bu gnyis su
med par smra ba), viz. the view maintaining that phenomena entail no duality
inasmuch that they are like illusions. 463 In her present article, ALMOGI analyzes
how Rong zom pa's interpretation of the Yogacara-Vijiianavada tradition is
related to other Buddhist philosophical systems. She examines how Rong zom pa,
in spite of generally being labeled as a Madhyamaka proponent, nonetheless cites
tions of tathagatagarbha (2004 ), Dpal yul monastery (2005), and an overview of the Rnying
ma tradition (2006).
°
46
For a chronological stratification of Klong chen pa's oevre, see WANGCHUK (2008).
461
For a study of Mi pham and his theory of tathagatagarbha, see W ANGCHUK (2012).
462
The Tibetologist Dr. Oma ALMOGI is Research Fellow in the interdisciplinary Cen-
tre for the Study of Manuscript Cultures hosted by the Asia-Africa Institute at the Univer-
sity of Hamburg (Universitat Hamburg) in Germany, where she heads a subproject entitled
"Doxographical Organisational Schemes in Manuscripts and Xylographs of the Collection
of the Ancient Tantras," analyzing the structure and contents of the Rnying ma rgyud 'bum
collections. Born in Israel in 1962, she studied Tibetology, Religious Studies, and Psycho-
logy at Hamburg University, where she received the MA degree in 1997 with a thesis on the
life and works of Rong zom pa and the PhD degree in 2006 with a dissertation on buddha-
hood and gnosis (jiiiina, ye shes) in the writings of Rong zom pa. She has worked for the
Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation and Cataloging Projects (1999-2004) with respon-
sibility for the Tibetan materials of this large textual corpus (see ALMOGI, 2003ab; 2006),
and has since 1998 been Adjunct Lecturer in Tibetan studies at Hamburg University. Her
research focuses on Tibetan Buddhism, including conceptions of buddhahood, Madhya-
maka, Rnying ma tantras, and manuscript culture in Tibet.
463
Aside from the earlier cited publications and her writings on Rong zom pa, ALMOGI
has also published on Tibetan genre classifications (2005), the authenticity of Tibetan titles
and colophons (2008b ), and the notion of gnosis in the Rnying ma Tantras (2009a).
Moreover, in 2008, she published an edited volume on Tibetan literature containing pro-
ceedings from the eleventh IATS conference.
The YogacarabhtJmj and Its Adaptation 249
or avails himself of Yogacara-Vijiianavada theories in numerous instances of his
oevre, e.g., the notion of images (akara, rnam pa) and the doctrine of the three
natures ( trisvabhava, ngo bo nyid gsum pa). Thereby, ALMOGI reveals how stan-
dard doxographical stereotypes may be too confined in view of the fact that some
of the foremost Tibetan exegetes, such as Rong zom pa, with great skill were able
to write across a much broader spectrum of intertwined doctrinal views. In the
course of her r~ading, she translates several lengthy excerpts from Rong zom pa's
works a~d provides the reader with critical Tibetan editions of these passages in an
appendix.
The third paper in the section on the reception history of Y ogacara in Tibet is
by Ulrich Timme KRAGH. KRAGH's article begins by making general theoretical
observations concerning the study of adaptation and reception history with special
r~ference to the YBh and the Yogacara tradition. For a case-study of adaptation
history, KRAGH then turns to the early Bka' brgyud literature contained in a corpus
known as the Dags po'i bka' 'bum, being a collection of texts many of which are
ascribed to ~he oral authorship of the Tibetan Bka' brgyud master Sgam po pa
Bsod nams. ~m chen ( 1079-1153) and other members of the community of cenobite
yoga practitioners who stayed with him in meditation retreat on Mount Dags Iha
464
sgam po in Southern Tibet. The author investigates the extent to which these
yogi~ .drew on .mate.r~als related to the YBh and the overall Indian Yogacara
tradition, and identifies traces thereof while finding that the members of the
community do no! seem .to have been en~aged in any concrete study of Yogacara
texts as such dunng theIT secluded stay m the mountains. He argues that these
traces were primarily derived from the Indian traditions of Y ogacara-Madhyamaka
~nd Tantra. In the latter regard, KRAGH's essay is related to the present contribu-
t10n by Harunaga ISAACSON, whose concern is with Yogacara elements in the
Indian Tantric tradition.
The volume's final article is contributed by Leonard W.J. VAN DER KUUP. 465
4 4
~ KRAG~ has earlier published two articles on the literature of yoga practices called
!he Six D?ctnnes ~f ~aropa stemming from this corpus (2011a) and the influence that the
mtro.du~tion of pnntmg te~hnology had on. the corpus (2012a). Further, he is currently
pubhshmg a monograph mamly concerned with the contemplative tradition of Mahamudra
med}J;tion presented in this corpus (fo~thcoming).
Leon~rd ~.J. VAN DER ~UIJP 1s Professor of Tibetan and Himalayan Studies at
Harvard Umversity, USA. Born m the Netherlands in 1952, VAN DER KUIJP studied Tibe-
tan, Chinese, Mongolian, and Sanskrit with Professor Herbert V. GUENTHER and other
faculty members at the University of Saskatchewan in Saskatoon Canada where he
received the BA (1975) and MA degrees (1976). In 1976-1979, he was'a doctor;l student at
Hamburg University (Universitat Hamburg) in Germany, where he studied with Professor
L~mbert SCHMITHAUSEN. He received the PhD degree in 1979 with a dissertation on the
history of th~ early episte~ological tradition ( tshad ma, prama1,1a) in Tibet during the
eleventh t? fifteenth centunes (revised version published in 1983). He then became the
Deputy-Director of the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project in Kathmandu,
Nepal (1980-1984), and conducted a one-year research project in Nepal and India (1984).
~he~eupon, he returned to Germany and served as Assistant Professor at the Free Univer-
sity. m ~erlin (Freie. Unive~sitat Berlin) (1985-1987). In 1987, he took up a position at the
U~ivcrsity of Washmgton m Seattle, USA, where he remained as Associate Professor of
Asian Languages and Literature until 1995. During this time, he received the prestigious
250 Ulrich Timme KRAGH
VAN DER KUIJP here examines the intricate history of an almost wholly lost
commentary composed by the little-known Indian scholar Jfianamitra on the
Yogacara-Abhidharma treatise Abhidharmasamuccaya attributed to Asailga.
Tracing scattered information about this author and his work in multiple Tibetan
writings, VAN DER KUIJP uncovers a detailed history of Yogacara-Abhidharma
studies in Tibet during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, during which time
many Tibetan savants engaged in a thorough study of the Abhidharmasamuccaya
before Tibetan scholarship changed its focus to Kosakara Vasubandhu's Abhi-
dharmakosabhawa. He also makes valuable remarks on the meanings of the
Sanskrit terms vrtti, bha~ya, vyakhya, and fika, being the traditional genres of
Indian commentarial writing, hence pertinent to understanding the Y ogacara
exegetical tradition.
The ,Tibetan history of Abhidharmasamuccaya studies is closely linked with the
names Sakyasribhadra ( 1127-1225), Khro phu Lo tsa ba Byams pa dpal ( 1172-
1237), Dpang Lo tsa ba Blo gros brtan pa (1276-1342), and Lo tsa ba Byang chub
rtse mo (1303-1380). In his earlier publications, VAN DER KUIJP has written
extensively on this period of Tibetan intellectual history. In his 1983 monograph on
the early developments of epistemological studies in Tibetan Buddhism, he
surveyed tht; late medieval communities of learning and provided numerous
remarks on Sakyasribhadra and Dpang Lo tsa ba. In a review article of 1994, the
author presented a detailed study of the biographies of Sakyasribhadra, one of
which was composed in verse by Khro phu Lo tsa ba. In the same article, v AN DER
KUIJP consequently adduced much information on the life and activities of the
latter scholar. These two publications in particular form significant background
studies to the author's present article ..
MacArthur Fellowship for the period 1993-1998. In 1995, he became Professor of Tibetan
and Himalayan Studies at Harvard University, where he has served as Chair of the De-
partment of Sanskrit and Indian Studies since 1997 as well as Chair of the Committee on
Inner Asian and Altaic Studies. In 1999, he became a co-founder of the Tibetan Buddhist
Ressom::ce Center (TBRC). He has ~een Visiting Professor at Kyoto University (Japan,
2002), Ecole Pratiques des Hautes Etudes (France, 2004), Renmin University (China,
2009-2011), and Sichuan University (2009-2010). His research has focused on Indo-Tibetan
Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhist intellectual history, and the historical relations between Tibet,
Mongolia, and China. He has published four monographs (VAN DER KUIJP, 1983; 2004;
forthcoming; vAN DER KUIJP & SCHAEFFER, 2009) and more than fifty articles dealing with
Tibetan intellectual history, Tibetan literature, and Tibetan, Chinese, and Central Asian
history.
The Yogacarabhiimi and Its Adaptation 251
VI. On the Future of the Field
The study of the YBh is about to enter a new epoch. 466 In the last decades, signifi-
cant progress has been made with the publication of Sanskrit editions of substantial
parts of the Basic Section that hitherto were only available in manuscripts of
restricted circulation, thereby allowing a wider range of scholars newfound access
to the Sanskrit text. Although there still is need to produce editions of the remai-
ning parts extant in the Sanskrit manuscripts that have not yet been covered by the
existing editions and although not all of the already published editions have
utilized the totality of the surviving manuscript fragments, a time is drawing near
when Sanskrit editions of the entire Basic Section will have been achieved to the
full extent possible. There can be little doubt that this will enable many new
penetrating and broader studies on the YBh with larger ramifications for Buddhist
studies as a whole.
The current textual and philogical developments are supplemented by the on-
going project of producing an English translation of the YBh in its entirety as
carried out by the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai society and the Numata Center for
Buddhist Translation and Research in its BDK English Tripifaka series. 467 The
significance of the translation is difficult to overestimate, since it not only will
constitute the first ever complete translation of the text into a Western language,
but also will considerably ease access for students and scholars alike to this dense
and complex work. The result, in turn, is bound to be an increased awareness of the
treatise accompanied by a newfound possibility for engaging with the text, which is
so weighty and momentous for understanding the contemplative traditions of
Buddhism.
Since the prevailing aim of the Numata project is to produce a complete trans-
lation of the text within a foreseeable future, the work is being done without
recourse to the full range of highly time-consuming philological techniques that
rely on all the available primary sources. The basis for the translation is accordingly
limited chiefly to Xuanzang's Chinese version of the text, being a choice that is
rooted in the general nature of the BDK English Tripifaka series of publishing an
English translation of the Chinese canon. It consequently follows that there still
will remain a need for future specialist translations of significant parts of the YBh
in reliance on the appropriate philological methods that pay close attention not
only to the Chinese version but also to the Sanskrit original, where at hand, and the
Tibetan translation.
The existing research on the YBh has focused mainly on the Basic Section of
the text. By now, more than fifty percent of its contents have been dealt with in
detailed treatments and philological translations into Japanese and Western
languages. Studies on the Supplementary Section of the YBh, however, are few
466
The current section is in part based on a plenary discussion held on the last day of
the international conference "The Yogacarabhiimi and the Yogacaras," Seoul 2008. At this
event, several leading Western and Asian specialists - in particular SCHMITHAUSEN,
ARAMAKI, DELEANU, MATSUDA, DELHEY, VANDERKUIJP, VONROSPATT, ZIMMERMANN,
ISAACSON, AHN, and several others - expressed their views on the present state of the field
a~d raised particular needs for future research, which was followed by a lively discussion
with the members of the conference audience.
467
For details, see fn.134.
252 Ulrich Timme KRAGH The Yogacarabhumj and Its Adaptation 253

and far between. On that account, concerted efforts are forthwith needed to quence for reflecting on the modern engagements with the text, whether these be
conduct sustained research on the four saipgrahaJJis of the Supplementary Section academic, philosophical, or religious. This is because the intellectual inquiries that
to bring about new insight into the treatise as a whole as well as to strengthen the modern thinkers pose to the treatise today are to a considerable extent prefigured
broader study of the early Yogacara tradition as such. by past perceptions of the text. Thus, the choice of which YBh doctrines and terms
The need for gaining a deeper understanding of the Supplementary Section is are selected for scholarly inquiry, e.g., the doctrine of engendering the resolve for
closely linked with the desideratum for arriving at a definitive compilation history Awakening ( cittotpiida) or the notion of iilayavij.iiina, is influenced by knowledge
of the entire text. Comprehending the stages in which the different textual layers of the medieval developments that took place in Yogacara Buddhism. Simulta-
were created and compiled is a prerequisite for discerning the religious and neously, appraisal of the relevance of the YBh for contemporary Eastern and
philosophical developments of the third and fourth centuries expressed in the text. Western philosophy and culture is affected by recent readings, for instance by the
Some work on the text's compilation history has already been carried out by a Chinese revival of YBh studies in the early twentieth century or by German and
number of scholars, but there is still big urgency in finding new textual evidence Japanese academic research on the text during the century's second half. In light of
that will permit the writing of a sufficiently detailed and compelling compilation those prefigurations of the academic questions that can be raised to the text,
history to merit broad scholarly consensus. To this end, it will be necessary to make analyses of reception histories are needed to clarify the conceptual horizons from
use of state-of-the-art redaction critical techniques relying on synoptic comparison within which scholars today reinterpret the text. Adaptation studies accordingly
of textual structures across both the Basic and the Supplementary Sections to open up a hermeneutical dimension that has implications for the future of the field.
augment the previously employed methods of ascertaining the doctrinal and philo- The circle is thereby complete. As the water of the Ganges flows into the sea in
sophical developments attested in the text's stratification. the Bay of Bengal and there evaporates to fall as new precipitation feeding the
Aside from editions, translations, and studies pertaining to the YBh itself, Himalayan sources of the mighty river, it is hoped that the presently offered
there remain several areas in the study of its ensuing adaptation and reception that intellectual inquiries into the YBh and its adaptation history will inspire thoughts
as of yet have not received adequate attention. First and foremost, relatively little and questions on this immense Asian tradition of Buddhist yoga that will substan-
research has been done on the treatise's Indian commentarial tradition preserved tialize into new engagements with the text. With this, the editor invites the reader
in six Chinese and Tibetan translations. Closer study of these exegetical works to turn the pages and begin the journey into the YBh and its adaptations.
holds the promise of bringing answers to ever lingering questions about the exact
nature of the relationship between the YBh and other subsequent Y ogacara
writings, as exemplified by the Mahayiinasutriilaipkiira and the Mahiiyiinasaip-
graha, that-like the commentaries- are partially dependent on the YBh. Such an
approach may also help to deem the extent to which the YBh-related interpreta-
tions gathered in Xuanzang's Cheng weishi Jun verily reflect authentic Indian
transmissions, as the Chinese tradition maintains.
Scanty scholarly attention has, moreover, been given to the numerous but ill-
understood adaptations of Y ogacara terms and meditative principles found in the
Indian Buddhist Tantric literature of the ninth to twelfth centuries. Since many
Tantric texts, like the YBh, on the whole are devoted to religious and practical
concerns pertaining to the practice of yoga, the study of Tantric works from the
historical perspective of the preceding Y ogacara tradition is indispensable for
understanding the contemplative reception history of the YBh.
A third neglected area is the indigenous Tibetan commentarial tradition. While
the Chinese and Korean traditions of Yogacara commentaries are relatively well-
studied, research on the Yogacara tradition in Tibet has focused almost entirely on
the all-too-general doxographical literature (grub mtha') or the philosophical
writings of a few select Tibetan authors, particularly Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags
pa. Yet, there exist native Tibetan commentaries not just on the Bodhisattvabhumi
but also on many Indian Yogacara-Vijfianavada works that have been largely
overlooked. Moreover, Tibetan Buddhism has fostered multiple longstanding
contemplative traditions, which - like the YBh - nourish an ideal of wilderness
retreat. Elaborate study of these traditions and their writings from the perspective
of the Indian anchorite tradition embodied in the YBh would contribute signifi-
cantly to understanding the history of Buddhist yoga.
Research on the adaptation and reception of the YBh and the Y ogacara tradi-
tion in later centuries of Indian, East Asian, and Tibetan Buddhism is of conse-

Abbreviations and Sigla
D The Derge edition of the Tibetan Buddhist canon; see http://web.otani.ac.jp/cri/
twrp/tibdate/Peking_online_ search.html
T The Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo edition of the Chinese trip4aka at http://21dzk.l.
u-tokyo.ac.jp/SAT/index_en.html or http://www.cbeta.org
TBRC The Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center at www.tbrc.org
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. ·
 I. The Yogacarabhiimi
Background and Environment

Early Mahayana and
'The Bodhisattvas of the Ten Directions'
Tilmann VETTER
Introduction
In "Once Again on the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism" (VETTER, 2001:59-90) and
in "Arhat und Bodhisattva im Daoxing ~Jr" (VETTER, 2003:47-71), I discussed
the term mahayana, basinp myself on Chinese translations which modern research
attributes to 'Lokak~ema' (FH: active 167-186 CE). These translations transmit
Indian texts no longer extant, or no longer extant in the translated version, and can
be considered as belonging to the most ancient textual sources of information on
mahayana as the 'great path', later 'great vehicle', of bodhisattvas, i.e., persons who
wish to become a Buddha. An equally old source seems to be the scarcely explored
last section (pfn £)2 of the text-collection Dafangdeng da jf jing (*:1J~i:J~:J~,
T397, FH: MahavaipulyamahasalJlnipatastltra?). This section, found in
T397.394b9-407a17, is, in T397.397b 8, entitled Shifang pusa ( )J~~) 'the + things? 11 This question, in fact, refers to the needs of common bodhisattvas who are
Bodhisattvas of the ten directions' (henceforth: Pusa). In T397.394b 7, its transla-
tion is attributed to Naliantiyeshe (ffi)~rJVm~, FH: 'Narendrayasas', 6th c CE),
also mentioned as the translator of the three preceding sections; but a note to
T397.394b1 shows that in some early Chinese editions it is attributed to An Shigao
('.t:-t!t~, FH: active 148-170 CE).
In the following, I first try to outline the contents of Pusa, which shows the
Buddha instructing bodhisattvas in several methods of sravakas, i.e., monks who
1
content themselves with 'listening to a Buddha; these methods include thorough
comprehension (abhisamaya) of the four noble truths (I). Then I discuss whether
Pusa can be attributed to An Shigao (II), recapitulate and supplement the two
articles mentioned above, especially with regard to the increasing influence of
Acknowledgements: The author is indebted to Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN for valuable com-
ments; to Florin DELEANU for procuring him copies of the pages 233-237 of SHIZUTANI
Masao 1s tJJM:;kJ~{~~C7)f$G1z:i&!l~ (1974), about which he first learnt from DELEANU's
article "An Shigao and the History of the Anban ShouyiJing" (1993); and to Jonathan SILK
for assisting him in reading these pages.
1
ZhI Loujiachen 3z*Vl!!~- See NATTIER (2008:73): "Though this translator is
regularly referred to in Western-language sources as 1Lokak~ema 1 - and I will continue to
follow that convention here - the equivalence of his Chinese name with this reconstructed
Sanskrit form is not certain [ ... ]. There are differences of opinion on how to transcribe his
Chinese name as well. The character ~ can be read as either chen or chan in the modern
Beijing dialect [... ]. What is most surprising, however, is the fact that the name Zhi
Loujiachen 3z*Vl!!~ does not actually appear in the Chu sanzangjiji at all. Instead, Seng-
you refers to this figure simply as Zhi Chen
2
x~ [... ]'1.
In T397.394b 8, incorrectly numbered as section 13, in FH p. 49 correctly as section 17.
Early Mahayana 291
3
sravakas on bodhisattvas (III), chara~terize the Abhisamayavada of the Suttattha-
samuccaya, a treatise translated by An Shigao (IV), portray the bodhisattvas and
the Buddha as they appear in Pusa (V), and finally attempt a historical evaluation
of these portrayals (VI).
I
First, I try to outline the contents of Pusa with more observations than given by
SHIZUTANI (1974:233-237), who restricted himself to a few salient features.
Though mentioning more of such features, I have to ignore some details which I
also could have mentioned, but still do not clearly understand.
The title Shffang pusa seems to have been derived from the opening of the text
(T397.394b 9): The Buddha, dwelling near Rajagrha, sits on a spontaneously arisen
lion-throne and illuminates the ten directions. Thereupon, all bodhisattvas come to
pay their respects and . ask questions. This reminds, as already observed by
SHIZUTANI and NATTIER, of the opening of the Dousha Jing (SEEiY*~' * Dasaka-
srltra?), the Proto-Bu1dhavatarµsaka text translated by Lokak~ema and edited in
T280, T282, and T283.
The first question (T397.394bm) is then raised: "As to bodhisattvas, why is it
that there are some who are dull while there are others who are perspicacious (~
Iii 1aJ~~ ~~:ti' ~!a:tf [-1H'l:f!J), some who are able to fly (~~glft:tf), some
who are able to perform samadhi for some time (~~g~fi =.B*[-m,1:tf), some who
are able to thoroughly see (~~gMff~:tf), while others are unable to do all these
unable to fly, etc., and who cannot have come from the ten directions, or have
visited Buddhas in other worlds, as later in the text some of the bodhisattvas of our
world assert to have done (T397.397am, T397.399a23f).
(T397.394b15f) To overcome such dullness, the Buddha recommends examining
(J1H, T397.394b 18) 5 or guarding (shou ~' T397.394b24 ) the mind (iLJ\tSJI xinyi sh1:
citta-manas-vijnana)6 and the five senses. This resembles the ancient restraint of
3
Abhisamayaviida is the doctrine ( viida) that a path to release culminating in thorough
comprehension ( abhisamaya) of the four noble truths is the best way to get rid of fetters
and the only way to get rid of intellectual fetters.
4
See NATTIER (2005:323-360; on pages 344-352, the juxtaposition of texts can be
improved, as the order of verses is not always identical in the two versions), and NATTIER
(2008:58-59, 87-88).
5
In translations, which by modern research are attributed to An Shigao, the following
meanings are found: In T13.235b 29,P(H) indicates that in a person 1a thought arises 1 ( evarp
bhavati). In T14.243cJ, Ji (gt) corresponds to P samanupassati In T48.838a3, 16, 26 , the
compound xueji (~gt) translates Ppafisamcikkhati; and in T48.838b 7• 26,c5, Jixue (Bf~)
has the same function. Ji (H) can also indicate wrong thoughts: gt=a=m~ (T603.175b 2)
"considering what is disagreeable as pleasant," or: frJf:kl~H HIEl~~~.X (T14.242b 19)
corresponding to PJiibham paticca vinicchayo, vinicchayam paficca chandariigo, where Ji
(~rJ,_ liibha, short for 11finding something one can take advantage of1) results in Ji (H,
nmcchaya, here 11 contemplating [the advantage ]'1), which results in Jeyu (~iSX, chandariiga,
~lust-and-desire [for that object]' 1) . Ji (H) is often found in the compound Jiaoji (fX
Nt)(l59x in Pusa); in it, Ji (H) might have the function to restrict the meaning of fX to its
reading1iao and exclude that the reading xiao is meant.
6
The 1six subtle ones 1 (n'[l Jiu qing) are mentioned in T397.394b19+C1. A systematic
reading therefore requires to take xin yi shi (,[;,~~I) as three synonyms of one internal
faculty. I assume these synonyms correspond to citta, manas, and (mano) vijniina, but can
 292 Tilmann VETTER
(six) faculties (indriyasamvara), recommended by the Buddha as a preparation for
the four stages of dhyana, and thus explained: one should not respond to the
appearance of their objects by thinking about their general or specific features. 7
Contemplating the impermanence of their objects has now been added, or even
made the core of this method. The Buddha says: People are able to examine the 'six
subtle ones' (Jiu qfng 7\'[W), i.e., the six faculties, so that they can achieve the
wisdom-and-insight (zhi hui 9&~) of the Buddhas of the ten directions. A
bodhisattva striving for a high degree of progress constantly guards the mind ( citta-
manas-vij.iana) and so prevents it from becoming excited; he turns his thought to
the fact that everything (presenting itself to one's mind) will vanish, and plants the
saplings of the Way ( dao zai :ilit-tl<). 8 Such a bodhisattva also guards the sense
faculties - the eye, the ear, etc. - preventing them from clinging to an attractive
shape, sound, and so forth; he turns his thought to the fact that everything
(presenting itself to the eye, the ear, etc.) will vanish, and plants the saplings of the
Way. Having reached a high degree of progress, he is no longer moved by beautiful
or ugly things.
(T397.394c2f) The Buddha then says: With a low degree of guarding the mind
and the senses, one misses (the aim of) the practice (shixfng ~fi). The bodhi-
sattvas ask: This being so, which practice should we perform? The Buddha says: A
bodhisattva should practice examining himself. People (such as you) have 108
kinds of longing (id~) that make them dull. 9
This indication of what may be considered the most evident root of dullness in
bodhisattvas seems to have led to the addition of what now is the main part
(roughly 90%) of the text (T397.394cw407a 15 ). Its main element, a list and
formulaic explanations of 108 kinds 10 of 50 mental phenomena, 11 seems to have
onl~ refer to parallels from Indic texts translated into Chinese considerably later (see below
sect10n II). From a historical point of view, a simple term for mind seems to have been
a~apted to make this passage harmonize with T397.394c 16f, where xin (,[;,), yi (~), and shi
(~) consistently represent three internal faculties.
7
8
See FRAUWALLNER (1953:165).
Dao zao (~~) might be a translation of skusalamiilani (BHSD: 'roots of merit').
According to T397.394b24 and T397.399c 5, alobha, adosa, and amoha (CPD: non-
covetousness, absence of hate, and non-delusion, respectively) would then be meant. What
bodhisattvas generally understood when confronted with the term kusalamrlla is not meant,
though it is already found in the oldest document of their movement, a Kushana-inscription
presently dated 153 CE (SCHOPEN, 2005:269 nl). There, it refers to merit accumulated by
worshipping a Buddha.
9
The bodhisattvas and their longings, especially for a high status, seem to be meant.
The number 108 may have been added later, because longing consists of 108 kinds in the
immediately following examinations.
10
The number 108, also found in T607.231c5f, which is a translation attributed to An
Shigao, is in Pusa nowhere explained or used in a scheme. The clue to understanding it may
be the formulas employed in T397.395bst- Here the objects of three internal faculties and
the pleasant, neutral, and unpleasant objects of the five sense faculties, together making 18
objects, are discussed in almost the same way. At this point, the Af!hasatasutta (SN IV.231),
starting differently, might offer some help: the 18 objects could be considered as pertaining
to the family life or the ascetic life, and these 36 objects as belonging to the past, present, or
future, which results in 108 possibilities. Applying these to 50 examinations results in 5400
possibilities.
Early Mahayana 293
been taken from another sou~ce. Longing ~ai ~),
appea~ing as,, ~~e sixth phe-
omenon, is here preceded by ignorance ( ch1 ~) , uncertamty (y1 ~), perverted
~iews ( dian diio JJHiU), craving for sense objects (yuyiz f'l'X[ +-BJ]), and falling for
( duo ~) [the te? thous~nd things], and follt~~ed, among others, by pheno1!1ena
that only occur m bodh1sattvas, e.g., the 28 item: anger about not yet bemg a
Buddha ( wei de !6 niio *f~19t'f'~). However, the 50 examinations are not intro-
duced as making a person perspicacious by eliminating ignorance, etc., but by
producing knowledge about 'subtle wrongdoings' (xiwei zui *-ffit:lJ;), i.e., un-
wholesome (even if good in a worldly sense) karmic residues that have to be re-
quited in a future existence (before one can become a Buddha). This indication of
the purpose seems to have belonged to the list of 50 mental phenomena, which
apparently were considered the causes of such karmic residues.
The author-compiler may have been fascinated by this theme of residues, but
dialogues between the Buddha and the bodhisattvas interspersed between the
formulaic explanations and appended to them in reaction to the whole system of 50
examinations, probably by his own hand, show that he did not forget the first theme,
even though the 50 examinations do not allow restricting the discussion to common
bodhisa ttvas.
Turning now to what seems to be appended by the author-compiler to the
concluding sentence 'these are the 50 examinations of bodhisattvas' (~~~~li
+t~H) in T397.406b4, we unexpectedly meet the Buddha accusing the bodhi-
sattvas of carelessly (gii E) 13 practicing mindfulness in respect of inbreathing and
outbreathing, 14 and therefore (again)1 5 missing the practice (shixfng ~fi). Asked
why this is so, he says: "because you have not got enough of the suffering of birth
11 The list given in T397.394c f is followed by formulaic explanations of phenomena
19
1-21 in T397.395bst, In T397.405a14-406b4, the names of phenomena 22-50 are repeated,
leaving the reader in charge of construing similar formulas.
12 Chi (M), above translated as 'dull(ness)', in this position is reminiscient of avidya in
the twelvefold chain of dependent origination (pratltyasamutpada) and is indeed explained
as (deep-rooted) ignorance in respect of the impermanence, etc., of the object of citta (xin
ill'), etc. With regard to the object of citta (xin ,[;,) of a bodhisattva, we find in T397.395b6:
Bi§~Jli ,L,i§Pfr~ ::f s}D,Ci-~ ,L,¥~ cp1§1i~ cp~~ ::f}D mm, which I interpret
thus: "If there are bodhisattvas, who in themselves do not know that the citta (xin ,L,) (itself)
produces and ( eventually) absorbs what it has as its object, and that in [this object] the five
skandhas are found (without an everlasting soul?), and that in [these skandhas (namely in
the salflskaras)] the cause of rebirth is found; if they do not know this, that is ignorance."
Then the Buddha says nearly the same of the object of yi (~, manas) and the object of shi
(~, [mano] viffi.ana) and-with another beginning- of the attractive, neutral, and repulsive
objects of the five sense faculties. As for the attractive object of the eye, the beginning runs
(T397.395b11): §N[ + pfr]JMf-§ ::f S ~D~ ::f S ~m~, which I understand as follows: "[If
there are bodhisattvas, who] in themselves neither know that the excellent beauty, which
the eye sees, has manifested itself ( at some time), nor in themselves know that it will be
extinguished (sooner or later) ... " The formulas on the neutral and the repulsive object of
the eye, and on the attractive, neutral, and repulsive objects of the other sense faculties,
start similarly. Understood in this way, the sense faculties, unlike citta, manas, and vifiiana,
do not produce and eventually absorb their objects.
See UNGER (1989:51): ku 3 kuo' fN, E, ffi, ~ schludrig, minderwertig// k'u 3 k'uo'
13
::g: bitter.
14
anban shouyi ~~.g:~ (P anapanasati), in T397.396a 21 +c1s mentioned as prelimi-
nary to an examination.
15
Cp. above remarks on T397.394c2f.

294 Tilmann VETTER
and death, have not in yourselves become aware of the origin of birth and death,
have not comprehended the definitive overcoming of birth and death, and not
comprehended that there is a path to the nirva9a of a Buddha," 16 i.e., you lack the
(full) comprehension of the four noble truths. This apparently refers to the
tradition which FRAUWALLNER 17 called Abhisamayavada. In it, several events of
comprehending ( abhisamaya) the noble truths are said to bring about the destruc-
tion of all defilements and so eventually to make a person an arhat. The accusation
can be related to the preceding examinations of 50 phenomena, if one assumes the
bodhisattvas are here admonished to attain at least one comprehension of that
kind, to get rid of a group of defilements and are then able to carefully practice
mindfulness of breathing, on which basis they can examine mental phenomena that
prevent a bodhisattva from becoming a Buddha in such a way that these mental
phenomena and/or their residues are eliminated.
It should also be noted that in T397.406b22f the bodhisattvas ask why they are
so often reborn and that the Buddha here answers as if they simply wished no
longer to be reborn, ignoring any relation to the aim of Buddhahood. He says: you
do not correctly practice (1) mindfulness in respect of inbreathing and out-
breathing (anban shouyi ~~~,~,), (2) [one or more of the seven methods and
paths co~ect,ed in the list of the] 37-fold right practice (sanshfqi pin Jing [+fa] -=.
+trPi::i*~[ +1:~m, (3) the twelve gates (shier men +=r~), and the three states of
detachment (svimok$as) aiming at a subtle mind (san xiimg zhong weiyi -=.~cpfY.&
g). In none of these methods and paths is an abhisamaya automatically implied,
but they can be related to the preceding admonition, if one considers them as
preparing an abhisamaya. 18
After this (T397.406b26), unexpectedly 18 formulas about behavior (motivated
by?) longing (aixfng £'fi) appear. Here aixfng (£'fi) has the exclusive position
which ai (~) had in T397.394c 16 . Finally, the bodhisattvas admit to have missed
their practice before being taught in this way.
The psychology of eight faculties, i.e., citta, manas, vij.iana and the five sense
faculties, 19 the basis of the explanation of 21 phenomena, 20 and the Abhi-
-~
6
T397 .~o~~: ~~~/ID(:±JE=@f[-~]i55( ~ s i:±:9t~i55( ~~~D±Jt~~pfT~T + i55C]
~m~o~ f~MJE mmttz
17
FRAUWALLNER (1971:69-102;;:::: 1995:149-184).
18
In texts attributed to An Shigao, we find a clear relation to abhjsamaya in
T602.1~4~13, where (the compreh~nsion of) the four truths is indicated as the last stages in
a descnptlon of the method of mmdfulness in respect of inbreathing and outbreathing: tJi:
~v~ 1§+!5 ~; (l)IU~,, (2) f§lliff, (3)ll:., (4) fffl, (5) ~. (6) ~, (7-10) ll9~f. Translation:
"As for [the spiritual method based on] being mindful of inbreathing and outbreathing
5
( anapanasmrfj), there are 10 [steps in the development of] insight: (1) gaJJana, (2)
anugama, (3) sthapana, (4) upala#aJJa, (5) vivarta, (6) parjsuddhj, (7-10) [comprehending]
the four truths" (for a later discussion of these Sanskrit terms, see AKBh 339w34011 , and
DELEANU, 2003:67 note 12). And, in T603.l 73c 24f, the explanation of the 37-fold practice,
which is said to consist of si yizhi (ll9~ll:.) 4 satJpafthana; si yi duan (ll9,ts!Jfi) 4
samm!1ppa~h!~a; si sh~n3___u (ll9t~~) 4 1ddh1pada; wu gen (lif.N) 5 jndriyani; wu Ji (1i1J)
5 ~alam; q1 ;uey1 (-ti:~) 7 bo;jhaliga; and xianzhe ba zh6ng daot6ng (.H:ff )\f_l:iiflfl)
anyo ~tthalig!ko maggo (cp. T602. 72b 11 ), precedes the discussion of abh1samaya described
below m section IV. But I could not find the twelve gates and the three vimoksas in such a
relation. · 22
19
See footnotes 6, 10, and 12.
20
See footnote 11.
Early Mahayana 295
samayavada, as hinted at in T397.406b6t, seem to reflect developments in conser-
vative groups that may have contributed to the formation of the later Yogacara-
school. Theoretical and practical pieces of their sravakayana are here made
elements of a bodhisattvayiina.
In VETTER (2003:68-70), I referred to an offer to or acceptance by bodhisattvas
of an Abhisamayavada as a means of sooner and/or less laboriously reaching
Buddhahood, but was unable to mention other traces than some translations by
Kumarajiva, who was active around 400 CE. And what I found presupposed some
knowledge of praJ.iaparamita as taught by the Sravaka Subhuti in the AJfa-
sahasrika. The short remarks in Pusa T397.406b 9t belong, as will be argued in
section (II), to an earlier document and do not presupfiose such knowledge, but
show the influence of a text like the Suttatthasamuccaya. 1
II
Can Pusa be attributed to An Shigao or not? As to this, I am in favor of a hypo-
thesis put forward by NATTIER (2008:57-59) on the basis of terminological
arguments. She says the language of the sutra is archaic and its terminology
includes many items that were coined by An Shigao, but also observes that there
are a substantial number of elements alien to his normal style. She especially points
to grammatical forms that are independent of the contents of the translated text,
such as the pronoun rii (&), the plural particle -cao (-ff), and enclosure-
formations in which the name of the person addressed is enclosed by two words of
speaking - all of which are grammatical forms that are found in abundance in
Lokak~ema's corpus. She moreover observes, as already SHIZUTANI (1974) did,
that the beginning of Pusa resembles that of Lokak~ema's Dousha Jing (S82iY*,fil,
T280), and that certain words suggest that the two texts "seem to be drawing on a
common lexicon." Pending a more detailed study, she assumes that Pusa was
produced in a community whose members considered themselves to be disciples
(or descendants of disciples) of An Shigao, but who also had access to translations
produced by Lokak~ema's community.
To strengthen this hypothesis, I add a few observations of my own: The words
biao ~ and hu '!'ii, and the compound sa(n)mei - R*
are not found in works that
by modern scholars are attributed to An Shigao, but they repeatedly occur in the
Lokak~ema-corpus. I would also like to mention that I assume that the triad xin yi
shi (il},~Jij), the most conspicuous psychological trait in Pusa, 22 reflects the terms
citta, manas, and vij.iana. I do so in consideration of later developments, as, e.g.,
found in the Manobhumi-chapter of the Yogacarabhumi (BHATTACHARYA,
1957:11; see SCHMITHAUSEN, 1987:117), or in the Lalikavatara Sutra ( e.g.,
T670.481C15: 1[;,gnw~, corresponding to cittaip manas ca vij.ianaip in the
Sanskrit~xt; NANJIO, 1956:305). This assumption does not agree with what xin (1[;,)
and yi (~) general.(vrepresent in works attributed to An Shigao. Where there are
Indic parallels, xin (,[;,) corresponds to manas, the central faculty when six faculties
are mentioned, and yi c~,) to citta, which then means what actually happens in the
central faculty: thoughts, etc., or more specifically 'mindfulness' (s smrti/P sati) and
21
Perhaps also the influence of what may be an old element of the SravakabhtJmj
(~~UKLA, 1973:265 ; : : AICSB 24 (2002) p.[14]). As for the preparations of this stage in the
Sravakabhiimi, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1982:59-85).
But also found in other translations attributed to An Shigao: T602.166b 5 + 172c16 and
Tl508.54b4.
 Tilmann VETTER
296
-
'wish' ~S,Piccha). However, in Lokak~ema's Daoxfng banruo Jing (U?~Jr~tf*i,
T224 ), 3 xfn ({}) can represent citta in the sense of the central faculty, e.g.: m ~~
M~ ,Ci\~tiB [... ] (T224.425c22) = saced evaIJl bh~~Y.amal)~ [ .. / ~dh1~attv~sya
cittam navaliyate (A~ta 310), as well as what happens m It, while y1 (,'is,) still pomts
to citta in the sense of what actually happens in the central faculty, a thought or a
resolve, e.g., in :t~Wmt~ (T224.457a15) = prathamacittotpadena (A~ta 1752) "by
means of the first resolve [towards awakening]."
In view of these observations, I venture the opinion that Pusa has been trans-
lated in the period that overlaps the activities of An Shigao and Lokak~ema as
mentioned in FH, namely 167-170 CE.
Having expressed my support for NATTIER's hypothesis based on terminologi-
cal arguments, I cannot help but discussing an external argument used by h~r. to
1
show that Pusa is a Mahayana siitra and so perhaps to refute SHIZUTANI s opm10n
that Pusa, because it criticizes bodhisattvas (without rejecting their wish to att'!_in
Buddhahood), can hardly be called so and can therefore be attributed to An
Shigao. . . . . .
I do not think one should establish authentic1ty or non-authentICity m such a
way, considering, e.g., that J.S. Bach seems to have ?ee~ a pious_ p~otest~nt? but
also composed Catholic masses. Moreover, the comb~nat10~ n_iahayana ( d~dao
m, or maheyan *§ij]'f{J, or dasheng :::kJt~) + siltra Uing t~) IS not found m early
* imply understanding the true nature of things (as being impermanent, etc.), but
dasheng Jing ***~
Chinese translations and was probably absent from the translated texts. And whe~e
('sutra of the great vehicle') eve~tually appears, e.g., _m
Kumarajiva's translation of the Lotus Siitra (T262)~ 1t does .not ?ecessaniy
correspond to mahayiinasiitra in the preserved Sansknt manuscnpts; m T262, It
mirrors mahavaipulya or mahavaitulya (see KARASHIMA, 2001:53).
But the term Mahayana Sutra can be defined from the outside and then has an
indicatory function. If one thinks it indicates an au~horitative i~str_uction ?f
bodhisattvas ( as suggested by bodhisattvavavada followmg on mahava1p/tulya m
the Lotus Siitra), Pusa is certainly a Mahayana Sutra. Its beginning could even be
called a Mahayana Sutra in the sense of an authoritative text on _the 'gre~t way' of
bodhisattvas who aspire after the high status of a Buddha. It 1s true, m the 50
examinations and in the dialogues interspersed between them and appended to
them bodhisattvas are instructed in such a way that their original ideals are in
dang~r of being lost and Buddhahood is in danger of becoming a purely _inteT?~l
aim. But this is comparable to what happens in several parts of the A${asahasrika.
If one calls the Astasahasrika a Mahayana Sutra, then these parts of Pusa can also
be called so, though in them the danger comes from the Abhisamayavada, not from
Prajfiaparamita. On this basis, I think NATTIER is right in assuming Pusa to be _a
Mahayana sfltra. Yet, I have to express disagreement with her arguments for this
assumption as they can blur the view of this text (NATTIER, 2008:55):
[ ... ] Sengyou (based on the earlier work of Daoan) attributes to An Sh!-
gao at least three scriptures whose titles suggest that they we~e Maha-
yanist in content. Two of these [... ] have b~en_lost [: . .]. The thITd, h~w-
ever - entitled Wushi jiaoji jing ti +fXJsH~ 'Scnpture on the Fifty
23[Editor's remark: The word ~~ has been romanized by various scholars into hanyu
pinyin in a variety of forms, including bore, boruo, and banruo. VET~EI~ consid~red !he
transliteration banruo to be superior; cf. also the general remarks on p111y111 transhteration
in preface to this volume.]
Early Mahayana 297
Evaluations,' for which Sengyou provides the alternative title Mingdu wu-
shi jiaoji Jing ~ m'.1i +tx§H~ 'Prajfiaparamita Scripture on the Fifty
Evaluations' - does have a counterpart in the extant Chinese Buddhist
canon[ ... ] T397 (13) Shi fang pusa pin +ni!iWf.tfb. The content of the
text clearly corresponds to the title given by Sengyou, for within the sutra
are discussed fifty 'evaluations' (1i +&H) to be practised by bodhi-
sattvas. The text is, in other words, clearly Mahayana in content, [ ... ].
This is external evidence based on interpreting mfngdu (Eljjffl'.) as praJiiiiparam1'tii.
Mingdu (~l!t) could indeed be an abbreviation of mfngdu wziJf (~[!t~{j),
occurring in Da 11Jfngdu Jing (*EljjJj)I, T225) ~s a translation of praJiiaparamita
as taught by the Sravaka Subhuti. Sengyou ({~m:f:i) himself seems to have under-
stood it so in T2145.7a8 . But does praJiiapiiramjta, in the sense of rep]acing
impermanence with irreality and intending to transcend words and 'truths' at some
point, occur in Pusa, which probably was the text Sengyou had in mind in
T2145.6a 14? I failed to find any trace of such a praJiiaparamitii. Pusa first offers a
method for improving perspicacity (xia ~) that enables a bodhisattva to fly, enter
the dhyiinas, and thoroughly understand things. Of these effects, the last might
there is no indication that the reality of things is denied, which, by the way, would
make the desired knowledge and insight of the Buddhas of the ten directions
unreal. The 50 examinations (jjaoj] fxH) can be considered as representing an
insight that contributes to the elimination of (real) mental phenomena preventing
a person from becoming a Buddha, though they are introduced as producing
knowledge about karmic residues. And the Abhisamayavada, hinted at after the 50
examinations, might imply samatha and vipassana as depicted in the Suttattha-
samuccaya (see below, section IV); but vipassana then means penetrating things
with such categories as khandhas, dhiitus, ayatanas, perceiving they have arisen
because of conditions, which can be wholesome or unwholesome, etc.
(T603.176a12f).
One could explain Sengyou's alternative title by reminding that persons, who
make lists of scriptures and perhaps also wish to indicate their content, need not
have (thoroughly) read them. But let us assume that Sengyou knew the contents of
Pusa. Then mfngdu (Eljjffl'.) in T2145.6a 14 was not used as an abbreviation of
mingdu wziJf(BAffl'.~fEE), but as corresponding to praJiiaor a synonym. Mfngdu(BA
N, 'i11uminating estimation'?), e.g., reflects praJiia in T152.42a26 where six practices,
namely "generosity, moral discipline, forbearance, exertion, meditation, and
insight," which can be called paramitas, appear without the latter term: 1ffMii t=if~
?2~ ffl:i! ffr~5E BAffl'.. And in ~~Eljjffl'.l=f~frt in T279.429a7, corresponding to avid-
yiisa111y0Janavisle~akaral)atiiyaj ( GaIJtjavyiihasiitra, VAIDYA, 1960:3952), mingdu
(BAN) mirrors vjdya (in this context probably understood as praJiia; avidya is then
lack of discriminating insight). Noteworthy is also that in the YCRJ-commentary
edited in T1694 three quotes from a (da) mfngdu Jing ((*)~N*~) are found
(T1694.10bI 2, 13b22 , 2lb 19). I failed to identify them in Mfngdu Jing *Eljjflt*~
(T225) or in any other text made accessible by CBETAReader 2005, but the first
of them, intended to explain hw'zhi (1"~0) ( = Piiapapan'fiiia) in T603.173b 22,
throws light on mingdu(~ffl'.) as not being an abbreviation:
ignorance, that is: regarding what is not permanent, disagreeable, empty,
and not the self as being permanent, satisfactory, having a self, and [being
298 Tilmann VETTER
a/the] self. Illuminating estimation [of things] transforms these [wrong
views into right views(?)]. Therefore, it is called 'a great light'.
24
This can be compared with the last clause in Pusa (T397.407a14), wh~ch w_as
perhaps intended to bring home to the reader a message t~at ca~ be fo:1nd m all its
parts: "[of the bodhisattvas,] each ~ne thought [tha_t all thmgs (mcludmg Buddha-
lands?) will] vanish, [that they are] impermanent, disagreeable, empty, and not the
self." 25
III
To prepare access to the information on bodhi~attv~s contained in Pusa, I would
now like to recapitulate and supplement my articles m VETTER (2001) and (2003)
mentioned above.
In the Chinese translations that by modem research are attributed to Loka-
k~ema, mahayana signifies 'the great way' of bodhisattvas, i.e., of yersons who
endeavor to become a Buddha in one of the innumerable worlds, which then were
assumed to exist, and to improve that world as far as possible. That ':"orld had to
become 'a pure Buddha-field' where nobody could be reborn as a dem~en of hells,
as an animal, or as a hungry ghost, and all paths were. sm~ot~ (literally and
figuratively). The bodhisattvas believed that they could attai~ this kmd of ~~d~ha-
hood after uncountable existences devoted to generosity, moral d1sc1plme,
endurance, perseverance, meditation, and insight (~ ~ana, ~ila, _kJan_tJ: viiya: dhyana,
and praJ.ia). These virtues are often called param1tas: which imphes that supreme
performance' or 'perfection' is needed. Originally, this may have meant: they can
include the sacrifice of one's life.
Yana in mahayana signifies _'way', as in the _Upanishadic ~evayana ~'way of the
gods'). This is clear:_ly sugges~ed m }pre~ places m Lokak~em_a s transl~t10~ of a text
later known as Kasyapa-Panvarta. It 1s also the most plausible meamng m a place
in Lokaksema's translation of an early version of the AJtasahasrika (T224.427c21f ,
cp. A~{a i hof) where mahayana, here appearing as m~h_eyan (-~iiJf1_:r)_, is put in the
perspective of praJ.iaparamita as _taught by. the Sravaka Subhuti, nam~ly as
eventually dissolving all terms and images._It 1s ~ore~ver notew~rthy, t~~t Ill the
translation of the Ugrapariprccham?de by An Xuan (~1?:) ,an,d Ya~,Fo~rno (mf~
~) about 185 CE, mahayana is unmistakably rendered as dadao (jc:Ji), great way
(e.g., T322.15b2s). , . , , ~ In chapter 1 of Daoxing banruo Jing (ilifi~:t§=*~' T224), viz. Lokak~ema's
Whether in other places in Lokak~ema s translations dadao (7C:Ji) tran~lates
mahayana or perhaps points to 'the great aim of the way (Buddh_ahood), and
whether maheyan c•~oJ11J) indicates 'great way' ?r perhaps 'great ~e~lC~e', ca~ o~!Y
be decided on the basis of the context. Where dadao (7C~) or maheyan (*a~flT)
determine a noun or are the object of a verb like 'to preach', this is hardly possible.
But, e.g., in T282.45lb 19 : xing yzi dadao (fi~7Cili) ~bviously !11eans 'to g~ the
great way'. Up to now, I found no context in !,o~~k~ema s translati?n~ sugfestmg to
understand dadao (7Cili) or maheyan <•aoJ1n) as 'the great aim or the great
vehicle'.
24 fl~ .D.J1Fm't:'r@1F!l~m'~~[ +!}]!} BJjflt~Z i!&B*BJl
2s /,t /,t J:'::t~ 01£~ ::11::~ [+E] @1F!l-
t:rt:r~ ,D, if,9(,~ 7r"rn . •vd' (/J\i1i
26 The most important place is T350.190b 10, where we fmd the terms x1ao ao AE!.
'small way') and dadao (*ill 'great way'), which in a Sanskrit parall_el_(ed. VOROBYOVA-
DESYATOVSKAYA, 2002: folio 19r3) correspond to hinayana and mahayana.
Early Mahayana 299
the translation of the second part (called Zhong benqi Jing q=i
translated by Tangu6 ( A*) and Kang Mengxiang (~~g$) about 200 CE) of a
*~*~
The first text known to me where mahayana is understood as 'great vehicle' is
(Tl 96),
no-longer-extant, legendary Buddha-biography. 27 This text does not propagate
Mahayana, but apparently reacts to its propagation in several places. Among these
are two places where the way to nirval).a is called dadao (7Cill:), 'the great way'
(T196.150a 7+ 158c4). This might imply a rejection of calling the practice of
conservative Buddhists 'a small path' (hinayana). Another place (T196.155b 21 )
mentions that some persons, after listening to the Buddha, aspire after dasheng
C**' 'the great vehicle'), others after the path of a Pratyekabuddha or that of an
Arhat. That dasheng (7C*) is here found instead of dadao (7Cili) may be due to
the previous designation of the way to nirval).a as dadao (7Cili). But the translator
did not search for a synonym of dao (ill)- Instead, he chose to translate yana as
'vehicle', a meaning occurring often in Indic texts. As this passage is not polemical
and quite serious about the resolve to become a Buddha, it seems to presuppose
that the bodhisattvas living in the neighborhood of the translator had gotten
used - and were perhaps the first 28 - to think about Mahayana in this way.
This would be consistent with the contents of texts translated by Lokak~ema
and his collaborators. Nearly all of them distance themselves, more or less
explicitly, from a transmitted way to Buddhahood that is lengthy and laborious.
They do so by proposing methods that promise a quicker or less laborious
approach. The proposed methods better match the image of a vehicle one uses
than of a way one goes. A few examples:
In Lokak~ema's version of the Sukhavatisfitra (T362, see NATTIER, 2008:86),
24 vows - in fact, solemn statements of truth (see BHSD, s.v. satyavacana) -
obviously make that the bodhisattva Dharmakara, the later Buddha Amitabha,
achieves more than Buddha Sakyamuni, namely removing from his Buddha-field
painful places of existence, etc. The time he needs to achieve this, and other means
besides the vows, namely (T362.302b 15 ): generosity, moral discipline, endurance,
perseverance, meditation, and insight (not called paramita), scarcely differ from
what is told about Sakyamuni in the translation of the first part of the above-
mentioned legendary biography (which part is called Xiiixfng benqfJing 1ffi-*~
*~' T184, translated by Zhu Dali (1:0:jcjJ) and Kang Mengxiang (~:ifu§$) about
200 CE). 29
translation of an early version of the A~tasahasrika, the Sravaka Subhiiti has the
task of teaching the praJiiaparamita as a means of quickly attaining Buddhahood
to those bodhisattvas who are not shocked when confronted with its literal content.
This content is the denial of the existence of an unchanging soul as well as of the
changing constituents of a person that could teach or be taught a way to release.
27 Both parts have been translated into Dutch by ZORCHER (1978).
28
Cp. what was said above in section II about the first appearance of DashengJing (*
**~J-ns4.461bnf: tffita:m-nfil
2 ¥~'tj"TBG ~-$,B~ :OOiifflilg -ieh~,~ ~~~ri.
Buddha Sakyamuni, ·speaking about his way to Buddhahood during uncountable aeons,
says "[even when I had to] injure myself, I gave gifts; with extreme honesty, I kept the moral
precepts; with utmost humility, I patiently endured [insults and violence]; with courage, I
persevered; with a concentrated mind, I contemplated subtle [things](?); I studied the in-
sight of the noble ones(?)" (cp. ZORCHER, 1978:44).
 Tilmann VETTER
300
However these denials should culminate in a samadhi where all words are
transcended. Such a state could have been considered as equal to the awakening of
a Buddha, which then would have been quickly attained. But it is not said to lead to
the foundation of a Dharma tradition. There are also passages and chapters
showing how bodhisattvas can sooner become a Budd~a, who founds such .a
tradition. Bodhisattvas should make use of such a samiidh1, but not stay too long m
it. It is then a state of detachment after which things are no longer taken too
seriously. This state facilitates generosity, moral discipline, e~durance, per-
severance, and meditation (s diina, sila, k~iinti, viiya, dhyiina, all with the addlt~on
-piiramita), which all presuppose the reality of the world and of (the changmg
constituents of) a person and which by no means have become superfluous. They
lead to universal Buddhahood and do so quicker than without that state of
detachment or if only supported by reflection on things' impermanence, dis~gree-
ableness, etc., which could have been the meaning of prajiiaparamitii before 1t was
understood as taught by Subhiiti.
In Biinzh6u sii(n)mei Jing (~fit - [!;Mi, T418), i.e., Pratyutpannasamiidhi-
sutra, another text translated by Lokak~ema, the bodhisattva Bhadrapala, who
keeps to the five precepts (chi wiiJie t~li~, T418.902c27), asks (T418.903bif) the
Buddha to teach him a samiidhi (sa(n)mei -B*) that leads to knowledge-and-
insight [immeasurable] like the great ocean (zhihui ru dahai ~~tzD::k~) and all
the qualities (in other texts considered as means )3° of those who are underway to
this final goal (cp. HARRISON, 1990:14-23). Bhadrapala is then told (T418.904b1sf)_
that this knowledge-and-insight and these qualities can be obtained by a samiidh1
that makes the Buddhas of the present time appear before him (Jin xianzai f6 xi zai
qian Ji sii(n)mei ~fj!::(£{5'#~::(£001[ - B*)· This samadhi seems to be accessible
without difficulty on the basis of an image or a picture of the Buddha, etc.
31
(T418.906a 2i, cp. HARRISON, 1990:46-47).
30 Among these qualities also appear three vimok~as (T418.903b13), contemplation of
emptiness (T418.904b 27), and a few other terms that could echo prajiiaparamita a_s t~1ught,
by Subhiiti. The phrase "these three states of existence are a mere J?roduct ~f the_ mmd .(sh1
san chu yi su6wei er, ~=~~pfr~}f, T418.906a 1), correspondmg to c1ttamatram 1dmp
yad idaip traidhatukam in the Dasabhiimikasiitra (ed. VAIDYA_, 1967:329), h~s often b~en
treated as a clear case of prajiiaparamita influence and as referrmg to everythmg that exists.
This interpretation has a strong basis in a passage that i~mediately .follows in the Tibetan
translation, but which is missing from the extant Chmese versions (see HARRISON,
1978:226). What follows in T418 concentrates on what precedes, namely that the Buddhas
perceived in such a samadhi do not come from anywhere, and that one's own body does not
visit them: "Thought creates the Buddha, thought itself sees him" (xin zuo f6, xin zijian 1L'
fFf~iLJ' § Je,), etc. (HARRISON, 1990:43). The possibility can theref?re not ?e ,exc~ud~dv that
"these three states of existence are a mere product of the mind" (sh1 san chu y1 suowe1 er,~
=~~J=M~~}f, T418.906a 1) refers to the world of Amitabha, which in paragraph 905asf
(possibly excerpts from an Amitabha Siitra) was s~id to con~ain living be~n~s whose
skandhas are imperishable. This world, at least as 1t appears m such descnpt~ons an~
accounts of 'visits', could then originally have been called a mere product of th~ ~md: This
would correspond to the usage of prajiiaparamita restricted to the content of v1s10ns m the
Buddhavataipsakasiitra (see VETTER, 2004). ..
31 Note, however, that these suggestions of easy preparations are almost nulhf1ed, wh~n
later (T418.918c 17f, cp. HARRISON, 1990:185-190), in a paragraph that ~tarts wtth
presenting monks as those who have always transmitted this siitra, the bod~1satt~as are
instructed to serve the teachers of this visualization-method (in T418.919a2s identified as
monks) just as slaves obey their masters, making offerings not only of food, clothes, etc.,
Early Mahayana 301
IV
To prepare access to the short remarks on the last stage of a conservative path in
Pusa (T397.406b4f), I now try to characterize the Abhisamayavada found in the
Suttatthasamuccaya, which is transmitted in chapter 6 of the Pefakopadesa and the
roughly corresponding Yin chi Jing (~~ At& 32 = YCRJ, T603), attributed to
ru
An Shigao, as shown in ZACCHE~TI (2002). Its text tradition is as bad as that of the
Petakopadesa as a whole (see NANAMOLI, 1964:xiii). I used CSCD Version 3,
where things have been improved in several places, but not in all. YCRJ suggests
conjectural emendations, while the Pali text helps to understand and improve the
Chinese text, not satisfyingly edited in T603. 33
To give an idea of what abhisamaya means in the Suttatthasamuccaya, I now
make an attempt at explaining CSCD § 69, Pef 133,15f :::::: T603.179a 26f cattaro
abhisamayapariiiiiabhisamayo pahanabhisamayo sacchildriyiibhisamayo bhavanii-
. 3
bh1samayo. .
Here abhisamaya has been divided into four kinds, but no clue is given how to
construe the four compounds. I therefore turn to the Abhidharmakosabhawa. 35
This is a later text and represents a tradition where an abhisamaya consists of 16
mind-moments (AKBh 351 8 on v. VI 27c), while our text here speaks of four abhi-
samayas and later (Pet 13428f :::::: 603.l 79c5f) says they take place in one moment. 36
But there is enough common ground.
According to AKBh 328 10 ( on v. VI 2), the basic meaning of abhisamaya is
abhisambodha (perfect knowledge). Associating this meaning with the four
truths - and with the terms pari.i.ia (full understanding), pahana (abandoning),
sacchikiriya (realization)_, and bhavana (cultivation) in our text- straightway leads
to the Dharmacakrapravartanasiitra, where variants of all these words are found.
This siitra is, moreover, mentioned in the same chapter VI (v.54) and quoted at
length in the corresponding AK.Vy (983 20f). It seems to have been considered the
but also of all their gold, silver, and jewels, and even parts of their body. Then they would
quickly obtain the samadhi
32 Chu chi ru Jing (~:f~)Jfil) is the title found in T. It is not correct as it omits the :I
khandhas, which are discussed first in the text. Yin chi ru Jing(~~ ,,AJfil) "an authoritative
text on khandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas," found in the title of the commentary edited in
T1694, and used in secondary literature referring to T603, is better and may historically
even be correct, if one assumes that it was invented by a person who glanced only at the
first paragraphs. However, only Chu yin chi ru Jing (~~~ A*-fil) "an authoritative text on
removing P khandhas, dhatus, and ayatanas" (cp. ban wei chu wu yin ~m~.n~
T602.164a 8; see also Tl694.24a9• 10 ) would indicate the content properly.
33
I could make use of a preliminary draft of a synoptic edition of the YCRJ and its Pali
parallel made by Stefano ZACCHETTI. It is based on CBETA Reader 2006 and CSCD
Version 3 and provided with indications of pages and lines in the 1949 PTS edition of the
Pefakopadesa. The CSCD paragraphs being too large for easily locating terms and clauses,
I refer to these indications using the abbreviation Pe(.
-1
34
T603.l 79a26f: 1§1Z9f§hl 1BJ8~1Z9t§Bl -~ Bmt§JJg
'r§~ izgm ttirnt§Bl.
=~ Bffitirf§}!g-=-~ §~I
35
A clear outline of the abhisamaya doctrine in AKBh is given in LAMOTTE (1958:678-
686 ::::: 1988:612-620), based on L. DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN, Abhidharmakosa de Vasu-
bandhu (1923f) and E. OBERMILLER, Acta Orientalia XI (1932). See moreover FRAU-
WALLNER (1971:69-102::::: 1995:149-184); and SCHMITHAUSEN (1978).
36
The third truth is then considered to contain ( the purpose of) the other truths. Cp.
SCHMITHAUSEN (1978:110-112), outlining the abhisamaya path of the Visuddhimagga.
302 Tilmann VETTER
most important canonical text in this chapter. Assuming this sutra to be of similar
importance to our text, I refer to it when I interpret the above compounds and
other problems of the following paragraphs. 37
First the contents of the siitra as far as quoted in AKVy (983 20 r). Wishing to
apply them to a Pali text, I base myself on the nearly identical second half of the
Dhammacakkappavattanasutta (Vinaya-Pitaka, ed. OLDENBERG, vol. I, 1879:11).
There, the Buddha says ( a little condensed, without notes):
Awareness (5 synonyms: cakkhurh Iiiil)arh pan.iii vj;ja iiloko, i.e., eye,
knowing, insight, knowledge, light) regarding dhammas unheard of in
former times (pubbe ananussutesu dhammesu) arose for me, namely: [la]
"This (i.e., birth, etc.) is disagreeable, [which is] a noble truth" (idaip duk-
khaip ariyasaccan ti); [lb] ''what is disagreeable should be fully under-
stood" (pannneyyan ti); [le] "it has been fully understood" (panniiiitan
ti). [2a] "This (i.e., longing) is the origin of what is disagreeable, [which is]
a noble truth" (idaip dukkhasamudayaip ariyasaccan fl'); [2b] "the origin
of what is disagreeable should be abandoned' (pahatabban ti); [2c] "it has
been abandoned" (pahinan ti). [3a] "This (i.e., the destruction of longing)
is the destruction of what is disagreeable, [which is] a noble truth (idaip
dukkhanirodhaip arjyasaccan ti); [3b] "this destruction of what is dis-
agreeable should be realized" (sacchikiitabban ti); [3c] "it has been reali-
zed" (sacchikatan fl). [4a] "This (i.e., the eightfold path) is the course that
leads to the destruction of what is disagreeable, [which is] a noble truth"
( dukkhanirodhagiimini pafipada arjyasaccan ti); [4b] "this course should
be completed" (bhiivitabban ti); [4c] "it has been completed" (bhiivitan fl).
As long as this knowing and seeing had not become perfectly pure, I did
not declare: "I have reached the supreme correct awakening" ( aham
anuttaraip samyaksambodhim abhisambuddho ti). But when it had be-
come perfectly pure, I made such a declaration. Moreover, knowing and
seeing arose for me: unshakeable is the detachment of my mind ( akuppa
me cetovimutti), this is my last existence (ayaip antimajiiti).
Abhisamaya, not yet existing as a technical term when the sutta was composed,
is of the same order as the words cakkhu, .ifiIJa, paii.ia, viJja, aloka, above summa-
rized as 'awareness'. This is, at any rate, the opinion of the author of the Suttattha-
samuccaya. In Pet 125nf (:::::: T603.l 76cl), abhisamaya is mentioned as a synonym
of .iiiIJadassana (knowing and seeing) regarding the noble truths. In the sutta, the
objects of that awareness are dhammas unheard of in former times. As the text
then shows, these dhammas are facts and tasks relevant to bondage and release.
This makes the awareness a highly conceptual experience. Abhisamaya is therefore
correctly translated as 'comprehension' (as suggested by CPD, BHSD, etc.),
certainly when it is added to the list cakkhum, .iaIJam, paiiiia, vijja, aloko and
probably also when it elsewhere seems to act as their representative.
In Pet 133 15.25 (:::::: T603.179a 26 -b 1), only pariiiiia (full understanding), pahana
( abandoning), sacchikiriya (realization), and bhavana (cultivation) are mentio~ed
as possible contents of an abhisamaya of a noble disciple. They suggest that m a
noble disciple conceptual experiences should arise similar to the conceptu~l
experiences of the Buddha above marked [le], [2c], [3c], and [4c], namely: "what 1s
Not accepting this assumption may lead to unsatisfactory translations like N~A-
37
MOLI's (1964:179): "There are four kinds of actualizing: actualizing by diagnosmg,
actualizing by abandoning, actualizing by verifying, and actualizing by keeping in being." _
Early Mahayana
303
disagreeable has fully been understood" (pariiiiiatan H), "the origin of what is
disagreeable has been abandoned" (pahinan H), "the destruction of what is
disagree.able has be~n ~ealized" ( sacchikatan H), and "the course that leads to the
destruct_1~_?_of ~hat 1s disagreeable has been completed" ( bhavitan ti).
Pannnabh1~am,~Y? could then be translated as "comprehension in respect of
full underst~n~mg_ (1.e., one,,comprehends that something has fully been under-
stood), pahanabh1samayo a.s comprehension in respect of abandoning" (i.e., one
comprehend~ th~t somethmg has been abandoned), sacchildriyabhisamayo as
"comprehens10~ m respect of _real~zat~on" (i.e., one comprehends that something
has bee.n ~e~hzed), and bhavanabh1samayo as "comprehension in respect of
completion (1:e., one comprehends that something has been completed).
In the ancient text, however, the origin of rebirth is longing ( tal}hii), whereas
-:et 11413~1 (:::::: 603. 173c22f~ states: ..''.~he origin, to say it briefly, is longing and
ignorance (samudayo samasena aVlJJa ca laIJha ca). What 'briefly' implies shows in
Pet_ l302l \ = T603.178a16f) and Pet 135 10f ( = T603.179c 11 f): one becomes a
sotap~nna_ ( one ~ho ~as .en~e.r~d the stream') when three samyojanas ('mental
fett_er~ ), . viz; sakkayadi!flu, v1cik1ccha, and silabbataparamasa, are abandoned, an
anagamm ( one who does not return'), whe~. additionally kamaraga and byiipada
are abandoned, ~!!-? an arahat, when add1t1onally nlparaga, anlparaga, mana,
uddhacca, and avl]Ja are abandoned. 38
Let us now focus on the question "how does one become one who has entered
the s~~eam (sot;Ifa1!no)?" (Pet 13023f:::::: T603.l 78a 16f). The answer is: "Immediately
after-_ a n_obl~ d!s~1ple ~as comprehended the [four] truths, three fetters (namely,
sakkay~d1.tf.h1, ~1cildccha, _a1_1d s~1ab?atap~ramasa) are abandoned" (saha saccabhi-
samaya anyasavakassa. t11;~ sa:11yo1anam pahiyanti). The genitive ariyasavakassa
could also be tak~n as _1~d1catmg the agent of abandoning, because ariyasavaka is
t~e agent of paJahatJ m Pet 13510£ (:::::: T603.l 79c 11 f), viz. kamaragabyapade
s~nusay~ anavase~am P_a(aha~i "he completely abandons kamaraga and byapada,
with theIT latent d1spos1t10ns ..H?~ever, being an agent of such a comprehension
of the four truths or of the defm1t1ve abandoning of fetters can only be a figure of
speech. They cannot _be produced ~t w.ill. On the other hand, they only arise in a
person who has practI~ed the combmation of samatha and vipassana mentioned as
the preparatory ~ath m ?et 11416 ( = T603.l 73c24 ). In Pet 12211 £ (:::::: T603.l 76a ),
12
samatha (Jl:. zhl) 1s explamed as a calm state of mind ( cittassa thitJ), as samadhi, as
38
_Th~ te~ mental fette~s ( Saipyo1anas) appearing here could be understood as follows:
:akkay~d1ffh1 as '(wrong)_v1ew about the existing complex (of the five khandhas)', namely
OCO~SI?,~r ~he ~odr, feelm~, et~., ~S the self or as having a self, etc. (see VETTER, 2000:120
~-39), v1cila~ch~ as ~ncert~m~, s11abbataparamasa as 'being fixed on moral discipline and
r ~serv_ances,, ka1:11araga as desire for sensually attractive objects', byapada as 'malevolence',
c uparafa as_ des~re ~or ~pure) colors. (and for an existence that consists in experiencing such
olor~), aruparaga de~Ire ~or what.hes beyond (pure) colors (i.e., infinity of space, etc., and
an existence tha~ co~s1sts m experiencing what lies beyond pure colors)', mana 'arrogance
tased on expenencmg these colors and what lies beyond them)' uddhacca 'being excited
i~bout these c_olor~ an~ what lies beyond them)', and avijja '~ot being aware (of the
p~rma:e, d!ssa~1s~ac~1_on, ~tc.,_even of those colors and what_lies beyond them)'.
th B_Pmif§~ !? di ~Iangywg 1,~ T60~.l 78~16 suggests that An Shigao understood saha
suus. This poss1b1hty - mstcad of m con3unct1on with', generally with following ablative _ is
,. pport_ed by BHSD, where (s.v. saha (1) with foll. abl.) saha parinibbana is understood as
2im mediately after (Buddha's) nirvana'. Cp. saha satyabhisamayat in SrBh p 265 - AICSB
4 (2002) p. (14). · -
304 Tilmann VETTER
not being distracted (avikkhapa), etc.; vipassanii (D, guiin) is explained as
discriminating insight in respect of khandhas, dhiitus, etc.
Striving for a calm mind and discriminating insight can reach such a stage of
maturity that the comprehension arises: the whole world is impermanent,
disagreeable, etc.; the three fetters, sakkiiyadiffhi, vicikicchii, silabbatapariimiisa,
have been abandoned, freedom from the consequences of these three fetters has
been realized, the course that leads to that freedom has been completed. Immedi-
ately after this comprehension, these three fetters are abandoned. At that stage,
one becomes a sotiipanna.
Via the stages of sakadiigiimin ('one who returns once') and aniigiimin ('one
who does not return [to our world of sensuality]'), one finally reaches a stage where
the comprehension arises: the whole world is impermanent, disagreeable, etc.;
nlpariiga, anlpariiga, miina, uddhacca, and avijjii have been abandoned, freedom
from the consequences of these five fetters has been realized, the course that leads
to that freedom has been completed. Immediately after this comprehension, these
five fetters are really abandoned. At that stage, one becomes an arahat
Abandoning a group of fetters is said to happen immediately after an abhi-
samaya, but the abhisamaya itself presupposes they have already been abandoned.
Maybe this problem can be solved by distinguishing between a virtual abandon-
ment that allows the abhisamaya to arise and a definitive abandonment taking
place immediately after the abhisamaya. 40
There is no such problem in the ancient sutta, because the awarenesses that
arise in the Buddha do not seem to cause freedom of fetters. They only assure him
of being supremely awakened and unshakably released. Those who made these
awarenesses a condition for his supreme awakening and unshakable release had to
answer the question of how the Buddha could get assured that he was unshakably
released, when according to them a first event of that kind only liberates from
intellectual fetters (in our text: from sakkiiyadftfhi, vicikicchii, and silabbata-
pariimiisa). The answer was (see, e.g., LAMOTTE, 1958:684, ::::,: 1988:618): the
Buddha had eradicated the emotional fetters by ascetic means before these
conceptual experiences. When a comprehension of what is disagreeable ( dukkha),
etc., arises in a disciple without such an ascetic preparation, it will only free him
from the intellectual fetters. If he goes on exerting himself, more abhisamayas may
arise that gradually eliminate the emotional fetters.
V bodhisattvas that their own citta, manas, and vij.iana create Buddha-fields and
Now I try to portray the bodhisattvas and the Buddha as they appear in Pusa (in
contrast to the outline in section I, interesting details are now focused on).
As for the bodhisattvas, the most striking trait is: they (wish to) fly to Buddha-
fields in the ten directions. From Buddhas residing over these Buddha-fields, they
(wish to) receive instruction about the path to Buddhahood. They not only practice
a path to Buddhahood, but also propagate this path (T397.396c4). In one pl~ce
(T397.40lc14), we learn that sometimes one of them becomes a monk, which
implies that they generally are not monks. Dealing with the mental phenomenon of
longing, the Buddha cannot reproach them with transgressions in the area .of
sexual morality. But they worship the/a Buddha - statues seem to be meant -with
flowers and incense (T397.397a29 ) and (wish to) visit Buddha-fields not only for
40
A similar problem in the abhisamaya doctrine of the Sarvastivadins is dealt with in
SCHMITHAUSEN (1978:105).
Early Mahayana 305
instruction, but also to enjoy the melodious sound of another Buddha's voice. This
deviates from ancient ascetic practice which aims at restraining the sense faculties
from all stimuli, however subtle. But presiding over an aesthetically satisfying
Buddha-field is not mentioned as a motive for aspiring after Buddhahood. What is
mentioned - only because the Buddha of this text considers it an obstacle on the
way to awakening - is a compassionate heart (1l{,\ beixJn, T397.405a18) making
them consider the difficulties of releasing living beings, and grief (ft chdu,
T397.405a19) and anger ('['~ nao) at not yet having attained Buddhahood and
being able to release them. As for this anger, see T397.405b 6t: 41
When bodhisattvas who have not yet attained Buddhahood perceive that
in the hells of the ten directions living beings are cruelly suffering from
torture and wish to make them depart [from that place] and release them,
but are not able to do so, then they become angry; [also] when they per-
ceive that birds and quadrupeds [and small beings, whether they] nimbly
run [or] fly [or] wrigglingly move, are cruelly suffering from attacking
each other, killing each other; also when they see that the hungry ghosts
have nothing to eat; [etc].
The bodhisattvas believe that it will take aeons to become a Buddha; that they
will be reborn innumerable times due to the wish, expressed at the start of their
path, to attain the awakening of a Buddha. At the end of the dialogues with the
Buddha, it is repeatedly mentioned that they were ashamed, in some passages
implying that they had become more modest. From this and a remark like
(T397.407as) "Your appearing in front of the Buddhas of the ten directions makes
you conceited in yourself' (&¥+1J1~ml §~r@J), one could derive that their aim
and practice had made them rather arrogant towards conservative monks.
As for the Buddha appearing in Pusa, I would like to call special attention to
two doctrinal items. The first is the assumption of three internal faculties: xin ({,\),
yi Ci), and shi (~), which seem to correspond to citta, manas, and vij.iiina. In
some Buddhist texts, these are interpreted as synonyms for one internal cognitive
faculty, but in the 50 examinations they are not synonyms, though it is not
explained how to distinguish them. It is taken for granted that the bodhisattvas
knew what was meant.
In the short formula that explains ignorance ( see note 12 in section I), all three
seem to have a creative function. The intention might have been to teach the
beings living there, while the formulas regarding the sense objects only seem to
suggest that one should not take sense objects too seriously.
This would imply that the Buddha-fields and the beings living there are even
more impermanent and void of substance than our world and the beings living here,
which would go against, e.g., the Sukhavati tradition. In vows 19 and 21 in
Lokak~ema's version (T362.302a 19+ 28 ), not only Amitabha but also all bodhisattvas
and arhats living in his pure land are assumed to have an immeasurable life-span.
However, such Buddha-fields and their inhabitants are not called phantoms in
Pusa. Moreover, the formula describes the inhabitants as consisting of skandhas
that contain a cause for rebirth (in Buddhas and arhats made ineffective); it seems
to be intended to demonstrate that they are not everlasting.
 Tilmann VETTER
306
The second item in the Buddha's teaching that I would like to focus on is his
criticism of the bodhisattvas' belief that their (solemnly expressed) wish to be
reborn innumerable times in order to become Buddhas is the only cause why they
are reborn (T397.396a23+c20). Far from being the only cause, this wish is a kind of
longing that produces deeds and so increases the residues that have to be requited
in a future existence. To become a Buddha, one has not only to become free of
longing but also free of the pressure of such residues .. Longing (whether gross or
subtle) can as such be a cause of rebirth (as taught in the second noble truth). But
on the whole there is a second cause, namely the residues of one's deeds called zui
(~), which gen~rally signifies wrongdoing or punishment, but here obviously
pomts to karma m the sense of all residues of one's deeds, including good ones.
Repeatedly (e.g., T397.398a3), the Buddha tells the bodhisattvas that they do not
kn_ow how much of such residues still has to be requited and after how many
existences they could be sure to become Buddhas (T397.399a 19 ). This sounds as if
Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, was preaching. In one place ( 402c 18 ), the
bodhisattvas mention the possibility of getting rid of residues by means of
meditation ( chan ffr,, dhyiina). 42 The Buddha then retorts: Why, then, do you not
continually meditate instead of flying to Buddha-fields in the ten directions? They
say: We fly there because of the wish (solemnly expressed) at the start of our path
(to go there as often as possible).
VI
Finally, in seven points, I try historically to evaluate the preceding portrayals.
1) Pusa is one of the oldest testimonies to the existence of a group of people
going the way of bodhisattvas to become future Buddhas. They know basic
Buddhist doctrines and precepts. One place shows that sometimes a member of
this group became a monk. So we may suppose that they originally were not monks,
but lay devotees (upiisaka). There is no mention of women, like the shim niiren (~
ft.A., 'good woman', i.e., 'daughter of a good family' or 'female member of a
distinguished family') in Daoxing (T224.442c5f), which was translated roughly at
the same time. The bodhisattvas addressed in Pusa seem to have known the system
of three internal and five sense faculties (see below point 5). This may be due to
instructions given, on Uposatha-days, by monks belonging to an Abhidharma
tradition, which had created this psychology. On such days, they could also have
practiced meditation, though not long enough for being considered to have
substantially reduced karma (T397.402c 18 ).
2) In Pusa, the bodhisattvas are motivated by rather naive ideas about their
future position in a far-away world, comparable to unrefined eschatological ideas
in Christianity and Islam. To such ideas often belongs readiness to sacrifice one's
life, but this is not mentioned, in contrast with other texts dealing with bodhisattvas.
3) In Pusa, the bodhisattvas are reproached for worshipping the Buddha -
probably statues are meant - with flowers and incense. This reproach - most likely
from monks - seems to imply that, when the text was composed, such worship was
no part of the daily routine of monastic life, in contrast to what Yijing ( a.k.a. 1-tsing)
observed (see TAKAKUSU, 1896 chapter 31), when he, at the end of the seventh
42
See FRAUWALLNER (1953:255-260), describing the Jainist path to release. The Jaina
monk has to avoid producing new karma and must reduce old karma. The most important
means of reducing old karma is tapas ('austerities'). There are external and internal tapas.
Of internal tapas, the most important is dhyana (meditation).
Early Mahayana 307
century CE, traveled in India. Bathing the statue of a Buddha was then even said to
remove karma.
4) In Pusa, the Buddha rejects all actions of bodhisattvas based on the wish to
become a Buddha and d~mands annihilation of all karma. But then only a
Buddhahood like that of Sakyamuni seems possible, not a Buddhahood with a
purified Buddha-field.
5) In Pusa, more than 130 years before the Yogiiciirabhumi was compiled, 43 a
system of thre~ internal and five sense faculties was presupposed. Xin-yi-shi (,C,<~
gij), the three mternal organs, may correspond to the Sanskrit words dtta, manas,
and vij.iana, but need not have been explained precisely as in the Manobhumi of
the Yogacarabhum1: 44 Perhaps citta was conceived of as the center of a person and
manas as a faculty mostly producing wrong ideas, but vijfiiina was almost certainly
an abbreviation of manovij.iiina, a capacity of sensation based on manas, because
capacities of sensation based on the five senses are dealt with separately (as is the
case in the Manobhumi).
6) In Pusa, in the opening of the formula explaining ignorance (see footnote 12
above and the first item of the Buddha's teaching highlighted in section V), xin-yi-
shi (,L,'}sJl) appear to be faculties that create and (after some time) absorb their
(religiously important?) objects, but this cannot so easily be assumed of the five
sense faculties; their objects seem to be given from the outside.
7) In Pusa, the aim of the bodhisattvas is demythologized and in danger of
being totally lost, when they examine their eight cognitive faculties as to whether
they are possessed of 50 mental phenomena and eventually perhaps try to
definitively overcome these phenomena by means of thorough comprehensions
( abhisamaya) of the four truths. The problem how one can use such preparations
and the Abhisamayavada 45 without losing that aim is not discussed in Pusa. The
author would probably not have been sorry to hear about such a loss.
Others have (later?) tried to show how this was possible. Perhaps the first
document, where a synthesis of the Abhisamayavada and the aim of the bodhi-
sattvas is attempted, is a passage in the Bodhisattvabhumi (BoBh, pp. 38r402; see
FRAUWALLNER, 1958:272-274). As for its function, it may be compared with
chapter 14 of the Daoxing and its usage of the term upiiyakausalya ('skill in means';
see VETTER, 2003:64-66). It contains three sections dealing with methods that are
apparently different, but which can be understood as describing three stages in a
development. The first section (BoBh, p. 382. 17) shows how Sriivakas and Pratyeka-
buddhas can overcome the defilements (klesas). They should thoroughly compre-
hend the (four noble) truths (satyiibhisamaya), which is possible when they
perceive only skandhas 46 as constituting a person, not a soul ( iitman). In the light of
Pusa we could add: bodhisattvas too have to thoroughly comprehend the four
noble truths. The second section (BoBh, p. 3818. 28 ) shows how bodhisattvas and
43
. _According to SCHMITHAUSEN (2007:214), the Yogacarabhumi was perhaps com-
piled m the fourth century CE.
•
44
_In the. Manobhumi (BHATTACHARYA, 1957:11; see SCHMITHAUSEN, 1987:117f),
c1~ta is explamed as alayaviJii.ana which contains all seeds and is the basis of personal
ex~stence, manas is explained as the preceding moment of six kinds of sensation, or as
~lJ!j/aip manas which is marked by always being connected with four klesas such as
ignorance, while vijiiana is explained as sensation.
45
For the term Abhisamayavada, see footnote 3 above.
4
~ Skandhas, literally perhaps 'branches', means, in the present context, the empirical
constituents of a person.
308 Tilmann VETTER Early Mahayana 309

buddhas overcome jiieya, 'what has to be known', i.e., (as can be learnt from the Abbreviations and Sigla
third section) all the categories used to overcome the klesas: the five skandhas, the AICSB Annual of the Institute for Comprehensive Studies of Buddhism, Taisho Uni-
six cognitive faculties, the four elements, the five sense objects, wholesome, versity.
unwholesome or neutral [phenomena], etc., up to mivaIJa. These categories all AKBh Abhidharm-kosabhawa of Vasubandhu, ed. P. PRADHAN, Patna 1967.
belong to prajiiapHviida, 'talk based on designations', i.e., they may have a function AKVy Abhidharmakosa & Bhawa { ..}with Sphutartha Commentazy, ed. Dwarikadas
in dealing with reality, but they do not describe persons and their environment as SHASTRI, Varanasi 1970-1973.
they really are. The third section (BoBh, pp. 39i-402) shows that buddhas and Asta A~fasiihasrika Prajiiaparamita, ed. P.L. VAIDYA, Darbhanga 1960.
bodhisattvas eventually overcome the opposites of being ( bhava) and non-being BHSD F. EDGERTON, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionazy, vol. II:
Dictionary, New Haven 1953.
( abhiiva). Here 'being' means accepting that a person is nothing but the skandhas,
etc., and 'non-being' means rejecting skandhas, etc., as not based on reality as such. CBETA Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association, CBETAReader 1998-2002.
BoBh Bodhisattvabhum1; ed. U. WOGIHARA, Tokyo 1930-1936.
Avoiding both positions is called a middle course (madhyamii prat.ipad). In such a A Critical Pali Dictionaiy, begun by V. TRENCKNER, Copenhagen 1924 ff.
CPD
middle course, the aim of the bodhisattvas who make use of the Abhisamayavada CSCD Chattha Sa:rigayana CD-ROM version 3.
may no longer be in danger of being totally lost. FH Fascicule Annexe du H6bogirin 1978 p. 235 ff.: Table des auteurs et traducteurs.
Pe! Pefakopadesa, ed. A. BARUA, London 1949.
Pus a Shffang pzisa (the 17th text in Da fangdeng dajf jing(:*:JJ~:*:~*m T397, vol.
XIII, fascicle(~) 59-60: 394b-407a).
SrBh Sravakabhumi ofAcarya Asaliga, ed. K. SHUKLA, Patna 1973.
T Taisho shinshil daiz6ky6, ed. TAKAKUSU J & WATANABE K, Tokyo, 1924-1934.
YCRJ Yinchfru Jing(~:f~ ;\*,fil) T603.

Superscribed P and S: Words and excerpts from Indic texts are marked by superscribed P
or S , e.g. P kusala, skusala, to indicate the origin from a Pali or a (hybrid) Sanskrit text,
respectively.

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Journal of the International College of Postgraduate Buddhist Studies, vol. XI,
pp.213-244.
SCHOPEN, Gregory (2005): Figments and Fragments of Mahayana Buddhism in India,
Hawaii University Press.
SHIZUTANI, Masao (~~ .1::Etl:1)(1974): Shoki daijo bukki no seiritsu katei(tJJ1tEJ**{~¥5(
® fDGJL~fi) [The Formation Process of Early Mahayana Buddhism], Kyoto:
Hyakkaen (B~:ffi).
SHUKLA, K. (1973): Sravakabhiimi ofAcarya Asaiiga, Patna.
TAKAKUSU, Junjiro (1896): A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and
the Malay Archipelago, London: Clarendon Press.
UNGER, Ulrich (1989): Glossar des Klassischen Chinesisch, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
VAIDYA, P. L. (1960): GaJJcfavyiihasiitra, Darbhanga.
(1967): Dasabhiimikasiitra, Darbhanga.
_V_E_T_T_E_R_,-T-il-mann (2000): The 'Khandha Passages' in the Vinayapifaka and the four
Nikayas, Vienna: Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2001): "Once Again on the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism", edited and
translated by Anne MACDONALD, in Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Siidasiens,
vol. XLV, pp. 59-90.
_ _ _ _ _ _ (2003): "Arhat und Bodhisattva im Daoxing mfr" in Horin, vol. X, pp.
47-71.
_ _ _ _ _ _ (2004): "Der Bodhisattva-Weg im GaJJ{javyiihasiitra" in Buddhismusin
Geschichte und Gegenwart, vol. IX, Universitat Hamburg, November 2004, pp.
61-78 (http://www.buddhismuskunde.uni-hamburg.de/Digitale-Texte.40.0.html)
VOROBYOVA-DESYATOVSKAYA, M. I. (2002): TheKasyapaparivarta, Romanized Text and
Facsimiles, in collaboration with Seichi KARASHIMA and Noriyuki KUDO, Tokyo:
The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka Univer-
sity (IRIAB).
ZACCHETTI, Stefano (2002): "An early Chinese translation corresponding to Chapter 6 of
the Petakopadesa, An Shigao's Yin chi ru jingT 603 and its Indian original: a pre-
 Serving and Served Monks 313

vii. female lay-practitioners ( upfis1'kfi). 5

Expressed succinctly, the saipgha may be said to be comprised by just two groups:
Setving and Served Monks
1. clergy ( bh1'k$u, bh1'k~u1Jf, iik$amfiJJfi, irfimaJJera, iramaJJeri),
in the Yogacarabhiimi 2. laity ( upasaka, upasika).

In the first century CE when the capital of Gandhara had come under Ku~ana
Noriaki lIAKAMAYA rule and Buddhist temples 6 were developing economically due to the flourishing
East-West trade in northwestern India and Puru~apura, members of the clergy
(monks including nuns) and of the laity (lay men and women), who had tak~n the
vow (praJJidhana) to become a buddha ( buddho bhaveyam), came - m my
I. opinion - to be called respectively "renunciant bodhisattvas" (pravraji'to bodhi-
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN has proven in his exhaustive researches that the sattva.lJ) and "householder bodhisattvas" (grhi bodhisattva};l). 7 The Mahayana mo-
Yogacarabhumi is "ein Konglomerat heterogenen Materials," 1 endorsing Erich vement thus emerged during the Ku~ana Empire, and at that time, a lot of people
FRAUWALLNER's (1969:265) proposal that it is "ein Werk der Schule, <lessen called grhi bodhisattva};l must have visited the Buddhist temples, worshipped at
Entstehung sich iiber mehrere Generationen erstreckte." 2 So far, I have stood out stiipas, given gifts ( dana) and/or made offerings ( dak~1'p.a). In return, pravrajito
against their opinion, but I admit now the Yogacarabhumi to be a kind of bodhisattva};l monks would teach the grhi bodhisattvas. During the teaching, the
schoolwork without excluding the possibility that it might have been compiled by pravrajito bodhisattvaiJ.monks would h~ve praised the ~xcellenc~ ~f the Buddha or
3
Asanga. Although there are still some controversies as to the formation of the praised the stiipa as bemg excellent objects of venerat10n ( dakw1J1ya). They would
Yogacarabhum1; comprehensive discussion thereof has recently been given fairly teach the grhi bodhisattvas that if one made an offering to the Buddha or to a
by Florin DELEANU (2006), which should be consulted. According to stiipa then the buddha or the stiipa would be a source of (karmic) benefit in one's
SCHMITHAUSEN's (1970; 1987b) opinion, at any rate, the Yogacarabhiimi was future lives {puJJyak$efra). These renunciant bodhisattvas (pravrajito bodhisattva};l)
formed specifically on the basis of the Miila-Sarvastivada canon. I completely would have told the householder bodhisattvas (grhi bodhisattva};l) a variety of
agree with him on this point and concretely agree that the extant Yogacarabhiimi stories about buddhas or bodhisattvas, and some pravrajito bodhisattvas appear to
was compiled by the Y ogacaras, who belonged only to the Sarvastivada/Miila- have been highly praised by the lay-followers as ascetics serving as objects of
Sarvastivada4 - a main sect (nikaya) of the traditional Buddhist saipgha - and I veneration ( dak~iJJiya) on behalf of the Buddha or the stiipa. 8
think that Mahayana Buddhism did not exist apart from the traditional Buddhist Besides these renunciant bodhisattvas, there was also another type of monks in
sects (HAKAMAYA, 2002). the temples who worked to facilitate the relationship between the two groups - the
As is well known, the traditional Buddhist community (saipgha) consists of pravrajito bodhisattvalJ and the grhi bodhisattvalJ. To clarify these distinctions,
seven classes (saptanaikayika): monks who served the pravrajito and gfhi bodhisattvas are in the present article
labeled "serving monks", whereas the pravrajito bodhisattva};l group from among
1. fully-ordained monks ( bhik$u), the two types of bodhisattvas, who thus are the ones served by the serving monks,
ii. fully-ordained nuns ( bh1'k$UIJIJ, shall here be termed "served monks."
iii. probationary nuns ( sik$amaJJa), In the Vinaya-literature, the Mahayanasiitras, and other related materials, the
iv. novice monks (iramaJJera), serving monks appear under the titles of 'caretaker' ( vaiyavrtyakara), 'steward'
v. novice nuns (iramaJJeri),
v1. male lay-practitioners ( upasaka), 5
See Abh1dharmakosabhawa (PRADHAN, 1967:2051r2076; DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN,
1971.111:43-47). The Abh1dharmakosabhiiffa includes an eighth category called 'fasting
practitioners' ( upavasa), but the upavasa has here been left out, because it is temporal and
substantially refers to upasaka or upiisikii. As for the seven classes (saptanaikayika), see (a)
I would like to express my deep gratitude to Professor Dr. Ulrich Timme KRAGH for saqwarasila, one of three sorts of conduct (s11a) in the Bodhisattvabhllmi indicated below
inviting me to contribute with an article to this honorable volume and correcting my in fn. 38.
6
English with his useful suggestions. For the characteristics of Gandharan Buddhist temples in northwestern India after
1
English translation: "a conglomerate of heterogeneous materials." SCHMITHAUSEN the first century CE, see KUWAYAMA (2002).
7
(1969:817); see also SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a). See HAKAMAYA (2005). As for the phrase "I shall become a Buddha" ( buddho
2
English translation: "the work of a school, whose formation stretched over several bhaveyam)", see its attestation, e.g., in the Mahiipraj.iiipiiramitopadesa Ck~ffi]i Da
generations."
3
zhidu Jun, Tl509.112C20 : &H~111~ bidei zuo 16); for a French translation, see LAMOTTE
See HAKAMAYA (2001:51 n. 24; 2008:373-386). (1944:441). In my view, the notion of "becoming a buddha" (buddho bhavati) signifies the
4
See ENOMOTO (1998; 2000). See also KRITZER (2005) for an aspect of the Yogiicara- tho~ght of release (mok~a, mukti, vimuktJ: etc.), for which see below, fn. 19.
like Abh1dharma-tradition in the Sarvastivada. See HAKAMAYA(2005; 2002:59-116). .
314 Noriaki HAKAMAYA
9
( upadhivarika), and 'overseer' (karmadana), etc. One famous serving monk was, as
Jonathan SILK (2008:49-50, 159-160) has pointed out, Dravya Mallaputra (Pali:
Dabba Mallaputta). In connection with the eighth sa1J1gha-suspension rule
(sa1J1ghavase~a) in the various Vinaya versions of each sect (TOMOMATSU,
1965:81-96), it is told that Dravya Mallaputra was appointed by the sa1J1gha to
serve in some affairs and to provide his service for certain monks, who could be
considered to belong to the pravra;i'to bodhisattvafJ group. Though it is difficult to
define the tasks of such "serving monks" as Dravya Mallaputra explicitly, the affairs
they were concerned with in general were such matters as the assignment of
sleeping mats or cells, etc., and the distribution of food, robes, and other articles, 10
which had been donated to the Sa1J1gha to serve the members of the pravrajito
bodhisattvafJ group, such as Dharma-teachers ( dharmakathika), Vinaya-masters
( vinayadhara), Sutra-masters (siitradhara), doctrinal-list-masters (matrkadhara),
masters of the collection of bodhisattva-teachings ( bodhisattvapl{akadhara),
wilderness-dwellers ( ara1;yaka), rag-wearers (pa1J1sukiilika), alms-beggars (pai.IJ<fa-
patika), and so forth. 11 The pravrajito bodhisattvafJ monks, i.e., the served monks,
may essentially be divided into two sub-groups, namely, the scholastic monks
( dharmakathika, vinayadhara, sutradhara, matrkadhara, bodhisattvapifakadhara,
etc.) and the ascetic monks (ara.IJyaka, fa1J1sukiilika, pa1y<japatika, etc.). In this
way - and as clearly pointed out by SILK1 - the monastic activities of the Buddhist
clergy mentioned above may be understood as consisting of three aspects: (1)
meditation, (2) study, and (3) service. In an extensive list of sentient beings found
in the Yogacarabhiimi (HAKAMAYA, 1999), these activities would respectively be
equivalent .to those of the 'striver for abandonment' (prahaJJika), the 'reciter'
(svadhyayakaraka), and the 'caretaker' ( vaiyavrtyakara).
The activities of meditation and study have been dealt with adequately by
Gregory SCHOPEN in his study of the usage of 'meditation' ( dhyana, Tib. bsam gtan)
and 'study' ( adhyayana, Tib. ldog pa) in the Maitreyasi1J1hanadasiitra and related
9
See SILK (2008). In this book, he says (op.cit.:18 fn. 3) "in many contexts this word
[ vaiyavrtya/vaiyaprtya] might be better rendered "administration," but for the time being it
may be best to employ the conservative translation "service"." However, in the present
paper I translate a series of such words into "service" and consequently label the monks
occupied with services as "serving monks," because what characterizes these monks is that
such services were undertaken only by the lowest castes and servants, even though the
"service" may have shifted into "administration." For a story of seventeen upadhivarikas or
karmadanas translated from the Tibetan version of the Mula-Sarvastivada Vinayavibha.riga,
see lIAKAMAYA(2002, first published in 1993:252-254) and SILK(2008:111-112).
10
See SILK (2008:39-175).
11
These eight types of monks are the first among the twenty-two types enumerated in
the Dasabhumikavibha~a (+1:t~~tJ>wa Shizhu pip6sha Jun, T1521.63a2.8). The twenty-
two monks in the Dasabhumikav1bha~a have been compared with the ones listed in the
Ugradattapariprcchasutra in its various Chinese and Tibetan editions (i.e., T322; T323;
T310[19]; and Q760[19]) by A HIRAKAWA (1968:531-538), on which I have given my
opinion in HAKAMAYA (2002, first published in 1992:194-195).
12 SILK (2008:17-26, 59-73), wherein he criticizes some of my readings and
understanding of the related materials. I am going to amend my views according to his
suggestions. But for now, I must admit that it is my mistake that I regarded praha.r1ika ('a
striver') as a non-ascetic monk in BAK.AMAYA (1999: 156-157), because a praha]Jika directly
indicates a dhyayin ('meditator') as SILK has pointed out, and so the monk should be an
ascetic or a meditating monk.
Serving and Served Monks 315
materials. 13 As SCH OPEN points out, descriptions of the two activities for a monk
being dhyana and adhyayana are common in Mula-Sarvastivada Vinaya texts, but
importantly the two activities have been interpreted as an either-or choice. 14 In
such texts, dhyana and adhyayana are indeed presented as alternatives, where
monks choose exclusively one or the other, but there are also cases in which monks
pursue both. For example:
i. In one of the stories concerning the third sa1J1gha-expulsion rule (parajika), 15
the son of the guild-leader (sre~thin), who wants to enter the Buddhist
sal]1gha, chooses the adhyayana course, studies the threefold canon ( tripifaka)
in another country, and becomes a great Dharma-teacher ( dharmakathika,
Tib. chos sgrogs pa) capable of using logic and free flowing eloquence (rigs
pa dang grol ba 'i spobs pa can, yuktamuktapratibhana). 16
11. In a story relating to the 21st payantika rule (i.e., a monastic rule whose
breach requir_es ~xpi~tior), whi~h substantially corresponds to the 35th chap-
ter of the D1vyavadana, Mahapanthaka, the brother of (Ciiqa-)Panthaka,
chooses both the dhyana and adhyayana courses, and eventually becomes an
arhat who is praised with the words "one for whom a clod and gold are
equal" (samalo~fakaiicana), "one who has the mind which regards space and
the palm of one's hand as being equal" ( akasapa.IJitalasamacitta), and "he
who [observes] the rule of the ax and sandalwood [which are equal for him]"
( vasfcandanakalpa). 18
Generally speaking, monks involved variously in dhyana or adhyayana were
both praised by the laity. Yet, among these two, the former type was praised more
highly than the latter, since the laity - most of whom were Hindus - wanted to
13
See SCH OPEN (2005, first published in 1999:63-107, esp. 68-74).
14
SCHOPEN (2005:69) and SILK (2008:25). With regard to the problem of the monk's
two activities of dhyana and adhyayana, SILK states that further consideration or
reconsideration is required. What follows here is my own interpretation of the concerned
problem. In my opinion, one of the extreme forms of the saIJ]gha, where scholastic monks
have been neglected or have turned completely into ascetic or meditating monks, but where
the relationship between served monks and serving monks nevertheless continues to
funcfJon, is a formation first seen in the Chan (W) saIJ]gha in China.
Q1032.che.115b2-119a1; D3.ca.128br133a3 ; T1442.658b-659c. According to the
narratives surrounding this third parajika rule, murder and suicide penetrated into the
SaIJ1gha due to monks speaking highly of death after they had listened to explanations on
the 'contemplation of the impure' ( asubhabhavana) preached by the Buddha. We may have
to recognize a Hinduistic or animistic background on which such praises of death might be
based.
16
As for this Sankrit phrase, see HIRAOKA (2007.1:24 n. 2) ad Di'vyavadana (COWELL &
NEIL, 1886:3294).
17
Ql032.ne.58a3-8lb7: D3.ja.61c4-86b1, T1442.794c-803c; COWELL & NEIL (1886:483-
515); HIRAOKA (2007.11:322-397).
18
As for these three Sanskrit expressions addressed to arhats, see the common
expression 7C in HIRAOKA (2002:170-171). Cf. HIRAOKA (2007.1:230, fn. 20) ad Divyava-
dana (COWELL & NEIL, 1886:9725.zs), and HAKAMAYA (2000:271, 253-252 n. 56; 2002:71-72,
84 n. 24). Further, for the Hinduistic usage of the word vasi-candana-kalpa, see TANIGAWA
(1994; 1996). Such usage is also found in the Bhagavadgita, VI.Bed: "A yogi, for whom a
c,lod, ~ ~tone, and gold are equal, is said to be controlled" (yukta ity ucyate yogi samalo~ta-
smakancanafi).
316 Noriaki HAKAMAYA
release (mok~a, santi, m'zvrtj) their souls (atman) from their bodies (deha, am1~a) 19
by performing meritorious actions (krtapupya) toward dhyapns or prahapjkas, i.e.,
monks engaged in the practice of dhyana, whom the laity believed to be more fruit-
ful objects of veneration (dak~jpfya) or sources of benefit (pupyak~etra). 20 However,
the serving monks must have taken care not only of monks pursuing meditation but
also of monks involved in studies, and must have worked hard in the temple with
sweeping, daubing cow dung, sprinkling frankincense, locking and opening the gate,
and cleaning up the places of excrements and urine. 21 In this manner, each of these
three types of monks participated in the Buddhist community with their respective
activities of (1) meditation ( dhyana), (2) study ( adhyayana), and (3) service ( va1'ya-
vrtya, upadhkara). To this, the AkasagarbhasrJtra gives the following estimation: 22
If [the serving monks] give profit and property belonging to the monks
striving for abandonment ( dge slang spong ba la brtson pa, praha.JJ1'ka
bhik~avalJ = dhyayino bh1'k.fava1J, the ascetic monks) to the monks stri-
ving for reading by heart (kha ton la brtson pa 'i dge slang, svadhyayabhi-
rata bh1'k~ava1J = adhyayanasrita bhik~avalJ = the scholastic monks), they
both fall into radical sins (!hung ba'i rtsa ba, mulapatti). 23 Why? Because
the meditating or ascetic monk ( dge slang bsam gtan pa, dhyayi bhikJuiJ)
is a good field [of merit] (zhing dam pa, sukJetra = pu.JJyakJetra, dakJi-
JJiya), but those who are engaged in study and service (kha ton pa dang
zhal ta la gnas pa, adhyayanavaiyavrtyasrita) are not so. The meditating
or ascetic monks are those who have become vessels ( snod du gyur pa,
bhajanibhuta) wherein samadhis, dhara.JJis, kJantis, and bhumis are col-
lected, good recipients of gifts (sbyin gnas dam pa, dakJi.JJiya), those who
have become good bowls (snod dam par gyur pa, patrabhuta), illumina-
tors of the world, those who show the path, those who release living
beings from the field of action and the field of defilements, and those
who place [them] on the path leading to release (nirva.JJa).
It is here quite obvious that the meditating or ascetic monks stand out as the most
venerable ( dak~jJJiya) from the other monks, i.e., the scholastic monks and the
serving monks. This is because the householder bodhisattva group (grhi
bodhjsatvaiJ), consisting of the Hinduistic laity, does not regard the scholastic
monks highly but is instead devoted to the ascetic monks, who might be able to
release them from the wheel of rebirth by repaying or substituting their meritori-
19
MATSUMOTO (1989:191-224) defines mokJa or nirva.JJa as the release of atman from
non-atman. I completely agree with him on this point and follow his definition here,
although he has criticized me for having admitted the idea of "becoming a buddha"
( buddho bhavati) as constituting the thought of release. For my response to his critique,
see lIAKAMAYA (2000:288-286).
2
° Concerning the relationship between the Buddha as the most fruitful dakJi.JJiya and
meritorious actions (krtapu.JJya) performed by the laity, see the four verses shown in GNOLI
(1977:124). The four verses and related materials are discussed in HAKAMAYA(2002:72-73).
21
Regarding their way of working, see, for example, the story of seventeen upadhi-
varikas or karmadanas mentioned above in fn. 9. For more details, see SCHOPEN (2005)
and SILK (2008).
22
The following translation of mine is mainly based on the Tibetan version
(Q926.292b5_8; D260.278a2_4). SILK'S (2008:17-18, 219-220) translation of the same passage
is mainly given on the basis of the Sanskrit cited in the SikJasamuccaya. His reading is
supplied with detailed annotations providing parallel materials.
23
As for the mulapatti asserted in the Alalsagarbhasutra, see TATZ (1986: 316-321).
Serving and Served Monks 317
24
ous actions with ascetic practice. Consequently, the ascetic monks would have
been increasingly worthy of reverence for the grhi bodhjsattvafJ group during the
Hinduistic phase of the sa1pgha, and thus came to be labeled pravrajjto bodhj-
sattvas, even though it is usually the Buddha who is praised as the highest dak~1piya,
often with a collocation of four words expressing 'venerability'. 25 As a result, the
scholastic monks were either gradually neglected or had to shift toward ascetic or
meditation-like practices in that the pressures of Hinduistic . preferences and
customs exhorted them to perform recitations rather than study. 26 In view of this, it
would seem to have been such low-sunk monks who preached various stories about
buddhas, bodhisattvas, or ascetics to the householder bodhisattva group, whom
24
Such Hinduistic customs of releasing the soul from the body is reported in
Xuanzang's Indian trave~og Report of the Western Regions ofthe Great Tang Dynasty (Da
Tang Xi'yu Ji :*:@lz§:1:~liic, T2087.897c; English translation BEAL, 1884.1:233-234) and in
Yijing's Indian travelog A Record ofBuddhist Practices Sent Home from the Southern Sea
(Nanha1ji'gui neifa zhuan 1¥11e~iwr3iM$, T2125.231a-c; English translation TAKAKUSU,
1896:195-198).
25
The collocation of four words expressing venerability referred to here consists of the
words 'to honor' (sat-kr), 'to praise' (guru-kr), 'to esteem' (man), and 'to worship' (puj), for
which HAKAMAYA (2000:281-277; 2002:59-60) should be consulted. Another such
collocation is a collocation of four words signifying 'release', namely the words 'to ferry' ( tr,
rgal bar byed), 'to liberate' (muc, grol bar byed), 'to calm' (a-svas, dbugs 'byin par byed),
and 'to completely emancipate' (pari-nir-vr/va, yangs su mya ngan las 'das par byed), which
are addressed to the Buddha, arhats, or bodhisattvas, etc., as representing the highest
dak~1"i,1iya. The latter collocation appears, for example, in the description of the third
expulsion rule (parajika) of the Sarvastivada Vinaya (01032.che.119b 7) in connection with
the contemplation of the impure ( asubhabhavana, cf. fn. 15 above) as follows: "ferrying
those who are not ferried, liberating those who are not liberated, calming those who are not
calmed, completely emancipating those who are unemancipated" (ma rgal ba rgal bar byed
I ma grol ba grol bar byedI dbugs ma phyin pa dbugs 'byin par byed/ yongs su mya ngan las
ma 'das pa yangs su mya ngan las 'das par byed pa; *atir.JJanaip tarayita amuktanal!J
mocayita aniisvastanam asvasayita aparinirvrtanalJJ parinirvapayita). For this collocation of
four words signifying release, see HAKAMAYA (2005:12-14), HIRAOKA (2002:174-175 (the
common expression 8C) and 326-334).
26
SILK (2008:19 n. 5) wrote: "[Hakamaya states] that the svadhyayakaraka was a low-
status monk who, on account of his good voice, recited scriptures for the laity gathered at
th~ .s~upa for s?me ritual. This is speculation pure and simple." To respond briefly to this
cntic1sm, I believe that the scholastic monks were exhorted to perform recitations rather
than study on the basis of the following description found in the Ksudrakavastu of the
Mula-Sarvastivada Vinaya (01035.de.43a 3_4 ; D6.tha.46a2_3 ; Tl451.223b 8_11 ), wherein the
householder (grhin) Anathapil)c;lada recommends the Buddha to make Buddhist monks
recite scriptures loudly with their good voices, saying: "Venerable one, thus meanwhile, the
non-Buddhist teachings are said to be mistaken in terms of taming [the mind], but
neve:theless [the non-Buddhists] recite [their] scriptures with their voices serving as an
offermg of thanks. To the contrary, the [Buddhist] Noble Ones recite [hoarsely] in the same
[act of]_ reciting scriptures just like they spit out a cluster of nuts of the Jujube tree (rgya
sh.ug g_1 'br~s bu, *badaraphala). It would therefore be excellent, if the Bhagavan, against
this [s1tuati_on], were to allow the Noble Ones to recite scriptures with their voices serving
as an offermg of thanks." (btsun pa 'di !tar re zhig mu stegs can rnams kyi chos 'du/bani
nyes par sm:as pa lags kyang I de dag skad kyigtang rag gis gzhung 'don par bgyid la/ 'phags
pa rnams m gzhung 'don pa nyid na rgya shug gi 'bras bu 'i tshog5 gtor ba bzhin 'don pas de la
gal te beam ldan 'das kyis 'phags pa rnams kyang skad kyi gtang rag gis gzhung 'don par
gnang na legs so /;I).
318 Noriaki HAKAMAYA
they addressed as sons or daughters of the good community (kulaputr~,. kula-
duhitr).27 The serving monks would t_~us have h!d to ~ork harder to facilitate a
good relationship between the pravrapto and grh1 bodh~satt":aiJ groups. . . is a collection of the words of the Buddha or the Tathagata ( buddhavacana),
A similar inclination in the Buddhist salJlgha for estlmatmg the ascetic or _medi-
tating monks very highly may also be recognized as a matter of course m the
Ksudrakavastu of the Mula-Sarvastivada Vinaya in the story of Nanda, the
B~ddha's half-brother. 28 Nanda had become a monk at the urging of the Buddha
and had been appointed by Ananda acting on behalf of the Buddha as a steward
( upadhivarika, khang skyong)29 for the salJlgha. Bei~g tormen_t~d _with thoughts of
his wife Sundari Nanda eventually abandoned his upadhwanka-duty, and by
listening to the aarbhavakrantinirdes~ scripture a~d observins medita!ion-?bJ~cts
through relying on the contemplation of th~ impure ( asubhabhavana ), h~.
obtained arhatship and enjoyed the joy and happmess of release ( rnam p~r g~o! ba 1
dga' ba dang bde ba, vimuktipritisukha). The story finally reveals that his spmt~al
attainment was the result of his past activities in former lives, such as those which
he did as a garden-keeper (skyed mos tshal srung ba, udyanapala or aramika) 31
when he built a stiipa for a certain pratyekabuddha, who was the only_ person
worthy of veneration (yon gnas, dak$iIJiya) during that ag~. Thus, Nanda h1m~elf -
an ascetic or meditating monk being an excellent dak~IIJiya - holds a dommant
position as a pravrajito bodhisattvaiJ in the Vinaya literature of the Mula-
Sarvastivada School, although he began as a serving monk functioning as an
upadhivarika and formerly having been a grhi bodhisattv_aiJ working as an udyana-
pala/aramika as well as a prince who became a servmg monk under Buddha
Kasyapa long ago.
II.
When analyzing the formation of the Yogacarabhiimi, the do~inant pos_iti<:>~ of
ascetic or meditating monks as pravrajito bodhisattva~ found_ i_n the Sa1:7ashv~da
or Mula-Sarvastivada literature needs to be taken mto cnhcal cons1derat1on,
because the Yogacarabhiimi seems to have been con:iposed by ~ogacar~s ?e!ng
ascetic or meditating monks belonging to the Sarvastlvada or Mula-Sarvast1vada
sect.
27
For my opinion that kuJaputras and kuJaduhi(rs in the Mahayanasutras make up the
grhibodhisattvah group, see HAKAMAYA(1999:152-153, 167 n. 41; 2002:437-438).
•
28
Q1035.de ..114aT150b8 ; D6.tha.1l9a 3-158b 5 ; Tl451.25la1r262a19. With regard to how .
Nanda is depicted as an ascetic monk in Asvagho~a's ~aundarananda, se~ YAMAB~(200~).. .i
I do not think that the monks belonging to the Sarvast1vada School were mcompat1ble wtth ,
being Yogacaras. . . . .
29
It is hard to determine what the Sansknt eqmvalent to the Tibetan khang skyong IS.
It might be 'monastery-keeper' ( *viharapaJa) or 'steward' ( *upadhivarika) - I chose to
adopt the latter tentatively. For more i?"f?rm~tion, see SILK (200~:110 n. 32? 144 n. 33). · .~
3
° Concerning the Garbhavakrantm1rdesa, see A Comparative Analyt1caJ Catalogue of
the Kanjur Division of the Tibetan Tripitaka, Kyoto, 1930-1932, p. 239, notes 13 and 14 ~d
Q760-13 and Q760-14. See also the articles by Nobuyoshi YAMABE and Robert ~~IT~ERD1
the present volume. As for the sut-ca allude~ to ,at t~e ~-nd of the Garbh!vak~ntm1rdes~ see .
text no. 36 of the Sarpyuktagama (fflfwI-a*~ Za ahanpng, T99.7c-8a; YINSHUN, 1983.I.139';
140) and VastusarpgrahaJJf (D4039.l 73b 1_6 ; Tl579.793a18-b 2). Furthermore, see above, fD. :
15, for the contemplation of the impure (asubhabhavana).
31
For this Tibetan word, see SILK (2008:47-48 n. 40).
Serving and Served Monks 319
According to the orthodoxy of the Sarvastivada School, the Buddhist teaching
comprising the three scri~tural collections called the three baskets ( tripifaka) of
siitra, abhidharma, and vmaya. Among these, the siitra- and abhidharmapifakas
are, for the most part, considered 'good' (kusala) while the vinayapifaka, for the
most part, is considered 'indeterminate' ( avyakrta, i.e., neither good nor bad),
because the siitra and abhidharma are made up of words which the Buddha spoke
about his philosophy ( abhidharma) and his higher thought ( dr~ti) from a theoreti-
cal point of view, and on the basis of which his disciples discussed the orthodoxy,
whereas the vinaya consists of words that the Buddha spoke about moral ( vinaya)
and custo.ms f!I1a! based ?n a neutral mind considering things from a practical
point of view. - It 1s also said that the words expressed by the Buddha were unique
Cf #:ii bu gong ming, aveIJikani namani), spoken in the world for the first time,
even though there are so many words in the world regardless of whether the
33
Buddha would have appeared or not. It was the task of the scholastic monks, who
often are called the abhidharmikas, i.e., 'those with the Abhidharma-writings', to
study the Buddha's words mainly based on the siitrapifaka, whereupon they
composed the Abhidharma literature belonging to the Sarvastivada or Mula-
Sarvastivada School, which formed a background for the Yogacarabhiim1:
SCHMITHAUSEN (1973; 1976; 2007), who seems to regard the Yogaciirabhiimi
as having been composed in a (Mula-)Sarvastivada environment, has also inquired
into the Y ogacara literature from the standpoint of spiritual practice rather than as
a philosophical theory. I believe this type of inquiry to be very important, because
32
See J.ianaprasthana (Apit;in bajiandu Jun fwJ mttJ\mNsife, Tl543.853b 22_29;
Apfdam6 fazhi Jun fwI.m~M~~smt, Tl544.981a27 -b5) and Mahavibha~a (Apfdam6 da
pfp6sha Jun 1wJ _m~m:*:_m~19>Smf, Tl545.658c24 -659c8 ). See my remarks on these passages
in HAKAMAYA (2008:195-197).
33
The MahaVIbha~a states:
Question: Whether the Buddha is there or not, there always exists a
certain corpus of words, expressions, and phonemes ( *namapada-
ryaiijanakaya) in the world; so why do the siitras say "as soon as the
Tathagata appeared in the world, there appeared a [new] collection of
many different corpora of words, etc., in this world"?
Answer: [The siitras] say so because they rely on [the Tathagata's]
own unique words; just like [the terms] 'Buddha', 'Dharma', 'Sa:rµgha',
'aggregates', 'constituents', 'fields of perception', and so forth appear
as words only when the Buddha has appeared in the world.
Fni ~{?tf+M?t, t!tFsita~iS{v:x!J,, {iiJi&t~§, ~D*l:Bt!t, {~~f~fit~
T1545.74a9_13: O
~~~, tBmfil00°~ ~~~iS,~~~~ ~~$fflffiW~~, ~~l:Bt!t, E
0
0
~ lftiS This explanation clearly contrasts with and is indeed incompatible with
O
•
pr~clamations, such as the following, appearing in the Paiicavirpsatisahasrika Prajiiapara-
m1ta:
Whether the Tathagatas appear or not, there is existence of the being-
as-such of things, what abides within things, the basic constituent of
things, what is restrained within things, Suchness ...
Utpadad va tathagatanam anutpadad va sthitaiva1~a dharmaJJarp dharmata dharmasthitita
dharmadhaturdharmaniyamata tathata... (KIMURA, 1986-2009.I-2:63).
320 Noriaki HAKAMAYA
the Y ogacaras are in the Sarvastivada School considered to be the ones for whom
spiritual practice is more a matter of factual concern rather than mere philoso-
phical theory. This is comparable to how Asvagho~a, who likewise belonged to the
Sarvastivada tradition, 34 composed the Saundarananda and narrated the legend of
Nanda as an ascetic or meditating monk from a viewpoint of stressing spiritual
practice. 35 The yogiiciiras are thus apt to extend their arguments based on their
spiritual practices rather than on the traditional sutrapifaka. For example,
according to SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:240-241), the expression "nothing but cogni-
tion" ( vij.iaptimiitra) is used for the first time in the Sa1f1dhinirmocanasutra, and it
1
was put forth there on the basis of the yogin s practice of observing meditation-
objects. SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:241) asserts:
As we have seen, the Sarp.dhinirmocanasutra starts from the ideality of
meditation-objects (which had already been articulated by the Sutra
quoted in the Sravakabhumi) and then simply extends this fact to ordi-
nary objects, without justifying this procedure by any rational argument.
Thus, the result of our examination of the oldest materials of the
Y ogacara school clearly speaks in favour of the theory that Y ogacara
idealism primarily resulted from a generalization of a fact observed in the
case of meditation-objects, i.e. in the context of spiritual practice.
I completely agree with this conclusion and I think it is necessary to examine the
earlier parts of the Yogiiciirabhum1: where elements from the later Salfldhi-
nirmocanasutra have not been interpolated, from the standpoint of the spiritual
practices of yogins and Yogacaras, i.e., the ascetic or meditating monks who
belonged to the Sarvastivada School and behaved according to the Vinaya-codex of
this sect, who often were venerated as renunciant bodhisattvas (pravraji''to
bodhisattvaiJ) by the householder bodhisattva group (grhi bodhisattvaiJ) and who
were taken care of by the serving monks.
As an attempt to illustrate this approach, I shall here present some readings of
passages from the 'Conduct Chapter' (Silapafala) of the Bodhisattvabhumi from
within the Yogiiciirabhumi as seen from this point of view. The Bodhisattvabhumi
is considered to have been composed and compiled by scholastic monks of the
renunciant bodhisattva group (pravrajito bodhisattvaiJ), similar to Asvagho~a, who
entertained deep sympathy for spiritual practices and who might have become
ascetic or meditating monks themselves. It is highly probable that the Bodhisattva-
bhumi was presented by such monks for the sake of the householder bodhisattva
group (grhi bodhisattvaiJ), just like the Mahayanasiitras had been. 36 It is owing to
such circumstances that the bodhisattvas in the Bodhisattvabhumi belong to both
34
For the materials and opinions that Asvagho~a belonged to the Sarvastivada School,
see KANAKURA (1966:6-9).
35 See Y AMABE (2003), who compares the expressions sfla, indriyasarpvara, bhojane
matrajnalJ, purvarp yamarp triyamayalJ prayogel}atinamya ... , sarpprajanan ... smrtim
adhatum and kayasya manaso vive/a!J occurring in the Saundarananda, cantos XIII and
XIV, with their attestations in the Sravakabhumi
36 As is well known, the Bodhisattvabhumi itself is also considered to have circulated in
the form of a Mahayanasutra as the titles of some of the earlier extant versions of the
Bodhisattvabhumi show, namely, Gm;avarman's Chinese translation from 431 CE of the
*Bodhisattvasilasutra (Pusit dichi jfng ~fui~nxJ-fil, T1582) and Dharmak~ema's Chinese
translation from the 410s-420s of the *Bodhisattvabhumisutra (Pusit dkhi;ing ~~tt!!M:
*-fil, T1581).
Serving and Served Monks 321
groups of pravra1ito as well as grhi bodhisattvas, to which the g'roup of serving
monks must be added./
According to the Silapa,tala of the Bodhisattvabhumi, all conduct (sarvasila) of
both types of bodhisattvas ( also including serving monks) is of three sorts: (a) the
conduct of disciplines (sa1f1varasila), (b) the conduct of gathering wholesome
actions (kusaladharmasa1f1griihakasila), and (c) the conduct of performing actions
benefiting sentient beings (sattviirthakriyasila). 37 Among these, (a) sa1f1varasila
actually means that each of seven classes of the sa1f1gha ( succinctly comprised by
clergy and laity) observes his or her code of precepts (pratimok~a). Put simply, the
clergy follows the monk- or nun-discipline ( bh1'kfu-/bhikfUIJi-/sik{,amii1Jii-
/srama1Jera-/sriima1Jerisa1f1vara), while laity observes the lay-practitioner-discipline
( upasaka-/upiis1kiisa1f1vara), namely the five precepts called the five steps of
1
38
training' (pa.icaSJ'kfiipada). Once a practitioner has undertaken the conduct of
disciplines (silasa1f1varasamiidiiniid urdhvam), 39 each of the seven classes of the
community, i.e., both groups, concerns itself with practicing (b) the kusaladharma-
sa!pgriihakasila and (c) the sattviirthakriyiisila. At this stage, the practitioners
might be regarded as having taken the vow (praIJJGhiina) to become a Buddha
( buddho bhaveyam), and they can therefore be called renunciant or householder
bodhisattvas (pravraJito bodhisattvaiJ or grhi bodhisattvaiJ). Although it is difficult
to distinguish who among them are pravrajito bodhisattvas, grhi bodhisattvas, or
serving monks, it is probable that the description of categories (b) and (c) mostly
addressed grhi bodhisattvas, although it must be granted that the intention of these
p31ssages would apply to both types of bodhisattvas. T~ illustrate this point, the
Silapa,ta/a passages pre sen ting conduct (b) and (c) shall now be presented:
(b) The conduct of gathering wholesome actions (kusaladharma-
smpgrahakasOa):
tatha gurilJJam abhivadanavandanapratyutthananjalikarmaJJalJ kalena
kalaip karta bhavati/ tatha kalena kalarp te~am eva gurilJJarp gaura-
veJJopasthanasya karta bhavati/ glananarp satlqtya karuJJyena glanopa-
sthanasya karta bhavati// 40
Likewise, he (the bodhisattva) becomes one who from time to time to-
ward his gurus performs the obligation of saluting with reverence ( abhi-
vadana), shows reverence ( vandana), rises from his seat (pratyutthana)
and joins his palms ( anjali). Likewise, he becomes one who from time to
time toward the same gurus acts out of his obligation to devote his service
( upasthana) with respect (gaurava). He becomes one who devotes his
service to nurse sickness and treat the ill with hospitality and compassion.
It appears from this description that such a bodhisattva cannot be a renunciant
bodhisattva (pravrajito bodhisattvaiJ) in the sense of being an ascetic or meditating
37 S ee DUTT (1966:96 _ ) and WOGIHARA (1930-1936:138 . ).
38 69 18 23
.s~e ~UTT (1966:9610-12), WOGIHARA (1930-1936:13824-25), and TATZ (1986:48). For
the_ ~1s~1plme (sarpvara) or code of precepts (pratimok~a) of the seven classes (sapta-
1!a1~ayika) except for the upavasa, consult the definitions from the Abhidharmakosabhasya
md1cated above in fn. 5. ·
39
Literally: "From having taken up the conduct of discipline and onwards ... " This
expression is borrowed from the Bodhisattvabhumi (DUTT, 1996:96 13 _14 • WOGIHARA 1930-
1936:1392). ' '
40
Dun (1966:9617-19), WOGIHARA (1930-1936:1397-11), and TATZ (1986:49).
322 N oriaki HAKAMA YA
monk. Rather, he must be a householder bodhisattva (grhi bodhisattvalJ), who can
worship the renunciant bodhisattvas as being the true objects of reverence
( dak~1yiya) as expressed in the above collocation with the four words signifying
'venerability',41 or he has to be a serving monk, who works hard with various
activities and can offer many such services to his gurus.
Conduct (c) includes eleven different types, from which only the eighth type
shall be quoted here:
( c) The conduct of performing actions benefiting sentient beings ( sattvar-
thakriyaslla):
alapanasal/llapanapratisammodanaiiJ kalenopasal/lkramaIJataya parato
bhojanapanadi[pratI]grahato lauk1karthanmyavaharataiJ ahiitasyagama-
nagamanataiJ samasataiJ sarvanarthopasal!1hitamanapasamudacarapari-
vaijanais cittanuvartanata/ 42
Periodically, when engaged in conversation, dialogues, or salutations,
[the bodhisattva] receives food, drink, and so forth from others, he acts
according to worldly benefit, and he comes and goes when called, in brief,
he complies with his mind by avoiding all disagreeable conduct uncon-
nected with benefit.
It is not possible that such a bodhisattva, who receives much from others and
acts according to world profit, could be a renunciant bodhisattva. He must there-
fore be a householder bodhisattva or a serving monk.
Another passage that illustrates this pattern comes from the Chapter on Giving
(D:inapafala) of the Bodhisattvabhiimi, where the bodhisattva is a householder
(grhin) none other than a king: 43
napi bodhisattva raja miirdhabhi~1ktaiJ prabhuiJ sve prthivimaIJcjale
sattvanfil/1 saparigrahfiIJfil/1 parakiyal/1 putradaral/1 pare~am antikad
acch1dya pare~am anuprayacchatI/. ..
Although a bodhisattva, mighty king with consecrated head, taking an-
other's sons and wives away from the ones among the sentient beings
possessing properties in the [king]'s own circuit of earth, does not give
[them] to others, ...
It is clear that the bodhisattva spoken of here is a grhi bodhisattvaJ;, namely a
king who has been enthroned by having his head sprinkled.
In contrast to such grhi bodhisattvalJ, the pravrajito bodhisattvalJ group was
revered highly by the grhi bodhisattvas and these renunciant bodhisattvas were
cared for and served by the serving monks, such as the vaiy:iv_rtyakara, upadhi-
41 I.e., the words abhivadana, vandana, pratyutthana, and aiijali in the quoted passage.
These words suggest that the grhi bodhisattvaiJ worshiped the pravrajito bodhisattvaiJ with
the collocation of four words expressing venerability (satkr, gurukr, man, prlj), similar to
what was discussed above in fn. 25.
42 DUTT (1966:9717_19), WOGIHARA (1930-1936:14016-20), and TATZ (1986:50). For a full
examination of the whole Silapafala, consult HADANO (1993).
43
DUTT (1966:8317-18), WOGIHARA (1930-1936:1194_7); D4037.64a6-i byang chub sems_
dpa 'ni rgyal po spyi bo nas dbang bskur ba 'i bdag por gyur na yang bdag gis ris su gtogs pa~
sems can yongs su 'clzin pa dang bcas pa rnams kyi gzhan gyi bu dang chung ma gzhan dag
las phrogs telgzhan dag la sbyin par mi byed ky1/. ..
Serving and Served Monks 323
- ika and karmad:ina discussed above. For example, in a story from the
V:f~i's~jyavastu of the Vinaya literature, which substantially corresponds to the
o~d chapter of the Divy:ivadana, the type of serving monks called 'stewards'
s~c rpadhivarika, dge skos) is listed as one of the five kinds of individuals who may
44
~eieive their food ahead of the Tathagata, thus illustrating their favored status:
Jnga gang zhe na/ glo bur pa dang/ 'gro bar chas pa dang/ nad pa dang/
nad g.yog dang/ dge skos so//
katame paiica/ agantukasya gamikasya glanasya glanopasthayakasyopa-
dhivarikasya ca/
Who are the five [persons]? [They are] the visitors (agantuka), those
going away (gamika), the ill (glana), those nursing the ill (glanopa-
sthayaka), and the stewards ( upadhivanka).
Such persons may be regarded as monks belonging mainly to the pravrajito
bodhisattval; group, because they are dakfipiya-like bodhisattvas worthy of recei-
ving their food ahead of the Tathagata, alth?ugh I shall not discuss !h}s _matter here
in detail. 4:, This issue leaves open the quest10n whether the upadh1varika would be
a serving or a served monk if he is considered a dakfipiya-like bodhisattva. In my
opinion, he is nothing more than a serving monk even though he is a kind of
46
daksiniya; he is only a nominal dakJipiya.
i~ conclusion, for a study of the community responsible for composing the
early parts of the Yog:ic:irabhiimi, which are still without interpolations from the
Samdhinirmocanasiitra, I believe that it is necessary to distinguish the pravrajito
bodhisattvaiJ from the grhi bodhisattvalJ, i.e., the ascetic or meditating monks from
the scholastic monks, as well as the served monks from the serving monks. It is
clear that serving monks do not always appear with any definite title of their
activities in the related literature, :probably because they worked hard behind the
scenes of the Salpgha. yet, in the Sravakabhiimiviniscaya section of the Viniscaya-
44 Q1030.ge.4b4; Dl.kha.5a1.2; T1448.16a. Cf. COWELL & NEIL (1886, 5026-28) and
HIRAOKA (2007.1:89, 113-114 n. 209).
45 With regard to the possibility that the ill (glana) as well as parents (matr, pitr) and
Dharma-teachers ( dharmakathika) may be considered objects of veneration ( dak~i.{liya)
worthy of receiving sacrifice (dak~i.{la), see AbhidharmakoiabhaJya IV.118 (PRADHAN,
1967:271: DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN, 1971.III:240-241), which I have commented upon in
HAKAMAYA (2002:440, 448-450 n. 50) with additional remarks. It must further be noted
that four persons in the above list of five persons mentioned in the BhaiJajyavastu, i.e., the
agantuka, gam1ka, glana, and glilnopasthayaka, are included in the seven kinds of
opportunity for performing material meritorious deeds (aupadh1kal!1 pul)yakriyilvastu). I
have cited and discussed the literature concerning the aupadh1kal!1 puIJyakriyavastu in
IfAKAMAYA (1995:74-75).
46
In other words, a hard-working serving monk is regarded as a dakJiIJiya only in name.
Although SILK (2008:63) seems to think that the fact that a serving monk, such as a
vaiyav,rtyakara, etc., is "not a poor man" demonstrates his being of "a high status", I do not
think that being rich necessarily indicates high status. For example, in the Mula-
Sarvastivada Vinayavibhanga (Q1032.che.141a 3-b 1; T1442.666c 10_25 ), which has been dealt
with in HAKAMAYA (2002:330-332), a wealthy old monk (rgan zhugs, mahalla) replies to a
robber that he is not a high-ranking monk. The position or status of the mahalla (rgan
zhugi;) in the sal/lgha needs to be examined in more detail.
324 Noriaki HAKAMAYA Serving and Served Monks 325

saipgrahaIJi from within the Yogacarabhiimi, serving monks without any explicit
titles appear on the stage of saipgha, shown as taking care of the pravrajito with praJJidhana
clergy 5 classes
bodhisattvalJ group, as I have earlier pointed out (HAKAMAYA, 2001:7-8, 48-49 n. A to become buddha:
15). It is here the siitra-masters (siitradhara), vinaya-masters ( vinayadhara), bhik~u ( 1) ascetic or iirapyaka
doctrinal-list-masters (ma(rkadhara), the yoga-practitioners (yogacara), the ill meditating
piiJ!Jsukulika
monks
(glana, nadpa), etc., who are served by these serving monks. paip(japiitJka
pravajito served dak~1piya
In summary, the following illustration presents the structure of the clergy and yogiiciira
bodhi- monks
the laity discussed in this article: vinayadhara
sattva];
bodhisattva-
pifakadhara
bhikfUfli dharmakathika
siitradhara
(2) scholastic miitrkadhara
monks

(men/ to
women)
(adult/
under- maJJii
aged)

(3) serving
monks to
sriima-
va1yavrtya-
1_1era kara give
upadhivarika glana
karmadana,
etc.

sriima-
1_1eri

dakfipa/
dana

B I laity 2 classes

.· to
(men/ (matr)
women) upasaka [; give
g[hi ~~~~~~ (pitr)
(adult/ upasika
under- bodhisattva]; glana
aged)

A = clergy = 5 classes > clergy with praJJidhana to become buddha = pravrajito bodhisattval;
B = laity = 2 classes > laity with praJJidhana to become buddha = grhi bodhisattva};l
A + B = members of saf!]gha = seven classes (saptanaikayika) > bodhisattva = pravrajito/grhi
bodhisa ttval;
326 Noriaki HAKAMAYA
Sigla
D Tibetan Derge canon
Q Tibetan Peking canon
T Chinese Taisho canon
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Remarks on the Lineage of Indian Masters
of the Yogacara School
Maitreya, Asaiiga, and Vasubandhu
Hidenori S. SAKUMA
Just how much meaning is there in attempting to determine the dates of masters of
the Indian Yogacara school and of Indian Buddhism in general? As is well known,
it is quite difficult to determine the dates of historical figures and events in Indian
history. When attempting to date Indian persons and developments, we are often
forced to calculate their dates on the basis of other reliable dates for various
pertinent non-Indian figures and events, such as the travel records by Chinese
pilgrims like Faxian Utm[, 320?-420?), Xuanzang (:Z~, 602?-664 ), and Yijing (~
~, 635-713), as well as the datable Chinese translations of Buddhist texts. This
method has, however, some degree of uncertainty, since connections between
Indian and non-Indian circumstances and figures are inferred on the assumption
that the events recorded in biographies and other accounts are historical facts.
Consequently, there is in present-day Buddhist studies quite properly a tacit
agreement that the dates of Indian historical figures are no more than conjecture;
yet, it is also true that it is helpful for tracing the course of ideas of a particular
Buddhist school in terms of its historical development if it is described with a focus
on the persons who were the authors of its texts. This also applies to the Indian
Yoga.earn school, and many outstanding studies on the dates of Vasubandhu and
other Y ogacara masters have been published since the end of the nineteenth
century. It is, nonetheless, not surprising that we still have not reached any firm
conclusions regarding chronology.
Given this situation, why would I venture to present some remarks about the
lineage of the Indian masters of the Yogacara-Vijfianavada School? 1 I shall do so
The research for this paper was funded by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research [C]
(2009-2011) from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Sciences. In writing this paper, I
have been indebted to many scholars, starting with Prof. Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN, for
information and material. I would like to mention them all by name, but because of
restrictions on space I wish to thank in particular Prof. YAMABE Nobuyoshi and Dr.
HORIUCHI Toshio for providing me with a wide· range of information and many
photocopies of material. I also wish to thank Prof. A Charles MULLER for kindly checking
the first English version of this paper and my friend Rolf GIEBEL for translating this final
version from Japanese.
1
In this article, I use "Yogacara-Vijfianavada School" as the designation of a school or
group. This reflects my practice of referring to the theories that evolved on the basis of the
experiences of early Y ogacarins as "practical theories" or "theories of practice," and of
referring to the theories that were further scholastically refined once these "practical
theories" had achieved a certain degree of systemization as "doctrinal theories." Combining
Remarks on the Lineage 331
for one simple re~son ~ at times, th~ dates assi.gned .to ~hese_ masters end up
becoming serious 1mped1ments regarding further mvestigations mto the develop-
ment of the theories of this school. One reason why scholars have speculated on
the dates of the masters has been to. infer the d~tes of their works. If it ~an be
established which works should be attnbuted to which master, then by groupmg the
works by author, it becomes easier to trace chronologically the origins _and
development of the doctrinal theories found in textual sources that have survived
as the works of individual authors. Such an approach may have other advantages as
well. Nevertheless, when we focus on the doctrinal theories there often seem to be
chronological contradictions. Consider the works dealing with Yogacara-
Vijfianavada thought; for instance, the Yogficfirabhilmi There are many inst~nces
where it is inconceivable that a given work could have been composed by a smgle
author. Setting aside works that are clearly stated to be compilations,2 there are a
few cases where texts purporting to be single unitary works show evidence of
sentences and paragraphs having been interpolated in later times or where a work
as a whole appears to have been rearranged over a long period of time. 3 In such
the designation "Yogacara school," associated with the practice of yoga, with the
designations "Vijfianavada School," signifying a leaning towards the pursuit of pure theory,
and "Vijfianavada thought," referring to the theories of this school, I shall for the sake of
convenience use the terms "Yogacara-Vijiianavada School" and "Yogacara-Vijiianavada
thought (or theories)." Cf. the use of "Yogacara," "Vijiianavada," and "Yogacara-Vijfiana-
vada" by KHER (1992).
2
As is clear from the canonical catalogs, most of the works included in the Chinese and
Tibetan canons are attributed to single authors, and it is difficult to find co-authored works.
I
I
It is perhaps this fact that has led us to assume that each work had a single author. In the
Chinese canon, there are a few texts attributed to multiple authors, such as the F6dijing Jun
({~ttM~i!fH, *Buddhabhiimisiistra) by Bandhuprabha (~~:Ye Qinguang) et al and the Cheng
weishi Jun (n)GOi~~!Ht *Vijiiaptimfitratasiddhisfistra) by Dharmapala cit1:! Hufa) et al.,
both of which were translated by Xuanzang. Yet, rather than being actual collaborative
works, these texts should be regarded as works that were produced anew by the translator
(and his disciples) in line with his own aims by drawing selectively on the views of various
masters, and in this sense they are closer to being compositions by the translator and need
to be viewed from a different perspective. This shall be addressed in a later publication
when considering the thought of Xuanzang.
3
The Yogficfirabhiimi is a good example of such a compilation. Most scholars agree
that many of the ideas contained in it evolved from the experiences of many yogficarins,
which were then brought together in the Yogficfirabhumi (for a summary of research on
this subject, see TSUKAMOTO et al, 1990:318). In the Yogficfirabhiim1; one may find
passages dating from different periods that have been incorporated in the manner of a
mosaic. As has been analyzed by SCHMITHAUSEN (1987b:499 n.1337) and myself (SAKUMA,
1990.I:104-108), in a segment of the ViniscayasaIJ1graha1Jiof the Yogacfirabhumi (T1579.
58lb 2rc 22 in Xuanzang's translation, corresponding to Tl584.1020a 28 -b 24 in Paramartha's
partial translation of the ViniscayasaIJ1graha1J1), there occurs a passage (T1579.581cs-n =
T1584.1020b 11 _19 = SAKUMA, 1990.11: VinSg 3), wherein the interpretation of the
'transmutation of basis' ( asrayapariv_rtti) does not entail the process of practice in that
ii!frayaparivrtti is equated with tathatfi, which stands in sharp contrast to flayavij~fina,
whereas in the surrounding passages (SAKUMA, 1990.11: VinSg 1, 2 & 4), asrayapanvrtti
includes the process of practice. Furthermore, while Xuanzang consistently translated
asrayaparivrtti as zhuanyi (ft{3x), Paramartha translated it in VinSg 3 (SAKUMA, 1990.11)
as iim6/u6 shi (j)EJ•m~I, *amalavijiifina), whereas he did not use the same translation for
the term in VinSg 1, 2 & 4 (SAKUMA, 1990.11). In other words, it is likely that this
paragraph was interpolated at a later date or at least differs in content from the
332 Hidenori s. SAKUMA
Remarks on the Lineage 333
circumstances, it is more realistic to assume that several people were involved in
more, I shall present questions concerning their dating and some pointers of my
producing the work in its extant form rather than a single author. 4 • •
own in the form of some extended notes.
As a method for tracing changes in the contents - that 1s, theones - of
Y ogacara-Vijfianavada thought, I would like to propose the following methodology.
Instead of focusing primarily on the masters' dates as historical facts, we should 1. Maitreya, Asaitga, and Vasubandhu
concentrate on inferring the origins and development of the theories of Y ogacara-
Vijfianavada thought on the basis of analyses of their contents. In other words, 1.1. Maitreya
rather than tracing the development of these theories under the influence of the Once UI Hakuju (1929) put
forward the view that Maitreya(-natha) must have
largely legendary dates of the masters, we should concentrate first of all on the been a historical figure, there emerged a tendency to regard Maitreya as a
contents of the theories found in the texts at our disposal and infer the chronolo- concrete person who predated Asanga. I do not see a serious problem with
gical order of relevant passages on the basis of its validity for the development of equating power gained through experiences in the practice of yoga and so forth
the theory in question; thereafter, we should form an e~timate about the stage the with the existence of Maitreya residing in Tu~ita Heaven. The same can be said of
theory developed in the evolution of the text as a whole. .
In the course of these investigations, I believe there is a need to rethmk the
6
significance of the texts' authors. That is to say, we should adopt the method of Ur prefaced his argument for the historical existence and dates of Maitreya, etc., with
probing theories by ridding ourselves of the illusion of a single individual as an the following remark (1929:95): "I presume that scholars will generally believe with me in
author. Accordingly, I shall examine the relationship between the Y ogacara the historical existence of Maitreya; yet nobody from our side until today has set forth his
masters and the texts attributed to them, starting with Maitreya(-natha). Further- opinion expressly on this point, and consequently the authorship of many a work assigned
to Maitreya, or to Asailga, is not quite settled." FRAUWALLNER (1956:296) similarly wrote:
"Wir sind daher berechtigt, in ihrem Verfasser eine historische, von Asanga verschiedene
Personlichkeit zu sehen, die wahrscheinlich mit einer mehrfach iiberlieferten Namensform
Maitreyanatha hieB, und in der erst eine spatere Zeit den bekannten Bodhisattva sah."
surrounding passages. It is not clear whether Paramartha intentionally used different terms
[English translation: "We are therefore right in considering its author to be a historical
in his Chinese translation, and I look forward to future investigations into this matter.
4 person other than Asailga, who was called by the repeatedly transmitted name
It is mentioned by TSUKAMOTO ct al. (1990:318 n. 5) that there are two views on the
Maitreyanatha, and who first at a later time came to be seen as the well-known
authorship of the Yogiicarabhum1; namely, that its author must have been a single indivi-
bodhisattva."] Ur subsequently asserted that Maitreya was not the bodhisattva Maitreya
dual, i.e., Asailga (WAYMAN, 1961, etc.), or that it is not the work of a single author but
residing in the Tu~ita Heaven but a historical master Maitreya on earth (1935:13ff.). In
rather the work of several generations of masters (SCHMrTHAUSEN, 1969b, etc.). SCHMIT-
contrast, DEMIEVILLE (1954:376-387), under the heading "3. Maitreya l'inspirateur"
HAUSEN (1969b:819) writes: "Eine Betrachtung der Lehren der Yogacarabhumi bestatigt
[Maitreya, the source of inspiration], made it clear that he did not accept the historical
also das Resultat der Untersuchung ihres Aufbaus: sie ist nicht ein selbstandig gestaltetes
existence of the master Maitreya. Though aware of UI's thesis, he stated that Maitreya
Werk eines einzigen Verfassers, sondern besteht aus verschiedenen, heterogenen
should be regarded as a divinity appearing in yogic trance, supporting this with examples
Bestandteilen und Schichten." [English translation: "A consideration of the theories of
such as the Our'an and the archangel Gabriel in note 4 to the following passage (p. 381): "II
Yogaciirabhumi thus confirms the result of the study of its structure: it is not an indepen-
s'agit d'une revelation re<_;ue en extase, comme en admettent toutes les religions, toutes les
dently arranged work of a single author, but consists of different heterogeneous com-
litteratures. La pratique de Yoga permettait, croyait-on, de trouver aupres de Maitreya
ponents and layers."] . l'inspiration, dogmatique, artistique, litteraire." [English translation: This concerns a
5
This kind of method can already be seen in SCHMITHAUSEN (1967:111): "Da som1t
revelation received in ecstasy, as it is found in all religions, in all literatures. The practice of
eine auf auBeren Kriterien basierende Literaturgeschichte des Yogacara ti.ber den
yoga permits one, it is said, to find inspiration - whether dogmatic, artistic, or literary -
allergrobsten Rahmen hinaus anscheinend keine vollig gesicherten Ergebnisse zeitigt, mu~
through Maitreya."] His way of thinking tallies with my own. In an additional note,
die Ideengeschichte dieses Systems von inneren Kriterien - von den Lehren und (so~e1t
DEMIEVrLLE (1954:434, n. 9) added that Ur (1952) held fast to the view that the master
es angesichts des teilweisen Verlustes der Sanskritorigina~e moglich ist) von d~r T~r~mo- Maitreyanatha was a historical personage, notwithstanding criticism from S. YAMAGUCHI,
logie der einzelnen Texte bzw. Textstiicke - ausgehen. S1e muB versuchen, d1ese m 1hren
LAMOTTE, and others (a list of relevant studies on this subject can be found in TSUKAMOTO
individuellen Zti.gen zu erfassen, auf diese Weise die ungegliederte Masse des Stoffes et al, 1990:317, n. 1, and HAYASHIMA, 2003:5-7). HIRAKAWA (1979:92) writes with
aufzulosen und schlieBlich durch einen Vergleich der verschiedenen Schichten den Gang reference to Maitreya: "Insofar that Yogacara works are considered to have existed prior to
der philosophischen Entwicklung zu rekonstruieren." [English translation: Since a litera1:Y
Asanga, I have referred to their author as Maitreya in accordance with legendary accounts.
history of the Y ogacara based on external criteria reaching further than just a most bas~c
This means that I refer to masters of the Yogacara school prior to Asa:ri.ga by the name
outline does not seem to produce completely reliable results, the history of ideas of this
Maitreya. This may have been not just a single person." This is similar to my own view.
system must be based on internal criteria of the teachings and (so far it is possible in view of
HrRAKAwA continues (ibid.): "I do not mean to say, therefore, that the bodhisattva
the partial loss of the Sanskrit original on the terminology of the individual texts or textual
Maitreya as the future Buddha was the historical master Maitreya." This would seem to be
passages. We must attempt to understand these in their individual strands of thought,
a tacit attempt to stem the continuing prevalence of UI's view. As is also stated in
thereby dissolving the unstructured mass of material, and then reconstruct the course of the
DEMrEVILLE (1954), I myself think it the most natural to assume that yoga practitioners
philosophical development through a comparison of the various layers."] -~i~ce !he provisionally used the term "Maitreya" to refer to a certain power gained through
publication of SCHMITHAUSEN (1967), most Japanese scholars of Yogacara-V11nanavada
experiences undergone in yogic trance. Setting aside instances involving faith, there is little
thought have been pursuing their research along these lines and have produced many meaning in discussing in an academic context whether or not entities who appear in
important results. I too have adopted this position in my research. meditative trance or grant revelations are historical figures.
334 Hidenori S. SAKUMA
isvara mentioned in the Yogasiitra and this phenomenon represents a type of
religious experience common to all peoples. In other words, it falls into the same
category of positing similar divine entities by religions around the world. It is preci-
sely for this reason that it is not in the least problematic, in terms of praxis, even if
the Dharmadharmatavjbhaga, which would have appeared at a relatively later date,
is attributed to Maitreya. 7 . large numbers of practitioners. In this sense, this treatise can be understood to
Generally five works are attributed to Maitreya, 8 however - as it is widely
known - the attributed works differ in the Chinese and Tibetan traditions. There
9 Bodhjsattvabhfimj of the Mauli Bhiimi, considered to be among the oldest
has already been a long history of comparative research on the content of these
works and it could be considered that the main points have, by and large, been
clarified by HAKAMAYA Noriaki (1986b). 10 This means that the works attributed to
Maitreya are those that are older in content than other works of Y ogacara-
Vijfianavada thought. In other words, it is generally acknowledged by scholars that
the texts, whose contents can be regarded as the oldest in the development of
various Vijfianavada theories, are those attributed to Maitreya. Among the works
traditionally attributed to Maitreya, HAKAMAYA identified only the Mahayana-
siitralaipkara and Madhyantavjbhaga as works by Maitreya because, not only, are
they the two works recognized in common by both the Tibetan and the Chinese
traditions; but also, the Yogacara-Vijfianavada theories contained therein are
deemed to possess content belonging to an early stage of development. Then what
7
On the subject of the authorship and composition of the Dharmadharmatavibhaga,
HAKAMAYA (1986b) has pointed out that this text was composed in a later period, and this
has been confirmed by SuGURO (1989:esp. 172-189) and FUNAHASHI (1989), and has been
recognized by MATSUDA (1996). Based on these findings, I have affirmed (SAKUMA, 1998)
that this text must have been composed at a later date in view of its a.frayaparivrtti theofy,
since (1) the concept of iisrayaparivrtti in this text does not entail any process but mainly
describes the final stage of yoga practice, and (2) there are similarities in the iisrayaparivrtti
theory of the Dharmadharmatavibhaga and the Madhyantavibhagafika attributed to
Sthiramati (ca. 510-570), as noted by MATSUDA (1996). MATHES (1996: Einleitung) cites
SUGURO (1989) in his bibliography and summarizes SUGURO's views (MATHES, 1996:25),
but does not mention that this text must have been produced in a later period. If the
Dharmadharmatavibhaga was composed in a later period, we consequently need to ask
why this text was attributed to Maitreya. For many yoga-practitioners, both the verse and
prose sections of this text had been written as an aid to the practice of yogic meditation,
and as I mention elsewhere in this article, it was therefore sufficiently meaningful to
attribute the text to Maitreya, a symbol for the yogacarins, in a manner resembling the
relationship between isvara and yogins.
8
People, especially in China, have a habit of enumerating various sorts of items. It
seems to be a human tendency to itemize and categorize, especially once a body of
theoretical thought has become established. NAKAMURA (1947/1961) states that this kind
of tendency can be found among East Asians, particularly in Chinese thought. It can be
seen to a greater or lesser degree among Tibetans as well, and also in Indian Yogacara-
Vijfi.anavada theories.
9
The Chinese tradition attributes Yogacarabhiim1; YogaVJohaga (now lost),
MahayanasiitralalJlkara, Madhyantavibhaga, and Vajracchedikavyakhya, while the Tibetan
tradition attributes Mahayanasiitralaipkara, Madhyantavibhaga, Abhisamayalalpkara, ,
Dharmadharmatavibhaga, and Uttaratantra (NAKAMURA, 1980:256).
10
HAKAMAYA (1986b) concluded on the basis of detailed investigations of the relevant
materials that the Mahayanasiitralaipkara and Madhyantav1bhaga~ attributed to Maitreya
in both Chinese and Tibetan sources, were the oldest among the texts attributed to
Maitreya.
Remarks on the Lineage 335
is the chronological relationship between these works and the Yogacarabhiimi that
in the Tibetan tradition is attributed to Asanga?
As noted earlier, it is to be surmised that the Yogacarabhfimj evolved in many
strata over a lengthy period of time, and from changes in the content of the
theories of each stratum it is possible to infer the process of praxis undergone by
have been composed gradually in stages. It is recognized that the structure of the
portions of the Yogacarabhiimi, corresponds to the chapter divisions of the
11
Mahayanasiitralaf!]kara. As has already been demonstrated with regard to several
theories, when the same theories appearing in both texts are compared, the former
is considered to possess content older than that found in the latter. It is to be
inferred that Vijfianavada theories evolved from the former to the latter and
furthermore, that the Mahayanasiitralaipkara was composed with reference to th~
Maull Bhiimi of the Yogacarabhiim1: If the Yogacarabhiimj was composed by
Asatiga and the Mahayanasiitralaipkara by Maitreya, we face a chronological
problem. Does this mean that Maitreya wrote the Mahayanasiitralaipkara on the
basis of Asatiga's writings?
If, as claimed in traditional sources, Asaiiga made repeated-visits during his
meditation to the Tu~ita Heaven where he received teachings from Maitreya and
then upon his return to earth came out of meditation and wrote the Yogacara-
bhiim1: then who would have written the Mahayanasiitralaipkara? There has been
much discussion about this question, but it remains unresolved. 12 According to the
11
According to TSUKAMOTO et al (1990:329, n. 61), UI (1958:43-81, etc.) pointed out
the rela~ionship between the Bodhisattvabhiimi and Mahayanasiitralaipkara, and this may
be considered to have been more or less definitively established by ODANI (1984:15-47),
who al_so (1984:41, n. 1) provides more information about earlier studies by LEVI (1911),
etc. With reference to the history of research on the subject, ODANI (1987:43-47) states that
the Bodhisattvabhiimi antedates the Mahayanasiitralaipkara. However, when the Bodhi-
sattvabhumi is attributed to Asailga and the verses of the Mahayanasiitralamkara are
attributed to Maitreya, then their supposed master-disciple relationship may infl~ence our
u~d~rstanding of the chronological relationship between the texts. It was probably due to
this mfluence that WAYMAN (1961:30-33) stated that the Mahayanasiitralamkara influen-
c~d the Bodhisattvabhumi on account of the fact that reference to a Zhuangyanjing(Wf.tf/Jj_
l~,_ *Siitralaipkara) is found in the Bodhisattvabhiimi (:g~tlli Pusa d1~ T1579.658b8 16).
This view has since been rejected by SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b:819, n. 45), who pointect'out
that the term zhuangyan Jing merely indicates a rhetorical term alaipkara (" ... 'Siitren-
Sch~uck' ( sutra~arpkara) eher als Charakterisierung einer bestimmten Literaturgattung ... ";
English translation "'Siitra-ornament (siitralaipkara) rather as a characterization of a
certain type of literary genre ... "), without referring to any specific siitra. On the use of the
word alaipkara in the title of the Mahayanasiitralaipkara, see HAKAMAYA & ARAI
(1993:13ff). 0DANI (1984:46) settled the question of the chronological relationship
betwe~n !hese two texts on the basis of the commentary on Mahayanasutrala!J1kara II.1 in
the SutralalJlkaravrttibhaffa attributed to Sthiramati. His conclusion that the Bodhisattva-
bhumi pr_edates the Mahayanasiitralarpkara has today been accepted by scholars, and it is
also confirmed by the historical evolution of the theories of airayaparivrtti and the five
gotras, amongst others.
12
Authoritative discussions are found in TSUKAMOTO et al (1990:330, n. 64), and
HAKAMAYA & ARAI (1993:13ff). There are four representative views: (1) the verses and
prose commentary are by Asailga (LEVI); (2) the verses are by Maitreya and the prose
commentary by Vasubandhu (U1); (3) the prose commentary is by either Asailga or
 Hidenori s. SAKUMA
336
Chinese translation by Prabhakaramitra (T1604), the M_ahayanasiitralaipkfir~ was
"composed by the bodhisattva Asailga," but both the_ Tibetan ~nd ot~er Chmese
traditions attribute it to Maitreya. Moreover, accordmg to SthuamatI s c~mmen-
tary on the Mahayanasiitralaipkara and the catalog appended to the l/Jstory of
Buddhism by Bu ston Rin chen grub, the prose comm~nt~ry was composed b(
Vasubandhu. 13 These are indeed all textual facts, but they md1cate that the aut~or_s
names recorded in later works are largely based on legendary accounts. This 1s
because unlike theoretical content, they themselves cannot be verified. Statements
by such 'persons as Sthiramati and Dignaga, wh~ ~~n be ~eliably ident~fied as the
authors of particular works, cannot serve as defm1ttve evidence when 1t comes t?
the relationship between Maitreya, Asailga, and Vasubandhu and the works attri-
buted to them. . can we reasonably assume that the works attributed to Asaiiga were definitely
As an example, I would like to ~ite the following compaffble i~stance. D1gn~ga
is traditionally said to have studied under Vasubandhu, _but _m _the 1:ramaJJa-
samuccaya he shows some hesitation as to whether the VadaVJdh1, attributed to
15
Vasubandhu, is indeed the work of Vasubandhu. This suggests that when
Vasubandhu, with the ascription of the verses to Asailga being rejected (WAYMAN); and (4)
the verses are by Asailga and the prose commentary is by Vasuband?u (YAMAGUcH9. In
HAKAMAYA & ARAI (1993), HAKAMAYA has subjected the question of autho~sh1p_ to
further scrutiny and notes that if we do not consider Maitreya ~o have. been a histonc~l
figure, then the actual founder of the Yogacara scho~l ends up bem~ Asanga. ~AKAMAYAs
wording has negative connotations, implying that Maitreya was nothm~ ~ut a figment of the
imagination of yoga practitioners provisionally referred to as the Y oga~a_ra school. I take a
similar position but with the following qualifications. Insofar that rehg10us texts, such as
the Yogacarabhiimi as well as the Old and New Testa~e?ts or the -~ur'an, to s?me extent
are products of religious experiences, for devote? rehg10us p~actitioners their holy text
would certainly not have been a product of the1r own tradition, but would have been
regarded as a message from a supernatural power or entity far beyond their ken, ands? I
do not see any problem in their use of notions such as God to ref~r to such _a~ entity.
People raised in a tradition based on Christianity, including N_e~platomsm, Gno~tic1s~, and ,·
so on, might understand such experiences in terms, of myst1c1sm. From the v1e_wpomt of
natural science, which represents externalism in the modern world, such ~xpenences are
indeed nothing more than figments of imagination. There are thus msurmoun~able
differences regarding the notion of "reality" between thos~ who speak ~n _the ba~1s of
religious experience and those who do not have such ex~enences. If we s1m~larly ~1s~s
questions of authorship in modern terms on the assumpt10n that on~y a particular m~1V1-
dual can be attributed authorship, our discussion here about authorship becomes meamng-
less. In this sense, the fact that the authorship of the Mahayanasiitrala117kara has ~ot been
settled is of great significance when considering the true roles of Ma1treya, Asanga, and
Vasubandhu.
13 Cf. NISHIOKA (1982:56, no. 678). This catalog was compiled in 1322 by Bu ston Rin
chen grub (1290-1364). For details, see HAKAMAYA& ARAI (1993:13-23).
14 In the case of Asvabhava, Sthiramati, and others who came after Vasubandhu, there
is uncertainty about whether they actually wrote all the works that are attributed to them.
But our confidence in the real existence of Dignaga as the actual author of several works .
attributed to him is increasing. . pa~e. Consequently, his disciples were constantly changing and his translations too are not
15 HATTORI (1968:32; 114, n. 2.1; 186) suggests that there is a need to carefully exannn~
the contents of the Vadavidhi to determine whether they concord with Vasubandhu'I
thinking. Based on hnendrabuddki's Visaliima~avatf PramaIJasamuccayafika ~TEI~K~,::
NER, KRASSER & LASIC, 2005:86), 1t can be confirmed that Rtsod pa sgrub pa - Vada th1t:
and dByig gnyen = Vasubandhu. According to TSUKAMOTO et al (1990:373, n. _334)ti"""::
Vadavidhi is now acknowledged to be the work of Vasubandhu as a result of the mves ga,'
Remarks on the Lineage 337
referring to Maitreya, Asanga, and Vasubandhu, even masters at the time of
Dignaga could not vouchsafe the act~al existence of single individuals corre-
sponding to each of these names. Even 1f there were people who really existed by
the name of Asanga and Vasubandhu, it would seem unreasonable to treat the
relationship between these individuals and the authors of various works attributed
to them in the same way that we treat questions of authorship when people today
claim copyright. To put it simply, questions concerning authorship that one might
seek to establish definitively from a modern perspective had little meaning for
Indian yoga practitioners of yore.
1.2. Asaiiga
authored by a single person of that name? As was noted above in connection with
the authorship of the Mahayanasiitralaipkara, Asaiiga is a legendary figure and it
would seem problematic to take him as a single author. The works attributed to
Asanga include, among others, the Mahayanasalpgraha, Xiifnyfmg sheng;1ao Jim
(~m~f.)(§i1ff), and Abhidharmasamuccaya. 16 When we compare the four Chinese
translations and one Tibetan translation of the Mahayanasalpgraha,i 7 we find that
there are instances in which important Yogacara-Vijftanavada theories appearing
in the later Chinese translations are missing in the earliest Chinese translation, and
we need to be cautious about deciding whether the originals were all composed by
a single individual at roughly the same time. 18 It is true that if we regard the said
theories as later additions, we can trace the development of these theories. Among
these translations, the Mahayanasaipgraha and Mahayanasalpgrahabha~ya trans-
lated by Paramartha differ in character from the other translations and may have
been produced as expressions of his own thought or even as lecture notes for his
disciples. 19 If we attribute all these translated works to Asanga, which translated
tions by FRAUWALLNER (1957), etc. The reason that I am using the delicate nuances
surrounding Vasubandhu's authorship of the Vadavidhi as justification is that Dignaga
himself showed "hesitation" as to whether it was written by Vasubandhu and it is
questionable whether Dignaga really met Vasubandhu face to face. That is to say, I am
su?gesting that the passage in question does not guarantee that Vasubandhu actually
existed for Dignaga as a single individual.
16
TSUKAMOTO et al (1990:348ff.) provides information on other works attributed to
Asailfa.
1
These translations are compared in SASAKI (1931), LAMOTTE (1938), etc. See
TSUKAMOTO et al (1990:353-354) for more information on the texts and relevant studies.
18
_S~HM~THAUSEN (1987a: n. 708) gives a detailed analysis, showing how some passages
. are missmg m the oldest translation. Of course, this does not mean that just because the
translation is the oldest, the ideas expressed in it are also the oldest. It means rather that
care needs to be taken to posit an Urtextwhen dealing with the MahayanasalJlgraha.
19
_ At this point, there is not enough material available to ascertain where Paramartha
(~af Zhendi, 499-569) was born or what he did before his arrival in China. Furthermore,
after he arrived in China the dynasties under which he served changed at a bewildering
umform in either content or style. All these factors contribute to the difficulties encoun-
tered in elucidating Paramartha's thought. A number of study groups have in recent years
been conducting research on this subject, and it is to be hoped that his character and
thought will become clearer in the near future. At a time when the trends characterizing
Paramartha's translations remain unclear, it is risky to discuss dates on the basis of the
338 Hidenori s. SAKUMA
text would have been the most valuable for the practitioners who used them? We
tend to associate the putative Urtext of the Mahayanasaipgraha with the Tibetan
translation, which is the latest of all the translations, but since the original on which
it is based was not necessarily the latest version of the text, we need to compare the
contents of each translation and posit the Urtext in terms of the development of
Yogacara-Vijfianavada thought.
It is, nevertheless, currently accepted that the text we today assume to be
Asailga's Mahayanasaipgraha is a work in which the author, on the basis of an
overall unified guiding principle, systemized the Yogacara-Vijfianavada thought
encapsulating the essence of the practical theories of a group of Mahayana yoga
practitioners. 20 This is equivalent to recognizing the Mahayanasaipgraha as a work
by Asailga, wherein he systemized the Yogacara-Vijiianavada theories with a
certain unified intent. This is similar to the Xiiinyang shengjiao Jim, in which he is
said to have rearranged the contents of the Yogacarabhiimi, 21 as well as to the
Abhidharmasamuccaya~ thought to be a work in which he rearran£ed the contents
of the Yogacarabhiimi in the manner of a dictionary or glossary. Of course, this
does not in any way guarantee that it was a single individual named Asailga who
composed these three works. We should basically consider the historical figure
Asailga to have been a key figure in rearranging theories about practice derived
from the experiences of countless yoga practitioners on the basis of a unified pur-
pose and structure. Even today, in the case of a book that has been compiled with
the input of many people, it is common to find that the name of the main person
who provided the core concept for the book is given as the book's author. This
means that even if the contents of the Mahayanasaipgraha repeatedly changed with
the passage of time as a result of corrections, revisions, and additions and turned
into something different from the original version, so long as it preserves the
original intent, it ought to be permissible to assign to it the name of Asailga as the
name of the key figure behind it. Ridding ourselves of the image of a single
individual named Asailga sitting in his study to write the Mahayanasaipgraha, we
should accept the fact that large numbers of practitioners regarded Asaiiga as an
important figure worthy of respect in the Y ogacara school.
"Biography of the Master Vasubandhu" (~fi~Rit~ffi1.$ P6s6upandou fashi zhuan,
~2049) transl!ted by Paramartha, since even the accounts given in Xuanzang's Da tang xiyu
J1 (::k~~t~~C, T2087) seem to be questionable when considered in light of modern geo-
graphical and historical data.
20
The well-organized structure of the Mahayanasal!Jgraha makes it possible to regard
it as the work of a single author, namely, Asailga. Many scholars concur on this point,
including NAGAO (1982) in his introduction. Still, as far as the contents of the Mahayana-
sal!Jgraha are concerned, we need to posit the existence of an Urtext. NAGAO (1982:48-55) ,
discussed this in detail and he translated the Mahayanasal!Jgraha into Japanese while
positing such an Urtext.
21
There exists only Xuanzang's Chinese translation of the Xjanyang shengjjao Jun.
SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a: n. 99) describes how the original Sanskrit title has been recon-
structed. That is to say, it is assumed that the original text must have existed in India, and its
author is assumed to have been Asailga.
22
As stated in TSUKAMOTO et al (1990:348-350), this text is assumed to be the work of
Asailga. There are several views regarding the author of the AbhMharmasamuccayabhii~a,
a commentary on the Abhklharmasamuccaya, but I shall not go into these details here.
Remarks on the Lineage 339
1.3. Vasubandhu
It is Vasubandhu who has stirred up the most debate from the perspective of
attempts to posit a single individual of this name as in the case of Asatiga. The
debate has been about Vasubandhu's dates, which began to be widely discussed
from around the end of the nineteenth century. 23 In the course of much debate by
many scholars, the various views concerning Vasubandhu's dates converge on two
theses - one placing him in the fourth century and the other placing him in the fifth
century. 24 It was against this background that Erich FRAUWALLNER (1951) put
forward the thesis that there had been two Vasubandhus, corresponding more or
less to the two above views concerning his dates. 25 According to his thesis, the
earlier Vasubandhu, who flourished in the fourth century, was the younger brother
of Asatiga and converted from the Sarvastivada School to the Mahayana under
Asanga's influence. The later Vasubandhu, who lived in the fifth century, was the
author of the Abhidharmakosa26 and, though belonging to the Sarvastivada,
gradually leaned towards the Sautrantika School. While con~ulting many earlier
studies, FRAUWALLNER made frequent references to Noel PERI (1911), and also
23 YOKOYAMA (1983) describes in detail the history of research on the dating of
Vasubandhu, and further information can be found in HIRAKAWA (1979:lOlff.) and
KA.TIYAMA (1976). As mentioned in YOKOYAMA (1983) and SAKURABE (1952), etc.,
Vasubandhu's dates were discussed from the end of the nineteenth century by W. P.
WASSILIEF, Sylvain LEVI, and others in Europe and by FUNAHASHI Suisai (fitfflJj(~),
TAKAKUSU Junjiro (ra'J:fm)[&{;:;jzB!G), and others in Japan. I have perused only the studies
listed in the bibliography appended to the present article, but as is pointed out by
SAKURABE, the thesis of two Vasubandhus put forward in FRAUWALLNER (1951) seems to
have divided previous research into two groups, with PERI (1911) representative of the
earlier Vasubandhu (4th century) and TAKAKUSU (1905) representative of the later
Vasubandhu (5th century), and FRAUWALLNER therefore appears to have merely assigned
the two Vasubandhus to these two earlier views. Critics, especially Japanese scholars, who
disagreed with his thesis have focused on this point. But their critiques have adopted the
same methods of calculation used by FRAUWALLNER, which relied on legendary accounts
such as those found in Paramartha's "Biography of the Master Vasubandhu" ( P6s6upandou
fashi zhuan, T2049) or on the dates of historical figures, such as rulers said to have had
connections with Vasubandhu. Recently, DELEANU (2006:186-196) has undertaken a care-
ful reexamination of these legendary accounts, supplemented by the results of historical
research, which has led to his positing of the new dates of ca. 350 to ca. 430. This dating,
differing from previous views, is explained by DELEANU with tables (2006:195-196), and it
lies midway between the two above theses and coincides with the second of three datings
proposed by KATO (1989:64). Since we find so many views regarding the dates of even a
single figure, and since such matters go far beyond my own sphere of competence, I shall
confine myself to discussing only the lineage of the masters with whom we are here
concerned.
24
FRAUWALLNER (1951:2) writes: "As a matter of fact, two opinions continue as before
to define the field; the first one places Vasubandhu at the beginning of the 4th century A.D.,
the second considers the middle or the second half of the 5th century as the epoch of his
life."
25
FRAUWALLNER (1951:10) writes: "All difficulties disappear at once, if we admit that
the tradition really concerns two different persons, ... "; (ibid.:16) "The difficulty disappears
once we admit that the author of the Abhjdharmakosa and the brother of Asailga are
different from each other, ... "
26
And hence often referred to as the Kosakara, "the maker of the Kosa."
 340 Hidenori s. SAKUMA
27
made critical mention of TAKAKUSU Junjiro's dating (1929). Having first reanaly-
zed the many source materials taken up in hitherto studies (1951:1-23), FRAU-
wALLNER concluded on the basis of traditions preserved in the P6s6upandou fashi
zhuim (~fi~RY!@ffi{$), a biography of Vasubandhu translated by Paramartha
(T2049), as well as on the basis of references preserved in Yasomitra's Spufiirtha
28
Abhjdharmakosavyakhya that there must have been another Vasubandhu who
predated the author of the Abhidharmakosa (Kosakara), and he then went on to
prove 29the legitimacy of his thesis that there had been two Vasubandhus (1951:
23ff.). This thesis attracted the attention of academic circles and had considerable
influence on subsequent research, but, as has been pointed out by HIKATA Ryiisho
(1954), HIRAKAWA Akira (1979) and YOKOYAMAKoitsu (1983), FRAUWALLNER
did not go all that far beyond the views presented by many earlier scholars,
including PERI. Broadly speaking, FRAUWALLNER used basically three textual
bases for his thesis:
1. Having recognized as historical facts Vasubandhu's place of birth
and his sibling relationship with Asanga as recorded in the P6s6u-
pandou fashi zhuim, Xuanzang's Da Tang xiyu Ji (*~1!siEi::X~c,
T2087), Bu ston Rin chen grub's History of Buddhism, and
Taranatha's History ofBuddhism in India, he based himself on the
unreliable dates of the Gupta rulers and also on the date of the
Buddha's death, which has still not been definitively established, to
calculate Vasubandhu's dates with the above sources being full of
legendary accounts.
2. He used the names of authors attached to Chinese translations.
3. He used references found in works by later commentators, such as
Yasomitra's Spufartha Abhidharmakosavyakhya.
Even if the earlier Vasubandhu posited by FRAUWALLNER was a single historical
figure, this would not be sufficient grounds to guarantee that the author of the
commentaries on the Mahayanaszltriilaiµkara, Madhyantavibhaga, Mahayiinasaip-
graha, and so on was a single historical individual who, moreover, was identical to
27
FRAUWALLNER (1951:32-33) writes: "Such evidence is extant, and in this case too the
more important materials have been collected already by Peri. Takakusu (Takakusu, 1929)
has tried to invalidate this evidence, because it contradicts to [sic.] his ideas of the dates of
Vasubandhu; but his reasons are so insufficient and open to question, that we cannot attach
great value to them. In the following discussion I shall therefore take again as my starting
point Peri, and shall discuss Takakusu's objections in their proper place."
28
The Vasubandhu mentioned in Yasomitra's Abhidharmakosavyiikhyii (AK.vy, 3520:
vrddhiiciirya- Vasubandhu.[i; 3523 : vrddhiiciirya- Vasubandhu-desiyal; kalcit pan'harati; 2896:
sthaviro Vasubandhur iiciirya-Manorathopiidhyiiya evam aha; 3479 : sthavira-Vasubandhu-
prabhrtibhir ayalJl hetur uktal;) is taken as evidence by FRAUWALLNER (1951:21-23) that
there may have existed another Vasubandhu before the Kosakara Vasubandhu, and he
writes (1951:23), "We are thus confronted with the fact that Yasomitra distinguishes
between two bearers of the name Vasubandhu." Research on purviiciirya in the AKBh
mentioned by FRAUWALLNER has advanced significantly in studies by HAKAMAYA
(1986a/2001), MATSUDA (1984, 1985), and others. As a result of these investigations it has
become difficult for us to use purviiciirya as evidence of the existence of an "earlier
Vasubandhu."
29
A summary of FRAUWALLNER (1951) can be found in JAINI (1958: 48-49 (183-184)).
Remarks on the Lineage 341
. - a-rli:er Vasubandhu. While legendary accounts do indeed hint at the
t
he srng1e e f certain historical events 1t
· would be difficult
· · to extract a h'1stonca
· 1
urrence o ' l f'
occ. Vasubandhu from accounts that depict Vasubandhu as a tute ary 1gure or
earlieras an o b,ect of worship for practitioners. HIRAKAWA (1979:104-105) has
even J
written:
In India there seems to have been a tendency to attribut~ many work~ to
a single famous person. Furthermore, along with Vasum1tr~ and the hke,
the name Vasubandhu was based on the cult of the deity Vasu and
appears to have been widely used .... Therefore, the fact that there was
not just one Vasubandhu had been recognized from early times.
Thus it· wou ld have been more natural to have numerous monks existing h y histori-
- -
call ~ith the same name of Vasubandhu, and even if followers of t e ogacara
y 1 use d the name of· an especially renowned Vasubandhu as the author
sc hoo · ·1of
. tant treatises this would not present a problem. We can see a s1mi ar
1mpor ' where on the basis of the most plausible
1.n Japan · ora1tra d'1tions,
· t he
phenom enon ' ' . r-/r,Yrct · t d
e~:~ ) •
· h t Kob6 Daishi (s.M:t*Bffi) referring to Kukai (~W~:, 774-835 lS associa e
;laces throughout the country that he would in all probability not actually
y
;~ve visited. Even if the names of Maitreya, Asanga, and ~suban?h_u of the
y ogacara school took the place of isvara in the .minds of pract1t10~ers, 1t is not for
modern Buddhologists to criticize them for this. It was because importance w.as
the P6s6unandou fashi zhuan and other legendary accounts that dis-
attac he d to r . · · th t
· n about Vasubandhu's dates split in two directions. I get the 1mpress10n a
CUSSlO . . 1 bl. h d b
the starting point of this lengthy c?ntro~ersy was _a senes of artlc esyu 1s c . Y
TAKAKUSU. For instance, not only is the mtroductlon at.the start of his 1905 article
captivating, but it also seems to me that, al~hough ~e h1ms~lf states he has ha~ to
limit his sources for reasons of space, he gives the imp,,re!s10,,n t~at ~he_? co~s1de-
ring these issues it is important to start out from the Posoupandou_fash1 zhua1!. As
a result, subsequent discussion has been conducted on the basis of unrehabl.e
legends and the uncertain dating of Indian figures and events - or at least that is
how it appears when one looks back from the vantage point of current research
findings.
2. New Developments in Research Methods
In contrast to the discussions of Vasubandhu's dates that had been based to a large
extent on legendary accounts, there subsequently appeared studies by JAINI ~1958)
and SCHMITHAUSEN (1967), which employed new research methods focusmg on
the content of various texts. ,,
JAINI (1958:50ff.), on one hand, compared the verses of the Abhidharmakosa
with those of the Abhidharmadipa and pointed out that they share -~~re than 300
verses. In addition, he stated that the Abhidharmadipa not only cntlcizes the fact
that the Abhidharmakosa is written from the standpoint of Sautrantika thought,
but it is also critical of the fact that Abhidharmakosa shows Mahayanist tendencies.
The Abhidharmadipa reproaches the author of the Abhklharmakosa (Kos~ka_ra)
on account of the fact that his assertions stand at "the gate of entry to the va1tulika-
sastra" ( vaitulikasastrapravesadvaram). Paying particular att~ntion to the .word
vaituHka as used in the Abhidharmakosa, JAINI posited the eqmvalence of va1tulya,
vaidalya, and vaipulya on the basis of examples appearing in the Abhidh~r1!1a-
samuccaya and equated vaitulikasastra with Mahayana thought. In add1t10n,
 342 Hidenori S. SAKUMA
-
arguing that ayogasunyatiiviida, 'the assertion of irrational emptiness', can be iden-
tified with nji;zsvabhiivaviida, 'the assertion of the lack of an inherent nature', he
demonstrated that this was accepted by both the Yogacara and Madhyamaka
30
Schools, and further linking the expression trin svabhiiviin, 'three natures' (as it
appears in the text), to the 'three nature' ( tnsvabhiiva) theory, he rejected FRAu-
WALLNER's assertion that the later Vasubandhu did not have any Mahayanist
tendencies. The relationship between the Abhklharmakosa and the trjsvabhiiva
theory, and also with the Trjsvabhiivamrdesa, is a delicate issue that requires
fur~her detailed investigation. But when we consider that MATSUDA (1985:esp.751),
takmg into account past research and also private communications with HAKA-
MAYA and MATSUMOTO Shiro, writes that the 'twofold truth' (satyadvaya) theory
in the Abh1dharmakosa is based on the tnsvabhiiva theory, JAINI's conjectures
· • · 31
appear qmte convmcmg.
SCHMITHAUSEN, on the other hand, provided two indicators as the basis of his
argument: ( 1) "a mono-strata! stream of cognition" (ein einschichtiger Erkenntnis-
strom) representing the "Sautrantika premise" (Sautrantika-Voraussetzung), which
regarded dtta, manas, and vijfiiina as synonyms for cognition, and (2) "the stream-
of-cognition complex of the yogiicarjns" (der Erkenntnisstrom-Komplex der
Yogacarins) consisting of dtta = iilayavj/fiiina, manas, and vijfiiina = the six
sensory vi}fiiinas. He then analyzed the contents of the AbhMharmakosa, the
Karmas1ddh1prakara1Ja, the Vhps1kii, and the TdipSJKii, which have all been
regarded as works by Vasubandhu, and demonstrating that the content of these
works is premised on the first indicator, i.e., the Sautrantika mono-strata! stream of
cognition, he argued that these works must have been written by the same
individual. It should be noted that SCHMITHAUSEN actually undertook an
extremely detailed analysis that cannot be summarized this plainly, but here I have
simplified his arguments so as not to lose sight of subsequent developments.
As is well-known, the Karmasjddh1prakara1Ja presents the term iilayavij.iana,
the ViipSJkii treats dtta, manas, and vijfiiina as synonyms while also using the term
vij.iaptJiniitratii, 'cognitive-representation-only', which is distinctive of the Yoga-
cara school, and the Tdf!Jsikii mentions dtta = iilayavijfiana, manas, vij.iana = the
six sensory vij.iiinas, and also vij.iaptJiniitratii. Glimpses of the philosophical
tendencies- of the Mahayana Y ogacara school can, it would seem, already be seen
here, and with an analysis based on adequate evidence and with skilful arguments,
SCHMITHAUSEN (1967:esp.134ff.) concluded that the AbhMharmakosa, the
Karmasjddh1prakara1Ja, the Viipsjkfi, and the Tn"qlsjka were all composed by the
same person, namely, the Kosakara Vasubandhu.
At the time, SCHMITHAUSEN had the intention of demonstrating the validity of
FRAUWALLNER's hypothesis that there had been two Vasubandhus, not on the
basis of legendary accounts produced by later writers such as Paramartha as had
been the case in the past, but by means of a methodology based on an analysis of
30
See Abhidharmadipa (]AINI, 1977: 339-10, 2575-2581). Cf. MITOMO (2007:303 n. 221;
584 n. 142).
31
SCHMITHAUSEN (1967:110, n. 4) writes, "Die Argumentation Jaini's tut jedoch Frau-
wallners These keinen Abbruch." English translation: "Jaini's argumentation, however,
does not cause any damage to Frauwallner's thesis." Yet, considering subsequent research
findings, one can gain a sense of the perspicacity of JAINI's views. Additionally, Robert
KRITZER, a student of JAINI, has published several studies that continue to develop his
arguments.
Remarks on the Lineage 343
t xts themselves. It is true that at the time in question, as is noted at the
the. e ·ng of SCHMITHAUSEN's study, this thesis was regarded with skepticism
beginm
. fl among Japanese scholars. But the counterarguments agamst · · of
t h e t h esis
ch~ Jasubandhus put forward by the Japanese scholars SAKURABE Hajime (1952),
tw KATA (1954), HIRAKAWA (1979), and YOKOYAMA (1983), and also by the
!erican scholar Alex WAYMAN (1961), 32 were, just like FRAUWALLNER's thesis,
b d on the legendary accounts of Paramartha and others. So long as the debate
r::ains founded on legendary accounts, it can probably never be expected to lead
to any resolution.
The reason that SCHMITHAUSEN's 1967 study was groundbreaking is that his
thod of demonstration became an important precursor of subsequent research
me Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada thought right down to the present day. First, his use of
~:e "Sautrantika premise" as a litmus test led to qu~stionin~ of j~s~ w~~t s?rt of
entity the "Sautrantika" school ?ad been. Sec~ndly? his pursmt of si°?-il~~it!es m the
content of the Abh10harmakosa, the Karmasiddh1prakar~1Ja, the Vi1J1_s1ka, and the
Tdmsjkii and of the possibility that they had been wntten by a smgle author,
res~lting from an analysis based on the criterion of the "Sautrantika premise,"
turned the attention of scholars to rigorous analyses of the contents of th~
antecedent literature. The rigorous analyses of the contents of the Yogiiciirabhum1
in particular presented in SCHMITHAUSEN's many subsequent studies, as well ~s
the comparative research based on meticulous analyses of other texts produced m
the course of his research, 33 have served as guideposts for many subsequent
researchers of Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada thought.
What exactly is "Sautrantika"? Did an independent school actually exist with
this name? It was KATO Junsho (1989) who provided trendsetting answers to these
questions. One of the in~ovative aspects of .h~s answe~s ~a~ :hat, wh~reas earlier
studies had considered this school to have ongmated with Snlata, also lmked to the
Darstantika School, KATO suggested on the basis of a rigorous analysis and
exa~ination of the Abhjdharmakosa and the *Abh10harmanyiiyiinusiirasiistra
(Apfdam6 shim zhengli Jim lllilm3imJl!WIEf_l~ifB, T1562) that it would in fact have
been the Abh1dharmakosa that first mentioned the "Sautrantika."34 On the basis of
this premise, Robert KRITZER and HARADA Was6 independently condu~ted the~r
own investigations into the Sautrantika, and although KRITZER published his
findings first, they both reached the same conclusion, namely, that (almost) all the
views attributed to the Sautrantika in the Abh10harmakosa can be traced back to
passages in the Yogaciirabhumj. 35 The results of these investigations have attracted
32
WA YMAN's arguments ended up falling fully within the framework of earlier views
based on Paramartha's Pdsoupandou fashi zhuan, etc., and as a critique of the thesis of two
Vasubandhus they are in line with similar criticism mainly by Japanese scholars.
Consequently, they did not contribute to the advancement of subsequent research.
33
The many contributions of SCHMITHAUSEN have been condensed in SCHMITHAUSEN
(1987a) and its revised version (2007), and his research continues to evolve.
34
The analysis and arguments in KATO (1989) cover a wide range of topics going far
beyond this issue. A summary of the history of the Sautrantika can be f~mnd in KATO
(1989: 119-125). While he deems the Sautrantika to have originated with Srilata, he also
suggests that the designation Sautrantika, with which we are here concerned, was a term
coined by Vasubandhu himself in order to propound his own views in the Abhidharmakosa
(KATO, 1989:344 (4)).
35
The series of studies on the Sautrantika by KRITZER and HARADA are summarized
in YAMABE (2000). It has been suggested for some time that the Y ogacara school was not
344 Hidenori s. SAKUMA
the attention of many scholars, not only researchers of Yogacara-Vijfianavada
thought, but also those engaged in the study of the origin of Indian Mahayana
Buddhism.
Additionally, there is the question of similarities in the content of the Abhi-
dharmakosa, the KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa, the Vi1p.sika, and the Tri1p.sika, pointed
out by SCHMITHAUSEN. The validity of this conjecture was later confirmed by
MATSUDA (1984, 1985) through an analysis of the contents of each of these texts.
Adding the Vyakhyayukti and the Pratityasamutpadavyakhya to the above texts, he
suggested that they were composed in the following order and, moreover, by a
single author, the Kosakara Vasubandhu: Abhidharmakosa ~ Vyakhyayukti ~
KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa ~ Pratityasamutpadavyakhya ~ Vi1p.sika ~ Tri1p.sika.
This view may be considered to have been generally accepted by scholars down to
the present day. 36 As mentioned by MATSUDA, he examined the question of
piirvacaiya, 'earlier masters', with the collaboration of HAKAMAYA and MATSU-
MbTa37 and speculated that the views associated with the piirvacaiya in the Abhi-
dharmakosa correspond to the thought of the Y ogacara school. As was subse-
quently suggested by HAKAMAYA (2001 ), the Yogacara school should be under-
stood not as an independent school, but as a group among the Sarvastivadins or as
group that resided together with them and whose members were devoted practi-
tioners. If we then assume that the designation piirvacaiya was used to refer to
masters especially worthy of respect among this group of dedicated yoga-
practitioners, it also becomes conceivable that this term was used at the same time
to refer in a non-specific manner to particularly noteworthy figures among a group
of people well versed in Sarvastivada thought. 38 Furthermore, it has by and large
an independent school, but that it assumed the contours of a school as the theories of a
group of devoted practitioners of yoga among the Sarvastivadins gradually were systemized.
The fact that both KRITZER and HARADA independently reached the same conclusion,
namely, that the views attributed to the Sautrantika in the Abhidharmakosa can be traced
back to the Yogacarabhzlmi, gives this position considerable credibility. HARADA (1993:94,
n. 4) has conceded that KRITZER (1992) was the first exposition of this view, and it can thus
be readily confirmed that they arrived at their conclusions separately without any commu-
nication between them.
36
In a recent study on the writings of the Kosakara Vasubandhu, HORIUCHI (2009:101)
too has recognized that these works were written in this order.
37
HAKAMAYA (1986a/2001), following MATSUDA (1985), examined the 11 examples of
piirvacarya appearing in the Abhidharmakofa and showed that they can be traced back to
Yoga.cam texts. YAMABE (1999) identified one example that HAKAMAYA (1986a) had been
unable to find in the Yogaciirabhiimi and suggested that it was probably traceable back to
the much older Daodijlng ifilJi:M~ (T. 607) translated by An Shigao ~titra'J and the Xiii-
xfng daodi Jing Vffiifilti:M~ (T. 606) translated by Dharmarak~a (Zhu Fahu ~it~).
MATSUDA (1985: 751) acknowledges having been in communication with HAKAMAYAand
MATSUMOTO during the writing of his article.
38
HAKAMAYA (2001:518-520) has summarized subsequent research on pzlrvaciirya,
concluding that the plural form of pilrvaciirya functioned as an honorific term for certain
masters deserving of respect in the traditions of the group known as Y ogacara. In addition,
judging from the fact that Asailga is mentioned as a piirvaciiiya in Y asomitra's
Abhidharmakosavyakhya (Akvy, 281n: piirviiciiryiilJ yogaciirii aryasaiigaprabhrtayalJ, "the
earlier masters, who are yoga practitioners, starting with the noble Asailga")
(FRAUWALLNER, 1951:21, n. 2; HAKAMAYA, 1986a, etc.), we may assume that a master by
the name Asali.ga actually existed as the most revered and respected person among the
group of scholars who composed the Yogacarabhzlmi But this is no guarantee that Asatiga
Remarks on the Lineage 345
b;;n established through the investigations of KRITZER and HARADA that all the
ontent identified as "Sautrantika" in the Abhidharmakosa can be traced back to
~he Yogacarabhzlm1: That is to say, there can be little doubt that the Kosakara
39
Vasubandhu was familiar with Yogacara-Vijfianavada thought. This means that
the ideas identified as "Sautrantika" indicate aspects of Yogacara-Vijfianavada
thought, and the connections between Sarvastivada, Sautrantika, and Yogacara-
40
Vijfianavada thought become a question of considerable interest.
If practitioners of the Yogacara school, conscious of themselves as Maha-
yanists, had undertaken to produce. new texts for th: ~r!icul~tion of Yogacara-
Vijfianavada thought to counter the ideas of the Sarvasttvada, 1t would have been
quite natural for them to have chosen as the authors of these texts respected
masters among those who had developed Yogacara-Vijfianavada thought. Consi-
dering the matter in this light, we surely need not feel any contradictions even if the
name of an individual such as Asanga or Vasubandhu is given as the author of texts
that were in fact planned, compiled, and produced by a number of scholars. The
fact that important works such as the Mahayanasiitrala!p.kara, the Madhyanta-
vibhaga, and their commentaries are attributed to Maitreya, Asanga, or Vasu-
bandhu indicates that this was indeed the situation. People today, who have been
was the brother of Vasubandhu as is claimed in legendary accounts. I would like to think
rather that later Yogacara practitioners wanted to show that the master-disciple
relationship between them had been just like the relationship between real brothers. I
believe that by this means the spell of unreliable legends will lose its power over us.
39 As has already been noted, the far-ranging investigations of KRITZER and HARADA
and their findings have been summarized in YAMABE (2000). When analyzing the contents
of the Abhidharmakosa, the KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa, the Vi1J1sika, and the Tri!Jlsika and
demonstrating that they were premised on the first indicator of a "mono-stratal Sautrantika
stream of cognition," which meant that their author was the Kosakara Vasubandhu,
SCHMITHAUSEN (1967) took great pains to resolve the contradictions inherent in the fact
that the distinctively Y ogacara term alayavijiiana appears in the KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa
and the Tri!Jlsika while vijiiaptimatrata appears in the Viipsika and the Tri1J1s1"ka. Yet, if it
is accepted on the basis of these recent findings that the Kosakara Vasubandhu was
familiar with Yogacara-Vijfianavada thought, these contradictions disappear of their own
accord.
40
I have referred to these connections in SAKUMA (1997). If ideas associated with the
Sautrantika are found in the Yogacarabhiimi, and the group called the Yogacara school is
encompassed by the Sarvastivada, then the ideas identified as Sautrantika in the Abhi-
dharmakosa would be views that Vasubandhu put forward from the standpoint of the
Yogacara school against the Sarvastivada, while the Viipsika would have been written from
the viewpoint of the Sautrantika in order to counter views opposed to Yogacara-
Vijfianavada thought. Furthermore, if this Sautrantika position was inherited through
Dignaga's Ala!Jlbanaparik~il by later Buddhist logicians and provided the foundations for
arguments against views hostile to the thought of the Yogacara-Vijfianavada School, then
Sautrantika th~nking may have represented a basic stance adopted by yogiiciirins in order to
engage in debate with other schools on the latter's terms. That is to say, since Yogacara-
Vijfianavada thought represented a theory of practice deriving from the practice of yoga,
their perspective differed from that of other schools, and therefore they needed to adjust
their perspective when debating with other schools. In order to engage in debate with
others, it was necessary to debate at the level of everyday experience, removed from states
of meditation, and Sautrantika thought may have fulfilled this role. It is for this reason that
people today feel, it seems to me, the strongest affinities with Sautrantika thought at the
level of everyday thinking. This is, of course, just my own personal view, and it has not been
scientifically verified.
 Hidenori S. SAKUMA
346
brought up in traditions nurtured in the West, are prone to want to identify at all
costs a single individual as the author of these works and assign him copyright as it
were, but in the present case I see no reason to restrict authorship in this manner.
3. Kosakara Vasubandhu
as Seen in Y ogacara-Vijfianavada Thought
The yoga practitioners of the Yogacara school did not possess their own Vinaya,
and it is to be surmised that they usually followed the Vinaya of the Sarvasti-
vadins.41 Moreover, many of the theories appearing in Yogacara-Vijfianavada
thought overlap with those of the Sarvastivada. 42 Further, assuming, as noted
41 According to legendary accounts about Asailga and Vasubandhu, they were initially
ordained as Sarvastivada monks and subsequently converted to Mahayana. This indicates
that they belonged to a group that used the Sarvastivada Vinaya. These accounts suggest, in
other words, that practitioners belonging to a group called the Yogacara school, which
included Asailga and Vasubandhu, similarly belonged to a group affiliated to the Sarvasti-
vada and that they did not form a group with its own independent Vinaya.
According to SCHMITHAUSEN (1977:928, n. 24; 1987b:305-306), a quotation from a
passage preserved only in the PriitimoksaszJtra of the Mulasarvastivada is found in the
SriivakabhzJmi and in the Abhidharmasa~uccayabhfifya, a fact that has been confirmed by
YAMAGIWA (1993). If we follow ENOMOTO (1998), "Miilasarvastivada" in this case may be
equated with "Sarvastivada." I understand the use of mzJla here as follows. According to the
chart in TSUKAMOTO (2001:55-62), there are different accounts of the lineages of schools
such as the Mahisasaka and Dharmagupta as they split from the Sarvastivada. It is thus to
be surmised that in reality there existed many groups, their lineages often obscure, that
adopted the Vinaya of the Sarvastivada in a broad sense of the term. If the Sarvastivada
was being lumped together with groups that were supposed to have split from them,
orthodox Sarvastivadins would no doubt have been motivated to assert that they themselves
were the only legitimate group observing that Vinaya so as to differentiate themselves from
other similar groups. It was probably for this reason that they added the word mtlla ('root',
'founding') in order to identify themselves as the legitimate Sarvastivada. There were
probably many groups that did not have specific names like Mahisasaka, etc., which im-
plies - as we can see in ENOMOTO (1998:115) - that even if the rules in different Vinayas
contradicted each other, this did not mean that groups using this or that Vinaya belonged
to different schools, but that there were different groups within one and the same Sarvasti-
vada. This would perhaps be comparable to university rules today, where each department
may have its own rules that differ slightly from those of other departments. The fact that
the YogacarabhzJm1: etc., of the Yogacara school quote the Vinaya of the Mulasarvastivada
suggests that practitioners of the Yogacara school initially belonged to an orthodox
Sarvastivada group and then, with its doctrines at its core, gradually formed a new group
possessing the shared aim of developing practical theories based on praxis. It would have
been only natural for them to express in terms of a sibling relationship the fact that the
master Asailga and his disciple Vasubandhu had been connected by the strong bonds of the
same Vinaya of the Sarvastivada.
42 On the basis of the data found in HARADA (1993:107-110, appendix), YAMABE
(2000:68) mentions that the views of the Sautrantika do not appear throughout the entire
Yogacarabhumi, but are mostly concentrated in three bhtlmis, namely, the Savitarka-
savicaradibhtlmi of the Maull Bhiimi, the Paiicavijiianakayasamprayuktii Bhtlmi, and the
ManobhzJmi of the Viniscayasaf!]grahaJJi, which were composed before the introduction of
iilayavijiiiina into the YogiiciirabhzJmi YAMABE also gives his view on so-called Sautrantika
ideas such as the mutual impregnation of form and mind ( sexin himln 5iLJ'R~): "At a
relatively later phase in the formation of the Yogacarabhumi, a set of doctrines
propounded without the premise of the alayavijiiana theory came to be regarded as
Remarks on the Lineage 347
--b~ve that when writing the Abhidharmakosa Vasubandhu presented his own
a_ ws 'under the rubric of "Sautrantika" when referring critically to Sarvastivada
~~~nking, and fa~ed with the fact th.at these view~ of h~s can be traced back to the
Yogiicarabhum1, how are we to envisage the relationship between these schools? It
has been repeated!~ ~y~o~hesized that pract~tioners of the Y ogacara s~hool lived
together with Sarvastivadms but were especially devoted to the practice of yoga
nd therefore endeavored to organize the phenomena experienced in the course of
:heir practice in the form of practical theories. But in order to highlight for con-
venience' sake the difference between the Sarvastivada and Y ogacara schools, I
would like to restate this in the following way, with the proviso that this is no more
than a conjecture at present. That is to say, if within a larger group observing the
same Vinaya a subgroup that analyzed Buddhist doctrine and systemized it in the
form of doctrinal theories can be regarded as the Sarvastivada School, then
another subgroup that aimed to systemize Buddhist doctrine in the form of
practical theories can be regarded as the Y ogacara school.
We can glean some indications of the coexistence of Mahayana and Hinayana
?!
( == traditional ~uddhis~ ),_ and also the coexi~t~~ce t12_e Y oga~ar~ scho~l and the
Sarvastivada, m meditation manuals (chanpng j]i!J!*~ [med1tat10n sutra] and
guiin}ing ffl!*i [visualization sutra]) describing practices current at the time in
Central Asia and China. As has been shown by YAMABE Nobuyoshi (2009),
provisions can be ascertained in these texts according to which the teacher would
decide on the basis of the disciple's aptitude whether to instruct him in the
Hinayana or the Mahayana. But before discussing this, I would first like to consider
the current of five-gotra thought in India, i.e., the system of five 'families' (gotra) of
practitioners and non-practitioners.
The notion of an indeterminate gotra to be seen already in the Yogiiciirabhumi
developed into an independent category in the five-gotra system that was later
established in China. This category of an indeterminate gotra indicates that discip-
les did actually decide on the basis of their aptitude whether to proceed along the
path of the sriivaka, pratyekabuddha, or along the path of the bodhisattva
(Mahayana). The controversy over the five-gotra system, triggered by a passage in
the F6dijing Jim (1iJtttMiii) translated by Xuanzang, became a major issue in
China, Korea, and Japan. Nonetheless, it comes as something of a surprise to find
that in India discussion about the five-gotra system had meaning only in the
context of practice. As regards the origins of the five-gotra system, there are two
currents in the Yogiiciirabhumi One current is.that of a teacher trying to decide in
which gotra of the three vehicles he should instruct a disciple of indeterminate
gotra, while the other, also deriving from a pedagogical context, gives expression to
a teacher's simple sigh of regret at the existence of disciples who are unsuited to
Buddhist practice and who have no possibility of attaining niIViiJJa ( apariniIViiJJa-
dharma). As for this latter current, it can be supposed that woeful disciples difficult
to instruct were termed apariniIViiIJadharma, while those whom the teacher could
continue to train were described as pariniIViiJJadharma, loosely translatable as
'having the possibility of attaining nirva]).a'. It is to be surmised, moreover, that,
mediated by the earlier notion of 'someone with greatly wrong views' (icchantika)
which belonged to a different current, apariniIViiJJadharma developed into the fifth
'Sautrantika' theories." In addition, YAMABE also examines the fact that the alayavijiiana
the?ry is considered to be a Sautrantika idea in the KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa, but I shall not
go mto this here.
348 Hidenori S. SAKUMA
category called agotra, 'without family', in the five-gotra system. In contrast, pari-
mivapadharma came to signify disciples of the indeterminate gotra, and once it
had been determined which path among those of the three gotras such disciples
would follow, these three paths became three separate gotras. Thus, parinirvapa-
dharma evolved into a total of four gotras. The five-gotra system can be under-
stood as the merging by this process of two separate systems. 43 As is evident from
the currents that thus developed into the five-gotra system, the three gotras
appearing in the Yogacarabhumiwere not taken up for the purpose of doctrinal
systemization, but were discussed as a matter of course and quite naturally in
response to real questions concerning how a teacher should instruct practicing
disciples. This reminds us of the situation in classrooms from elementary school
through university today. Only education adapted to the temperament of indivi-
dual students can serve as a viable approach for producing capable adults, and this
is completely different from the approach taken in official guidelines for education,
which seek to force all students into the straitjacket of a uniform education policy
that gives priority to educational theory.
Could one not apply the same thinking to the theories of the Sarvastivada and
Y ogacara schools? YAMABE, while bearing in mind Vijiianavada theories, has for
many years been working on the theories of practice found in Chinese meditation
manuals. Among his findings, he has stated, for example, when showing how the
Northern school of Chinese Chan employed the Vijiianavada theories introduced
by Xuanzang, that "the authors of these Chan texts were first and foremost
practitioners, not textual and doctrinal scholars." 44 He has also suggested that there
may have been Mahayanist elements in the thinking of the Sarvastivadins. 45
It would thus seem reasonable to conclude that there was not a clear-cut
boundary between Mahayana and Hinayana as we today have assumed. It is to be
surmised that the difference between the two was one of emphasis, that is, a
difference between a prime focus on practical theories born of experiences had
during practice or on doctrinal theories with metaphysical tendencies, and this
corresponds to the difference between Mahayanist and Abhidharmic tendencies as
envisioned by us today. In the above case of Chinese Chan, it would be more
natural to assume it shows a difference derived not from differences in the national
characteristics of Indians and Chinese but rather from whether the emphasis was \
on practical theories or doctrinal theories. This provides an important hint for
considering the background to the shift from Hinayana to Mahayana in India. At
any rate, when examining differences between the Sarvastivada and the Y ogacara
school, one should bear in mind practical pedagogical considerations concerning
which of the three gotras a disciple of the indeterminate gotra ought to be instruc-
ted in.
Among the diverse texts analyzed and examined in detail by YAMABE, I would
here like to mention Buddhamitra's *Paiicadvaradhyanasiltramaharthadharma (li
r5ffriff~~ J:¥Ht, Wumen chanjlng yaoyong fa, allegedly translated by Dharma-
mitra), an extremely interesting text. The path of the practitioner - iravaka,
43
I refer the reader to a detailed consideration of this subject in SAKUMA (2007a,
2007b, and 2007c).
44
YAMABE (2006:581-582). This statement encapsulates the relationship between
Chan praxis and Vijiianavada theories as theories of practice.
45
YAMABE (2009:63) writes: "This looks like a Mahayanist idea. It is noteworthy that a
Sarvastivadin text contains this sort of idea."
Remarks on the Lineage 349
-;;;ekabuddha, or bodh1~at~a - is deter~ined ~l how far the im~ges_ of the
~ ddha visualized by the d1sc1ple go from his body, and further ment10n 1s made
47
; differences between the Mahayana and the Hinayana. Still more intriguing is
~he difference between the Mahayana and the Hinayana to be seen in the
·sualization of the corpse, with the disciple's path being determined by the number
Vl . bl . . 48
0
f bones that he 1s a e to v1sua11ze.
On the basis of such investigations, it can be readily supposed that practitioners
of the Yogacara school received instruction in the same group as Sarvastivadins,
but through their devoted practice of yoga they not only understood Sarvastivada
theories as practical theories, but also developed their discoveries born of
experiences during actual practice into new theories of practice.
This way of thinking is underpinned by the theory of asrayaparivrtti, i.e., the
theory of the 'transmutation of basis', considered to be distinctive of the Yoga.cam
46 y AMABE (2009:60); Wumen chanjfng yaoyong fa (T619.325c23_2s): ffl~iLt ~{tfJ!.
f;f-~+ h:¥fflt;_. :;s{TAPfTJ!. ~{~1jf~J:c±t~- :;s:*J}~jfilfmffl~. ~§ffi'M'JD. Jtt~
:J'<wlfflA. :;s=,Ntfmffl::\§. :sj<:g$3[{~A- :;sjfilfmffl~. ~::k*A· =::llPlTt±:H~Jffifil~. ffttg
i:'§. Jtc~{~m.An~ttg. English translation by YAMABE (ibid.): "At that time, statues of
Buddha appear from the forehead, first one, then ten, and finally countless [statues]. If the
practitioner sees many Buddhas appear from his forehead, and if they go n~t far from his
body and return, then the teacher should know that this person seeks for the Sravaka [path].
If [the statues] go a little farther and return, that person seeks for the Pratyekabuddha
[path]. If the statues go very far and return, that person seeks for the Mahayana. The
Buddhas of these three kinds return, approach the body [of the practitioner], make the
ground gold in color, and then all the Buddhas enter the ground."
47
YAMABE (2009:60-61) cites the following passage from the Wumen chanjfngyaoyong
Iii (T619.326a2-s): ~1&ft{~. NPJ!~{~tfiL/fmte. -¥¥Jt!Jrt:Ej!r£;t{. ttffiRJite~*A- YcrB~
::fc,J\. tzo~t±re. *f&-f~¥Att:t±,L<1E:u:rmf:t. *f&f:tf~i!filJtfflA. )t;:*~f~~*~A-
B'J\*AAm~u1r.. :;s::k*AA~B- ~1jf~=fHLteiij:fj~[9~4j. J::¥~JJfT:¥00.[5~t
English translation by YAMABE (ibid.): "Then, [the practitioner] sees Buddhas appear from
the heart, who hold staffs of vak/tlrya in their hands. On the two heads of the staffs, people
of the three vehicles appear. [Some Buddhas have] big shining flames, [others] small ones.
When [the Buddhas] have thus appeared, the final Buddha stands upright on the heart
holding a staff in his hand. The final standing Buddha turns around and returns [to the
heart]. The Buddhas who had previously left also come back and enter [the heart]. If [ the.
practitioner] belongs to Hinayana, when all [the Buddhas] have entered [the heart], that is
the end fof this vision]. If [the practitioner] belongs to Mahayana, after all [the Buddhas]
have entered [the heart], they all appear from the pores [of the practitioner], fill the four
oceans, go upwards to the Akani~!ha heaven (yu-ting ~JI) and downwards to the wind
disk (Ieng-chi 00.~~)." It should be noted that the immediately preceding passage
(T619.326a 2: §flHl~f*~:t±,L,, "Then the teacher again instructs how to contemplate
mental abiding") makes it clear that the scene is that of a master instructing a disciple.
48
YAMABE (2009:61) cites the following passage from the Wumen chanjfng yaoyong Iii
(T619.327c1s-21) (W~~~rt [cl 7]): )t;~i:t~ft:;{s'/1tll::krnJ:J!~ijff .L-JJiMtJJHmz. ~
JiittttzDIDIIfilte. ijJl~il~B!JiJ!ait. mJ!J!!JJ:~itn. :;sJ!1ij-5tT::\§1i~::k*· :;s=
~lliiHi~1j\*· English translation by YAMABE (ibid.): "First, [the teacher should] teach
the practitioner to observe the right foot attentively and visualize a boil on the big toe. In
his mind, [the practitioner] should scratch it away and see yellow fluid flowing away like pus
and blood. He [further] sees that all the flesh becomes putrefied and disappears, with only
white bones remaining. When he has seen all this, [the teacher] should teach him
· extensively the visualization of bones. If the practitioner sees the whole world filled [with
bones], [the teacher] should teach him Mahayana. If only the area near him is filled with
bones, [the master] should teach him Hinayana."
350 Hidenori S. SAKUMA
school. As far as I have been able to ascertain, the earliest examples of the theory
of fisrayaparivrtti expressed by asraya being combined with either parivvrt or
paravvrt are found only in Yogacara texts and cannot, moreover, be found prior to
the Yogactirabhum1: 49 Of importance is the fact - as is evident from the earliest
examples of the asrayaparivrtti theory in the Sravaka- and Bodhisattvabhumi in
the Maull Bhumi of the Yogacarabhumi - that this theory was strongly practice-
oriented and had its basis in actual experiences obtained during meditation. It is
not clear when the Sarvastivada School began to incorporate Yogacara theories of
practice, but the fisrayaparivrtfj theory appears for the first time in Abhidharma
traditions in the Abhidharmakosa/ 0 where the term asraya is used together with
the two verb forms parivvrt and paravvrt in the stages of the darsana- and
49 The Chinese translation zhuiinyf (fl{:&) for airayaparivrtti appears in the following
passage from Dharmatrata's O!~ Fajiu, fl. early fourth century) *Saipyuktabhidharma-
hrdaya Ufi~6J.E'Efi,L §)m Za apftan xfnlim, Tl552.906a1rn): fi~.li$ffi1Ji'f'~. ~;[EJ7y1~. 1#
1
ffi. ff{:&. ~O~. f~t1W; English translation: "Furthermore, there are five things that
eliminate defilement: the cessation of its cause, the attainment of abandonment, trans-
mutation of the basis ( airayapan·vrtti), knowing its conditions, and attaining its antidote"
(for a different English translation, see DESSEIN, 1999.1:293). Since there are close
similarities between the *Saipyuktabhidharmahrdaya and the Abh1dharmakosa, the *Saip-
yuktabh1dharmahrdaya is included in the third phase of Abhidharma literature. Since the
term zhuanyf is missing in both Dharmasre~tin's O!~ Fasheng, fl. ca. 200 CE) root-text
*Abh,dharmahrdayasastra (~ii] .E'Eit,L'8im Apftan xinlun, T1550, also reconstructed as
*Abhidharmasara), on which Dharmatrata's text is a commentary, as well as in the earlier
commentary by Upasanta entitled *Abh1dharmahrdayaszlstra (P6T mtt,C,,ina*~ Apitan
xinlun Jing, Tl551), it is doubtful that the term asrayaparivrtti was found in the original
Sanskrit root text. A prototype of the model of exchange between depravity ( dau!ffhulya)
a?d tranquility (prasrabdhi) in the early stage of the asrayaparivrtti theory as found in the
Sravakabhzlmi and so on can, of course, be found in Pali and Abhidharma literature.
50 AK.bh, 631s-20: asrayavise!jiid etat sidhyati/ asravo hi sa 8JY81J8Ip darsanabhavana-
margasamarthyat tatha paravrtto bhavatiyatha na punas tatpraheyaJJii!J1 klelaniiip praroha-
samartho bhavatJ/. English translation by PRUDEN (1988-1990:209): "[The Doctrine of the
Sautrantikas:] To us, the abandoning or the non-abandoning of a defilement consists of a
certain condition of the person ( airaya, ii.5 and 6, 44d). The personality [airavo] of the
Aryan is modified [paravrtto bhavati], becoming different from what it was through the
power of the Path (Seeing the Truths, Meditation). The defilement, once it has been
destroyed through the force of the Path, cannot be manifested again." AK.bh, 232 25 -233 2:
darsanamargary'lltthitasyfise!jadarsanaprahatavyaprahfil}at pratyagrasravaparivrttinirmala
saiptatir vartate/ arhatphalary'lltthitasyfise!jabhavanaprahatavyaprahiil}iit pratyagrasrava-
parivrttisuddha SaIJlfatir vartate/ .. ./ Se!jasya tu bhavanamargasyaparipzlrJJaSvabhava-
phaJatvac ca tadry'lltthitanii!J1 na tatha pratyagrasrayaparjvrttisuddha* saiptatir vartat(e) .../
(*See SAKUMA, 1990:43 n. 141). English translation by PRUDEN (1988-1990:631): "The
person who leaves the Path of Seeing the Truth: in this Path, he has abandoned all the
defilements which are abandoned through Seeing the Truths. When he leaves it, his series
is thus pure, since his personality has just been renewed [ asrayapariv,rtti
0 0
The person
].
who leaves the result of Arhat, that is to say, who has just acquired the result of Arhat: he
has just achieved the abandoning of all the defilements which are abandoned through
Meditation on the Truths. His series is pure, since his personality has just been renewed
[ asrayaparfrrtti
0 0
].The Paths of Meditation through which one obtains the results of
•••
Salqdagamin and of Anagamin, are incomplete in themselves and in their result. Persons
who leave the conquest of these two results are not fields of merit comparable to an Arhat.
Their series is not pure; their personalities have not been recently renewed [na ...
asrayapariv,rtti
0 0
My emphasis and inserted brackets.
].''
Remarks on the Lineage 351
bhavanamarga. Bo.th verb f?rms are used in ~he Mahayanasqt~iilmp~ar~, but only
the form parivv_~t 1s fou!]-d m extant I?anu~cnpts of th~ Y_ogacarabhu1.71.1. The verb
ari(vrt as used m the Sravakabhum1 implies the subst1tut10n of a pos1t1ve element,
fc th~ penetration of the positive element prasabdhi ('ease') after the elimination
~f ·;he negative element dau~fhulya ('badness/evilness') from th,,e base (asraya), and
the Bodhisattvabhumi confirms this. The difference with the Sriivakabhumi is that
the Bodhisattvabhzlmi does not specify what the positive element is. In contrast, in
the Mahayanasutralaf!lkara, which uses both verb fon~s, paravvrt is used in the
sense of eliminating negative elements (mainly klesa).::i 1 In the Abhidharmakosa,
however, it is not possible to determine any difference in nuance between the two
verb-forms, and the overall meaning of the relevant passages is merely that the
base ( airaya) is transformed through the complete elimination of negative
elements (i.e., klesa). Furthermore, this fisrayaparivrtti represents the final stage
of enlightenment of a Buddha, which means that fisrayaparivrtti is already quite
close in its connotations to tathata. When these points are taken into consideration,
it would seem that the Abh1dharmakosa incorporated the idea of fisrayaparivrtti
only after the difference in nuance between the two verb-forms had disappeared. It
is thus difficult to seek evidence for the establishment of the theory of fisraya-
parivrtti in Sarvastivada litcrature.52 If we accept that the Kosakara Vasubandhu
was familiar with the thought of the Yogacarabhum1; it is hardly surprising in terms
of the development of this theory that he used its termin9logy53 in the Vyakhya-
yukt1;54 the Pratityasamutpadavyakhya, 55 and the Tri1J1sika::i 6 and that his formula-
tion was a somewhat advanced form of the asrayaparivrtti theory.
51 I have examined the differences in nuance between the two verbs parfivvrt and
parivv,rt in SAKUMA (1996).
52
When investigating the origins of the asrayaparivrtti theory, some modern scholars
previously thought that this theory may have originated in a current of women's
enlightenment on the grounds that evidence of sexual transformation, i.e., women being
transformed into men and men into women, is found in the Abhidharmakosa. But as I have
pointed out in SAKUMA (1991), sexual transformation or hermaphroditism should be
treated as issues concerning the Vinaya and are not related to the Mrayaparivrtti theory. It
is true that the relevant Vinaya provision, similar to that in the Abh1dharmakosa, appears
in the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJf of the Yogficarabhumj and in the Mahiiyanaszltralaipkara and
its commentaries, and therefore these three texts are undoubtedly closely related. But when
considering their chronological relationship, one should assume that the Abhidharmakosa
adopted this provision from the other two texts.
53 The fact that the Kosakara Vasubandhu used the terminology of the asrayapariv,rtti
theory in the Abhidharmakosa, the Vyakhyayukti, the Pratityasamutpadavyakhya, and the
Trjf!lsika precludes the possibility that he was not familiar with this theory even if he did
not use its terminology in the Karmas1ddhiprakara1Ja and the ViJps1kii. A similar pheno-
menon can be observed in the case of terms like alayavijiiana and vijnaptimatrata. That is
to say, this phenomenon itself has no bearings on our consideration of questions of author-
ship. It may be safely assumed that the airayaparivrtti theories appearing in the Abhj-
dharmakosa, the Vyakhyayukti, the Pratityasamutpadavyakhya, and the TriipSJka probably
belong to roughly the same stage of development.
54 See LEE (2001 :241 _ ): nyon mongs pa dang shes bya 'i sgrib pa thams cad spangs pa 'j
24 26
phyir gnas gvur pa bsam gyis mj kl1yab pa brnyes pa dang!. Translation: "Due to the aban-
donment of all hindrances ( avaraJJa) of defilements (klesa) and for objects of knowledge
(jiieya), there is attainment of an unfathomable transmutation of the basis ( *asrayapari-
lparavrtti, gnas su gyur pa)." Japanese translations of this passage can be found in HONJO
(1992:111) and HORIUCHI (2005:47). Asrayaparivrtti is mentioned in response to a

352 Hidenori s. SAKUMA
In its early stage, the asrayaparivrtti theory was extremely practical in content,
but by the stage of the VimscayasalJlgrahapi of the Yogacarabhumi its theoretical
formulation had advanced and it had grown into a theory of practice that was
discussed as belonging within the framework of Mahayana doctrine. This means
that yoga practitioners were already consciously attempting to systemize a theory
of practice that had been born from their own experiences. In the following, I wish
to trace Yogacara-Vijfianavada thought as far as the appearance of the Kosakara
Vasubandhu's works with reference to the development of the idea of asraya-
parivrtti
On a previous occasion, I presented the ideas about asrayaparivrtti found in
the Yogacarabhiimi by classifying them into five patterns.57 For the sake of con-
venience, I shall use the same patterns here:
question about the svabhavakaya, i.e., the 'natural body' of enlightenment. This text seems
to regard it as the realization of a state in which the base has been completely transformed
( asraya-parj/paravrtti) after the elimination of the two hindrances (klesa and jiieya). The
term asraya-pari!paravrtti as used here is presumably a full-fledged compound, and
therefore, since it appears in connection with the svabhavakaya, it is reasonable in terms of
the development of the asrayaparivrtti theory to interpret it as referring only to the state of
Buddhahood in which the base ( asraya) has been completely transformed as a result of
yoga practices. The connection between the dharmakaya or svabhavakaya and asraya-
parivrtti came to be expressed in later times in the form of a stock formula. The fact that
the Vyakhyilyukti uses this stock formula without any explanation shows that this text must
have been composed after this interpretation of asrayaparivrtti had already become firmly
established.
55
See MUROJI (1993:108): btsun pa Sa ston pa rnams kyi srid pa 'iyan lag gi rnam par
shes pa yang de yin tel ... de nyid kyi phyir de gnas yangs su ma gvur na srid pa rgyun mi
'chad pa 'i phyir ro zhes smras tel. English translation: "This is the same as the venerable
Mahisasaka School's [concept of] consciousness of the link of existence ( *bhavaliga-
vijiiana) . ... For this reason, it is said:' ... because as there has been no transmutation of the
basis thereof, the continuity of existence has not been interrupted'." MUROJI (1993:187)
reconstructs the underlined phrase as * tad-asrayaparivrttau. As I have shown in SAKUMA
(2001), the compound form asraya-aparavrtti can be confirmed among Yogacara texts in
the Madhyantavibhagafika attributed to Sthiramati. If we reconstruct the verbal form of
this phrase as *asrayo na parivartate, this calls to, mind asrayalJ parivartate in the Sravaka-
bhumi (SAKUMA, 1990:A.1.5). However, in the Sravakabhumi, this asraya, i.e., base, has to
be a purified positive element. In the Pratityasamutpadavyakhya, on the other hand, the
base is regarded as alayavijnana, and it is therefore a negative element that has to be trans-
formed through yoga practices, as also seen in the Madhyantavibhagafika. This indicates
that it already belongs to a stage beyond that of the Mahayanasutralaipkarakan"ka and its
commentary.
56
TVbh (L), 43 22 _23 : acitto 'nupalambho 'sau jiianaip Jokottaraip ca tat/ asravasva
paravrttir dvidhii dau~fhulyahanitalJ// (29). Translation: "It is non-cognition, non-observa-
tion; and it is supramundane knowledge. [It is] transmutation of the basis, since the twofold
depravity has been abandoned." According to Sthiramati's commentary, 'twofold' ( dvidha)
here refers to the hindrance of defilements (k/esavarapa) and the hindrance for objects of
knowledge (jiieyavarapa), in which case there is no difference between this interpretation
and that of the VyakhyayuktJ:
57
In SAKUMA (2000), I surveyed theoretical developments in Yogacara texts from the
Yogacarabhum1; the oldest such text, through other works as far as the Chinese translations
by Xuanzang. In SAKUMA (1989:21-22; 2000:146-147), I summarized the asrayapariv[lti
theories found in the Yogacarabhumi in terms of five patterns. Here I have added the
results of subsequent research.
Remarks on the Lineage 353
( 1) The notion of asrayaparivrttj found in the 1rava_ka~hilmi and B_o~hj-
sattvabhum1: the oldest parts of the Mau/J Bhum1 of the .Yog_acara-
bhum1; where it refers to a psychophysical transfor.ma~ion m the
practitioner brought about by t~e practice of ~editation. In th~
Sravakahhum1; it is a transformation that occurs m the psychophysi-
cal base ( asraya) of the yoga practitioner, consisting p~imarily of an
exchange of inertia ( dau~fhulya) for l~g~tne~s (pra.srab?h1 ). The
Bodhisattvabhumi mentions only the ehmmat10n of mertrn or b~d-
ness ( dauffhulya) (in a decidedly more ethical sens~) .connected ~~th
defilement (klesa), with the consequent aim of gammg. t~e po.sitive
element of power or control ( va{ita). However, t~e ongmal si~ple
form of the asrayaparivrtti theory found in the Sravak~bkilm1 had
already disappeared from around the stage of the V,mscayasa}J1-
grahanl and seldom appears in later times. . .
(2) The view found from the time of the Maull Bhum1 onwards, agam
presented as a transformation occurring in the psychophysical "base"
of the practitioner, although not as the result of an e~change of el~-
ments but as a transformation involving the entire basis of the practi-
tioner's existence. This idea is found, for example, in the section of
questions in the "Nirval).a Chapter"_ ?f the l:7initcayasaipgrahapi.
Even after the Mahayana theory of asrayapanvrtt1 came to occupy
the mainstream, this way of thinking was constantly pre.sent bene~th
the surface in the Y ogacara school, and consequently m the Cheng
weishi Jim (~Uft~~' T1585) this early interp.retation o~ asraya-
parivrtti is found alongside the newer Mahayana i~terpret~tion~ . _
o!
(3) A new interpretation, signs ~hich. can be found m th~ !'1rupa~hik~
Bhumi of the Mauli Bhum1, m which the concept of asrayapanvrtt1
is absolutized as tathata, which remains even after the physical dea~h
of the practitioner. This new interpretation is found, for inst_a~~e, m
the section of questions in the "Nirval).a Chapter" of the V,mscaya-
saipgrahani. The defiled practitione~ attains .Buddhahood not
through purification but by gradually mcorporatmg the s~eds th~t
issue forth from the originally pure realm of the Buddha. It is for this
reason that asrayaparivrtti as an outcome can survive even afte.r
death without being subject to the physical constraints of the practi-
tioner. I provisionally characterize this pattern as "Mahayanization."
Of course, at the stage of the Nirupadhika Bhumi, there is to be
found only a leaning towards this Mahayaniza~ion. But s~~~equently
this tendency becomes more pronounced m the Vlmscayasaip-
grahapi, where after it becomes in all respects the main current of
asrayaparivrtti thought. . . -/ . .. - .
(4) The final stage in the absolut1zat10n of asrayapanV[tfl is.. ~a!hata, 1_11
which asrayaparivrtti stands in sharp con~rast to .alay~v1Jnana. T.h1s
appears in the Viniscayasaipgrahapi and is a radical mterpretat10n
that subsequently shows up in various works.
(5) Once the Mahayanization of asrayapariv(ttJ; equating it with ~athata,
had been completed and had taken root m the realm of practice, the
Y ogacara school as a school of Mahayanists began to assert the
superiority of the asrayaparivrtti of the Mahayana over that of ~he
Sravakayana by means of the dist~nction b~twee~ t~e ~harm~k_aya,
reserved for bodhisattvas, and the body of hberation ( VJmuktJ"kaya),
with which the dharmakaya is contrasted in the Saipdhinirmocana-
sutra quoted in the Viniscayasaipgrahapi. This is similar to the rela-
tionship between 'great enlightenment' (mahabodhi) and 'the purity
 354 Hidenori S. SAKUMA
of the truth-constituent' ( dharmadhatuvisuddh1") in the Vi111:<caya-
sa1J1.f!ra~api. People belonging to this group began to utilize asraya-
panvrtt1 as a theory of practice leading to enlightenment. The con-
nection between asrayapa.rivrtti and the dharmakaya presented in
the Sa1J1dhinirmocanasiitra came to be expressed formulaically as
"the dharmakiiya is characterized by asrayapariv_rtti," and this notion
became firmly established in later times. This is an idea that would
be inconceivable in terms of iisrayaparivrtti in its older form or as
part of the process of practice. Furthermore, the idea linking dhar-
madhatuvisuddhi with asrayaparivrtti gives the impression that this
group of Mahayanists was at the stage of utilizing this theory after its
theoretical formulation had been completed.
The above five patterns are confined to the asrayaparivrtti thought found in the
Yogac~rabhiim1: and at this stage there cannot yet be seen any connections with
the fl_Jsvabha~~ th~ory, another important theory of the Y ogacara school with
practical ram1f1cat1ons. These two theories merged for the first time in the
1:fahayanasiitralmpkarabhawa, attributed to Vasubandhu. Furthermore, this turns
mto a more clearly defined form of asrayapariv_rtti thought with the notion of a so-
ca~le_~ twofold dependent nature (paratantrasvabhava) that took shape in the
VImscayasaipgrahapland was brought to the fore in the Mahayiinasaipgraha. 58
~ ha_ve referred to this matter in SAKUMA (1989:34). Vi111:<cayasa1J1grahap1~ translated
58
~y Xuanzang (T1579.704c2s-29): Fr::i~~{R{fumEJtt1J\IE~pfrffli. {5Jttx)JrJ§~{R1tME!3ti~lm
pt~trfJt§1,rt,Jtff!r=u7J~. ~1El~rit§~1R1film§1,r1:~*'l~Fm1J5l. ~rn1Jn"~Jo~;
~¥Jtff!r=iJ7 ~D; ~4038.z1.22b3_4: gal te gzhan gyi dbang gi ngo bo ny1dyang dag pa 'i shes pas
bsdus pa yang ym nal des na gzhan gyi dbang gi ngo bo nyid ni kun brtags pa 'j ngo bo nyid la
mngon par zheJ? pa la brten nas shes par 'gyur ro zhe gang smras pa de Ji Jta bu zhe nal
smr~s pa( der 111 kun nas nyon mongs par 'gyur ba 'i gzhan gyi dbang gi ngo bo nyid la bsams
pa ym gyilmam par byang bar 'gyur ba las ni ma yin telmam par byang bar 'gyur ba nj/ de la
mngon par ma zhen pa la brten nas shes par 'gyur ba yin par rig par bya b;,1. Translation: "If
the dependent nature (paratantrasvabhava) also comprises correct knowledge, why was it
~tate? that the dependent nature should be understood on the basis of attachment to the
imagmed nature (pankalpitasvabhava)? Well, this statement refers only to the defiled
aspect of the depende_nt nature and not to its pure aspect. The pure aspect should be
understood ,?n !he basis of non-attachment thereto. '' Further, MahayanasalJlgraha trans-
~~t~d by_Xuanza_!_lg, (Tl597. 345a 23_27 [ = MS (L) II.29]): iiefa-B. ~5Jm~m::*Jt~*,filr:p. ~tJJ!Jjt
g~1t1§-=::f_i.~-fr:1E*5l· =1tr11¥5l. ::::f&:=5l. {R{PJW;,~_{ttl0~§£.1ff{R{fum13,f1:r:p. lffl~t
J=iJrfJt g '['i,Hm5l. llJ ~~ § '['i~if1¥5l. IW1R{film~1El=5l; D4048.l9b5_7: :has
mngon pa 1 m_do (as chos m gsum ste/ kun nas nyon mongs pa dang/ mam par byang ba
dang/ de gny1 ga 1 char g~ogs pa b ~hes beam ldan 'das kyis gang gsungs pa ci las dgongs te
gsungs she nal gzhan gy: dbang g1 ngo bo nyid la kun tu brtags pa 1· ngo bo nyid yod pa ni
kun nas nY_on mongs pa 1 char gtogs pa bl/yangs su grub pa 1· ngo bo nyidyod pa ni rnam par
?I
byang b~ 1 c~ar gtogs pa lgzhan gyi dbang de nyid ni de gnyi ga 1· char gtogs pa ste/.
Translation: In the Abh1dharma-{Mahayana}-stltra, the Bhagavan stated that there are
three types of phenomena; those comprised in the defiled aspect, those comprised in the
pure _aspe~t, and those comprise? in both-what is the [Buddha's] intention with saying so?
The imagmed nature (pankalp1tasvabhava), which is found within the dependent nature
(par~t~ntrasvabhava) is comprised in the defiled aspect. The consummate nature
(pann~~pan_nasvab~av~) is comprised in the pure aspect. The dependent nature itself is
comp;3se~~n b?th. Fm!~ly: M_,ahiiyanasa1J1graha (T1597.370b 19 [ = MS (L) X.3]): iiefa-D. -
,,1~~tGP~,,~~-wr*~,wJJ. 1~1!ftm,r1:tt:x:. i/itf~mf~~-f;7Jpf1J'S'it §1 fr. ,t:ElMm~5l
1R1mm'['itt;x:. D4048.37b1-2: gnas gyur ba 1· mt5an nyid ni sgrib pa thams cad la k~n nas nyon
Remarks on the Lineage 355
It would seem that while the iisray~pan"vrttj tho~ght in th~ Abhjdharm!k_osa
. ense of the process of pract1ce such as 1s found m the Mahayana-
gives a s - - · awareness of· patterns 3-5 , equa f mg
_ -1. mka-r.a it also possesses the Mahayamst
sutra
_/ a. ' . -/
, n·vrtd with tathatii. Considered more closely, the asrayapanvrttJ· · t hought
asrayapa · · - -d
. the Abh1dharmakosa, the VyiikhyiiyuktJ, the Pratityasamutpa mya ~a, an d the -kh -
1
;rimsjka is premised on pattern 5. . . . . . .
·The view that the Kosakara Vasubandhu was a smgle md1v1dual, bnlh~ntly
·d tcd by SCHMITHAUSEN through a careful investigation and analysis of
eluc1 a · f h
works hitherto ascribed to Vasuban~~:1- from the fresh perspectlve_s o_ t e mo?o-
stratal nature of citta, manas, and. VIJnan!, pre~~-~ted as the Sautr~~:~ka ~rem1s~,
d the multi-stratified nature of c1tta = alayavljn~na, manas, and VIJnana - the six
:;nsory vij.ianas, presented as the Y ogacara premise, may be ackno~ledged on the
·s of the research findings of subsequent researchers as bemg extre~ely
bast te But even if it is accepted that the Kosakara Vasubandhu was a smgle
accura · . . d'h ,-
m. ct·IVI·ctU al , it cannot be denied that - with the exception
.
of the Dharma
.
armata-
·
vjbhagavrttj- in the Yogac~ra-Vijfianav~d~ the_?n~s propoun~ed m comment~nes
attributed to Vasubandhu, 1.e., the Mahayanasutralaipkara~hawa, the Madh[anta-
vibhagafika, the Mahiiyiinasaipgrahabh~wa, etc., ":e can fmd prototypes d~re~tly
linked to Yogacara-Vijfianavada theones found m the works of the Ko~ak~ra
Vasubandhu.)') In other words, it is an indisputable fa_ct tha~ the Kosak~ra
Vasubandhu was directly and closely influenced by the immediately precedmg
commentarial literature of the Y ogacara school. . .
It still remains to consider the key-concept of the transformation of consc~ous~
ness ( vijiiiinapanp.iima) or the transformation of the Jm~nd-]stream (santatJpan-
nama). When we clearly differentiate between the ~osakara Vasub~n~hu ~n~ the
~ommentator Vasubandhu who wrote commentanes o~ t~e Mahayanasutr~laip_-
kara etc a concept of central importance for the Kosakara Vasubandhu 1s v1- 62
jiiiin~par~~ama60 or santahpanp.iima. 61 According to SCHMITHAUSEN (1967: 135),
mongs pa 'j char gtogs pa 'j gzhan gyi dbang gi ngo bo nyid rnam par fog na sgrib pa thams
cad /as rnam par gm/ zhing chos thams cad la dbang_ sgyur ba ny~ bar _gnas pa rnam pa~
byang ba 'i char gtogs pa gzhan gyi dbang gi ngo bo nYJ~ du gyur pa 1phYJr roll Translation.
"This is because [buddhas] are [characterized as] only m terms of_the aspect of the dep~n-
dent nature pertaining to the purity of being liberated fro_m. all hmdrances and ~ossessmg
mastery over all phenomena, since the defining charactenstlc of the transmut~t~on of the
basis (asrayaparivrtti) is beyond the aspect of the dependent nature pertammg to all
hindrances and defilement. " .
59 As regards similarities between the Abhidharmakosa and antece?ent works, w_e _fmd,
for example, a high degree of _correspondence between the Analysis ?f the Individual
(Pudgalanirdda) of the Abhidharmakosa and Mahayanastltrala1J1kii~abhawa XVIIl.92-103.
While it is conceivable that the differences between the two texts might be due to the fact
that they have a common source in the Bodhisattvabh~mi ~f _the Mauli Bhiimi of the
Yogacarabhum1; in which the MahiiyanastltralalJlk,iira has its ongms, we ca~not e_xclu?e the
possibility that the author of the "Pudgalanirdesa" was _a~are of_ the discussion m the
Mahiiyiinasutrala1J1kara, which he then borrowed and modified for his own purposes.
60
TV, 13 (v. 1). . ,
61 AK-Index: salJltatipaniJiima(-vise~a); KS (MUROJI), 16.113-14: rgyud yangs su gyur
ba'ikhyad par; VV, 9.16-17: svasalJlfiinaparipamavise~ad .
62 "Man sollte doch meincn, daB ein so brauchbarer und den Gegebenhe1ten d~s
Yogacara - wie etwa die oben zitierte Sthiramati-Stelle zeigt - so leicht anpaBbarer Begnff
wie der des (vifii.iina-)paril)iimalJ auch in den ubrigen Yogacarawerken_ des Verfassers des
Abhidharmakosal)., falls es solche gibt, gelegentlich auftreten miiBten msbesondere dann,
 357
Remarks on the Lineage
356 Hidcnori S. SAKUMA
t to note here those aspects of Yogacara-Vijnanavada t~ou~ht
the concept of vi/Iianaparipama cannot be found in the classical Y ogacara It ~ay ~c bes have been influenced by Sarµkhya philosophy. I a~_ thmkmg
literature, namely, in the commentarial works attributed to the Vasubandhu who that might. i7teifsimilarities between the doctrine of "evoluti_on'' _(panIJam~l that
wrote commentaries on the Mahayanaszltralaipkara, etc. It has, moreover, gene- here especia y the relationship between prakrti and puruJa m Sarµk?ya p 1 oso-
rally come to be accepted that the concept of vijiianapariIJama first appears in the developed fr~~ ·n Yogacara-Vijiianavada thought, which may denve _from the
TriipSJka. 63 It has also been said that this concept may have developed under the phy and pam;a~a 1 s of people engaged in similar kinds of yogic practices. The
influence of the paripama theory in Sarµkhya philosophy. 64 In a recent private commo~ ex~enence b tween the two systems would be due to the way in which
communication, Professor SCHMITHAUSEN kindly pointed out that this term and superficia~ differ~;:: firmulated as theories of practice. If practitioners_ of the
concept can be found in the Mahayanaszltralaipkarabhawa and Aiyadasa- the expenence~l were describing these experiences, they became ~a~t of Sarp.khya
bhumivyakhya attributed to Vasubandhu. 65 That is to say, we find sa1J1tatipari- Sa~khya Scho d if ractitioners of the y ogacara school were descnbmg them, they
1Jlimavise~at66 in the commentary on Mahayanaszltrala1J1kara XVIII.87, 67 and in Philosophy, an p - - y··- - -da thought The feature common to both
t of y ogacara- IJnanava · f 1
the commentary on the phrase cittamatram idalJl yad idaf!l traidhatukam68 in became. pa~ d d" ated practice of yoga. If practitioners from both sch~o_ls et a
chapter 6 of the Dasabhzlm1kasz1tra69 we find in the Aryadasabhzlmivyakhya the schools is t_ ~ c icardin their experiences, it is not in the least surpnsmg that
following statement: 'di ]tar khams gsum pa 'di ni sems tsam ste shes gsungs paste/ mutual affm1ty r~g ilaritfes between the doctrinal theories of th_e Sarp.khya School
khams gsum pa ni sems gyur pa tsam du zad pa 'j phyir ro/1.70 The phrase sems gyur there should be s1m - - V" - - - da School Therefore with concepts other
f the Yogacara- 11nanava · ' . h
pa tsam suggests Sanskrit *cittaparipamamatra. This means that this concept exists and thos~ ~ ·t . I believe quite natural for there to be examples S\}ggestmg t e
in works other than those of the Kosakara Vasubandhu, and it also gives strong than paru;am~ 1 is, . , h n ..
credence to the view that the Kosakara Vasubandhu took over previous Yogacara- influence of Sarµkhya ph1losokp yh. . . th t the Kosakara Vasubandhu modified
Vijfianavada notions incorporated in earlier works. This is similar to what we
found in the case of the evolution of the asrayaparivrtti theory and the five-gotra
system, and this concept too would have been handed down within the current of
Base .
and system1zed :~:d
d on the above, I ta e t e view a . - -
heories of ractice developed in earlier Yogacara wo~ks.
acknowl:dging the possibility that the current version o~ th_e
w_e _cannot raha is the result of collaboration b1 ma1:Y. people. _B~t it is
Yogacara thought. 71 Therefore, it is difficult to maintain that the Kosakara Vasu- Mahayanasa:,ghl rk ly that the author of the putative ongmal MahayanasalJl-
bandhu first introduced this concept from Sarpkhya philosophy. nonetheless I~ i ~- ~ ·ct l If the author was Asanga, this means that there
!~:::u;~;i:t:~n; ~i;;o:i~~i"!;~g':cw~~:: ~~:ta~d~~eo1e:~~:~r:r ~i::g:~:~~;
1

wenn die -Oberlieferung, daB die Tr Vasubandhus letztes Werk gewesen sei, richtig ist. Ich Vijna~a~ada th~~z~\Fi~~;i;~~t ~o p~:suade one that this Asanga would h~ve/?~e?
habe den Begriff in den Vasubandhu-Kommentaren zu den klassischen Yogacarawerken
Mahayanasaipg ·r If we take as an example the Tnms1ka, it
greatly revered by la~er yoga p;acl~~:l~n~~~bt that the Kosakara Vasubandhu took
jedoch bisher nirgendwo angetroffen." English translation: "One would, however, think that
a term as useful and easily adaptable to the particulars of Yogacara - as demonstrated in seems t~ :r:~hg:: :oe~~~~7eti~n the theoretical system of the e_arlier y o?~car~-
the Sthiramati-passage quoted above - as (vj_jnana-)pariIJiimalJ also ought to appear over an h M. ha anasamgraha. If this supposition is
occassionally in the other Yogacara-works by the author of the AbhidharmakosalJ, if any Vijiianavada as represent~d by t e t~at ~he Ko§akara Vasubandhu must have
such works exist, in particular if the transmission is correct that Tr was Vasubandhu's last correct, it can also be readily accept~~ If this was so then it is little wonder
work. I have though hitherto not encountered the term anywhere in the Vasubandhu- also been revered by later Y?ga practIUo~ers. d Vasubandhu - ended up being

;i~: :~~o
commentaries on the classical Yogacara-works." that these two important figures - Asan~~ an been uite
63
This view - for instance seen in YOKOYAMA (1983:114) - has been widely accepted described as brot~e!s by later h°gah p~a~~it;~~e~~e~ 0 a::tcompile~ by
by Yogacara scholars. natural that Yogacara works t at a nfusin 1 attributed to Maitreya,
64
See VONROSPATT (1995:169-170) and TACHIKAWA(1999). many yoga practitioners woul? have been co ' 7 - g ! b·i. -mi the Mahavana-
65
SCHMITHAUSEN was not sure whether he had noticed this at the time of his 1967 . V b dh as m case of the I ogacara uu ' J'

article, but it is nonetheless certain that he understood this fact at a relatively early juncture. ~;~~7;;;:ra, :~~ i~; co~mentaries. Quest.ions of _auth~rship con;!~~~~~;r:e~~~
As far as I know, there have been no studies in which attention has been paid to this point. of mod~rn assertions of copyright are not m keepmg with 7oga P
However, rather than going into details here, I shall confine myself to pointing out that this then and in later times were using Yogacara works for practical purposes.
concept exists in the texts mentioned.
66
I.e., "due to a particular transformation of the mind-stream."
67
See MSA (LEVI), 15221 ; MSA (SAKUMA), 417 (working text annotated by K. OKADA);
MSA (NAGAO): Saf!]tatipariIJiimavise~a.
68
1.e., "What constitues this world with its three realms is purely consciousness."
69
DBhS (RAHDER), 49 9 (E); DBhS (KONDO), 98 8 ; DBhSch, T278.558c 10 •
70
DBhvytib, Q5494.254a2_3 ; D3993_l99a 4_5 . Translation: "Thus, [the Buddha] said that
this world with its three realms is purely consciousness, because the world with its three
realms is nothing but consciousness."
71
It is also evident from the use of vijiianapariIJama and saf!]ttinapariIJama in the ASBh
(SAKUMA) that this concept was handed down from one generation to the next in the 72
Yogacara school. See SAKUMA (2008).
 358 Hidenori s. SAKGMA
Abbreviations and Sigla
AK&AKBh
Abhkiharmakosabhawam of Vasubandhu, ed. by P. PRADHAN. Patna·
K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1967 (1 51 ed.), 1975 (2nd ed.). ·
AK-Index
Index ~o ~he Abh1d~armakosabhiiJya (P Pradhan Edition), Part One,
Sansknt-Tibetan-Chmcsc, by Akira HTRAKA WA et al Tokyo: Daiz-
0
Shuppan Kabushiki Kaisha, 1973.
AKvy Spufartha Abh1dharmakosavyakhya, the Work of Yasomitra, ed. by U
WOGIIIARA. Tokyo: Sankiho Buddhist Book Store, 1936. · DELEANUJ Florin (20~6): Th~
AS&ASBh Abh1dharmasamuccaya-bhawam, deciphered and edited by Nathmal
TATIA. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1976.
ASBh (SAKUMA) San~krt. Word-Index to the AbhldharmasamuccayabhiiJyam edited by N.
Taha w1th the,Corrigenda. Tokyo: Sankibo Press, 1996.
BEFEO Bulletin de /'Ecole Fram;aise d'Extreme-Orient.
D Tibetan canon, Derge edition.
DBhS (KONDO) Da[abhiimisvaro nama mahayanasiitram, ed. by Ryiiko KONDO. Tokyo:
DaiJyo Bukkyo Kenya-Kai, 1936.
DBhS (RAHDER)Dasabhiim1kasiitra, ed. by Johannes RAHDER. Louvain: J.-B. Istas 1926
DBhSch T278. ' .
DBhvytib *Alyadasabhiimivyakhyana (Tib.) D3993; Q5494.
!BK Indogaku Bukky6gaku Kenkyii(EPM~fbt~~uHJt).
KS Karmas1ddhiprakaral}a.
KS (MUROJI) The Tibetan Text of the Karma-Slddhi-Prakaral}a of Vasubandhu with
Reference to the Abh1dharma-Kosa-Bhii~'i}'a and the Pratitya-Samutpada-
Vy~k_hya critical]Y_ edited from the Cone, Derge, Narthang and Peking
Ec(1~10ns of the Tibetan Tanjur, ed. by MUROJI. Kyoto. ( = MUROJI, Yo-
sh1hito G., 1985).
MAV Madhyan ta VJbhaga.
MAVBh Madhyantavibhaga-bhawa, A Buddhist Philosophical Treatise Edited for
the First Time from a Sanskrit Manuscript by Gad.Jin M Nagao. Tokyo:
Suzuki Research Foundation, 1964.
MAVT Ma~~yiint~V1bf1iigafika, expositJ"on systematique du Yogacarav.ijiiaptiviida,
ed1tJon dapres un manuscript rapporte du Nepal par M Sylvain LEVI.
Tokyo: Suzuki Research Foundation, 1966.
MS Mahayanasmpgraha.
MS (L) fa. Somme du grand vehicule d'Asaliga (Mahayiinasalpgraha), par
Etienne LAMOTTE, Tome I. Louvain-la-Neuve: Universite de Louvain
Institut Orientaliste, 1973. ' gaku Semina(fb~~*-t:!_ ~ 7-) 49, pp. 1-19.
MSA Mahayanasiitralamkara.
MSA(L) Mahiiyana-siitral;lJlkiira: Expose de la doctrine du grand vehicule, Tome
I, ed. by Sylvain LEVI. Rinsen Buddhist Text Series, IV-1. Kyoto: Rinsen
Book Co., 1983 (reprint).
MSA (LEVI) S~lv~in LEVI, Mahay~na-siitriilalpkiira: Expose de la doctrine du grand
veh1cule, Tome II. Rmsen Buddhist Text Series, IV-2. Kyoto: Rinsen
Book Co., 1983 (reprint).
MSA (NAGAO) Ind~x to the Mahayanasiitriila1J1kara (Sylvain Levi Edition) Part 1 Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science, 1958.
MSA (SAKUMA) MSA Comparative Text'i of Chapter 9 and 18 - MSA!MSABh: Sanskrt.
Ch1nese, Tibetan & MSAT & SA VBh. 2008 (Grant-in-Aid for Scientifi~
Research [C] (2005-2007), No. 17520043, JSPS).
MSABh Mahayanasiitralaf!JkarabhiiJya, see MSA.
MSAT M_ahayanasiitralalJlkarafLl;a (Asvabhava) (Tib.) D4029; Q5530.
Q Tibetan canon, Peking edition.
SAVBh SiitralalpkiiravrttibhaJya (Sthiramati) (Tib.) D4034; Q553 l.
T Chinese canon, Taisho edition.
Remarks on the Lineage 359
vv&TV Sylvain LEVI, VIjiJapt1matratas1ddh1: deux trahes de Vasubandhu,
Vi1J1sat1ka accompagnee d'une explication en prose et Trilpsikfi avec le
commenta1re de Sth1ramati. Paris: Champion, 1925.
WZKS0 W1tmer Zeitschnft fur die Kunde Sud- und Ostasiens.
zoMG Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft.
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Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus,
the Bhaf?Yakara and the Kosakara,
as Yogacara-Vijftanavada Authors
Hartmut BUESCHER
I.
Obviously written in response to contributions, especially to the ones by Junjiro
TAKAKUSU and Taiken KIMURA, on 'Vasubandhu' in the Lanman Fehcitation
Volume ( 1929), 1 Louis DE LA VALLEE Po USS IN ( 1930) seems to have felt the need
to remind his colleagues in one of his "Notes bouddhiques" (i.e., § XVI.3) about
the following:
Voici longtemps que j'ai releve des temoignages etablissant qu'on doit
distinguer un Vasubandhu l'ancien, vrddha, peut-etre le maitre du maitre
de Vasubandhu auteur du Koc;a - qui, comme son illustre homonyme et
pra9i~ya, ecrivit un traite d'Abhidharma sur lequel nous n'avons que
2 5
d'obscures references.
This quotation refers to an important note in the preface of DE LA VALLEE
POUSSIN'S monograph Vasubandhu et Ya9omitra (1919:VIIlf. note 2). In this note,
he had in fact already emphasized, based on the evidence provided by Y asomitra in
his AKVy, the obvious necessity of having to distinguish the Kosakara, i.e., the
author ( kara) of the Abhidharmakosa, from an earlier Vasubandhu. Those data
0 Vasubandhu .... In my opinion, the mass of commentaries on the
have once again been shortly addressed in§§ XVII.Hf. of the "Notes bouddhiques",
under the title Vasubandhu }'Ancient ('the older Va-;ubandhu'), there also brought
into connection with the reference to a Vasubandhu in Dharmatrata's Abhidharma
treatise. 3
1
In his contribution "The Date of Vasubandhu, the Great Buddhist Philosopher,"
TAKAKUSU (1929), with reference to his previous articles (1904 and 1905), defends his
earlier suggestion of dating the Kosakara to 420-500 CE, especially against the dating of
Noel PERI (1911:384), who had assigned Vasubandhu to the first half of the 4th century, and
Unrai WOGIHARA (1908), who had dated him about 30 years earlier than TAKAKUSU.
KIMURA's contribution (1929), while accounting for the Vasubandhu mentioned by
Dharmatrata as a second one, agreed with TAKAKUSU on the date of the Kosakara.
2
English translation: " It is long ago that I pointed out evidence establishing that one
has to distinguish an older Vasubandhu ( vrddha), perhaps the master of the master of
Vasubandhu, the author of the Kosa - who, just as his famous homonym and praSJff8
["pupil's pupil"] wrote an Abhidharma treatise, one with regard to which we only have
obscure references."
3
In the meantime, this treatise ( *Saipyuktabhidharmahrdaya) of Dharmatrata has
become available in the form of an extensively annotated English translation by Bart
DESSEIN (1999); for the reference to a Vasubandhu at the beginning of this text, seep. 2 in
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 369
More significant, however, for the pertinent subsequent history of research was
a question likewise formulated by DE LAV ALLEE POUSSIN in his "Notes" ( op.cit.:
12):
Plus decisif le fait que je signalais a Noel Peri en 1913: les docteurs que le
Koc;a designe sous le nom de purvacaiyas, "ancient maitres", sont,
evidemment, des Vijiiaptimatratavadins, des Yogacaras; et le
commentaire les definit par la formule Asangaprabhrtayas, "Asanga en
tete". On se demande si l'illustre converti d'Asariga n'est pas Vasubandhu
4
!'ancient, non pas l'auteur du Ko~a?
As the Belgian scholar did not wish, at that time, to take up "ce probleme compli-
que" ('this complicated problem'), it was left to Erich FRAUWALLNER to do so.
This he did in the form of his famous monograph On the Date ofthe Buddhist Master
ofthe Law Vasubandhu(1951), 5 in which, as is well known, he argued for the positive
existence of two Vasubandhus authoring Y ogacara-Vijfianavada works, and which
Part 1 and note 31 [p. 30f.] in Part 2; the Chinese text being conveniently reproduced in
Part 3. See also WILLEMEN, DESSEIN & Cox (1998:259).
4 English translation: "More decisive is the fact that I have indicated [the following] to
Noel PERI in 1913: those scholars to whom the Kosa refers to by the name purvacaiyas,
"older masters", are evidently Vijiiaptimatravadins, Yogacaryas; and the commentary
defines them with the phrase Asaligaprabhrtayas, "[those] led by Asariga". One asks oneself
whether it may not be [the case] that the famous convert of Asariga is the older
Vasubandhu, not however the author of the Kosa?"
Summarizing his account from 1951, FRAUWALLNER (1961:130-132) makes the
following clear distinction:
The informations which speak for an earlier date refer to the brother
of Asariga, the older Vasubandhu. The accounts that lead us to a later
date concern the author of the AbhidharmakosaI:i, the younger
Sutras and on older Mahayana works belongs to the older
Vasubandhu. Only a few works, especially the Virpsatika and
Trirpsika Vijfiaptimatratasiddhil:i can claim the junior Vasubandhu as
their author.
Hereto he adds the remark (ibid.): "Further, I think that we can trace differences in the
doctrine of the senior and the junior Vasubandhu", while referring to p. 35lff. of his
Ph1losophie des Buddhismus (1956). In this book, however, FRAUWALLNER had conside-
rably added to the confusion by treating those two Y.-V. works he ascribes to the Kosakara,
the Viipsatika and the TriipSJka, in a section under the header "Vasubandhu der Altere"
(t?e Senior Vasubandhu), and in fact as the only works treated in this section. Apparently
~till less.~ecided than in 1961, he did, however, express himself as follows (1956:351): "Die
auBerc Uberlieferung laBt keine Entscheidung zu, ob diese beiden Werke von Vasubandhu,
dem Bruder Asangas stammen, oder von Vasubandhu dem Jtingeren, dem Verfasser des
Abhidharmakosa. Meiner Ansicht nach ist Vasubandhu der Jtingere ihr Verfasser, doch
kann diese schwierige Frage hier nicht weiter erortert werden." [Note: No italics were
applied in quotations when they did not originally appear in the passages quoted]. English
translation: "The external transmission does not permit to decide, whether both these
works originate from Vasubandhu, the brother of Asariga, or from the junior Vasubandhu,
th~ a~thor of the Abhidharmakosa. In my view, their author is the junior Vasubandhu, but
this difficult question cannot be further discussed at this place."
370 Hartmut BuESC:J-lFR
henceforth provoked numerous reactions from scholars in some way or other
getting into touch with, or entering, the orbit resonating with the name
'Vasubandhu'. 6 As the years passed by, most of these reactions turned out to be all
the more dismissive of FRAUWALLNER's thesis. 7 Its dismissal has almost become
the new common denominator, the Kosakara being invoked as the only Vasu-
bandhu who also wrote all the well known Yogacara-Vijfianavada (Y.-V.) works.
However, sometimes the existence of another Buddhist with the name
'Vasubandhu' has been accepted, that is, as someone who has nothing to do with
Yogacara-Vijfianavada, hence as someone who may better be ignored for that
context. 8 Thus, after decades of research, Alex WAYMAN (1997-1998:213) once
again stated with reference to FRAUWALLNER's thesis:
6
For attempts to account for the lists of titles ascribed to a ''Vasubandhu", cf., e.g.,
HIRAKAWA's preface to part 1 of his Index to the Abhidharmakosa (1973:X-XI);
NAKAMURA's Indian Buddhism (1980:268-273); MEJOR (1991:7-13); and TOLA & DRAGO-
NETTI (2004:57-71). The latter were generally recognizing the complexity of the situation,
the correlated insecurity of attribution, and considered the solution of "the problem of the
existence of one or two Vasubandhus" to be "of utmost importance" (p. 71 ).
7
E.g., HIRAKAWA (1993:137) says: "However, Frauwallner's argument has not gained
wide acceptance. It is more reasonable to view Vasubandhu as a single figure with dates
around 400-480." Similarly NAKAMURA (1980:268). Having no direct access to contribu-
tions published in Japanese, pertinent studies have necessarily escaped my notice, for which
I have to apologize to our Japanese colleagues. Yet, in general, as recently contextualized
by Robert KRITZER, "Japanese scholars do not accept Frauwallner's theory; instead, they
account for differences among the various texts in terms of Vasubandhu's doctrinal
development" (cf. further KRITZER, 2005:XXV). Also Paul J. GRIFFITHS (1986:165), after
presenting his reflections in connection with the research preceding him in a longer note,
felt he had to take recourse to the ''provisional perspective" that "the Kosakara was active in
the fifth century (c. 400-480) [... ) and that he was very probably the (half-)brother of
Asanga and also the author of a substantial number of Mahayana works".
8 11
Finding HIRAKAw A's assumption ( as adduced in the previous note) to be supported
by some evidence, Bart DESSEIN (in WILLEMEN, DESSEIN & Cox, 1998:270) adds: "This
does not exclude that more than one Vasubandhu may have existed; we know that there
were several people who were called by the same name; e.g., Vasumitra, Dharmatrata and
Gho~aka." Earlier, reinvestigating the Problem of two Vasubandhus (§ 2.1) in connection
with the pertinent references in the AKBh and its commentaries, MEJOR (1991:49)
suggested to "draw the following picture: Vasubandhu the Kosakara seems to be aware of
the philosophical (Abhidharmic) activity of an elder Vasubandhu; the elder Vasubandhu
was a preceptor of acarya Manoratha and seems to be an adherent of the Vibhasa." A few
years later, Peter SKILLING (2000:312), attempting to debunk FRAUWALLNER'~ notions,
thinks: "All that can be said is that there was indeed an earlier Vasubandhu, who worked
within the (Mula)Sarvastivadin or Vaibha~ika tradition. Considering the lack of references
to him elsewhere, he seems to have been a relatively minor figure in the history of Indian
Buddhist thought." In a similar manner, also Florin DELEANU (2006.1:234, n. 206) has
formulated his, at least preliminary, position, when expressing that he has to "disagree with
Frauwallner's argumentation concerning the existence of two Vasubandhus. This does not
mean, however, that I rule out the possibility that a part of the works traditionally
attributed to 'Vasubandhu' might have been written by another person or even persons
(bearing or not the same name). Thus, it is (at least theoretically) possible that there
existed two (or even more) Vasubandhus."
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 371
9
I have rejected this several times, starting with my dissertation, as did
J aini. I have not seen any subsequent arguments by scholars to lead me to
a different conclusion. However, I did point out in that same place that
there is another Vasubandhu of the fourth century A D. who belongs to
a rival philosophical position, that of Madhyam1ka, as noticed from his
translations into the Chinese language.
10
Padmanabh S. JAINI's (1958) early critique of FRAUWALLNER's thesis has been one
of the most frequently referred to, 11 however usually without being properly aware
of the fact that JAINI had !IllSunderstood FRAUWALLNER- as already in 1961 had
been pointed out by the latter himself12 - in assuming t~at the Kosakara had
erroneously been taken by FRAUWALLNER as merely a Sravakayana author in
contrast to a Vasubandhu who had turned into a Mahayana author. Since JAINI
also accepted the existence of a "Vrddhacarya Vasubandhu," while letting the
question regarding the Kosakara's relation to Asanga remain "unsettled" (JAINI,
1958:53), he actually did not assert any really new position beyond producing his
misunderstanding. Hence, it was rather JAINI's failure to properly represent
FRAUWALLNER's position that had not been understood by WAYMAN and others,
such as Bhikkhu PASADIKA (1991) who continued, obviously unaware of FRAU-
WALLNER (1961), to reproduce JAINI's failure that had long since been corrected
14
by FRAUWALLNER. 13 In 2005, Robert KRITZER is still performing the same feat.
9
I.e., WAYMAN's Analysis of the Sravakayanabhumi Manuscript (1961). It may be
added that for PEREIRA& Tiso (1987:451-452) this work offered "a solution to the enigma
of the identity and date of Vasubandhu" when they "tried to present a consistent picture of
Vasubandhu's life ... that accords with the unanimous view of his classical biographers that
there was a single Vasubandhu who was both the author of the Abhidharmakosa and the
brother of Asanga."
10
Based on the biographical fiction ascribed to Paramartha, WAYMAN even sought to
establish a sort of "missing link" between his two scholars bearing the same name Vasuban-
dhu when in the next sentence he writes (ibid): "And I theorized that the mother of those
brothers had applied the name Vasubandhu in admiration of that previous pandit named
Vasubandhu."
See the remark by Richard P. HAYES and Marek MEJOR (1998): "Frauwallner's
hypothesis was quickly disputed by P. S. Jaini (1958) and has since been disputed by other
scholars as well. Although the issue has not been definitely settled, Frauwallner's
once-influential hypothesis has become decreasingly accepted by specialists in
Vasubandhu's philosophy, although it still has adherents among prominent specialists in
the history of Buddhist thought."
12
Already in his "Landmarks" (1961:131), FRAUWALLNER had clarified that JAINI's
"objection does not affect my statement, since I had already earlier expressed the opinion
that also the junior Vasubandhu in his old age had completely changed over to the
Mahayana." The reference to his "earlier expressed" statement concerned especially the
one in his Ph1Josophie des Buddhismus (1956:351).
13
Prior to reaffirming his statement in the conclusion on p. 19, PASADIKA (1991:17)
pronounces the following conviction:
That the Kosakara and the brother of Asanga must be the same
person, A Hirakawa and P. S. Jaini have rather conclusively shown:
the former by pointing out in detail the relation between the
Abhidharmakosa and Vijfianavada doctrine on the one hand and
between Sautrantika thought and Mahayana Buddhism on the other,*
the latter with the help of 'hostile references to the Kosakara ...
372 Hartmut BUESCHER
II.
Right at the beginning of the preface to my critical edition of Vasubandhu's
15
Triipsikakarika with Sthiramati's TriipsikavijiiaptJbhawa, I indicated that my view
differs from those who easily dismissed FRAUWALLNER's thesis, constituting his
affirmative response to DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN's rhetorical question. My task,
therefore, will presently be to provide some crucial evidence that is convincing
enough to let the view that assumes only one Vasubandhu as (also a) Yogacara-
Vijiianavada author appear as highly implausible. This is made easier by the fact
that no real counterproof, unless a repetitive undue trust on narrative fiction is
counted as such, has been adduced. 16 Since also FRAUWALLNER's monograph on
criticizing his Sautrantika views and at times accusing him of entering
the portals of Mahayana Buddhism'** occurring in the Vrtti of the
Abhidharmadipa.
[Subnotes: * here PASADIKA refers to HIRAKAWA's Index to the
AKBh, p. X-XXVI; ** here PASADIKA quotes from JAINI's article
(1958:50)).
Leaving aside the fact that JAINI's view regarding the Kosakara's relation to Asanga has not
been adequately indicated, let us merely observe that the almost paradigmatic logical short-
cut - namely, that the Kosakara can be associated with Mahayana works, or even with
Vijiianavada works, and hence he must be the brother of Asanga - has been formulated by
PASADIKA in a rather clear fashion. However, on this level of reasoning we have not yet
arrived at the proper question.
Another approach has been pursued by Dan LUSTHAUS in one of the two articles that
appear (July 2009) on Charles MULLER'S Yogacara site (http://www.acmuller.net/
yogacara/.... ). Explaining in what he calls a "Historical Overview" (in his article "What is and
isn't Yogacara", p. 3) that "the theory of Two Vasubandhus has little merit," LUSTHAUS,
when addressing the question of whether there were one or two Vasubandhus on another
occasion, appealed to the unwavering faith of his audience: "Have no doubts! There was
only one." (in: "A Brief Retrospective of Western Y ogaacaara Scholarship in the 20th
Century", p. 1).
14
Likewise unaware of FRAUWALLNER (1961), KRITZER, in the introduction to the
investigations performed in his monograph Vasubandhu and the Yogacarabhiimi (2005:
XXVI), thinks that his "comparison of the Abh1dharmakosabhawa and the Yogiiciira-
bhiimi provides further evidence of Vasubandhu the Kosakara's affinity for Y ogacara and
thus supports Jaini's arguments against Frauwallner's theory."
15
See BUESCHER (2007:VII); for the basis of my view expressed then, see below, note
22.
16
The fact that S. ANACKER (1984:7-28) has weaved certain reflections on
archaeological data into his narrative account of the so-called life of Vasubandhu does not
increase its credibility. Rather, it shows ANACKER to be as uncritical as G. NAGAO, who
produced his corresponding "biographical" account in The Encyclopedia of Religion (ed.
M. ELIADE, New York 1987, volume 15:191-193), and, sad to say, as Karl H. POTTER,
whose Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies (vol. VIII:483ff.) uncritically promotes
ANACKER's fictions to inform an even larger (predictably unprepared) audience. In a
nutshell, these are still reflected in one of the conclusions of A. WAYMAN (1997:121):
Thus I have identified the Vasubandhu hereafter to be treated. He is
the brother of Asa:riga, and lived in the Fifth century. His first work
was the Abhidharmakoia and its Bha~ya. After his conversion to the
Mahayana, he composed the commentary on the Mahayanasaipgraha;
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 373
Vasubandhu ( 1951) relied heavily on Paramartha's hagiographic fairy tale,
SKILLING'S ( 2000:311 n. 311) critique of FRAUWALLNER in that respect is certainly
17
justified:
I find it extraordinary that FRAUWALLNER -who appeals to "the rules of
sound criticism" ( op. cit., p. 30) and "scientific logic" (p. 31) - should
reach such firm conclusions without taking into account many of the
major works attributed to Vasubandhu, or giving any serious considera-
tion to his thought. He creates more confusion than that he claims to
have been created by his sources, which he treats in a cavalier manner.
He repeatedly describes Paramartha as trustworthy, but, it turns out, only
for the date of Vasubandhu: otherwise he chops Paramartha's biography
up into parts, and ascribes anything that goes against his thesis to
Paramartha's pupils (pp. 18-20). I do not think FRAUWALLNER's mono-
graph is a good starting point for the study of Vasubandhu, and hope that
the Chinese evidence will be assessed anew".
But why, if not unfairly or out of sheer ignorance of the proper history of research,
isolate FRAUWALLNER? Every scholar, who more or less confidently employed
Paramartha (or any other of those mutually contradictory "traditional" Chinese
and Tibetan fabrications) 18 for the sake of asserting biographical details of
and after the death of Asailga composed his other works. He became
famous as a teacher and died at the age of eighty.
Cf. also R. KRITZER (2003:214). Though with a slight adjustment of the dates, F. DELEANU
(2006:196) still reproduces basically the same constellation in a "Chronological Chart"
summarizing a linguistically and philologically highly elaborate discourse, though likewise
spiced with fictional elements and rhetorically employed, it seems, to transform myth into
history.
17
However, it must be emphasized at the same time that SKILLING, referring like other
scholars (cf. notes above) only to FRAUWALLNER's monograph (1951), does not at all seem
to be aware of FRAUWALLNER (1961) and his Philosophie des Buddhismus (1956)(where,
despite creating some new confusion [cf. above, n. 5), he directly addresses textual and
doctrinal matter); hence SKILLING altogether unjustly continues in the line of JAIN! and
others when he miscredits FRAUWALLNER as follows:
FRAUWALLNER's "revised" biography of the second, younger or later
Vasubandhu contains only one salient literary event: his composition
of the Abh1dharmakosa. Since the evidence presented above proves
that the Kosakara did indeed advocate the Mahayana, it undermines
the greater part of FRAUWALLNER's arguments. The career outlined
above does the reverse of what FRAUW ALLNER set out to do: it
identifies Vasubandhu the Kosakara with Vasubandhu the Maha-
yanist, and thereby robs FRAUWALLNER's earlier Vasubandhu of a
biography.
Although SKILLING's assessment of FRAUWALLNER's notions is incorrect, it can neverthe-
less by no means be denied that SKILLING'S own detailed investigations presented in his
excellent article goes much beyond what FRAUWALLNER had done (and could do in the
1950s, given that his accessible basis in the form of published texts, etc., was by far more
restricted).
18
No narrative detail drawn from those traditional fabrications can, with any degree of
confidence, be called trustworthy. Of course, the de facto occurrence of certain names,
 374 Ilartmut BUESCHER
"Vasubandhu's life" has eclectically relied on historically unreliable sources, hence
uncritically (re )produced what is merely a naive belief. Methodologically, this kind
of procedure cannot be said to live up to generally valid academic standards. 19 And
no future assessment of those narrative sources for bwgraphical details will change
the situation that anecdotal fiction is no trustworthy basis at all for historically valid
biographical data. 20
. .Freed from having to rely on any traditionally transmitted tales of evidently
flct10nal character, we may perhaps better be able to do justice to the fact that we
possess a sufficiently rich collection of philological and historical data to decide
some of the most important - at least for the Yogacara-Vijiianavada context _
questions of authorship associated with the name Vasubandhu, including the
problem of how to distinguish the Kosakara from the Bha~yakara, i.e., the author
of commentaries (bhawa) on a number of Y.-V. works. We do have a terminus
ante quem, we have the evidence of references to a vrddhacaryalpiirvacarya
Vasubandhu, externally there are cross-references to works of Vasubandhu, and
internally there are stylistic as well as doctrinal criteria. Aware of the fact that
recent elaborations of those data have already produced a fairly precise portrait of
the Kosakara as an author, let me emphasize my general appreciation of the
criteria elaborated by Peter SKILLING, 21 and, more importantly, my basic agree-
ment (at least on the level of critical historico-philological scholarship) with those
that since many decades are characteristic of Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN's approach.
such as the name of the grammarian Vasurata (provided that the Sanskrit reconstruction
from the Chinese is correct), may be registred as historical evidence, especially if
corroborating evidence from other sources (see, e.g., Thomas OBERLIES, 1989:12 n. 50, and
Ashok AKLUJKAR, 1994:56 n. 27). But the narrative details embedding such names may
certainly not be credulously treated as historical facts. No doubt, the suggested contact
between the Kosakara and Vasurata, who is supposed to have been the teacher of the
grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari, is idea-historically highly interesting (especially for
contextualizing the latter), as is the emphasis given to a reportedly close contact between
Vasubandhu and Sa:qikhya philosophers. And whatever their real character may have been,
that there existed some such personal contacts is rather plausible indeed. Yet, I cannot
remember having seen any modern scholar insisting, for example, on the historical veracity
of the account Paramartha provides of the educational process of Vidhyavasin, the
Sa:qikhya philosopher supposed to have initiated those contacts with the Buddhists. And
merely picking out some elements in preference to other narrative structures from a weave
of anecdotal fiction is methodologically arbitrary.
19
20
The couple of references provided above cannot in the least claim to be exhaustive.
This fact may well have been the reason why a scholar with such an excellent access
to the Chinese sources like Collett Cox (1995:53) simply refrained from considering them
as a valid basis for historical judgments.
21
Clarifying authorship problems with regard to works meant to be composed by the
Kosakara, SKILLING (2000:298) says:
I use two main criteria. The first is cross-references in the works of
Vasubandhu himself or those of his commentators. These establish
that the works are related [... ]. The second criterion is style.
Vasubandhu's prose style is distinctive[ ... ].
The whole range of SKILLING'S valid observations may better be appreciated in the original
context.
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 375
22
Around the beginning of the 1990s, I had noticed wha~ I then consid,ered t.o
be one of the gra;7est omissions FRA~WAL~NER had ma?e m order to defe~d ,,~1~
d ing of the Kosakara. 23 It was to simply 1gnor~ the evidence that t~e Tmpsika
a~ been quoted twice in the Lankavatarasiitra.A To acknowledge this to ~e the
ha t plausible interpretation of the philological evidence has - after a penod of
mos . . 1y argue d f or by
hesitation on part of some scholars -?5 - b een convmcmg
22 A substantial part of my subsequent elaborations draws on filed material collected
and (retrospectively seen: preliminarily) formulated in the late 198,0s ~nd earl~ 199~s. .
23 As pointed out above (note 5), for FRAUWALLNER the Kosakara was 1dent1cal with
the Trirp.sikakara, i.e., 'the autho~ of ~he Trj1J1s1'ka'. . _ " .
24 In 1928, Giuseppe TUCCI, m his "Notes on the Lankavatara, had pomted out that Tr
zs has a parallel passage in LAS 1693ff. and argued forcefully (1928:551f.) that LAS must
have quoted Tr, and _not ~he other way round. L. DEL~ VALLEE P~USSIN, in. volu1:1e !l of
his Vj_jiiaptimiitratils1ddh1 (1928-1929:516 and 585) noticed TUCCI s observation with mte-
rest but did not - while adding (p. 516) the parallel of LAS 163 10ff. to Tr 20 - evaluate those
par~llels in a manner as explicit as TUCCI had done. . .. . _ _ .
25 In his article "Sources of the Laiikavatilra and its Position m Mahayana Buddhism 11 , J.
TAKASAKl (1982:546, 553f., 564f.) still remained undecided with regard to the question of
priority, wavering between "at least the possibili~ cannot ~e _den!e~.' that Vasuban~hu's
Trims1ka is the very source of these passages m the Lankavatara (p. 553) and that
probably the Lailkilvatilra is located a bit earlier th~n Va~uba~dhu" (p. 56~ \, .
However, for C. LINDTNER (1992), then pursumg his "wish to establish that a version
of LAS "was known to and influenced the writings of Nagarjuna and Aryadeva" (p. 245), it
seemed to be unquestionable that LAS had to be conceived as "one of the sources" (p. 274)
of the Tn'qls1ka; and he went so far as to express the view that "[t]o yasubandhu LS [ =
LAS] was almost as great an authority as it was to Nagarjuna and Aryadeva, but in an
entirely different way" (p. 277). In the same context, while adducing the passages ~f th.e
Samdhinirmocanasiitra and those found in LAS X that were quoted by Vasubandhu m his
Vy.ikhyayukti, LINDTNER mentions me by name (1992:274 n. 36) as someone who had
provided him with the Derge edition of the Vyakhyayukti - which is untrue! Even LINDT-
NER's reference to the Derge edition is wrong. Employing the Peking edition (Q5562), I
had identified and supplied him with the parallel passages between Sa:qidh, LAS, and VyaY,
clearly indicating all the details regarding the evidence that those anonymously quoted
verses corresponding to LAS X.135-137 were starting at fol. 123b6, those corresponding to
LAS X.150-155 finishing with line fol. 124a4 . However, I had done so with a different
interpretation, already then asserting that - contrary to the Sa1J1dhinirmocanasiitra,
certainly a scriptural authority for Vasubandhu's Tri1J1S1ka - there did obviously not yet
exist any textual corpus by the name Laiikiivatarasiitra (which otherwise would have been
referred to as an authoritative scripture) at the time when Vasubandhu composed his VyaY.
The evidence in the Vyiikhyayukti is as follows: immediately after quoting some verses the
source of which had explicitly been identified as the Sa1J1dhinirmocanasiitra (Q123b 2),
Vasubandhu quoted a group of verses (Ql23b 6 -124a4 ) from a source left anonymous. This
may be explained if it is taken into account that most of those anonymously quoted
passages were loose verses (muktaka), only later to be included in the Sagathakam section
(i.e., LAS X.150-155), and they do not even belong to LAS properly speaking - that is,
being without any equivalent in the prose parts (see also TAKASAKI, 1980:351), they have
no summarizing function. Further, as TAKASAKI (1980:340) has explained, the version
translated by Gul)abhadra in 443 CE was not yet called LaiikavatarasrJtra, but was referred
to as the SaIVabuddhapravacanahrdaya; further, this Liu Song Dynasty version, the earliest
extant Chinese translation, did not yet amount to the text that is available in the form of
NANJIO's Sanskrit edition of LAS; compared with the latter, the SaIVabuddhapravacana-
hrdaya (being a preliminary version of an eclectic text that had borrowed from many
376 Hartmut BUESCHER
SCHMITHAUSEN in 1992. 26 Most important for the present concern is the fact that
these passages, since they are already found in Gm:iabhadra's translation of proto-
LAS, provide us with 443 CE as a term1nus ante quem for Vasubandhu the
Trirµsika-kara, i.e., the author of the Tn'qlsika. 27
That the Trimsikakara is identical with the Kosakara - while being also the
author of the ;orks Pancaskandhaka, Vyakhyayukt1; Karmasiddhiprakaral}a,
Pratityasamutpadavyakhya, and Vi1psaHka - has been explicitly accepted
by SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:262 n. 101) and subsequently by other critical scholars. 28
sources and was subsequently still further expanded) corresponds to chapters two to eight
only. Cf. also BUESCHER (2008:25 and 156f.).
26
Cf. especially SCHMITHAUSEN (1992:393£.) for, on various grounds, rejecting the
plausibility of the idea that Vasubandhu had plagiarized LAS and simply taken over
passages, which already in LAS were, more or less, explicitly indicated as quotations (partly
retaining the same original metrical structure as found in Tr). Although classical Indian
standards concerning plagiarism cannot be said to have been strictly regulated, to conceive
the Kosakara as a plagiarist would amount to about the following: having with greatest luck
discovered those passages after endlessly paining his listless mind with searching for
suitable passages to fit exactly into the organically preconceived structure of an utmost
comprised all-comprehensive philosophical synthesis in merely thirty stanzas (the very
anticipation of which would a priori have been inconceivable for such an uninventive spirit),
this would have constituted such a bad case of sabdiirthaharal)a ('plagiarism') - not even
worthy to be listed by Rajasekhara in his Kiiiyamimii!J1Sii (chapter 11) - as befitting only
for less than a third rate composer.
It may, on the contrary, be shown that the Lalikiivatiirasutra comes up with other
allusions to the Triipsikfi, whereas conceiving LAS as Vasubandhu's source would further
imply the absurdity that he had considered as his authority a text that had already rejected a
concept he was particularly fond of, that is, the notion of pariJJiima (see LAS, p. 46
0
[II.105cd]: vij.ianamIIJl tatha citte [NANJIO: te.(1] pan'i;amo na Jabhyate, "thus no
transformation of consciousnesses is found in the psychic"). While, in accordance with a
tendency (see BUESCHER, 2008:37 n.1) to think that authors gratefully accepted philosophi-
cal concepts from sources that had disqualified them, LINDTNER (1992:277) does indeed
subscribe to the view that Vasubandhu felt "inspired" by LAS, it is idea-historically more
reasonable to understand LAS as that particular reaction to previously developed Y.-V.
notions which subsequently functioned as an agama ('scriptural authority') for the later so-
called Yogacara-Madhyamikas.
27
Once we accept 443 CE as a terminus ante quem for Vasubandhu, we have to
assume that at least some time was needed for the Trirpsikakara to be quoted and alluded
to by the proto-LAS prior to being translated into Chinese. Assuming further the Tri1J1sika
to have been his final work (with no time left to add a commentary as he had done in the
case of the ViIJ1satJ'ka), Vasubandhu may have passed away at some point between 410-420.
There has been a lot of thought spent on reconstructing Vasubandhu's association with
particular members of the royal Gupta genealogy, F. DELEANU's (2006:186ff.) attempt
being the most recent one. The latter's advantage, apart from having assimilated and refer-
red to previous research, is that DELEANU is aware (seep. 187 and p. 235 ns. 207-208) of
the fact that 443 CE is simply the decisive date, the rest being speculation, or "conjectural
judgement" (p. 193) in the words of DELEANU, who consequently has arranged his dating
so as to accord with the date 443.
28
See, e.g., SKILLING (2000:299ff., including discussions with respect to those, and
additional, works), KRITZER (2005:XXVI), DELEANU (2006:235 n. 206), LI & STEINKELL-
NER (2008:VII n. 2). Indeed, entering the proper sphere of Vasubandhu the Kosakara, "!'e
recognize that the situation regarding possibilities of actually evaluating the appurte~ance
of works to this author has taken a remarkable turn. There exist cross-references to his own
Distinguishing the Two Vasuhandhus 377
ks temporally proximate commentators refer to other works of this Acarya, and there
war di~tinct stylistic features suggestive of a single mind behind several treatises (see also
~~ROJI, 1993:4ff.). Just to give a quick impression of the situation, without in the least
. tending to be exhaustive, the following rough patchwork may be constructed.
in MCROJI (1985) provided a comparative and critical edition (with an appendix) of the
Tibetan text of Vasubandhu's Karmasiddhiprakaral)a ( = KSi) and demonstrated the close
affiliation of this work with the Abhidharmakosabha,Jya and the Pratityasamutpadaiyakhya
(== pSVy [05496]; on this work, see MUROJI, 1993:lff.). While the PSVy (Q23b 2; MUROJI,
!985:20) referred back to th_e ~ h , _the _KSi (Ql6~a1; _LAMOTTE's ed.:200~?; MUROJI,
1985:47~ 0 ) referred to the VyakhyayuktJ, which also Yasomitra (AKVy 620 ) confirmed to be
a work by the Kosakara. The Pa.icaskandhaprakaraJJa, in turn, has several times been
indicated by Yasomitra to be a work of the Kosakara (see references in WOGIHARA's index
of 'Proper Nouns' related to his edition of AKVy; see also SKILLING, 2000:304).
Most important for the present context is Yasomitra's explicit information (AKVy
309 1Jff.) that Vasubandhu's own view about categorizing psychic events ( caitta) differs from
the 0 ne employed in the AK/AKBh (where the categorical standards of the Vaibha~ikas
had been adopted), and that he had expressed his own view in the Pa.icaskandhaka where,
e.g., five omnipresent (sarvatraga) and five focus-determining (pratiniyata) psychic func-
tions were particularly differentiated. This differentiation is exactly the same as the one
elaborated in the TriIJ1S1Ka, hence expressive of one and the same author. No doubt, the list
of caitas1ka dharma.(1 ('noemata generated by psychological processes') elaborated in PSk
and Tr stems from the Yogacarabhumi (Y 1114ft), which is likewise the source of Asanga's
list in his Abhidhannasamuccaya (AS 5rnt} However, even while categorically organizing
those caitas1'ka dharma.(1 into specific groups (which remained valid and were subsequently
adopted in other treatises), the Yogacarabhumi (Y 57 10ff.) does not yet terminologically
define, nor does Asanga's AS, that group of dharma.(1 designated as pratiniyatavi~aya.(1 by
Vasubandhu in PSk (51). For metrical reasons, this designation is shortened to niyata.(1 in
Tr 10c (and is glossed by Sthiramati [TrBh 18 13 ], a bit carelessly, with the term viniyata.(1).
While the fact of the same authorship for PSk and Tr may be taken as having been
affirmed by Sthiramati, considering the evidence that his commentaries upon the pertinent
parts of both texts are identical for long stretches (see LI & STEINKELLNER, 2008:xiif.), due
to his somewhat eclectic approach, Sthiramati's testimony is nevertheless not unequivocal.
In the TrBh, he certainly adopts Vasubandhu's own definitions (though not always and
sometimes only partially) as given in the Pa.icaskandhaka for explaining the relevant terms
enumerated in the TriIJ1S1Kakan'kas, but, apart from offering elaborations of his own, he
likewise draws heavily upon material from the Abhidharmasamuccaya. Obviously aware of
views that differed from Vasubandhu's and were held by 'other Vijiianavadins' (cf. TrBh 94),
to some degree Sthiramati seems to synthesize in the TrBh.
Two commentators on the PSk, Gu9aprabha (Q5568) and Prthivibandhu (Q5569),
have furthermore connected PSk very closely to the Abhidharmakosa. At the beginnings of
their respective commentaries, they both justified (unnoticed in LI & STEINKELLNER,
2008: 1) the absence of paying homage to the Buddha - which would properly have to be
performed at the opening of a sastra - with the explanation that the Pa.icaskandhaka has
actually to be considered as auxiliary to the Abh1dharmakosa. Thus, explicitly addressing
this issue, Prthivibandhu says:
Now, because the observance of paying homage has already been
performed at the beginning of the Abhidharmakosa, while this
treatise (i.e., PSk) is like a gateway to the Abhidharmakosa and
reckoned as its annex, therefore - since this [PSk] is included in that
[AKBh] - it is not declared besides.
378 Hartmut BUESCHER
However, unlike others, SCHMITHAUSEN clearly distinguished that group of works,
ascribed to Vasubandhu the Kosakara, from another group of works that is
29
likewise associated with the name of 'Vasubandhu' when he said:
I prefer to treat the Vasubandhu commentaries on Madhyantavibhaga,
Dharmadharmatavibhaga, Mahayanasarpgraha and Mahayanasutralarp-
kara (the comm. on the latter being, sometimes, even ascribed to Asatiga)
as well as the Trisvabhavanirdesa (the authorship of which may at any
rate need reconsideration) as a separate group, because in these certain
central doctrinal peculiarities of the comparable parts of the first group
seem to be lacking (or at best marginal).
Furthermore, although FRAUWALLNER's dating has naturally become obsolete
with the acceptance of the date 443 CE as a terminus ante quem for the Kosakara,
this did not (and probably still does not) mean for SCHMITHAUSEN that "Frauwall-
30
ner's two Vasubandhu theory" has likewise lost all validity.
SCHMITHAUSEN's preference regarding Vasubandhu's commentaries, while it
31
has exercised little influence even on some of his disciples, may be traced back to
a preliminary suspension of judgment already expressed two decades earlier.
Indeed, one of my original points of departure for investigating this question, much
along the lines likewise emphasized by SKILLING ( as referred to above), 32 was
stimulated by SCHMITHAUSEN (1967), not least under the impact of the following
question:
Ob auch die iibrigen unter dem Namen Vasubandhu iiberlieferten
Y ogacarawerke - insbesondere die Kommentare zu den klassischen
Yogacarawerken - dem Verfasser des Abhidharmakosal) zugeschrieben
werden miissen, hangt vielmehr davon ab, ob sich auch in ihnen der indi-
viduelle Geist dieses Denkers aufwcisen lasst.
33
Q5569.101bu.: de la gtsug Jag 'di yang mngon pa'i chos mdzod la Jug
pa 'j sgo !ta bur gyur pa dang de 'i yan lag tu gtogs la I bstod pa 'i cho ga
ni mngon pa 'j chos mdzod .kyi mgor glengs zin pas Ider 'dus pa 'i phyir
'dir Jogs shig tu ma bshad do.
29
SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:263 n. 101); cf. also DAVIDSON (1985:140): "In the course of
my research, I have become convinced that the author of the Viip and Triip was later than
the author of the MA VBh and the MSABh."
3
° Cf. SCHMITHAUSEN (1992:396): "This question, however, is, to my mind, still
unsolved."
31
E.g., Florin DELEANU, the one most explicitly addressing the Vasubandhu issue,
after euphorically expressing his discipleship (see 2008:9), can hardly be said to have cared
much about taking SCHMITHAUSEN's pertinent hesitation seriously (2008:235 n. 206).
32
However, SKILLING stopped his investigations at a somewhat unfortunate point,
saying: "That I do not mention other works ascribed to Vasubandhu, such as the commen-
taries on the Madhyantavibhaga and the Mahayanasutralaipkara, etc., does not mean that I
attribute them to a "second Vasubandhu", but simply that I have not had the leisure to
examine them thoroughly" (2000:299 n. 3).
33
English translation: "Whether it is to the author of the Abhidharmakosa to whom
also those other Y ogacara works transmitted under the name of Vasubandhu - particularly
the commentaries to the classical Yogacara works - have to be ascribed, depends rather
upon [the question], whether the individual spirit of this thinker may be shown to be
likewise present in these."
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 379
Despite a recognized evolution regarding the development of the doctrinal ele-
ments that were employed in subsequent phases, 34 there are - as various scholars
(DAVIDSON, SKILLING, and SCHMITHAUSEN) have pointed out - distinct elements
3
of the Kosakara's style that remain constant. :,
3,. There are indications which suggest that the KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa has been written
earlier than the Viipsatika. For example, considering the manner how Vasubandhu deals
with the Sarvastivadin's theory of ultimate particles (paramaJJavaiJ), we can perceive that in
the Vs he employed relatively loose reformulations of counterarguments already known
from AJ(Bh. Against this, the KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa still keeps close to the phrases that
had been worked out previously (see MUROJI, 1985:3ff.), as was long ago first observed by
LAMOTTE (1936)(see, e.g.: "Tout ce paragraph est tire du Kosa ... " [211 n. 17; "The whole of
this paragraph is drawn from the Kosa ... "] and "Meme objection et meme response dans
Kosa" [212 n. 20; "The same objection and the same response in the Kosa"]). If these
suggestions are correct, they would imply that in terms of doctrinal orientation
Vasubandhu had already assimilated the Y.-V. concept of alayavijnana (which occurs in the
KSi) at the time when he wrote the Viipiatika, but purposefully did not employ it in this
text.
Though many more arguments have been adduced by Vasubandhu against the
assumption that ultimate particles (paramaJJavaiJ) constitute the objects of sensory percep-
tion, it may presently suffice - merely for the sake of demonstrating a case of continuity
concerning his argumentation - to shortly address the discussions in the AKBh and Vs
about the possibility of ultimate particles to stand in a mutual relationship.
The Sarvastivadins, or the Vaibha~ikas of Kasmir, would agree with Vasubandhu that
individual ultimate particles do not touch each other (AKBh 3213: na sprsantiti Kaimira-
kaf;), because they either would touch in their totality - yet then be completely melted
together (ibid 3214 : yadi tavat sarvatmana sprseyur misribhaveyur dravyaJJi; cf. Vs 12cd) -
or just partly, and consequently have parts (ibid. 32 14 : athaikadesena silvayaviiiJ prasajyeran;
cf. Virµs 12ab ); whereas ultimate particles are without parts (ibid 32 15 : niravayavai ca
paramaJJavaiJ ).
Yet, no mistake arises in saying that they touch as aggregates, because then parts do
exist, thus the Vaibha~ikas opine (ibid 3220: api khalu saipghataiJ savayavatviit sprsantity
adosaiJ). The same Vaibha~ika argument is quoted at Vs 79tt, [ad ka. 12]: naiva hi para-
maJJavaiJ saipyujyante niravayavatvat / ma bhud e~a do~aprasailgaiJ / saiphatas tu
parasparaip saipyujyanta iti Kasmira- Va1bha~1kas ta 1da1J1 pra~favyaiJ. English translation:
"For the ultimate particles, due to [their] having no parts, do not touch at all. Lest there
would be this faulty consequence. However, as conjuncts they touch each other - thus those
Kashmirian Vaibha~ikas are inquiring into this [issue]." However, that assumption has
likewise not been accepted by Vasubandhu, who formulated his rejection in both works
with the same argument stating that, in such a case, "the aggregate would not be different
from the ultimate particle itself'; see AKBh 33 5 : na ca paramaJJubhyo 'nye saipghata iti, and
;~1:
Vs ya!; paramaJJl1nalJ1 saipghato na sa tebhyo 'rthantaram iti
- A couple of features related to the works of the Kosakara were referred to in notes
28 and 34. Although such references offer first hints for mapping his authorship in terms of
a relative sequence of composition, this should not be interpreted as reflecting, or even
demonstrating, the straight doctrinal de v e 1op men t of its author's personal convictions.
While, especially if the AKBh is taken as the fundamental opus, a development of
P~ilosophical arguments, or at least different degrees of emphasizing specific points in
given contexts, may certainly be perceived, there are other options than explaining this
evidence as necessarily representing transitional stages of the author's progressive
conversion from Hinayana to Mahayana positions. An urge to classify him within fixed
categories (such as Vaibha~ika/Sarvastivada, Sautrantika, Yogacara-Vijiianavada) in terms
of ~teps of doctrinal adherence tends to overlook some aspects of his carefully elaborated
philosophical assertions and to miss a methodological point that has actually been of
380 Hartmut BUESCHER
prima_ry importan~e for the Kosakara to carry into life: a critical sense of acute phenome-
~olog1ca~ observation_ combine_d with a strict performance of logical judgment hermeneu-
t1cally d1splay_ed ~gamst a sk~llfully reconstructed background of traditionally relevant
arg~me~ts. It 1s t~1s fe~ture which has been characteristically employed in the Abh1dharma-
kosabhawa and m his smaller treatises devoted to the further refinement of specific
problems.
~he_ Trirp..fika, probably his last work, may thus hardly be interpreted in the sense that,
at t?~s fmal stage, Vasuba~dhu had completely left and dispensed with earlier doctrinal
positions (as some to be stnctly called his ?wn), so that w?rks rep~es~nting these - as, e.g.,
the A~h - had now become altogether irrelevant for him. The ms1stence, as mentioned
above ( m n. 28), of the commentators of the PSk to see in this work the concise supplement
of 7'asubandhu's o~n. Abh~dharm~ position to be appended to the AKBh would speak
a?amst sue~_~n o~m1on, s~n.ce ~his short w?rk does in fact c_on!~in the same typically
eightfold V11nanavada class1ficat1on of consciousness as the Tnq1SJka. And as Yasomitra
commen.~i_:1_g on _th~ ?iscu~s~on in AKBh 30rnf_: [ad AK II.42cd], has pointed out (AKVy 8029 ;
evalJl V1Jnana_vad1111 prafIJ1ddhe tatpakJam Acaryo grhitvaha, "When the Vijfianavadin had
thus been reJected [by the Vaibha~ika], adopting the [farmer's] position the Master
[~~-s~ban_dhu] s~y~''), already in the AKBh, Vasubandhu did not hesitate to assume a
V11nanavada position at a moment when the hermeneutical situation called for it. On the
other_ ha_nd, · e~e? the_ TriIJ1Sika r~tained a notion of vijiianapariI;ama, still betraying its
Sautran!1ka ~ng~n, be1~g one that 1s not found in the Sa1J1dhinirmocanasiitra, in Maitreya's
Madhyantav1bhaga, or m Asanga's Mahayanasa1J1graha.
It may be more adequate to consider the Kosakara's smaller works as hermeneutical
supplements to, and as a sort of adumbrative development of, his fundamental and all-
comprehen~ive w?rk proceeding as_a proces~ of critical elaboration of Abhidharma pheno-
menology (ma widened sense). This would imply a perception that each work consisted in
a hermcneutical di ff e re n ti at i on from AKBh, the encyclopaedic basis or ground, in
the s~nse that ea~h wor~ took up a. ~ertai~ pr?blematic context for the sake of effecting
techmcal and logical refmements of mvestigat1on, naturally with unavoidable theoretical
consequences having phe~omeno!o~ical and ontological implications. Studying the AKBh,
we are . exposed to a typ1c~l stylistic feature of the Kosakara achieved in particular by
employmg the remar~ab~e literary device of building up a field of philosophical tension by
means of strenghtemng m the BhaJya a hermeneutical position antagonistically different
from the one that had been asserted in the karikas of AK commented upon as root text. In
a way, _Y~subandJm has c?ntinued to produce variations of this feature that had already
been d1stmctly displayed m the AKBh, though subsequently he does so in the form of
separate works branching out from the stem of AKBh. It would, therefore, be wrong - as
n:iuch a_s to ~hink t~e Ab~1dharmakosabha,Jya and the Tri1J1s1ka to be worlds apart - to
simply identify the mtent1ons of, e.g., the Abh1dharmakosabhasya and the Karmaslddhi-
pr~karal)~. This ~as unfortunately been done by LAMOTTE (1936:180), when locating the
phdosoph1cal honzon Vasubandhu promoted in KSi "dans le cadre du Petite Vehicule et en
s'appuyant sur le bon sens sautrantika" ("within the context of the Small Vehicle and while
basi~g himself on the right Sautrantika meaning"), thereby assuming that "[l]'auteur semble
tout ignorer des systemes philosophiques edifies par le Grand Vehicule" ("the author seems
to al~ogether ignore the philosophical systems elaborated by the Great Vehicle"). It is
ce:t~~.nl~ true that these works are "corn;us dans la meme esprit" ("conceived in the same
~pmt ), _m the sense that the characteristic hermeneutical style of the Kosakara has been
1mpress1vely developed in the KarmasiddhiprakaraIJa too. However, the hermeneutic shift
~ndertaken by Vasubandhu when attempting in this latter text to logically ground
1mporta?t phenomenological aspects of the intentional act (karma) by taking recourse to
the notion of alayavijiiana, while explicitly referring to the Samdhinirmocanasutra
~LA~OT~E's ed./transl.: §32, §37; MUROJI, 1985:39, 47), may not be e·asily disregarded by
mvalidatmg (LAMOTTE, 1936:177) Vasubandhu's agama references - explicitly asserted as
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 381
The question is now, whether the style of the Bha~yakara, i.e., the author of
commentaries on various Y.-V. works, displays distinct similarities or not, and
whether doctrinal incongruities make it necessary to distinguish between the
Kosakara and the Bha~yakara, or not.
such also in the PSVy (see MUROJI, 1993:116 & 196 [#14]) - and by explaining the
technical concept of alayavijiiana to be of Sautrantika origin (LAMOTTE, 1936:178); this
latter unjustified interpretation has been rejected by SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:257 n. 78).
Given that the name Sautrantika did hardly denote a single homogeneous group of
adherents, but has rather comprised a heterogeneity of similar doctrinal attitudes (see
MUROJI, 1985:37; BUESCHER, 2008:125f.), it is not implausible to assume that the
theoretical presuppositions of some of the Sautrantikas were deemed by Vasubandhu to
have developed far enough conceptually for him to sensibly address these, instead of
frankly refuting them (a method he felt in need of employing when encountering certain
Sarvastivada/Vaibha~ika and Vatsiputriya positions). Thus he seems to have thought it
more appropriate to prepare them for the theoretical option of simply taking the last
consequential step, that is, to integrate some phenomenological concepts that had been set
forth in the Sarpdhinirmocanasiitra. Accordingly, he carefully promoted the notion of
alayavijiifina in the KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa and the theory of vijiiaptimatra(ta) in the
Vi!piatika. In each case, he argued for the theoretical advantage of the given concept even
without already presupposing the other one; that is, he did not argue, at least not explicitly,
from an assumed superior position of a 'ready-made Vijfianavada phenomenology', but
with a sober sense of didactic skill he tried to let each concept naturally arise from an
accepted theoretical Sautrantika ground.
And it is precisely the methodological approach of Vasubandhu which we may not lose
sight of when considering the Viipi1ka, as it is this feature which shows us the typical
Kosakara. That the term alayavijiiana does not occur, while at the same time specific traits
of a Sautrantika description of consciousness are present ( as concisely summarized in
SCHMITHAUSEN, 1967:136), may not, in my view, be interpreted as betraying a particular
s t a g c in the development of Vasubandhu's own doctrinal identity, but rather as throwing
light on a methodical process of didactic application. In this respect, it would seem that the
Sautrantika terminology in the Viipsatika has a roughly similar significance as the Sarvasti-
vada terminology had in the Abhidharmakosa. There, Vasubandhu started with a Sarvasti-
vada basis, often to elaborate (to the dismay of the author of the Abh1dharmadipa, to that
of Satighabhadra, and others) a Sautrantika hermeneutical ground in the end; here, a
Sautrantika framework is hermeneutically transformed into vijiiaptiinatra-phenomenology.
It is first in the Tri1J1s1ka that Vasubandhu employed the concepts of alayavijiiana and
vifiiaptimatra together to let them form, as he knew from the Sa1J1dhinirmocanasiitra they
should, the necessarily correlated aspects within a complete theoretical setting that onto-
phenomenologically culminated in the ultimately real, Being-as-such ( tathata), denomina-
ted here as vijiiaptimatrata, the Being of purely noetic constitution.
. Also from another perspective, the TriipSika marks a culmination, that is, to the extent
m which this work may be regarded as forming a trilogy together with the Karmasiddhi-
prakaraIJa and the Viipiatika: both the latter works had, each in a specific manner, cleared
par_tic~lar cognitive horizons, while their intentional vectors, so to speak, joined in the
Tmps1ka.
Yet, as said, those two works had previously branched out (like other special treatises
such as the PaiicaskandhaprakaraIJa, the Pratityasamutpadavyakhya, and the Vyakhyayukti)
fro?1 the strong stem of the Abhidharmakoia, itself an impressively comprehensive opus
which, as a critical phenomenological encyclopaedia of intentional analysis, had never lost -
at l~ast in geographical regions where a rich variety of buddhological scholarship continued
du~mg the whole of the second millennium (that is, especially in Tibet) - its solid status as a
vahd source of reference.
382 Hartmut BUESCHER
Speaking of the Bha~yakara, it is well known that the authorship of the
MSgrBh is a problematic issue requiring further investigations. 36 A Vasubandhu as
the author of the MA VBh has been attested ever since Sthiramati's Tfka upon it
(MAVT 29); and it has generally been easier to accept the author of the MSABh to
be identical with the one of the MAVBh, both texts being, moreover, available in
Sanskrit. 37
Once this latter ascription of authorship is taken as a premise, it seems to be
possible to produce evidence for the obvious difference of methodical accom-
plishment between Vasubandhu the Y.-V. commentator and Vasubandhu the
Kosakara. As a good example, we may take up the discussion thematizing the
central view of the Pudgalavadins, declaring the existence of 'individuality'
(pudgala), the state of being an individual, to be substantially real. A disquisition
critically addressing that view is found in the MahayanasutralaJµkarabhaga
(MSABh 155ff.) and another in the 9th chapter of the Abhidharmakosabhaga. For
our present purpose, it will suffice to remain at the beginning of each argumenta-
tion in order to perceive the different levels of elaboration. Already the manner in
which each text formulates the introductory questions stating the problematic
constellations reveals distinctive features concerning the procedure of how a
problem at hand is to be approached. The author of MSABh does not, for example,
provide a general introductory reflection on the problem of the pudgala as such,
but he proceeds in a simple and straightforward style of addressing the given
particular point and providing an answer closely bound to the pertinent stanzas of
the MSA. While it is true that these stanzas prescribed the matter to be discussed,
the same cannot be said with regard to the manner of how a commentary is written
in terms of style, elaborateness, and intellectual complexity. These factors depend,
within the formal limits of genre, to a considerable extent on the personality of the
commentator. The author of MSABh hardly ever develops his own arguments
much beyond paraphrasing the karikas or quoting an agama passage; that is, his
individuality is to a very large degree subordinated to the task of only creating a
gentle flow of understanding by shortly invoking appropriate associations as links
connecting the not infrequently elliptic, hence often enigmatic, parts of the karikas
in the course of explaining them.
36
Already LAMOTTE (1938) in his translation of MahayanasaJ!]graha noted (e.g., p. 4 n.
4) compositional problems of the received texts of MSgrBh as reflected in the different
Tibetan and Chinese translations. See further SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:401f. n. 708 [with an
addendum on p. 697f.), 403f. n. 717) and DELEANU (2006:233 n. 201).
37
As DAVIDSON (1985:137) observed: "Much closer, though, in spirit and approach are
the two commentaries to the MSA and MAV ascribed to Asanga's brother, Vasubandhu.
The author of these two works, which I believe were by the same hand, is ready to subsume
other models under the general aegis of alayavij.iana." Also SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:398 n.
689 [ad # 5.11.1]) has noticed the Bha~yakara's identification of various concepts with
alayavij.iana in the MAVBh and MSABh, whereas that term does not occur either in the
MAV or in the MSA. DAVIDSON tried to explain this tendency of the Bha~yakara in a way I
find rather plausible, once this commentator may indeed be taken to correspond to that
Vasubandhu who was somehow closely related to Asanga, under whose influence - that is,
especially under the influence of Asanga's MahfiyiinasaJ!lgraha - the commentaries
MAVBh and MSABh were written. It may then be assumed, in the words of DAVIDSON ( op.
cit.: 138), "that the MSaJ!l [ = MS gr] was such a milestone in the change of course for those
associated with the Yogacara that the author of the two commentaries merely followed
suit."
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 383
Accordingly, introducing MSA XVIII.92ab which starts the discussion, it is
simply asked: "Shoul~ a pudgala be said to ~xist_ or not to_ e~i~;7" (pu~galafJ kim
tJtj vaktavyo nastitJ vaktavyafJ). After exphcatmg the kanka s assertion that a
as dgala has a nominal existence but no substantial one, MSABh goes on to ask in
r
P~ple words "How then is it to be understood that it does not substantially exist?"
a punar dravyato nasti kathaf!l veditavyalJ). Though MSA XVIII.92cd provides a
;quence of four reasonable answers to this question in such a way that each
successive answer serves to substantiate the previous one, the first two reasons are
~articularly illustrative for the manner in which they are treated by the commenta-
tor. Thus, continuing the assertion of MSA XVIII.92ab ("Individuality is to be
explained as a conceptual state of existence, but not as. [existing] substa~tiall(;
prajiiaptyastitaya vacyafJ pudgalo dravyato na tu), these first two reasons given m
MSA XVIIl.92c, viz. "(1) on account of non-apperception, (2) because of being a
distortion" (nopalambhad viparyasat), are substantiated with (a) mild arguments
and (b) references to traditional authoritative statements (MSABh 155,22-28):
sa punar dravyato niistiti katha!JJ veditavyal;/
(1) nopalambhiit/na hi sa dravyata upalabhyate nlpiidivat/upalabdhir hi
niima buddhya pratipattiiJ / na ca pudgalaJ!l buddhya na pratipadyante
pudgalavadinal; / uktaJ!] ca bhavatii / dr~ta eva dharme fitmfinam upa-
Jabhate praj.iapayatiti kathaJ!l nopalabdho * bhavati / na sa evam upa-
Jabhyamfino dravyata upalabdho bhavati/ki!JJ karaIJalJJ/
(2) viparyasat tatha hy anatmany atmeti viparyasa ukto bhagavatii / tas-
mad ya eva!JJ pudgalagraho viparyfisal; sal;/
* presently emended in accordance with NAGAO's Index.
Translation:
How then is it to be understood that the [individuality (pudgala)] does
not exist substantially?
(1) "on account of non-apperception": since it is not apperceived as some-
thing substantial, like sensory form, etc.; for the so-called apperception is
an intellectual hermeneutic understanding. And it is not [possible to say]
that the Pudgalavadins do not hermeneutically understand (pratipad-)
individuality with the intellect. Yet, as it was said by Bhagavan: 'In this
world indeed one apperceives a self, one declares it', how [is it to be
understood that] it is not one that is apperceived? Being thus apperceived,
it is not one that is apperceived as something substantial. Why?
(2) "because of being a distortion": for it is just as it was spoken by Bhaga-
van: '[To assert the existence of) a self with regard to what is no self is a
distortion' - therefore, any apprehension of an individuality similarly is a
distortion. 38
Though there are indeed interesting further aspects taken up in the course of
commenting upon all the twelve kankas employed in MSA for the proof of
pudgalanairatmya ("insubstantiality of individuality"), the commentator's style
remains essentially the same.
38
On the nature of these distortions ( viparyasa) and their treatment in Yogacara
sources, see AHN (2003:13f. & 188ff. (ns. 88-90)) and BUESCHER (2008:129ff.).
384 Ilartmut BCESCHER
The Kosakara proceeds in a completely different way. Probably being likewise
the author of treatises on the rules of formal public debate ( vada) along logically
acceptable standards, 39 and being, in any case, more generally recognized as the
respected predecessor of Dignaga (the well-known master of epistemology, logic,
and semantic theory), it is already here in the Abhldharmakosabhawa where we
meet in Vasubandhu a personality forcefully exhibiting a strong capacity for logical
thinking, while leaving no doubt about his standards of cognitive validity: pratyaksa
and anumana. 4°Consequently, he sets out by precisely formulating the epistem~-
logical problems upon which he is going to reflect (AKBh 461 4f_):
kathaip punar 1daip gamyate skandhasaiptana evedam
iitmiibhjdhiinalJl vartate niinyasmjnn abhjdheya jtj
Translation:
How then is this understood that the linguistic expression 'self occurs
with regard to the continuum of psycho-physical complexes only, not with
regard to anything else that is to be denominated?
Thus introduced, Vasubandhu's response proceeds as follows (AKBh 461 5ff_):
pratyak$anumanabhiiviit / ye hj dharmafJ santj te$iif!1 pratyak;,am upa-
Jabdhir bhavaty asaty antariiye / tadyathii $31J1Jilf!1 VI;,ayii!Jiirp manasas ca
/ anumiinalJl ca/ tadyathii paiiciinam 1'ndn'yii1Jiim / tatredam anumiinam
/ satjkfiraIJe kiiraIJiintarasyiibhiive kiiryasyiibhiivo d[${O bhiive ca punar
bhiivas tadyathiiiikurasya / saty eva ciibhiisapriipte v1~aye manaskiire ca
kiiraIJe v1~ayagraha1Jasyiibhavo cJ.r$[aiJ punas ca bhavo 'ndhabadh1radlniim
anandhabadhiriidiniiip ca/ atas tatrapjkfiraIJiintarasyiibhavo bhiivas ca
mscijate / yac ca tatkaraIJiintaraip tad 1ndn'yam jty etad anumanam / na
cai'vam iitmano 'stftjnfisty atmii /
Translation:
Because [such a self] does not exist [either] in direct perception or by
inference. For, the apperception of those dharmas which do really exist is
(a) a direct perception, when there is no intervention - example:
39
Considering the Kosakara as their author already in 1957, FRAUWALLNER, in his
article "Vasubandhu's Vadavidhil)" was able to report on three such viida-treatises and to
collect pertinent material especially with regard to the Viidavjdhi; interestingly, Dignaga,
though perhaps only for rhetorical reasons, was in doubt about the authorship of this latter
work (see the notes of HATTORI, 1968:114ff. to section 2 of his translation of the first
chapter of Dignaga's PramaIJasamuccaya). More recently, also KATSURA (2003:117) has
expressed hesitation, that is, in response to observing Vasubandhu's style of argumentation
in AKBh (little resembling the principles described in the Vadavjdh1'); however, KATSURA
did not take Vasubandhu's smaller treatises such the VyaY, KSi, and Vs into consideration.
Since Jinendrabuddhi has frequently referred to and quoted the VadavMhj in his
commentary on the Pramiil)asamuccaya, the material situation may be expected to improve
in the course of the commentary's publication in the Sino-Austrian series Sanskrjt Texts
from the Tjbetan Autonomous Regjon and invite further investigations.
40
The technical terms pratyakfa (direct perception) and anumiina (inference) do not
play any role in the MSABh, least of all any methodologically reflected role comparable to
the way they do in the AKBh. In fact, the term anumana does not even once occur in the
MSABh (cf. NAGAO's Index). For some interesting remarks on the style of logical
argumentation in the AKBh, see KATSURA (2003).
Distinguishing the Two Vasuhandhus 385
[the apperception] of the six sensory fields and of the mind,
or (b) an inference - example:
[the apperception] of the five sensory capacities (1ndn'ya).
Thereby, the inference is this:
Given a cause is present, the absence of an effect is perceived when there
is an absence of another causal factor, however the presence [of an effect
is perceived] when [another causal factor] is present; this is just as in the
41
case of a sprout.
And, when a sensory object (i.e., a given appearance) and attentiveness
are present as cause - [what] then is perceived is the absence of an ap-
prehension of the sensory object ( vj$aya) by those who are blind, deaf, etc.
and the presence [of an apprehension of the sensory object] by those who
are not blind, deaf, etc. Hence, in such a case, the [respective] presence
and absence of another cause is likewise ascertained.
And what [ascertains] that the other cause for the [presence of a sensory
object] is the sensory capacity (1ndrjya), this is inference.
yet, as such kind [of inference] does not exist with regard to a self, a self
does not exist.
It is in these terms that the Kosakara has set up the stage of discussion, right at the
beginning of his ensuing investigations, then to continue in a highly elaborate
fashion that does not at all find its stylistic equal in the MSABh. Thus, one may feel
tempted to assume that for stylistic reasons alone it would seem impossible to
attribute the authorship of both the AKBh and MSABh to one and the same
42
person.
III.
Yet, we have to hesitate. We must remember that SCHMITHAUSEN (1967), in his
"Sautrantika-Voraussetzungen ... ," had adduced evidence for Sautrantika elements
to be found in Vasubandhu's Vi1J1satJ"ka and Trj!JlSIKii. Especially the expression
sa1J1flina-parh;zama-v1se~a ("particular [result of] the transformation of the [psychic]
continuum") occurring in Vs "ist nun ein typischer Sautrantika-Terminus" ["is in
fact a typical Sautrantika term"] (op. dt.:114). It has been defined, in its variant
form sa!JlfatJ"-parjIJama-vjse~a, almost at the end of the AKBh (477 rnt.); and the
repeated presence of this term (or at least a connotatively corresponding one) was
for SCHMITHAUSEN a good reason for identifying the Kosakara as the author of Vs
and Tr. At that time, 43 SCHMITHAUSEN felt, though carefully expressed, that if this
term - and be it only in the shape of (vj_jiiana-)panpama - would be absent in works
41
Apart from a seed ( b{ja) having been planted into the earth, other causal factors,
such as water, are necessary for a sprout to develop (see, e.g., AKVy 71928 ).
42
SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:103f. [# 5.14.1]), by observing their manner of (non-)treating
a specific function of iilayavj_Jniina, has also noted significant other differences between
the B,ha~yakara and the Kosakara (of course, not on the basis of his AKBh ).
4
-' See SCHMITHAUSEN (1967:135): "Ich habe den Begriff in den Vasubandhu-
Kommentaren zu den klassischen Yogacara-werken jedoch bisher nirgends angetroffen."
(English translation: "However, I did not yet come across that notion in Vasubandhu's
commentaries to the classical Yogacara works"). However, in 1987, SCHMITHAUSEN has
a?ded a subnote to his note 101 (on p. 263) revising his previous statement and declaring
h~s awareness of the occurrence of the expression sa1J1tatj-pari1Jiima-v1sefa- (while recog-
?1z.ing its Sautrantika origin), yet considering it to be "at best marginal" in the MSABh, that
is, m the MSABh-passage we are presently going to address.
386 Hartmut BUESCHER
such as the Y.-V. commentaries generally associated with the name Vasubandhu
this absence might not favor an ascription of these works to the Kosakara (whil~
obviously considering the term as a sort of 'fingerprint' of the Kosakara); and he
summarized his observations with a concluding note in support of FRAUWALL-
NER's 'two-Vasubandhu-hypothesis'.
By now we know that the case is not that simple. Not only does the term
panpiima already occur in MSA XVIII.83, but Vasubandhu the author of MSABh
employed it several times, supplying in fact a short definition of the term that is
essentially the same as the Kosakara's and, as we may add, Sthiramati's:
MSABh 15023 : paril}amohinamanyathatvam
"the term 'transformation' refers to an alteration/altered state''
AKBh 64 6 : ko 'yaip pan{lamo nama I saiptater anyathatvam
"What is this so-called 'transformation'? An altered state of the [psychic]
continuum"
TrBh 211: ko 'yaJ!l pan{lamo nama I anyathatvam
''What is this so-called 'transformation'? An altered state"
And, as referred to above (in note 42), the MSABh-author used the whole so-
called 'typical Sautrantika-phrase': saiptatJ"-pariJJiima-viefe~a-. The passage occurs at
one of the rare occasions where a longer series of independent arguments is
developed in the MSABh in order to support the MSA stanzas with logical
arguments - the theme of the larger context being the proof of momentariness
(k~a1J1katva):
tatha hinavisiHotpattau k~aJJikatvaip veditavyaip yatha vikaraparipakot-
pattau / na hi tatha sthitesv eva samskaresu karmavasana vrttim labhate
yato durgatau va syad ~tpattilJ ~ugata~ va / krameIJa· hi saipta/j-
pan{lama-vise~ad v.rttilabho yujyate (MSABh 152 19 _22 )
Translation:
Thus, in the case of the origination of an inferior or superior [quality of
experience J44 momentariness has to be recognized, just as in the case of
the origination [of cognitive experiences] because of intentional diversity
and resultant maturation. 45
For, it is not the case when the conditioning factors are merely abiding
that the impregnated propensity ( vasana) obtains cognitive functioning,
due to which an origination [of experiences] would occur in [either] a bad
or a good "walk of life".
44
Characterized by 'inferiority' and 'superiority' are the qualities of those who produce
experiences in either bad or good modes of existence, respectively (see MSABh 15hr1521:
hinatvena vis1~fatvena ca yo durgatau [sugatauj cotpadyamananiiip yathakramaJ!l). On the
various numbers of gatis, see BUESCHER (2008: 136 n. 1).
45
By 'intentional diversity' ( vikara), qualities are effected through a constantly
changing bestowal of colorfulness to what is experienced by means of one's emotional
repertoire of passionate attachment, etc. (MSABh 151 3 u.: vikareIJa yo ragiidibhir vallJadi-
vipariIJamatalJ). Effected in terms of 'resultant maturation' (paripaka) is what shows up -
what fructifies, so to speak - in the various stages of one's life, such as one's embryonic
condition, childhood, youth, etc., up to old age (MSABh 15b2 : paripakena yo garbha-bala-
kumiira-yuva-madhyama-vrddhavasthasu).
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 387
It is rather by means of a gradual process, through a specific transforma-
tion of the [psychic] continuum (saiptati-panpiima-vi<fe{,a-), that the [fact
of] obtaining cognitive processes is logically stringent.
Taking advantage of this evidence and borrowing SCHMITHAUSEN's argument to
turn it against the "last" proponents of the 'two-Vasubandhu-hypothesis', it seems
now. after all, the opponents of that hypothesis can raise their fingers and insist
upon the obvious occurrence of typical Sautrantika vocabulary not only in the
Kosakara's works, but also in the MSABh. Further, the opposition against the 'two-
Vasubandhu-hypothcsis' may be said to gain additional strength in view of the
observation that these somewhat prolific deliberations concerning k~aJJikatva in
MSABh lend themselves to better comparisons with corresponding ones in the
AKBh - and do indeed provide the impression that it is not particularly easy to
immediately identify obvious theoretical differences, that is, differences which
would make it unavoidable to assume a difference of authorship regarding MSABh
andAKBh.
The basic theoretical arguments for proving momentariness occur in AKBh as
well as in MSABh. 46 Accordingly, momentariness is necessary for conditioned
existence because whatever is synthetically conditioned (saipskrta) invariably
perishes; moreover, its destruction does not depend on an extra cause (as this
would be logically irreconcilable). Hence, it must perish immediately, since
otherwise this could never happen.
46 This is not the place to extensively elaborate on this, nor should it be necessary, given
its easy accessibility, to fragmentarily summarize the comprehensive investigations of
Alexander VON ROSPATT (1995) undertaken in his admirable monograph The Buddhist
Doctrine of Momentariness: A Survey of the On'g1'ns and the Early Phase of this Doctrine
up to Vasubandhu. Yet to provide a minimal introductory contextualization, it may be
suitable to quote some of his informed statements. Prior to concentrating on what he calls
the "Early Yogacara school", his monograph included a chapter in which, as he says (p. 67),
"more detailed information on the conception of momentariness had to be deduced from
the controversy on the marks of the conditioned ( saipskrtalakfaIJa) between the various
Hinayana schools, notably between the mainstream Sarvastivadins on one side and the
dissident Dar~tantikas and Sautrantikas on the other. In this context reference was also
made to the position of the Yogacaras which was found to accord with that of the latter two
schools."
The broader context being thus provided, even more crucial for the present context is
the assessment with which VON ROSPA TT continues (ibid):
In contrast to the paucity of pertinent material uncovered in the
Abhidharmic literature examined so far, the theory of momentariness
is dealt with extensively in the writings of the early Yogacaras, that is,
in the textual tradition associated with Maitreyanatha and Asa:ri.ga.
These texts, notably the Yogacarabhumi (SrBh, BoBh, VinSg), AS,
Hsien-yang and MSA, are older than the AKBh, AD and NA and thus
constitute, to my knowledge, the oldest textual material in which the
doctrine of momentariness for the first time is proved extensively and
not taken for granted.
 388 Hartmut BGESCHER
A. Mahayanasiitra/8.likarabha~a
MSABh 150 16 _19 :
nai!:3 _cotpannasya kasyacid avasthiinaIJl* yujyate / Jak~aIJaikantyiit /
ekanflkaIJl h! etat saIJ1sk.rtalakJa1Jam uktaIJl bhagavata yad uta
SaIJlskrtasyiimtyatii I tad yadi notpannamatraIJl vinasyet I kamcit kiilam
a;yiimtya-ta n_a syad ity** anaikantikam anityatalak~apaIJl pras;jyate ***/
[ corrected m agreement with VON ROSPATT (1995:192 n. 415) and in
preference to the emendation proposed in NAGAO's Index; cf. also
MSABh 1542 and MSABh ad MSA XVIII.66- ** presently emended·
*** corrected in agreement with the emendati~ns in NAGAO's Index t~
MSABh].
Translation:
And pers!st~n~e ~s no! at all possible for anything arisen; because [its J
charactenst1c 1s mvanable. For the characteristic of the conditioned
enunciated ?~the Master as the invariable is this, viz. the Impermanence
?f t?e Cond1t1oned. If something would not perish as soon as it had arisen,
its 1mperman_e~ce w~:mld not occur at any time whatsoever - [and] that
the charactenst1c of impermanence would not be an invariable one would
follow [as absurd consequence].
MSABh 1509_12 :
athiipi SY_a~ /vinapi sthitikarapena vinasakaraIJiibhiivad avatJ~/hate / Jab-
dhe fu v!n~sakaraJJ_e p~~cii~ vinasyatJ: / agnineva syamateti / tad ayukfaIJl
tasyabhavat / na h1 vmasakarapaIJl pascad api kiIJ1cid asti /
Translation:
,~Opponent, ~fter 'the ~ause of duration' had been refuted:]
Anyway, be 1t even without a cause of duration, [a thing] persists because
the cause of [its] annihilation is absent. However, when afterwards a
cause of destruction obtains, it is eliminated-just as darkness by fire."
[Vasubandhu the MSABh-kara:]
"That ~s ~og~cally not stringent because such a one is lacking. For no cause
of anmhilat1on whatsoever does exist even afterwards."
B. Abhidharmakosabh.iffa
AKBh 193 3 :
sarva171 hi saIJ1skrtam iitmalabhiid urdhvaIJl na bhavatiti yatraiva jafaIJl
ta!ra1J_:a dhvasyate_ I ... [1937_9:J karyasya hi kara1JaIJ1 bhavati; vinasas
cabhavab / ... yad1 bhiivasyotpannamatrasya na syat pasciid api na sya[tj
Translation:
Fo~, a~ ~verythi~g conditioned does not develop further than obtaining
~n 1?d1v1dual existence, exactly when it has become generated, right then,
1~ will fall apart. ... For there is a cause for the effect, but for the annihila-
tion none 1s present. ... If for anything present it [ = the annihilation]
would not occur as soon as that had come to be present, it could also not
occur afterwards.
Additional arguments demonstrating a considerable theoretical convergence
be~een th~ ~SABh and the AKBh could be adduced, such as the argument for
the 1~poss1~1hty_ o~ move~e_nt_ or lo~~l change for what is conditioned (MSABh
15231. tasman nastJ sa1J1skara_pa1J1 desantarasa1J1tatyotpadad anya gatil;, "therefore
a movement of the psychologically conditioning factors due to an origination of the
Distinguishing the Two Vasuhandhus 389
psychic contin~_um at anoth_er ~ocation does ~ot ~xist"; ~~h 193 4: [sa1:71slqtasya}
tasvayukta desantarasa1J1kranti9, "for that [which 1s conditioned] a crossmg over to
an~ther location is logically impossible"), but for the present undertaking the
illustrations provided above may suffice. On the whole, the situation has become
more frustrating than before since, while there were some good indications
speaking very much in favor of the 'two-Vasubandhu-hypothesis', it nevertheless
appears to shp out of our hands.
IV.
There is, however, this "baby" of particularly precious evidence which may not be
thrown out with the "bathwater" of a more general appearance. In the course of his
discussions of momentariness (k$a1J1katvam), the Kosakara criticizes two unhappy
formulations concerning the reason of annihilation. One of these maintains that
insofar as the cause (i.e:, fuel) for the persistence of flames is absent, the flames
have vanished. The Kosakara regards this reason as illogical, since something
absent is not able tp become a cause (yo 'py arc1~am avasthanahetvabhavad ...
vinisalJl manyate tad apy ayuktam / na hy abhaval; karaIJalJl bhavitum arhati /;
47
AKBh 19324f.).
Now, Yasomitra informs us that this sort of reasoning, which was criticized by
the Kosakara, had been adduced by the venerable elder Vasubandhu and others
(AKVy 3479 : sthavira- Vasubandhu-prabhrtibhir ayarµ hetur uktal;). 48 Turning once
again to the MSABh, we are indeed confronted with a piece of evidence indicating
that it was probably its author who, in spite of his otherwise skilful argumentation,
49
had been the object that the above-cited Kosakara's critique aimed at. The
objectionable passage says:
7
-+ Translation: "[If] anybody maintains the vanishing of the flames [to occur] on
account of the absence of a cause for [their] persistence, that is likewise illogical. For
something absent is not able to become a cause.''
..s As M. MEJOR (1991:46), in the course of contextualizing Yasomitra's identifications,
hfS pointed out, "Sthiramati and Pun:;avardhana refer here to a different master, viz. iiciirya
Sriliita." Since Yasomitra referred to Vasubandhu "and others", there would be no problem,
given that we may have to account for a common background (cf. KRITZER, 2003:214),
however the historical details are to be reconstructed.
9
-+ This seems to be the case also in view of the very history of the proof of k~aJJikatva,
the earliest phases of which - as extensively documented by VON ROSPATT (1995; cf., e.g.,
pp. 122, 150f. n. 340, 178, etc.) - was domininated by texts such as the MSA(Bh) and
AS(Bh), texts that were produced by a circle of scholars, more than once referred to as
piirviiciiryiifJ in the AKBh (e.g., 12720 ; AKVy 281 27 ). -If not, this would further multiply (cf.
also VON ROSPATT, 1995:188 n. 410) not just the number of Vasubandhus we had to
account for, but the number of Early Yogacara/Sautrantika-influenced Vasubandhus
elaborating the notion of kJaIJikatva. I am sceptical concerning this latter probability. In
any case, while Yasomitra's reference to a Vasubandhu has led us back to the MSABh, the
question of whether the Kosakara really referred to the author of MSABh, or whether (less
probably: pluralitatis non est ponenda sine necessitate! [Occam], i.e., "Plurality should not
be posited without necessity") he had an assertion in mind that was very similar to the one
found in MSABh, is ultimately irrelevant for the present issue concerning the distinction
between the Kosakara and the Bha~yakara on the basis of the actual textual evidence.
 390
Hartmut BUESCHER
MSABh 153 29 -154 2 :
teJ~salJ punaiJ k~a1:zikatvam indhanadhinavrttitvat / na hi teja.sy utpanne
te1a1J sahotpannam indhana1p tathaivavatiHhate / na ca dagdhendhanam
tejaiJ sthatu1p samartha1p / ma bhud ante 'py amndhanasyavasthanam it)j
Translation:
Again, mo1:1entariness of fire [happens to be present] because of being
processed m dependence upon fuel. For, when fire has arisen, it does
not - as the fire is present in connection with fuel - persist in exactly the
same manner. 50
And the fire that has burned up its fuel is not [at all] capable to continue
[to burn], lest there be, even at the end, a persistence [of fire Jwithout the
[presence of] fuel.
The formulation of this statement clearly asserts the "absence of a cause of
persistence" ( avasthanahetvabhava), that is, the lack of further fuel, as the reason
for the inc~pacity of fir~ to continue burning. Fire cannot persist, the Bhawakara
says, once .1t has burnt its fuel. Fuel being the cause of fire, which is momentarily
produced m dependence upon (adhina; SWTF s.v.) fuel, lack of fuel entails the
fire's annihilation.
The !ast ph_rase of the Bha~~akara's statement may have contained a slight
touch of Jestful irony. Yet, the Kosakara, as he surely felt he had to be, 51 was rather
stric~ ab~ut it, maybe more than he should have been. Be it as it may, however, for
us h1stonans of Buddhist thought, it is difficult not to acknowledge this instance of
the Kosakara's antagonism against the avasthanahetvabhava as asserted by the
Bha~yakara.
Summing up t?e ~resent argumentation for and against the theory of two
V~~~bandhus mamfestmg also, though not exclusively, as significant Yogacara-
V1Jnanavada authors:
50
" As VON R?~PATT (1995:155) ~as noted, already in the Sravakabhum1; though
usua_lly _not exphc1tly stated", there 1s a "premise that qualitative change implies the
substitution of a? old b~ ~ new entity". And cla~ifying this historical background for the
MSABh, he elucidates (1b1d: n. 347): "As in the SrBh, this premise may in some instances
be ~e~uce~ from the presupposition that everything which is not momentary has to be
pers1stmg .m ~xactly the same way as it has always done ( tathaivavasthita). Notably in the
MS1?13h It IS frequently presupposed that non-momentariness implies unchanging
persistence." And after providing a number of pertinent references treated in his
~onograph, he comments (ib1d) with explicit reference to the present passage: "Similarly,
m the MSABh the momentariness of firewood, which is referred to at this point in order to
demonstrate that the fire which is based upon this wood has to be momentary, follows
~ec~ use _"it doe~ not persist in the same way" (na tathaivavati~fhate) when it is exposed to
1
fire. 51This premise, however, had no validity for the Kosakara.
, !hat is, for reasons of logical stringency - but we may additionally note that for the
Kosakara the phenomenal relationship between fire and fuel had become the principal
example for demonstrating and defending the various implications of #wzikatva (see also
F~UWALLN~R, 19?6:102 ~nd 104ff.). In the MSABh, however, the proof does not so much
hmge on a smgle 1llustrat1ve example ( dr~fanta), but momentariness is adumbrated by
means of a variety of illustrative instances, the example 'fire-fuel' playing a minor role only.
~er~, the more ~ominant (th?ugh not excessively displayed) principle - one which plays no
role m AKBh - 1s the reasonmg that, since any particular psychological presence ( citta) is
~om~ntary, the synthetically conditioning factors ( sa1pskaral;) arising from citta must
likewise be momentary.
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 391
1 since Vasubandhu the commentator of Y.-V. texts has .traditionall~ (e.~.,
~
~i
A 29 ) been most closely asso~iated with ~sang~, the question c~ncermng h~s
· · wi·th the Kosakara - in view of the d1sturbmgly overwhelmmg predom1-
1dent1ty b · ·
nance of belief in their identity among contemporary scholars - was to e mvest1-
gate(~) by exemplifying clear stylistic differences in text~ apt for comparison in view
of common themes (e.g., the critiqu~ of pudfalavada m the ~SAB~ and AKBh)
mption of a single authorship has - m accordance with earher and other
the assutions in support of differentiating the Kosakara ' from t he Bh-a~ya k-ara as
observa . 1·d d
ted by a few individual scholars - been further mva 1 ate ;
asse(3) philological and philosophical evidence that might eventually have been
interpreted as (perhaps, the strongest) antitheses to point (2) has furthermore
been discussed; . . .
(4) by identifying a philosophical stat~ment m the MSABh with an. a~~ert1on
h t had been criticized in the AKBh, evidence for a trustworthy pla~s1b1hty has
~e:n produced that the Kosakara knew very w~ll. th~ B~a~ya~ara'~ d1scour_se on
:rratv.a, and that he , despite a considerable s1milanty m. thelf
k sanIA, 52
attitudes, did · h
not
· · · ery respect agree with the pilrviiciizya's argumentat10n. Unless we w1s to
m ev
attribute seriously improbable features of authors h.1p to t he Kosa
, k-ara, 53 th e cone1u-
52 Already decades before VON ROSPATT's masterful account, E. ST~IN~LLN_ER
(1968/69: 364 n.8) referred en passantto this "altesten uns_erhaltenen Augenbhcklichk~1ts-
· ("oldest proof of momentariness available to us") m the MSABh;
11
he charactenzed
b,ewe1s . . . .
this chapter about momentariness as one "dessen . Haup~teil emem Bewe1s m1t emer
\f
grosseren Anzahl von Grunden apagogi_scher Art gew1d~et 1st P· 149.,12-154,26): w~l~her
m. E. zum grossten Teil auf Sautrantika-Quellen zuruc~geht ; English translation. t~e
main part of which is, as I see it, dedicated to a proof with a larger number of apagog1c
kinds of reason". .
It is not exactly clear which Sautrantika sources STEINKELLNER w~s refernng to, but
possibly the aforementioned 'typical Sautrantika-phrase' elaborated m SCHMITHAUSE~
(1967) was being alluded to. However, SCHMITHAUSEN_ did not immed~ately take up ~his
hint in order to revise his earlier statement assertmg the non-existence of typical
Sautrantika phrases in MSABh. Instead, he seems to have tried to. sho"'. (SCHMITHAUSEN,
1973:178ff.) that STEINKELLNER's view of the proofs of mo~entanness m the MSABh.w~s
incorrect (or at least one-sided) insofar as these were considered to be merely apa~og1~ m
nature; thus SCHMITHAUSEN (1973:179) says: "Hier wird die !--ehre von_ der Augenbhckhch-
keit aller Daseins- und Weltkonstituenten nicht nur m1t theoretischen Argumenten
erhartet sondern mit dem Hinweis, dass man ohne sie in einen "Widerspruch zur
Betrach~ungsweise der Yogins", der spirituellen Praktiker, gerate": English transla~ion: "It
is not just with theoretical arguments that, at this place, the doctrme of momentarmess of
all the constituents of existence and of the worlds is established, but with the reference that,
without this [doctrine], a contradiction to mode of perception of the Yogins, to that of the
spiritual practitioners, would ensue." . .. .. .
Easier than taking up the question concerning the poss1b1hty of reconc1l~ng these ~1ews
it is to deduce from the past interest in this topic of kfja1J1katva that, on vanous o_ccas10ns,
the two Vasubandhus were rather close at being identified, only to be prevented, 1t may be
supposed, by the specifically pursued point of interest each time: perhaps most perplexing
in the case of FRAUWALLNER, who had excluded the polemic - yet presently mo~t
decisive - passage of the AKBh from his translation of portions deemed most relevant m
Vasubandhu's discussion of momentariness (cf. FRAUWALLNER, 1956:104ff.).
53
Such as having written the AKBh after composing Yogacara-Vijfianavada commei:-
taries, in a style not yet reflecting the mental propensities of the Problemdenker ('aporetlc
 392
Hartmut BL'ESCHER
Distinguishing the Two Vasubandhus 393
sion cannot be avoided that it has become necessary to strictly distinguish th.
Vas~bandhu from an earlier Vasubandhu, the Bha~yakara, whose commentari is Abbreviations and Sigla
on important Y.-V. w?rks represent an exegetical phase in closer pro · _es AN I St Alt- und Neuindische Studien, Hamburg.
(temporall~ and otherwise) to As~nga. This does not entail that there was axn;i:ty AK Abhidharmakosa, see AKBh.
AKBh Abh1'dharmakosabha~ya, ed. P. PRADHAN (2nd ed.), Patna 1975.
temporal distance between the Bha~yaka~a and the Kosakara, probably com r1si at
AKVy Sphu{arthaAbhidharmakosavyakhya, ed. Unrai WOGIHARA, Tokyo 1932-1936.
no more than two or three generations/4 yet we have gained another sign~f ng Abh1'dharmasamuccaya, ed. P. PRADHAN, Santiniketan 1950.
span of time, and ~hus a hermeneutical horizon, to better account for de •~ant AS
ASBh Abhidharmasamuccayabhawa, ed. N. TATIA, Patna 1976.
ments and changes m Yogacara thought.ss ve op-
JIABS Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies.
Kosa Louis DE LAV ALLEE POUSSIN, L'Abhidharmakosa de Vasubandhu, traduit et
annote, Paris-Louvain 1923-1931 (reprint 1971).
KSi KarmasiddhiprakaraJJa; see LAMOTTE (1935-1936) and MUROJI (1985).
KSiT Karmasiddhi-fika (Sumatisila); Q5572.
LAS Laiikavatarasutra, ed. B. NANJIO, Kyoto 1923.
MAY Madhyantavibhaga; as in MAVBh.
MAVBh MadhyantavibhagabhfiJYa, ed. NAGAO, Tokyo 1964.
MAVT Madhyantavibhaga-{ika, ed. S. YAMAGUCHI, Nagoya 1934.
MSA Mahayanasutralaq1kara; as edited in LEVI (1907).
MSABh Mahayanasutralarpkarabhar,ya; as edited in Levi (1907).
MS gr Mahayanasa1pgraha; edited and translated in LAMOTTE (1938).
MSgrBh MahayanasaIJ7grahabha~ya; Q5551.
OKW Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische
KJasse, Sitzungsberichte, Bd.
thinf;r') the -~osakara was, only to criticize himself (which Yasomitra and others then PSk PaiicaskandhaprakaraJJa/Paiicaskandhaka; as edited in Lr & STEINKELLNER
wou have failed to recognize) prior to slowly moving back into the y -V sph f (2008).
thought. · · ere o
PSkBh Paiicaskandhabhawa (Prthivibandhu ); Q5569.
This latter p~ssibility was also reflected upon and rejected by VON ROSPATT in the PS Vy Pratityasamutpada-(adi-vibhaliga-nirdcsa-)vyiikhya; Q5496. Reference is also
~n,tex! of refernng to other theoretical differences between the Bhasyakara and th made to MUROJI (1985); the SaIJ7skara- and Vijnananbhaliga of PS Vy have
osakara. To quote VON ROSPATT (1995:187 n. 408): · e been edited and translated in MUROJI (1993).
Q The Tibetan Tripitaka, Peking Edition (reprint), ed. D. T. SUZUKI, 168 vols.,
It is notew~rthy that in the MSABh (notably 150,5-11 cited inn. 393) Tokyo and Kyoto 1955-1961.,
the non-existence of causes of destruction is not established by any Samdh Samdh1nirmocanasutra, ed. E. LAMOTTE, Louvain-Paris 1935.
argument other than the explanation why fire etc. do _ contrary to srBh Snivakabhumi; see DELEANU (2006).
appearance - not destroy darkness, water etc. The fact that the very StPB-MS Studia Philologica Buddhica, Monograph Series.
elaborate MSABh does, in contrast to the AKBh, not adduce the SWTF Sanskrit-Worterbuch der buddhistischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden,
powerful ~rgument that destruction does not qualify as an effect raises begonnen von E. WALDSCHMIDT, hrsg. H. BECHERT, bearb. Georg VON SIMSON,
the question whether the autor of the MSABh did not know this Michael SCHMIDT, Jens-Uwe HARTMANN, Siglinde DIETZ et al., Gottingen
argument or whether he chose to ignore it for some reason. 1973 sqq.
Tr Trimsikakanka; as in TrBh.
And rightly discounting the latter case, VON ROSPATT continues (ibid): TrBh TrihiSJka(v?inaptI)bhawa; as edited in BUESCHER (2007).
Vs ViIJ7satika VIjiiaptimatratasiddhi; as edited in LEVI (1925).
In the former case, the Vasubandhu to whom the MSABh is ascribed VyaY Vyakhyayukti; Q5562; see also SKILLING (2000).
could ~ardly be identical with Vasubandhu, the author of the AKBh, WZKS(O) Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Si.id- (und Ost)asiens, Vienna.
unles~ It were assumed that, contrary to all other evidence, Vasuban- Y Yogacarabhumi; as partially edited in BHATTACHARYA (1957).
dhu first commented on the MSA and later composed the AKBh. Y.-V. Yogacara-Vijnanavada.
54
0. (
1ven se~ n.ote. 27 above) that there is a term1nus ante quem for the Kosakara who Bibliography
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Two Notes on the Formation
of the Yogacarabhiimi Text-Complex
Noritoshi ARAMAKI
In this paper, two philologico-philosophical notes on two crucial problems toward
u~derstanding the formative process of the Yogacarabhzlmj text-complex (YBh)
will be developed. The two crucial problems run as follows:
1. How have the essentially synthetic truths of the Y ogacara-Vijfianavada
philosophy, 'the five categories of reality' (pa.icavastu) and 'the three
essences of reality' ( tnsvabhava), been formulated in the course of the
textual development of YBh?
2. How h~s t~e Basic Section (Maull Bhllmi, abbreviated MaulBh) been
formed m view of the conceptual development of the alayavi.fiiana-concept
underlying therein?
By asking these two questions, I am suggesting ·that a philological study of the
textual development of YBh is a presupposition for a philosophical study of the
~onc~ptual_ development ~f its _Philosoph~, and _vice versa. Here is inevitably
imphed a CITcle between philological and philosophical studies of YBh, but I do not
think that this is an absolutely vicious circle but rather a relative loop whereby each
study, step by step, reciprocally can be deepened by the help of the other.
In an earlier paper (ARAMAKI, 2000), I have tried to elucidate the whence of
the fun_damental J?hilos?phical concept of 'appearanc~-only' ( vifiiapttmatrata) on
the ba_sis of my _ph~lolog1cal st1:1dy of the strata of the Sravakabhzlmj (SBh) and the
B?dh1sattvabhum1 (BBh), which I had the honor of undertaking in joint-seminars
with Professo~ Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN in the academic years 1979 and 1980, the
results o! which unfortunately still remain unpublished. In the present paper, I
must agam proceed on the same presupposition in order to elucidate the whence of
the ne~t fundamental Yogacara-Vijfianavada philosophical concepts of paiicavastu
and tnsvabhava, and thereby find a clue for deciphering the hidden secret of the
textual development of the MaulBh in continuation of the SBh and BBh. It seems
that at this early stage of the textual development of YBh, there lies a hidden secret
of a philoso~hical _revol~tion that re-orientated its textual development, which
must be studied philologically as well as philosophically. Thus, the first section of
this paper is designed to elucidate the formulation of the fundamental philosophi-
cal _concepts of pa.icavastu and frjsvabhava on the basis of a philological study ( §1),
while ~he second part of this paper analyzes the formative process of the philologi-
cally httle-traced text of the Maull Bhllmi on the basis of the development of
another fundamental philosophical concept of 'cumulative subconsciousness'
( alayavifiiana) (§2).
Two Notes on the Formation 399
§1. The Formulation of the Fundamental Philosophical Truths
Pa.icavastu and Trisvabhava
An almost innumerable number of studies have so far accumulated on the problem:
How have the fundamental philosophical truths of pa.icavastu a~~ trisvabhava in
h Yogacara-Vijfianavada philosophy been formulated? Surpnsmgly, however,
t \t of those studies have paid little attention to the historical or text-
r~elopmental background for their formulation: At what stage of the textual
development of the YBh did their formulation become a historical necessity to
:spond to the philosophical problems posed by their historical background? And,
~n what text and in what terminology is the first and original textual occurrence of
l . b
their formulation to be traced back? These arc by no means easy questions, ut !
they should always be kept in mind for finding a deeper solution.
Yet, recently and almost simultaneously, two studies (KRAMER, 2005 and
TAKAHASHI, 2005) on the formulation especially of pa.icavastu have meanwhile
been published, which undertake thoroughgoing philological analyses of the
Tattvarthapa{ala of the BBh and of the same chapter of the BBh in the
- ViniscayasaipgarahaJJi as the respective primary sources for investigating the
formulation of the new philosophical concept of pa.icavastu. I welcome the pro-
gress made by these two young scholars, German and Japanese, in search of the
historical or text-developmental background for the formulation of the pa.icavastu
concept, and in this paper I would like to add a philological and philosophical note
so as to make a step further down to a deeper level of the solution to these two
questions. In a word, I would like to note that we should pay due attention to a
paragraph of the sixth bhllmi of the Dasabhzlmjkaslltra (DBh) which must have
been one of the fundamental sources for Nagarjuna, the first philosopher of
Mahayana Buddhism, to formulate his fundamental philosophical theory of two
truths, the mundane (saipvrti-) and the supreme truth (paramarthasatya), and
I
' consequently - when Nagarjuna's writings began to influence the Gandharan
yogacaras - the said paragraph of the DBh must have been important in order that
the Gandharan yogacaras formulated their own fundamental philosophical theory
of the pancavastu and the trisvabhava. By paying due attention to this scriptural
source for their philosophical inspiration, we may be able to disclose their primary
motives in formulating those theories of the fundamental truths one after another.
The scriptural paragraph from the DBh that I referred to above as one of the
sources for their philosophical inspiration runs as follows (RAHDER, 1926: §§N-P;
KONDO, 1936:102rl034):
tasyaivaJ!l dasakiiraJ!l pratityasamutpiidaip pratyavekJamiiJJasya
niratmato niiJsatvato nirjivato niiJpudgalataiJ kiirakavedakarahitato
'sviim1kato hetupratyayiidhinataiJ svabhiivastJnyato viviktato '.<wabhiivatas
ca prakrtya pratyavek~amii1,1asya sunyatiivimok~amukham iijiitaf!] bhavati/
... ... ... ato 'syiinimittavimok$amukham ii}iitaf!] bhavati/
... ... ... evam asyiipraJJihitavimok$amukham ajiitaf!] bhavatJ/
ya imiini tri1,1i vimok$amukhani bhiivayann atmaparasaf!]Jiiiipagatal;
karakavedakasaf!]Jiiiipagato bhaviibhavasaJ!l}iiapagato bhtJyasya miitrayii
mahakruJJiipuraskrtal; prayujyate 'parini~panniiniiJ!l bodhyangiiniiip
parimjpattaye/ ........ .
So far the bodhisattva (on the sixth bhtJmi) has been contemplating
the conditioned origination (of all the sarp.saric existences) in the ten
aspects that they have no individual self, they have no individual spirit,
400 Noritoshi ARAMAKJ
they have no individual life, they have no individual person, they are
neither acting moral conducts, nor experiencing their fruits, they have no
individual subject, they are conditioned by the primary and the secondary
causes, they are free from their individual essence, they are liberated, and
they are essentially essenceless. Having contemplated thus, this bodhi-
sattva realizes the entrance to the freedom of the zero-dimension of the
communal essence of life-as-such.
...... thus this bodhisattva realizes the entrance to the freedom of the
non-individuality of the communal essence of life-as-such.
... ... thus this bodhisattva realizes the entrance to the freedom of the
non-determinateness of the communal essence of life-as-such.
While he is concentrated on realizing these three entrances to freedom,
this bodhisattva is liberated from the conceptualization of self and others,
is liberated from the conceptualization of acting moral conducts and
experiencing their fruits, and is liberated from the conceptualization of
existence and non-existence. Then he is all the more inspired first and
foremost to be compassionate with his great compassion and further to
be engaged in practices in order to complete any and every constituent
practice of the Supreme Awakening that has not yet been completed. 1
Why is this scriptural passage so essential? This is so, because here the bodhisattva
on the sixth stage ( bhumj), who has been contemplating the ten aspects of the
early Buddhist fundamental truth of "the conditioned origination of all the
sarp.saric existences" (pratityasamutpada), is now experiencing the religious
experience of conversion to realize the Mahayana Buddhist fundamental truth of
the three entrances to freedom - namely, "the zero-dimension of the communal
essence of life-as-such" ( sunyata), etc. - and thereby engages with his great
compassion to practice any and every constituent practice of the Supreme
Awakening (the bodhyangas or bodh1pakwadharmas) that has not yet been
completed. It is here recognizable that the early Buddhist fundamental truth of
"the conditioned origination of all the sarp.saric existences" (pratityasamutpada) is
religiously or philosophically converted to realize the Mahayana Buddhist truth of
the zero-dimension of the communal essence of life-as-such ( sunya ta) and, on the
contrary, the latter is also religiously or philosophically converted to practice any
and every constituent practice of the Supreme Awakening ( bodhyaiiga or
bodhjpak~yadharma) with his great compassion. Thus, in this passage, the
fundamental truths of early Buddhism as well as of Mahayana Buddhism become
1
In accordance with its usage in the traditional early Buddhism, the word bodhyaJiga,
translated above with 'constituent practice of the Supreme Awakening', may here refer to
the seven limbs of Awakening ( bodhyanga), viz. focus (smrti), investigation of truth
( dharmapravicaya), vigor ( viiya), rejoicing (pritJ), ease (prasabdhi), concentration
( samiidh1), and equanimity ( upek~ii). However, in the following section of the sixth bhumi
(RAHDER, 1926: §R; KONDO, 1936:103 20 ), the same practices seem to be indicated by the
word bodhipak~ikadharma, 'practices pertaining to Awakening'. Further, in the introduc-
tory section of the seventh bhumi (RAHDER, 1926: §D; KONDO, 1936:11722 ) "the thirty-
seven practices pertaining to Awakening" (saptatrimsad bodhipak~ya-{1 dharmii-{1) are
included in the category "any and every practice which is a limb of Awakening" (sarva-
bodhyang1ka dharma-{1). I would surmise that the words bodhyanga and bodhipak~ika-
dharma or bodhipakwafi dharmii-{1 are interchangeable in the DBh. I think that this is the
reason why the DBh refers to the present word bodhyanga by the expressions bodhi-
pak~1kadharma and bodhipak~ya-{1 dharmal;, as I will discuss later.
Two Notes on the Formation 401
. t rrelated in his practice to complete any and every constituent practice of the
in e .
Supreme Awakenmg.
am of the opinion that Nagarjuna must have been inspired by this scriptural
1
assage when discovering how t? ~elate the ~arlt Bud~hist fundamental truth of
pratftyasamutpada and the Mahayana.Budd~1st su.nyata to ~ach ot?er, and re~og-
~izing herein the Buddha's deepest hidden mtention ( abh1sarpdh1 or sarpdh1) to
teach the former as the mundane truth (sarpvrtJsatya) .and the latte~ as the supreme
truth (paramarthasatya)_. Le.t me_ quote a vfrse from his later work m support of my
interpretation ( Vyavaharas1ddh1, verse 5):
de /tar srid pa 'i yan Jag kun tha snyad kyis ni gdas paste/
'cfi /tar 'gog la sogs pa yi chos kun dgongs te gsungspa yin//
*evam sarvabhavaJigani prajiiaptir vyavaharatal;/
3
sarva.dharmo nirodhiidir ukta eviibhisarpdhitaiJ**/1
In the same way, all the (twelve) members of (the conditioned origination
of) all the smpsaric existences have been taught as the teaching on the
mundane level, whereas the teaching that all the existences are neither
born (nor perish), etc., has been taught (as the supreme truth) with the
deepest hidden intention.
Nagarjuna is thus the first philosopher of Mahayana Buddhism who penetrated
into the deepest hidden intention by which the Buddha teaches the early Buddhist
fundamental truth of pratftyasamutpada as the mundane truth (sarpvrHsatya) and
the Mahayana Buddhist fundamental truth of siinyata as the supreme truth
(paramarthasatya). Thereby, he began himself to practice a philosophical
contemplation - which in his case must have been the constituent practice of the
Supreme Awakening ( bodhjpakwadharma) - in order to attain "the ecstasy of
experiencing the unbornness of the communal essence of life-as-such" ( anutpattj-
kadharmak~antj).
2
Tibetan text by LINDTNER (1982:98). Another important clue for deciphering
Nagarjuna's motive is Ratnava/i 4.86-88, which run as follows (HAHN, 1982:126-127):
anutpiido mahiiyane pare~arp sunya ta k~ayal;/
kJayanutpadayos caikyam arthatal; kJamyatarp yataiJ!/( 4.86)
tathagatabhisarpdhyoktany asukharpjnatum ity atal;/
ekayanatriyanoktad fitmfi rakwa upek~ayiill( 4.88).
The sunyatii or the zero-dimension of the communal essence of life-as-such
is unbornness for Mahayana Buddhists, but the others think it is destruction.
It is to be recognized that destruction and unbornness are identical in truth. ( 4.86)
Therefore the teachings taught by Tathagata with deepest meaning
are very difficult to understand.
And so please keep the equanimity of your spirit
with regard to the teachings of either one vehicle or three vehicles. ( 4.88)
3
The asterisks, * ... * *, used here and elsewhere, indicate that the Sanskrit text quoted
between them has been hypothetically translated back into Sanskrit on the basis of the
Tibetan translations or on the basis of the Tibetan and Chinese translations.
 402 Noritoshi ARAMAKI Two Notes on the Formation 403

In the present paper, I am, however, not concerned with the formulation of·
Nagarjuna's philosophy, but rather with the problem of how Nagarjuna's philoso- Stages Clearance of the Obscuration of Defilements Clearance of the
phy influenced the formative process of Yogacara-Vijflanavada in their own ( klesavara.1Japrahapa) Obscuration over
formulation of the fundamental philosophical truths of pa.icavastu and trisvabhava. the Truth to Be
Two stages in its formative process may be discerned as follows: only those pertai- fully those in latency Known
ning to action (sarve.pa sarvaip dalljf:hulya- (j.ieyavara.1Ja- I'

1. The two strata of BBh for the formulation of the fundamental philosophi- samudacaratalJ : ta.JJ: 'I'ahapa i'
cal truth of pa.icavastu !
1. stage oflineage
i

2. The original chapters of the Sandhinirmocanasutra (SandhN) for the

(gotrabhumi) .
formulation of the fundamental philosophical truth of trisvabhava.
z. stage of practices
undertaken with
Let me discuss these two stages respectively in the following two sub-sections.
faith
(adhimukticarya-
§1.1. The Formulation of the Fundamental Philosophical Truth bhumi)
of Pa.icavastu through the Two Strata of the BBh 3. stage of purified fully those those in latency leading to the those on the skin
All the versions of the BBh transmitted to us in Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan spirituality pertaining to action inferior rebirths level
languages are those of the new stratum of the BBh and accordingly we must infer (suddhadhyasaya- on the gross and ( ilpayikaklesapakffa) ( tvaggatapakffa)
the text and content of the old stratum of the BBh through a philological analysis bhiimi == 1st bhfimi) mediate levels
of the present, new-stratum text, which seems to have been rebuilt by reusing and ( adhimatramadhya-
rearranging the materials of the old stratum with the addition of the newly sarvaklesapakJya)
developed textual portions. I have earlier attempted to analyze the text of the 4. stage of
present BBh in the joint-seminars with Professor SCHMITHAUSEN mentioned accomplishing
above, so as to prove the existence of the old stratum. My present study presup- practices ( caryaprati-
poses that analysis. · • == znd -7th
pattibiJJUD1l
The practical system of the bodhisattva practices established by the old stratum bhiimi)
of the BBh may be summarized by the following table. The table shows how a 5. stage of those in act on the those in latency obstructing those on the flesh
bodhisattva accomplishes the conversion of his or her subconscious basis ( asraya- determinateness subtle level the purity of the ecstasy of level
parivrtti) through clearing the respective levels of the obscuration of defilement . bh-
(myata . gth
UD11 == completely experiencing the unbornness (phalguga tapakffa)
(klesavarapa) and the obscuration over the truth to be known U.ieyiivarapa) on the bhrlmi) (sarvaklesa) of the communal essence of
respective bhumis. life-as-such
( anutpattikadharmakJilnti-
v1suddhinbandhaklesapakJya)
6. stage of
determinate
practices
(niyatacaryabhiimi
= 9th bhumi)
7-1. stage of final fully those in latancy in the those on the bone-
accomplishment form of subconscious marrow level
(lli§fhagamanabhumi conditions (sarvaklesa- (saragatapakffa)
= 10th bhumi) vasananusayavarapa)
7-2. stage of
tathagata
( tathagatabhumi =
11th bhiimi)
 405
Two Notes on the Formation
404 Noritoshi ARAMAKI
. - an onl be ex lained by the influence of the two truths
The old stratum of the BBh tries to interpret the original tenfold bhumi-system the two k~nds1of n~Jiatmya cthe mJndane~saipvrti-) and the supreme truth (para-
of the DBh as a practical system of bodhisattva-practices within a newly formed of NagafJuna s ph1losoi}~' truths of Nagarjuna's philosophy seem to have been
seven bhumi-system. According to this, the bodhisattva commences with the marthasaty~). Th:seold stratum of the BBh together with the bodhyal}gas or the
meditative practices of tranquility ( samatha) and insight ( vjpasyana) on the introduced md~~ t e f the DBh mentioned above. Let me add a further explana-
ri. • aksva 11armas o .
preparatory stage of practices undertaken with faith ( adhimukticaryabhiimi). bod11IP .:, · h h it may be far from a demonstrat10n. 4
Thereby, the bodhisattva strives to attain the primary conversion of his or her tion to thi: p'ro(blem'~)t ~:; eighth chapter of the old stratum of the BBh, must
subconscious basis ( asrayaparivrttI), liberating him- or herself from the basic klesa- 'Practice carya ' . h
. . 11 have consisted of the four followmg t emes:
and jneyavaraJJas on the stage of purified spirituality (suddhadhyasayabhiimi), ongma y
which corresponds to the first bhiimi in the tenfold bhumi-system of the DBh. The - the practice of the super-acts eparam1!acarya)5 which accomplishes the
bodhisattva then further accomplishes this achievement through innumerable
bodhisattva practices ( bodhisattvacarya) on the stage of accomplishing practices 1. cultivation of ~~0 1h~o:~~~:~t~~:al:~:{if~=~ of the Supreme Awakening
( caryapratjpattibhumi), which corresponds to the second through the seventh 2. ~~:!:;~~~;acarya) ~hich accomplishes penetration into the meanmg of
bhiimis in the tenfold bhumi-system of the DBh. Finally, the bodhisattva accom-
plishes the complete conversion of his or her subconscious basis ( asrayaparivrtti) truth ( tat_tvarthapratwedha)l k 1 dge (abhl)·nacarya) which accomplishes
by achieving the ecstasy of experiencing the unbornness of the communal essence
of life-as-such ( anutpattikadharmak~anti), which takes place on the determinate
3
the practice of supernatura now e
· the kn;a:)~c~gc0 ~f
8 - )
~~~~:~i~t:~~~::: C:,Z,!~ (:::1:::::;;;::;caIY!)
which
stage (niyatabhiimi), corresponding to the eighth bhumi of the DBh. The subtlest 4. ~~o~plishes the education of sentient beings (sattvapanpacanata)
remnants of the klesa- and jneyavaraJJas still remain, and these are subsequently
abolished on the final stages of determinate practices, final accomplishment, and n these the bodhipakwacarya, must have been intended to
tathagata (niyatacarya-, ni~{hagamana-, and tathagatabhumi), corresponding The second amo g ' f th DBh mentioned above. Unfortunately,
respectively to the ninth and tenth bhumis, and the extra Buddha-bhumi of the develop the bodhipakwadharmas tot altexpounded in this chapter on carya of the
DBh. however, these four themes arebno a ed to the corresponding chapters of the
What are the motives and reasons by which the old system of the BBh formed present text, but seem to have een remov
this practical system of the bodhisattva practices with its dual structure of the new stratum of the BBh as follows:
obscurations (avaraJJa)? I think that there are one motive and one reason behind the paramitacarya to Chapter 1.3, Svaparar!hapafala
its formation. Firstly, the old stratum of the BBh had the motive of 'mahayanizing' 1. the bodhipaksyacarya to Chapter 1.4, Tattvarthapafala
the yogic practical system of samatha and vipasyana culminating in the fundamen- 2
· the abhijiiac;rya to Chapter 1.5, Prabhavap~ta!a
tal religious experience of iisrayaparivrtti, which had formally been systematized in
the strata of the SBh. Secondly, it was organized thus for the reason of interpreting
~~ the sattvaparjpakacarya to Chapter 1.6, Panpakapafala
the tenfold bhumi-system of the DBh and especially its bodhyaiigas or bodhi- . df the resent Tattvarthapatala of the BBh how
pak.wadharmas on the sixth and seventh bhumis as a concrete, practical system for Accordingly, it may be mferre _rom . p . fee of the bodhipaksyadharmas to
1
becoming awakened to the two truths of Nagarjuna's philosophy. Let me try to the bodhiJ?akwacarya a~comf1 s~~\~:stJ;;~~). rt is here in the iattvarthapatala
O
explain this motive and reason in a few further details. penetrate mto the ~~anmg tru h _ . ed into the four truths in the
that the Mahayamstic truth of tat ata is ana1yz
On the one hand, it is very conspicuous that the old system of the BBh is moti-
vated by the intention to 'mahayanize' the SBh's yogic practical system of samatha following manner:
and vipasyana through identifying its culminating religious experience of
asrayaparivrtti with the first bhumi of the DBh. It is for this reason that this new J. the meaning of truth as establishe~ the
2. the meaning of truth as estabhs?e y _reason
t worl~::::;~J'/,1:,~~::;:::,:;)
b the knowledge cleared
mahayanistic practical system of bodhisattva-practices consists of the preparatory,
the primary, and the gradually progressing stages of the fundamental religious 3. }~~:~~:in;b:~~;~~i~~s ~~ed~~~%~~;~g(~~~'1a~ar!<1avj§uddhijiiii11agocara-
experience of iisrayapariv_rtti, finally to be completed with the anutpattikadharma-
k~anti on the DBh's eighth bhumi This is nothing but the m~hayanization of the ta ttvartha)
fundamental religious experience of asrayaparivrtti in the SBh's yogic practical
system. ..i Cf. DUTT (l 966:256u), Q5538.2204t, .Tl579.565c1sf· For the chapter titles of the old
On the other hand, the old stratum of the BBh is obliged to replace the truth to
and new strata of the B~?: see the Appendix. , f tion' perhaps for the reason that it
be known, the four noble truths, of the yogic practical system of the SBh with the
5 The term param1ta lS usually transla~ed as pero ec has not et been well established. I
Mahayanistic truth of tathata, "one-and-the-sameness of life-as-such," and further fits the contexts of its occurrence well, but its etymo : h d b ~ further study of the pre-
to analyze this latter into the two kinds of selflessness (nairatmya), the 'personal
selflessness' (pudgalanairatmya) and the 'communal selflessness' or 'selfless
am of the opinion that its etymology should be esta /5 t
hav: been coined. Only through
Mahayana text, the Maha.vastu, where the term mu~~t::: of the term as 'super-act', though
community' ( dharmanairatmya), to eliminate respectively the klesa- and j.ieya- my provisional study of this text do I adop~ the t_rans
varaJJaS. I would argue that this analysis of the Mahayanistic truth of tathata into I still need to conduct a further study of this topic.
 406 Noritoshi ARAMAKJ Two Notes on the Formation 407

4. the meaning of truth as the object being known by the knowledge cleared . . r ha nor unhappy] ( tadubhayav1parita-). The three
from the obscuration over the truth to be known (j.ieyavaraIJavisuddhi- either of th~se [1.e.,bne1the . ff{he referent basis supporting the categories of
Jnanagocara ta ttvartha) kinds of refcrebn~e ases ~ree.d by the categories of ( v1'kalpaprapancadh1jfhanaip
t , and emg conce1v . b d'l ·t e
concep s - - ) 2) the concepts to conceive the o i y exis enc
vjkaipaprapancalam.banaip vastu, . 'I m" (asmimana) and 3) the subconscious
Since the first two tattvarthas are merely introductory, it may be said that the real (satkayadrH1) and to conceive a '
Mahayanistic truth, tathata, is analyzed into the last two tattvarthas, viz. the as d d. norance (raga dvesa, and moha). d
klesavara1Jav1suddhijiianagocara- and j.ieyavara1Jav1suddhiJnanagocaratattvartha. desire, hatre ' a~ I? h . ht vikalp;s and the three vastus are mutually cause
Why did the old stratum of the BBh introduce this distinction of the third and the Without begmnmg, t eldeigf t' t be1·ngs (sattvaloka) and the world of the
duce the wor o sen ien . - ·
fourth tattvartha? There is no doubt that these two tattvarthas correspond to the so as to pro . 11 sentient beings to transmigrate m the sarp.sanc
two kinds of selflessness: the pudgala- and the dharmanairatmya respectively. 'receptacle" ( bha~analoka) f~r a ·s no self therein. Why is pratityasamutpada here
worldi and for this re~so~ t ere I sation between the eight kinds of v1kalpas and
From which source did the old stratum of the BBh introduce this distinction of the
interpreted _as the begmn~glless cau ly answer this question by suggesting that the
two selflessnesses, the pudgala- and the dharmanairatmya, as the very truth to be the three kmds of vastus. can -on. s
penetrated by the bodhipakwacarya throughout the seven bhumi-system of this famous axiom of pratityasamutpada m the DBh,
old stratum? I would argue that with the rise of the Gupta empire in the early
fourth century CE, Nagarjuna's philosophy must have reached to the greater cittamatram ida.1p yad ida.1p tr~idhatukam
Gandhara area and it was subsequently in the old stratum of the BBh composed in This threefold world is here mmd-only
this area that the two truths of his philosophy, the mundane (sal!Jvrti-) and the
1 ( ikalpamatra) (perhaps under the influence of
supreme truth (paramarthasatya), came to be interpreted as the pudgala- and the is now_ inte,rpr~,ted as cohnceit~~ yo::incc' avidya, of pratityasamutpada is nothin~
dharmanairatmya respectively. Thereby, the practical system of the seven bhumis NagarJuna s disc_ove~ t at. t e ign 1 zed into its eight types with regard to how it
was formed on the basis of the ten bhumis of the DBh to account for how the but v1kalpa). This vikalpa~s thet an~ tasis of the categories of concepts and the
knowledge of the pudgala- and the dharmanairatmya is purified through clearing conceptually construi~:e: ~/:i;e;amsaric existence, as well as how it i~ to_ be
the klesa- and the ;neyavaraIJa respectively, as shown in the table above. In the old
stratum, the bodhipak_syacarya must have played the role of introducing the two
other two referent
abolished by the true conte~pla t~
t" . f the four investigations (parye~aIJaS) mto
o f their mutual causation in their reality
truths of Nagarjuna's philosophy as the two nairatmyas to be penetrated into and
to be purified from the two avaraIJas through the concrete practical system of
bodhisattva practices on the seven bhumis.
(yath~bhutaP_arijiianas ), as :111 :e
the four types of complete .now e ge_ o . h followin Thus pratltyasamut-
?ut.lm~1s;:;u:ation bet!~en th'e eight vikalpas
pii.da is now mterpret(ed ahs t ,e ~~;~~~1nfluence of the interpretation of pratitya-
As discussed in my earlier paper (ARAMAKI, 2000:44-46), the new stratum of and the three vastus per aps un h -) 9
the BBh is formed for the purpose of developing the concrete practical system of samutpada as begin~ingltss ca~sal~ i~e:h: ri:s:~:z:r::u;l)~o-rtion 10 expounds the
the bodhipakwadharmas especially on the preparatory stage termed adhimukti- Finally in the third P ace,d~ e c ~p . the form of the four parye~aIJas and the
caryabhumi or prayogamarga, to contemplate the two truths, the pudgala- and the bodh1pakwadharmas under iscussion m
dharmanairatmya, corresponding respectively to the mundane (sal!Jvrti-) and the four yathabhutaparjJnanas as follows:
supreme6 truth (paramarthasatya). The Tattvathapafala chapter in its new stratum
portion first expounds the latter dharmanairatmya as the essential truth of the 1 ) investigation of names (namaparye~aJJa) . . ·
essence incapable of designation in language (nirabhilapyasvabhavata), or the 1~) complete knowledge of the i~re~lity re~~l!ing from the mvest1gatlon of name
supreme reality really existent and incapable of designation in language (nirabhi- ( namaparye~a1Jagata.1p ya thabh utapan;nana.1p)
Japyataya paramarthasadbhiital!] vastu), or the reality of the essence incapable of
designation in language (nirabhilapyasvabhaval!J vastu), which is neither existent as 22b·a)) investliegtaetikonno~l::eg:e:;:~~:rbr:s:i~~v::::,;:~:~=~he investigation of the referent
designated by language, nor non-existent as the reality underlying those designa- comp _ _ .. __ )
tions. bases ( vastuparye~'a1Jagata1p yathabhutapan;nanaip
Thereupon, secondly, the chapter in its new stratum portion 7 expounds the
pudgalanairatmya as the beginningless succession of causation, or the pratityasam- 8 RAHDER (1926" §E of the sixth bhiimi), KONDO (1936:98s),
utpada, being caused by the mutual interaction between the eight kinds of concepts
9 Cf. MUKAI (1985: §3.2.3), Q5540.298(t~,3~:~~39/5~? !1~~79;i;3a~~iyapafala (D_~TT,
( vikalpa) and the three kinds of their reference bases ( vastu). The eight kinds of 10
3
DUTT (1966:36m), WOGIHA~- f- t trimsad bodhipahya dharmas ca
concepts are: 1) the concept of substance (svabhava-vikalpa), 2) the concept of S c. )· fTm asthanany upadaya sarve sap a . ·. b d'i..
1966:2 o14f. . smr.J_ JP _ _ .. _ _ _ . athapiirvanirdistany abh1samasya o 111-
attribute ( v1se~a-), 3) the concept of grouping in a set (piIJ¢agraha-), 4) the concept paryesanas catvan ca yathabhutapan;nTanan1l Y.t. "The follo.~ing practices are called
of 'I' (ahamiti-), 5) the concept of 'mine' (mameti-), 6) the concept of happiness · : · k t ucuate rans a 10n:
sattvana.1p bodh1pa wacaryey :.,·h ·. , racti'ces constituent of the Supreme
(priya-), 7) the concept of unhappiness ( apriya-), and 8) the concept contrary to . - · mmary· the t 1rty seven p . . f
bodh1pakwacary_a m .su · ,, . f awareness and also the four invest1gat1ons o
Awakening startmg with the ~our statl~e~: ~nowledge of their reality as expounded above."
6 name, etc., and the four types of comp b dhi aks a is also mentioned as an ende~vor to
7
DUTT (1966:301t), WOGIHARA (1930:4324f).
Dun (1966:342lf), WOGIHARA (1930:501st), In the new stratum of chapter .1.1k7' ;
develop the concept of the bodh1pa wa armas y
'P f adding some new concrete practices.
 408 Noritoshi ARA'.\L\Kl
3a) investigation of individual substances appearing in accordance with language
( svabhavaprajnaptipaiye~m;a)
3b) complete knowledge of their reality resulting from the investigation of individual
substances appearing in accordance with language
(svabhavaprajiiaptiparye,:,apagataip yathabhutaparijnanaip)
4a) investigation of their attributes appearing in accordance with language ( nse~a-
pra1naptipaiyeJal_la)
4b) complete knowledge of their reality resulting from the investigation of their attri-
butes appearing in accordance with language ( vise~aprajnaptipaiyeJaJ_Jagataip
yathabhutaparijnana1p)
These divisions have already been discussed in my previous paper (ARAMAK.I,
2000:45-46).
Now, the point I am making anew in the present paper may be stated as follows:
the fact that the fundamental philosophical truth of paiicavastu - which is
enumerated as i) name (naman), ii) referent (minitta), iii) concept ( vikalpa), iv)
one-and-the-same essence of life-as-such ( tathata), and v) perfect knowledge
(samyagjiiana) - was indeed formulated just at this stage or just in continuation of
this stage, as has already been pointed out by previous scholars, 11 but nevertheless
the fact that this fundamental philosophical truth of paiicavastu has been formu-
lated as the truth to be known through the bodhipakwadharmas, which have now
been defined as the four parye~aJJas and the four yathabhiitapari/iianas, has not yet
been paid due attention.
Both the old and the new strata of the BBh are the most concerned with deve-
loping the concrete practical system of the bodhipakwadharmas. This is done first
in the old stratum as the seven bhiimi system to contemplate the pudgala- and
dharmanairatmya to eliminate the klesa- and the /iieyavaraJJas respectively (corre-
sponding, in turn, to the S81J1Vfti- and paramarthasatyas of Nagarjuna's philosophy).
Subsequently, this process is made into the preparatory path (prayogamarga)
consisting of the four parye~aJJas and the four yathabhiitapari.Jiianas. It is against
this historical or text-developmental background that the fundamental philosophi-
cal truth of paiicavastu has been formulated as the truth to be known through these
newly formed four paryeJaJJas and four yathabhiitapari.Jiianas. Let me explain this
in some detail.
The entire fundamental truth is called paiicavastu in the sense that it on the
whole is the vastu, or reality, to be awakened to and to be known directly through
the four parye~aJJas and the four yathabhiitapari.Jiianas, which, in fact, consists of
the two truths as the pudgala- and dharmanairatmya, but which has now been
interpreted, on the one hand, as the beginningless causality occurring between the
eight vikalpas and the three vastus and, on the other hand, as the tathata now
defined as nirabh11apyasvabhavavastu, the reality of the nature incapable of desig-
nation in language. This vastu or reality - which, in fact, consists of these two
vastus but which in reality is unified into a single reality - is now analyzed into the
five vastus as follows:
11
TAKAHASHI (2005:49, §2.2.5) concludes so; likewise, KRAMER (2005:22) proposes
her "Ursprungstext 2" (i.e., source-text 2) to such an effect.
409
Two Notes on the Formation
The first vastu, 'name' (naman), is enumerated as the vastu to be e~amin~d
1. and to be eliminated as non-existent through the namaparye~aJJa and its
resultant yathabhiitapari.Jiiana. .
The second vastu, 'referent' (minitta), is a renaming of the three kmds of
2
· 'referent bases' ( va_stu) of th~ BBh mentioned a?ove, viz. 'the r,efe~ent bases
supporting and bemg conceived by the categories of conc~pts ( vikalpapra-
-cavastu) and the other two subconscious referent hases, in order to
pan . . . 12 H
contradistinguish this latter from the vastu as the entire rea11ty. ence,
minitta, together with the following vikalpa, is the vastu to be cont~~plated
upon through the vastuparyeJaJJa and its result~nt yathabhiitap~n!nana.
The third vastu, 'concept' ( vikalpa), together with the above mmJtta, for?1s
3
· the pratityasamutpada as the beginningless causality between ~hem, which
is now contemplated upon through the vastuparye~aJJa and its resultant
yathabhutaparijiiana. . , _ .
The fourth vastu; 'one-and-the-same essence of hfe-as-such ( tathata ), 1s
4
· here interpreted as the nirabh11apyasvabhavavastu, which is -~ontem~~ate~
upon through the svabhavapra/iiaphparyeJ~JJ_~ and. the VJSeJapra1naptJ-
parye~a1Ja and their resultant yathabhutapan1nanas,_ smce these lat~e.r con-
crete practices are designed to contemplate upon this vastu, tathata, JUSt as
expounded in the new stratum portion of the Tattvarthapafala chapter as
neither existent nor non-existent.
5. The fifth vastu, 'perfect knowledge' (samyagjiiana), must originally hfave
been named the bodh1pakwadharmas in the new form of the our
parye~aJJas and the four yathabhutapari.Jiianas, because, as _s? far discussed,
it is by relying on the bodh1pakwadharmas that the practlt10ner has ~~n-
templated upon the four preceding vastus and thereby has been punf~ed
from the k/esa- and .JiieyavaraJJas, finally to be completed as the bodh1 of
the tathagata.
Having thus traced the historical or text-developmental background of t?e
fundamental philosophical truth paiicavastu, I may now conclude that t~e _Pec~lrn_r
definition of the paiicavastu in Vasubandhu's commentary on the MahaY_anasutra-
Jamkara (MSA) 1.2 may, in fact, retain the original implication and termmology of
th~ paiicavastu. 13 The fundamental truth paiicavastu is there enumerated as
follows:
... sa hi dharmafJ paiicavidham artham adhilqtya desitalJ 1) sadhyaip 2)
vyutpadyaip 3) cintyam 4) acintyaip 5) pariniJpanna,p cadhigamarthaip
pratyatmavedaniyaip bodhipak~asvabhavarp/
... , for the Mahayanadharma [in the Mahiiyanaszltras] has been taught
with regard to the five truths, 1) [the truth] to be demonstrated [as non-
existent], 2) [the truth] to be aware of [as existent], 3) [the truth] t~ be
contemplated upon [as such], 4) [the truth] beyond any contemp!at1on,
and 5) [the truth] being completed with the essence of the bodh1pak~a-
12
Cf. KRAMER (2005:55): "Der Autor des Fi.inf-vastu-Abschnittes hatte also den ...
Begriff vastu durch den Ausdruck nimitta ersetzen mi.issen." Translation: "The author of
the fiye-vastu-segment thus had to replace the term vastuwith the term nimitta."
i., See LEVI's (1907: 27f.) edition of the Mahayanaszltralaipkara.
 410 Noritoshi ARAMAKI
- -
dharmas to be awakened to and to be known directly within the inner-
most.
In the quote~ passage, the fifth vastu, sa1pyagjiiana, is defined as "[ the truth] being
completed with the essence of the bodhipak~adharmas to be awakened to " chaptters which enunciate the most fundamental truths inspiring to create this text
(parim5pannaip . . . adhigamarthaip . . . bodhipakfasvabhavaip), which is remi-~i-
scent of the e~tire history or text-development of the concept of bodhipaksa-
dhar1:7~s. ever smce the DBh, as far as it has been traced in the present paper. Su°ch
a defmition cannot but be the original or, at the least, more original definition of
saipyagjfiana than its definition occurring in the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi 14 as the two
forms of knowledge Uiiana), viz., "transcendent knowledge" (lokottarajiiana) and
"~~nd~ne as well as transcendent knowledge" (laukikalokottarajiiana). The
distmct10n between these two forms of knowledge, lokottara- and Jaukikalokotta-
rajfiana, must have been formulated in a context later than the present just after
the new stratum of the BBh, since it presupposed the distinction between the
conccp~~o_n-free (1:1ivikalpa-) and its subsequently obtained knowledge (tatpr~tha-
Jabdh~Jnana), which must have been coined in the Dharmadharmatavibhagais or
even m the MSA 1442-43· Thus we may infer that there must have been an "Ur-
sprungstext 3," i.e., a third source-text, which was the origin for this definition in
Vasubandhu's commentary ad MSA 1.2 and which might have been lost due to the
further development of the fundamental philosophical truth of the trisvabhava as
will be discussed in the next subsection of this paper.
§ 1.2. The Formulation of the Fundamental Philosophical Truth
of Trisvabhava in the Original Chapters of the
Smpdhinirmocanasiitra
Here in this section, I am not intending to expound the formulation of the
fundamental truth trisvabhava to any degree of fullness, but shall merely show that
the fundamental philosophical truth trisvabhava must have been formulated as the
new t~uth to be known corresponding to the new stage of the development of the
bodh1pakwadharmas in continuation of the four parye~aJJas and the four yatha-
bhutaparijfianas as discussed above in § 1.1.
I have earlier (ARAMAKI, 2000) tried to explain the whence of the fundamental
philosophical practice of vijiiaptJinatrata, attempting to show how it is formed as
6
the preparatory path (prayogamarga)1 in continuation of the four parye~aJJas and
the four yathabhutaparijiianas of the new stratum of the BBh on the basis of the
f~rmative principle of t~e avavada (instruction-receiving and -delivering) structure
discussed there. Accordmgly, here in this section, it is my task to explain how the
fundamental philosophical truth of trisvabhava is formulated as the truth to be
known through the newly formed fundamental philosophical practice of vfjiiapti-
matrata. How, then, has the fundamental philosophical truth trisvabhava been
14
• Quoted with the edited text and translation in KRAMER (2005:69 §2.5, 102) and also
m TAKAHASHI (2005:122, 182f., §l.2.51f).
;: See MATHES (1996:145 §4.6.6.4) .. See a_lso ARAMAKI (2005:84 §9.6.6.d).
In ARAMAKI (2000:41 fn. 7), I have pomted out that the first and original occurrence
of ~he termprayogamarga is found in the new stratum of the BBh (Dun, 1966:27413). My
article was mtended to explain how the prayogamarga developed from the four parye~aJJaS
and the four yathabhutaparijiianas into the vi.fiiaptimiitrata on the basis of its avavada
structure.
Two Notes on the Formation 411
------
ed in the original chapters of the SandhN, which were formed in imme-
forn1ll 1at
. t continuation of the new stratum of the BBh?
d1a Let
e me first assume, though I am not yet rea dy to prove 1t,· t h at t h ~ ~ngma
· · l
s of SandhN may have been the following four chapters, because 1t 1s these
chap er
as a new Mahavanasutra.
~
These chapters are as follows:
Chapter 5, The Questions of Viefalamati on the truth of the pursuing sub-
consciousness ( adanavijnana)
Chapter 6, The Questions of GuJJakara on the truth of the three essences
( trisvabhava)
Chapter 7, The QuestJons ofParamarthasamudagata on the truth of the three
non-essences ( triniiJsvabhavata)
Chapter 8, The QuestJons ofMaitreya on the truth of appearance-only
( vijnaptimatrata)
There can be no doubt that these four original chapters of the San~hN were
form ed simultaneously in mutual dependence upon each other, but I· thmk
· 1
that a
logical order of their formation is to be recognized here. The most ongma among
them must have been chapter 8, The Questions of Maitreya, ?ecause - as I have
discussed in my previous paper (ARAMAKI, 2000:46-54) - this chapter ha_s b~en
formed directly in continuation of the four parye~aJJaS and the four yathabhuta-
parijiianas of the new stratum of the BBh with the fundamental discovery of a new
axiom expressed by the following formula:
17
*alambanavi/Iiaptimatraprabhavitaip vijiianaip **
In order to exhaust the implication of this simple formula, I have tried to translate
it as follows:
[The fundamental philosophical concept of early Buddhism,] subcon-
sciousness ( vij.iana), [which has developed to have the two-layered struc-
ture: the possessing subconsciousness ( adanavijiiana) and the self-
conceiving consciousness (manovi/iiana) accompanied by the five kinds
of consciousnesses of the five sense-faculties (paiicavijiianakayas) ], is
[now] supernaturally taught (prabhiivita) to appear ( vij.iapti) [ as the un-
consciously existent and constant receptacle-world ( asaipviditakadhruva-
bhajana), the diverse sensory objects ( vividhalambana), the narrower
meditative object (parfttanimittalambana), the larger meditative object
(mahadgatanimittalambana), the infinite meditative object (apramiiJJa-
minittalambana), etc.] without any such external objects (matra), [and
therefore leads to the Mahayanistic fundamental truth of tathata or sun-
yata].
Now, at this stage it is true that the newly formed fundamental philosophical
practice of appearance-only ( vijiiaptimatrata) is well-founded on the instruction-
17
Professor Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (1984) has exhaustively discussed the
philological problems of this fundamentally important passage by comparing all the
Tibetan and Chinese translations of this passage from the SandhN and those of their
quotations and commentaries. I have discussed its philosophical implication in ARAMAKI
(2000:46-54).
 412 Noritoshi ARAMAKI 413
Two Notes on the Formation
---------------------
receiving and -delivering ( avavada) structure inherent in the religious experien . conversion from the pratltyasamutpada, now represented by the vijnana in
of conversion of the practicing bodhisattva himself or herself to be converted froce th:•~undamental formula, into siinyata, now repr~~~nted _by !he appeara?ce-only
the former to the latter and vice versa, as I have discussed in my previous pap m t~ t nv external objects (alambanav11napt1matra), and vice versa.
(ARAMAKI, 2000:40-46). This very fundamental philosophical practice, however
has not yet been philosophically well-founded as the truly ontological principle
18
convers10~ _to_ be c~~verte~ from the old sarp.saric defiled being-here-and-now to
:f w1thou.. - a ntjmatrata
The Vljfl r
81
.,
· ·
· 1·1e d t h'1s tru 1y
in the SandhN's chapter 8 must already h ave imp
· df d
ontological principle of conv~~~1on: w?en 1t dec!a~ed th~_a?ove~1!;ent1one un ~-
rmula *afambanav1Jnaplimatraprabhav1tarp VlJnanarp . Nevertheless, 1t
the new mrval)IC purified bemg-here-and-now, and vice versa. How could someone menta1 fo , · ·1 f
must have been necessary for t?e Gandh~ran r~gac~ra_s ex~hc1t y to re er to
as a human bodhisattva be ontologically converted from the former defiled bein _ - - ·una's philosophy once agam to redefme VlJnaptJmatrata as the truly onto-
here-~nd-now to the latter purified being-here-and-now, and vice versa? Th1s Nagar]
· 1 principle of conversion · · · h h · f N-agar-
-
log1ca _ /-m their
_ own terms rat er t an m terms o
quest~on must be a~s~ered .by the truly ontological converting principle that may ·una's pratftyasamutpada and sunyata. How? . .
explam the new purified bemg-here-and-now having been converted from the old J Chapter 7, The Questions of Paramarthasamudfigata, 1~ thelf at~empt t? ~o
def~led bei~g-here-and-now of himself or herself and yet been related to the old back to the Buddhas' deepest .hidde~ meani~~- (s~rp~h1 ~r abh1sarpdh1) m
defiled .bemg-he_re-.and-no~ of infinite sarp.saric beings-here-and-now with Nagarjuna's philosoph~ ~nd redefm~ the1~ ow~ VlJflaP_limatr~t~ _as the truth of the
comp~ss10n - this 1s . noth~~g but a_ re-?efin!tion of the fundamental religious three non-essences ( tnnjiJsvabhavata ), which, m fact, 1s a defm1t10n of_the supr~me
experience of convers10n ( asrayapanvrtt1) of SBh so as to found it on the Maha- th (paramarthasatya) but which implicitly defines the truly ontological pnnc1ple
yana ~uddhist p~ilosoghi~-~l tr~t~ of_ ~at~ata .o.r sun_yata!/ In chapter 8, The : conversion to be converted first through abolishing the m:nd~e- wo~d
Ouest10ns of Ma1treya, VlJnapflmatrata 1s 1dent1f1ed with asrayaparkrtti, but has constructed conceptually according to la,,~guage_ and then throug rea 1Z1ng. ~ e
not yet bee~ e!aborated ~s the .truly o~tological principle of conversion on the pivot conversion from the old defiled (sarpkfesika) bemg-~ere-and-now to the punfied
of the Mahayana Buddhist ph1losoph1cal truth of tathata or sunyata. How has this being-here-and-now ( visuddha or ryavadata), and vice versa. To quote the con-
been accomplished? cluding verses of the chapter only, the sutra says:
It is, I t~i~k, for the purpose of answering the above ontological question that
the other origmal chapters 5, 6, and 7 of the SandhN were formed in continuation chos rnams ngo bo nyid med chos rnams ma skyes dang!
of chapter 8. How and in what order then? I think that chapter 7, The Questions of chos rnams ma 'gags chos rnams gzod nas zhi ba dang!
Paramarthas~mudagata, must have been formed as the next original chapter in chos rnams thams cad rang bzhin mya ngan 'das par nil
or~er to remterpret the Buddhas' deepest hidden meaning of Nagarjuna's dgongs pa med par mkhas pa su zhig smra bar byed/1
philosophy as the truly ontological principle of conversion ontologically to be
converted fro~ the old defi!e~ being-here-and-now to the new purified being-here- mtshan nyid ngo bo nyid med skye ba ngo bo med/
don dam ngo bo nyid med do zhes ngas bshad de/
and-now and vice versa. This 1s because - as mentioned in the introduction above_
'di la mkhas pa gang zhig dgongs pa shes pa nil
Nagarjuna succ~eded, on the basis of the sixth bhumi of the DBh, in establishing rab tu nyams par 'gyur ba 'i lam du de mi 'gro/1
t?_e ear~ Budd~1st truth of pratltyasamutpada and the Mahayana Buddhist truth of
sunyata respectively as the saipvrti- and paramarthasatyas taught as the Buddhas' kun gyi rnam par dag lam ni gcig pu 'diyin tel
deepe_st hidden meaning, but he did not yet develop the bodhyaligas or rnam par dag pa 'ang gcig ste gnyis pa gang yang med/
bodh1pak~adharmas of the DBh as the truly ontological principle of conversion de phyir theg pa gcig pa 'di ni 'dogs byed kyangl
fro~ the former pratltyasamutpada to the latter sunyata and vice versa, although sems can rigs ni rnam pa sna tshogs med ma yin//
he mdeed penetrated into its possibility as the Middle Path (madhyama pratipat).
Gandharan yogacaras must have been inspired by Nagarjuna's philosophy to go *dharma hi nihsvabhavas ca notpannas cadisantayaiJ/
back to the Buddhas' deepest hidden meaning and redefine the vjjiiaptimatrata - na niruddhaiJ prakrtyokta ninrrta na tv asaipdhitaiJI/**

18 *lak,JaJJan niiJsvabhavas capy utpatteiJ paramarthataiJI

Henceforth I am going to use the term "the truly ontological principle of conversion"
as a ketterm of. my interpretation of Mahayana Buddhist philosophy. Currently I am
~ttemptmg to wnte an essay on the philosophy of Buddhism, wherein I am going to
mterpret the early Buddhist philosophy with reference to Husserlian phenomenology and
the Mahayana Buddhist philosophy with reference to Heideggerian ontology. I think that
the Mahayana Buddhist fundamental religious experience of conversion can best be inter-
preted with reference to the Heideggerian ontological philosophy of the 1930s, in which he
endeavoured to overcome the nihilistic history of Western metaphysics and to create a new
eroch_ of ontologi~al phil?sophy and poetry. Therein is recognizable his own religious and
hist?ncal. conversion, which I am trying to find in the histories of Mahayana Buddhism in
Ind~a, Chma, Korea, and Japan. In the present paper, I am somehow anticipating my future
project.
19
See §§8.13-15 of SandhN as discussed in ARAMAKI (2000:48).
itiyo j.iatasaipdhiiJ sa nasamargaip na gacchati/1**
*sarveJii!p suddhimargo 'yaip suddhis caikaiva na dvaya/
tasmad evaikayanaip tat na gotravidhas tuna//**
All beings, living as well as non-living, have no individual bei~g, have
never been born, have never perished, have ever been calm smce the
beginning, and have ever been peaceful in essence - so taught the
Buddha, but not without the deepest hidden meaning. If you understand
the Buddha's deepest hidden meaning [on the three non-essences] as
follows:
 414 Noritoshi ARAMAKI
l) '.'All b~ings, living as well ~s non-living, have no individual being
- - --
m their essence (lak~aJJanilJsvabhavata),"
2) '.'All b~ing~, living as well as non-living, have no individual being
~.n their_ bem~ ~om through conditions ( utpattinifJsvabhavata),"
3) . All b~mgs, hvmg as well as n~n-livin_g, have no individual being
m their supreme truth (paramarthanilJsvabhavata),"
then you will not fall into the path of nihilism. This is the purifying path
for everybody of all the innate inclinations. The purity is one and the
same [for everybody of all the innate inclinations] and there is no second.
Therefore there is only one and the same vehicle, but it is not that there is
no difference of innate inclination.
This l?assage, on one hand, is th~ d~fi.nition o~ the supreme truth (paramarthasatya)
as hem¥ zero or e_1,:1p~ of~~ md1v1dual bemg (ni/;lsvabhavata), which has been
ta_~§ht ~n the Pra1naparam1ta texts. On the other hand, it is the redefinition of
V1Jnapt1matrata as the _truly 01:tolo_gical principle of conversion in enumerating the
three non-essences (ni/;lsvabhavata ), because the three non-essences imply that:
1. the mundane world constructed conceptually according to
language is examined and realized as non-existent, and then
2. the old defiled being-here-and-now is contemplated as being born
through c~nd_iti~~s (pr~tityasamutpa'!a) to the ef~e~t of its sponta-
neous penshmg and 1s converted mto the purified being-here-
and-now, and finally
3. the new purified being-here-and-now is completed as the supreme
truth through further being related in compassion to the defiled
being-here-and-now of other innumerable saqisaric beings.
Here is i~plied the identification of the early Buddhist conversion through
cont~m_platmg pra~ityasamutp_ada as being empty of any individual being and the
Mah~yana Buddhist conversion through contemplating szlnyata as related to
pratitya~amutpada. Thereby is accomplished the truly ontological principle of
conversion to be converted from the old defiled being-here-and-now to the new
purified being-here-and-now, and vice versa.
It is, I think, on account of this identification of the early Buddhist and the
Mahayana Buddhist conversions that the third verse here declares the one-and-
the-sameness of purity as well as the one-and-the-sameness of the vehicle of both
the early Buddhist and the Mahayana Buddhist traditions. This redefinition of
viJ_.iaptimatrata is thus, on the one hand, a practical elaboration of Nagarjuna's
Middle Path (~adhyama pratipat), and, on the other hand, is the Mahayanization
of the convers10n of a Y ogacara's subconscious basis ( asrayaparivrtti) of the SBh.
_
20
!t
is important to note that the early Buddhist fundamental truth of pratityasamut-
pada is meant to be awakened to practically through two stages as follows: 1) to
contemplate the _Pratityasa:17.utpada of all sarpsaric beings through seeking deeper and
deeper s_ubconsc1_ous cond1t10ns, and 2) to discover the deepest condition, either as
~ubconscious ~eme ( tr~JJii) or as individual subconsciousness (namarupavijiiana) or as
1gnoranc~ ( andya). to th~ effect of its spontaneous perishing, because the deepest
subconscio~s condition perishes spontaneously, when it is discovered as such - perhaps like
any other sm.
Two Notes on the Formation 415
-------
Now, the third original chapter of the SandhN, chapter 6, The Questions of
c;unakara, tries ex~licitly to reformulate vi.fnaptimatr~ta as t_he truly ontological
ri~ciple of convers1_on to be converted from !he old defile? bemg-her~-and-no:" to
Ph new purified bemg-here-and-now, and vice versa. This chapter first redefmes
~h: three non-essences (niiJsvabhavata) above as the three truths ( tnlak~aJJa) or
the three essences ( triwabhava) explicitly in their own terminology as follows:
1. the Jak~aJJanifJsvabhavata is the conceptualized truth (parikalpitalakJaJJa),
2. the utpattini/;lsvabhavata is the dependent truth (paratantralakJaJJa), and
3. the paramarthani/;lsvabhavata is the completed truth (parim~panna-
lak.,aJJa).
How did the Gandharan yogacaras choose these terms in particular to redefine the
truly ontological principle of conversion? So far, I have only been able to trace
their direct sources to the following attestations. Firstly, the term 'conceptualized'
(parikalpita) may be traced back to the avavada-interpolation in the BBh's sec-
tion21 on the fifth supernatural power of knowledge of the Tathagata ( tathagata-
j.ianabala), which is called the supernatural power of knowledge on the variety of
22
innate natures [of all sarpsaric beings] (nanadhatu.fnanabala). There, the relation
23
between the name and the vastu is examined as follows:
evaii ca punar manasjkuru/ asmiips cakfju~j dvayam upalabhyate/
1daip ca nama saipjiia prajiiaptis cak~ur itJ/ etac ca vastumatram/
yatredaip nama saipJfiii praJiiaptiiJInata uttari nato bhuyaiJI
tatra yac cak~u~i nama saipjiia prajiiaptis tat ta van na cakffulJ/yad apj
tadvastu yatra cak~ufJsaipJiia tad apj svabhavato na cakffuiJ/ tat kasya
hetofJ/ na hi tatra cakfjurnama cakJufJsaipjiiaip cakJufJprajiiaptiip vina
kasya cit cak!jurbuddhilJ pravartate/ sa ced etad vastu tenatmanii pari-
nifjpannaip syat/yena namna abhilapyate na tatra punas tadapekfjii cakJur
ity evaip buddhiiJ pravartate/ nanyatra prakrtyaivasrutapankalpita-
namakanam api tasmin vastuni cak~ur iti buddhjlJ pravartate/ na ca
punafJ pravartamana upalabhyate/
You should examine as follows: With regard to the eye here, two
phenomena are cognized. On one hand, there is the name "eye," the con-
cept "eye," the representation "eye." On the other hand, there is the object
to which this name "eye," this concept "eye," and this representation "eye"
refer. There is nothing more and nothing else.
Firstly, herein, the name "eye," the concept "eye," the representation
"eye" is not in itself the eye. Secondly, the object to which the concept
"eye" refers is likewise not the eye here as an independent existence. Why?
Because no one would have the understanding of the eye without the
name "eye," the concept "eye," the representation "eye." If this object is
perfect, being real, having the substance expressed by the name, and if it
is not the case that the understanding of the eye arises by its relation to its
name, then even new-born babies, who have never heard the name and
who have never conceptualized according to the name, would understand
that object as the eye, but this is indeed not the case.
21
12 Dun (1966:2729f.), WOGIHARA (1930:3941sr).
~3 See ARAMAKI (2000:40f.).
L BBh (Dun, 1966:27225f.).
 416 Noritoshi ARAMAKI
Two Notes nn the Formation 417
In view of the fact that this Tathagata's avavada is the origin of the four ---~
shjn tu rnam dag mtshan nyid chos thob 'gyur//
and the _four yathabhutaparij.ianas in the Tattvarthapata/a as I h l!arye$a-{l~s
my previous paper, I think this sin-file occurrence may b~ at least oa;; o;~~ussd~d lil skye bo bag med kyis beam le Jo can/
sources for the parikalpitalaksana. A e Irect 'du byed skyon la rtog par mj byed pa/
, ~~condly, the, term 'depe.ndent' (paratantra) may be a renaming of the brtan med g.yo ba yod pa 'j chos mams la/
non mde,pende?t ,Casvatantra) that occurs in the fourth and final contem la . term rab tu nyams pas snYJ'ng brtser bya ha yin//
the truth suffenng ( duf;khasatya) in the oldest stratum of the SBh as ton!ws~~?n of
*dharman alakJapan janan jahati sal!lklesalak~apfll!ll
tasya1·val!l bhavatJ/ ye runa; ~te S81!1Skara/J svaJak,japenam·tyaJaksanena saf!]k]eSeJU prahfpeJU visuddhan adhigacchafi//
duiJk~alakfa_lJena yuftas te p1 pratityasamutpannataya asvatantra ye· sva- mattajanal; kusidas tu sal!lskaradoJanek~ital;/
tantras te natmana 1ty evam asvatantrakarepanatmakaram avataratJ"/-- adhruvacaladharme~u prapa,j/a an ukampyakal;I/* *

H:. (the yogacara dis_ciple) meditates: Further, these samsaric existences

w _1~h have been defmed by their own essence as transi~nt and sufferin '
?ngm~te through c~nditions and are accordingly not independ~nt. Wh;~
1s not mdependent 1s selfl~ss. Thus he penetrates into the selfless aspect
of the duiJkhasatya as non-mdependent.
~ thint this definition of pratityasamutpanna as non-independent (asvatantra) m t
~ve ecn renamed as "dependent on others" (paratantra) to form a set of us
with t.he other two tr~ths, viz. p~rikalpita and parim~panna. three
L~stly, the term_ completed (parim~panna) has been derived from the ab
ment10~ed" expr~s~10n "completed . . . constituent practices of the su rove-
;;~~~ii~n~f{~mJpan~alp · · · _bodhip~k.Jasv~bhava1p) ?ccurring in the pan!v:::
1s was one with the mtentton to defme tathata and the b dh ·
f:k:~d1armat together_ as being of the same essence. There is no doubt that t~is :;
th: s:t~ 1:s~ t .o~ ~ie ~sBthory of the term par~n1~p~nna ever since its occurrence in
um10 e ··- so_far traced here m this paper.
. No;, how h~s the VlJ1!~ptJm~trata been redefined as the truly ontological prin-
c1p1e o conversion explicitly with these new terms? In the resent cha ter ·
~:~~~Ng t~:ar;::e ~~vtehles otfhbre~
truhths ( t~d11akJapa) are expou!ded as res~ec;iv:fy
emg- ere-an -now:
1.
td~: parikalpita/akJaIJa defines the untrue being-here-and-now (alaksana-
11armas) ..
2. the paratantra/akJapa defines the old defiled being-here-and-n ( _
ldesadharmas) ow saip
3. the par~niJpannalakJaIJa defines the new purified being-here-and-now
( vyavadanadharmas or viiuddhadharmas)
Then t~e chapt_er defines vij.iaptimatrata as the truly ontological principle of
convers10n. Agam to quote just the concluding verses of the chapter:
mtshan nyid medpa 'i chos ni rab shes na/
kun nas nyon mongs mtshan nyid chos spong 'gyur/
[The yogacara bodhisattva first examines and then] realizes the untrue
being-here-and-now [as merely appearing on the basis of the old defiled
being-here-and-now] and then abandons the old defiled being-here-and-
now [appearing as the untrue]. Having abandoned the old defiled being-
here-and-now, he [is converted from the old defiled spontaneously and]
accomplishes the new purified.
Ah, to be pitied are the frivolous people who are inattentive and do not
contemplate the sufferings of samsaric beings! They are lost in the evils of
transient and instantaneous beings.
This is a very simple and explicit definition of the vij.iaptimatrata as the truly
ontological principle of conversion to be converted from the old defiled being-
here-and-now to the new purified being-here-and-now, and vice versa: firstly, the
phrase alambanavijiiaptimatraprabhavita1p ("taught to be appearance-only without
any external objects") of the vij.iaptimatrata-formula mentioned above, which
1
introduced a Praj.iiiparamitii-wise examination via Nagarjuna s philosophy, is now
synthesized in this principle of conversion as the parika/pitalak~aIJa of the untrue
being-here-and-now (alak~apadharmas) to be examined and to be realized as non-
existent. Secondly, the phrase vijiiana1p of the same formula, which introduced the
pratityasamutpada of early Buddhism, is now synthesized in this principle of
conversion as the paratantralakJapa of the old defiled being-here-and-now
(saipklesadharmas) to be abandoned and to be converted from. Thirdly and finally,
the vijiiaptimatrata as the final completion of conversion, which introduced the
1
sunyata of Mahayana Buddhism through Nagarjuna s philosophy, is now synthe-
sized in this principle of conversion as the pariniJpanna/ak~apa of the new purified
being-here-and-now ( vyavadana- or viiuddhadharmas) to be attained and to be
converted into. And so, the truly ontological principle of conversion from the old
defiled being-here-and-now to the new purified is here defined by the spontaneous
conversion from the former to the latter no sooner than the realization of the
untrue as non-existent and that same ontological principle of conversion from the
purified being-here-and-now to the old defiled of others is here defined by the
compassion, Ah, to be pitied are the frivolous people ... ," of the new purified
11

kun nas nyon mongs chos ni rab spangs na/ toward the old defiled of other sentient beings to teach them this new path of
vifiiaptimatratfi.
So far, in §1, I have tried to expound how Nagarjuna1s fundamental ontological
24 I .
sourc n a prevm~s Japanese ~aper (ARAMAKI, 1976a:32-33), I have tried to trace the truth with its three constituent truths: 1) the deepest hidden meaning of the
e ofn the
See also parikalp1tasvabhava to a passage from the Paiicau1m· "at:,,- n ·-- -
- , · / :,, - n .- - _ . •, . J,
·1.-
111.a rTa;naparam1 -a. ~uddha s teachings, 2) the mundane truth, and 3) the supreme truth, is continued
1

, rancav11!lsatJ11.a rTa;naparam1ta(DUTT, 1934:37-38). m and further developed into the four constituent philosophies of Yogacara-
25
SBh (SHUKLA, 1973:492), Q5537.226a 2t., Vijrianavada: 1) the philosophy of the three non-essences as the deepest hidden
 418 Noritoshi ARAMAKI 419
Two Notes on the Formation

meaning o~ the Buddha's. teachings, 2) the philosophy of the three essences as its- . g principle for the compilation of the MaulBh as the mundane truth
reformulat10n to synthesize the two following philosophies, 3) the philosophy of the foun d m .. - - - . h
(saJ!]V!
dsatva)
/'
of the Yogacara-V1Jnanavada philosop y.
appea~ance-only as a found_ation of the supreme truth ( as discussed so far), and 4)
the philosophy of subconsciousness as a foundation of the mundane truth ( as will §2.1. The Visalamati Chapter of the SandhN
be discussed in the next section).
s 1 have discussed in my previous paper _(ARAMAKI, 2000:40ff.), the four
~ · t·ons
mvesuga i
(parvesana) and the accompanymg four types of complete know-
r · · .. - - · h f th
§2. The Development of the Fundamental ledge o r f
i

eality-as-such (y.athabhiitapargnana) taught m t .e new stratum o. e

Philosophical Concept of Adana- or Alayavij..iana d veloped
BB hearance-only
into the contemplation on the subconsciousness appean~g as
e ( *alambanavijii.aptimatrapra b·i. ·
'1lav1ta~ ··--
vgnanaf!1 )m · th e M ai treya .
and the Formation of the MaulBh app t· the SandhN. If I am right in my interpretat10n of the passage, then th1s
In §2 _of_this paper, I ~ill su~?_e~'it that t?e o~her fundamental philosophical concept, chapter o · ( -d- ·· - - )
.. - - consists of the two layers: 1) the pursuing subconsciousness a anavynana
the adana- or the alayavgnana, which 1s newly formulated as constituent of vl)nana
and 2) the five perceptive consci?.~~nesses (pancavgnana - ··-- k-aya) . a1ong wi th the
the supreme truth in the fourth of the original chapters of SandhN, viz. chapter 5
the Questions of VisalamatJ; further develops into a founding principle of th~ concep tual consciousness (manovgnana) as referred to there m §8.37 of the
formative process of the MaulBh as the mundane truth. It may be said that Maitreya chapter. ., .
Now, accordingly the V1salamat1 chapter of the SandhN teachc~ how t_he
the fundamental philosophical concept of adana- or alayavijii.ana preceded the . ttva-yogacara contemplates pratftyasamutpada as the mutually mteractlve
compilation of the MaulBh, although the source-materials compiled in the MaulBh bo dh isa.on ( anyonyaparampara) between the two layers o f vgnana: ··-- 1) th e a-d- ana-
may well be older than the fundamental philosophical concept itself. s~~~~ssi and 2) the paii.c~vijiianakaya along with the manovij.iana. To quote the
As I have pointed out in my previous paper (ARAMAKI, 2000:56-57), 26 the VlJnana
concluding paragraph only, the siitra says (San dN , v·'-11sa ama 1·i ch ap t er 55)·
. .
27

Gan?h~ran Y ogacaras d~veloped their philosophy of the two-layered vi/ii.ana

cons1stmg of the subconsciousnesses and the six consciousnesses in the Vastusam-
grahaJJ~ portion of the YBh prior to their attempt to 'Mahayanize' their yogic
system m the BBh. At the pre-Mahayana stage of their philosophy, they began to
formulate two layers of vijii.ana: 1) a subconscious layer consisting of the pursuing
subconsciousness (adanavijii.ana), and 2) a conscious layer consisting of the five
p~rceptive consciousnesses (paii.cavijii.anakaya) along with the conceptual con-
sc10usness (manovifii.ana).
. At the next stage, the new stratum of the BBh developed the Prafii.aparamita-
w1se contemplation of the four investigations (paiye~aJJfi) and the corresponding
four types of complete knowledge of reality-as-such (yathabhiitaparijii.ana) in
order to ab~lish the eight kinds of concepts (nkalpa) mentioned above in §1.1 on p.
406. The eight concepts were here analyzed into two layers: 1) the concepts
th~mselves \ vikalpa) and 2) their referent bases supporting them ( adh1~fhana) and
bemg conceived by them ( alambana). I think these respectively correspond to 1)
the superficial consciousnesses of the manovifii.ana and the paii.cavijii.anakayas, and
2) the deepest subconsciousness, i.e., the adanavijii.ana, as analyzed in the VastuSg.
It is perhaps in the deepest contemplation of the four investigations and the four
types of complete knowledge of reality-as-such that the bodhisattva-yogacara
co_n~emplates pratftyasamutpada as the beginningless mutual causality (anadi-
kalikam anyonyahetukam) between the two layers of the superficial conscious-
nesses and the subconsciousness. There is no doubt that this contemplation on
pratftyasamutpada developed as a result of the Yogacara's attempt to interpret the
early Buddhist contemplation on pratftyasamutpada as the mutually interactive
succession between the fourth and the third links of dependent origination called
mind-and-body (namariipa) and subconsciousness ( vi/ii.ana). Let me now briefly
sketch how the fundamental concept of adana- or alayavijii.ana, which in the
SandhN is itself constituent of the supreme truth (paramarthasatya), developed as
evam eva v1salamate tad aughasthaniya, adarsasthaniyaip
;§dan~~ijnanaJ!l sa1J1msritya pratJjfhaya sa ced ekasya cak~urvijn~:1_~-
syotpattipratyayaiJ pratyupasthi~o _b~ava~1:_~ak_rd_ e~a1!1 eva ca~~urv1Jna-
na1J1 pravartate/ sa ced ya vat pancanalJl V1Jnanakayan~1:1_ u~p~tt1pratyaya1?
pratyupasthito bhavati sakrd yavat pancanalJl V1Jnanana1J1 pravrttJI
bhavati/
. ..... Just in the same way [as the two aforesaid illustrations], 0 ~isala-
mati, [the six perceptive consciousnesses (~aqvijnanakaya) are activated
to function on the basis of the pursuing subconsciousness as follows:] The
pursuing subconsciousness is comparable to the wat~r ~f a flo~d and to
the surface of a mirror [mentioned in the two aforesaid 1llustrat1ons]. On
the basis of and on the surface of this pursuing subconsciousness, only
one eye-consciousness is activated to_ funct~on _at o_ne time [like one wave
of the flood], when the condition for its activation 1s prcse~t there, and so
forth, up until the five perceptive consciousnesses are activated _t~ func-
tion at one time [like so many waves of a flood], when the condition for
their activation is present there.
Having thus expounded the philosophy of subconsciousness as its main theme, the
chapter goes on to explain its Mahayana Buddhist background as follows (SandhN,
Visalamati chapter 5.6):
blo gros yangs pa de ]tar byang chub sems dpa' chos ky_i lugs shes pa la
brten cing chos kyi Jugs shes pa la gnas nas/ sen:s dang yid da1!g rnam par
shes pa 'i gsang ba la mkhas pa yin yang de bzhm gshegs pa m byang chub
sems dpa 'sems dang yid dang rnam _Par shes pa 'i gsan_~ ba la mkhas par
'dogs na de tsam gyis thams cad ky1 thams cad du ~1 'dogs so/ h!o gros
yangs pa gang gi phyir byang chub sems dpa 'nang g1 so so rang g1 Jen pa

26
As noted in fn. 20 of that paper (ibid.:56), this is not my own discovery, but it actually 27
The Sanskrit text of the passage, together with that of the followi~g verse, is quoted
belongs to Prof. SCHMITHAUSEN, although he does not assert so explicitly. in Sthiramati's commentary on karika 15 of Vasubadhu's Triipsika. See LEVI (1925:33m.).
 421
Two Notes on the Formation
420 Noritoshi ARAMAKI
jjdanav/jiiana gabhirasukJmO ogho yathii vartati sarvabijo/
mjmthong/i ,.
pa Ji /ta ba b:;::~~ ;~;::;;~f;
par shes pa 'ang mj mthong!
:zb;:;~~n~f
11
a/ de/ng ya1:g
m wng un gzh1 mam
- --
dag bafana eJO mayj na prakasj ma haiva atmii parjkalpayeyuiJII

Then, at this occasion, the Bhagavan spoke the following verse:

so s;·~a~~ ~~/;Jky.ros yang: pahgang giphyir byang chub scms dpa, nang gi
.,,. ang m1 mt ong! chos mams kyang mi th I 'd The pursuing subconsciousness - deep and subtle, and having been
~:a:1;,";a~!e~:::r::,~m/i;;f;a1d~ 'ang ya1g dagpaJi ]ta°/,zh~:;int;, cumulative of all seeds [of evolution] - transmigrates like a flood. This I
bzhjn gshegs pa 'ang buan(, ch~z am pda ~ ,.Jmkhas pa zhes bya ste/ de do not teach to the uninitiated, because they should not conceptualize it

:~;s.da~~ jd dang rnam-' · par shessems

o rpa uon dam pa /a mkhas
pa 'igsang ba la mkhas pa yin parf;:o;·
*ev~f!l ~isalamate bodhisattva dharmasthithianam sa ,/ . .
Hhaya c1ttamanovi.fiianaguhyakusalo 'pi bhav.'-'t. . IJ1131sntya pratJ-
sarvalJl tiivatii tam bodhisattvam citta ~. ! _na tu tathag__atal; sarvel}a
paY_afj/ yato vHaiamate bodhi;attvo 1;:;;;:::::t8f~h!~'hk~salaIJ1 pra.fii~-
bhutam adiinam / · - - _ .. __ · , a iru, a ca na yatha-
iilayalJl pasyati 'n/;";{;:;a:r:a::;;:J;a~;alJl pasyatj niipi yathabhutam
-~· ~.. I yato visalamate bodhisattva 'dhyatmam bahirdh- - .
yathabhutmp mano pasyafj na i dharm- / .. - . a ~~ nap1
~:J:J:a~"/v~::::.:;:;;,:;r~f
jiiapayati/1**
arthakUSa~; f:;S:;/:f:th';;:iT::~:
usa alJl c1ttamanoV1JnanaguhyakusalaIJ1 pra-
as a Self.
Herc in this verse, the Bhagavan himself is being converted from the supreme truth
of §unyatfi to the mundane of citta, manas, and vijiiana in order to teach the secrets
of citta, manas, and vijiiana, viz. the philosophy of vijiiana, as the mundane truth to
the initiated bodhisattva yogacaras. He does not teach the philosophy of vijiiana or
the pursuing subconsciousness ( adiinavijiiiina) to the uninitiated, because they
should not conceptualize it as a Self, but he does teach it to the initiated bodhi-
sattva yogacaras so that they may practice and realize the pratltyasamutpiida
conception-freely to the effect of its spontaneous perishing, because the ignorance
(avidyii) of pratltyasamutpada is now understood as conception ( vikalpa) in accor-
dance with the tradition of Nagarjuna's fundamental discovery. It is, I think, on
account of these two opposite ways of conversion that an initiated bodhisattva
yogiicii.ra can be an expert in the secrets of dtta, manas, and vijJJiina as the
mundane truth only on the condition that he is an expert in the supreme truth.

§2.2 The Sacittika Bhumil;i of the VinSg

In his unfortunately still unpublished and yet fundamentally 'bahnbrechend'
(groundbreaking) paper on the origin of the concept of the 'defiled conception'
(kliHamanas), which was distributed on the occasion of his public lecture at the
Reiyukai in 1978, Professor SCHMITHAUSEN pointed out the remarkable corre-
spondence between the Visalamati chapter of the SandhN quoted above and the
Sacittika Bhumil;z chapter of the VinSg. I am of the opinion that the Visalamati
chapter of the SandhN is the first and original declaration of the concept of the
pursuing consciousness (adiinavijiiana) and - if I am right in this assumption - then
this portion of the SacittJka Bhumil;z chapter of the VinSg is the first and original
declaration of the concept of the defiled 'I'-and-'my' conception (kli!jfamanas). I am
fully aware that my assumption radically deviates from Professor SCHMITHAUSEN's
consciousness, only on the condition that he ~ secrets of ~md, conception, and
Thus a bodhisattva yogacara is an expert in th .
view, but this is not the place to discuss such an intricate philosophical problem.
through penetrating into the zero-dimen . / an expert m the supreme_ truth Let me here merely examine the external framework in which this philosophy of
such and thus through contemplatin nei~:! o the co~m~nal essence of hfe-as- vijiiana is embedded. The relevant portion of the Sacittikii Bhumil;z chapter of the
subconsciousness etc Thi's m bg d the pursumg itself nor the pursuing VinSg reads (Q5539.zi.189ar189b 3, D4038.zhi.18lbr182a4 , T1579.65lb):
. ' · av e un erstood as th M h- - .
conversion from the supreme truth f /_ _ e a ayana Buddhist
vijiiana in order to teach the latter o s~nyata to the mundane of.citta7 manas, and sems yod pa 'i sa las brtsams nas rnam par gtan la dbab pa nil sems kyj
Those other bodhisattva yogacaras :un .ane truth to ?ther bodhisattva yogacaras. Jug pa nj mdor bsdu na rnam pa lngas rig par bya ste/1) kun rdzob kyj
truth of citta manas and vijiiana . aydm tur~ practice and realize the mundane tshul rnam par gzhag pa dang/2) don dam pa 'i tshul rnam par gzhag pa
conversion f;om the' mundane to i~or er to e converted by the early Buddhist dang/3) gnas dang gnas pa rnam par gzhag pa dang/ 4) lhan dg dngos par
summarizes such two opposite wa ~ suprem~. The following concluding verse rnam par gzhag pa dang/5) kun nas nyon mongs pa dang/ rnam par byang
chapter 5.7): ys o conversion as follows (SandhN, Visalamati ba rnam par gzhag pas so/
1) de la kun rdzob kyi tshul rnam par gzhag pas Jug pa nj 'di Jta ste/
yid ki sar sngar bstan pa bzhin du rig par bya bl
de na, beambh
*atha,khaJ, Idan 'd~s "f1s
1rc,· d ,.
e_1 tshe ~s~igs.su beadpa 'di dag bka' stsal to/ 2) & 3) de la don dampa'i tshul rnamparbzhagpa bshadparbya ste/
u agavalJlS tasyalJl velayam imii giithiibhii~ata/** don dam pa 'i tshul rnam par gzhag pas Jug pa gang zhe na/ mdor bsdu na
422 Noritoshi ARAMAKI
- ---
rnam par shes pa ni rnam pa gnyis tel kun gzhi rnam par shes pa dang/
Jug pa 'i rnam par shes pa o/ de la kun gzhi rnam par shes pa ni gnas yin
no/ Jug pa 'i rnam par shes pa ni gnas pa yin tel de yang rnam pa bdun te/
mfg gi rnam par shes pa nas I yid dang y1d kyi rnam par shes pa 'i bar te/
chu 'i chu bo dang rlabs /ta bu 'am/ me long dang gzugs brnyan /ta bu yin
no// de /tar na 'di ni don dam pa 'i tshul rnam par gzhag pas gnas dang
gnas pa rnam pargzhag pa yin no//
4) de la rnam par shes pa de dag thams cad ni sems shes kyang bya/
yid ces kyang bya/rnam par shes pa zhes kyang bya ste/kun gzhi rnam par
shes pa ni dngos su na sems yin tel 'di /tar de ni sa ban th ams cad ky1s kun
tu bsags shing nye bar bsags pa yin no/ de yang dus rtag par Jen rgyu la
dmigs pa dang/ bye brag medpar ram gcig tu snod la dmigs pa yin no/
y1d ni dus rtag tu nga dang bdag gi zhes rlom sems kyi bdag ny1d can
yin no/
rnam par shes pa niyul so sor rnam par rig pa 'i mtshan ny1d gang yin
pao/
de la kun gzhi rnam par shes pa ni nyon mongs pa gang dang yang
mtshungs par ldan pa ma yin no/yid ni dus rtag tu ye yod pa 'i nyon mongs
pa rnam pa bzhipo 'di /taste/ ngar 'dzin pa dang/ nga yir 'dzin pa 'i rnam
par Jig tshogs la /ta ba dang! nga o snyam pa 'i nga rgyal dang/ bdag la
chags pa dang/ ma 'dres pa 'i ma rig pa dang lhan cig gi dngos pos
mtshungs par ldan tel nyon mongs de kyang dge ha dang midge ba dang
Jung du ma bstan pa 'i rnam par shes pa la 'gal ha med pa dang/ bsgnbs la
Jung du ma bstan dang/ye yod pa yin no/ de las gzhan pa rnam par brtags
pa rnams nilrkyen Ji /ta ba bzhin du Jug pa yin par rig par bya o//
*sacitt1kabhumim arabhya viniscayalJI cittapravrtti!; samasatalJ
paiicabhir akarair veditavya/ I) Saf!lvrtiyuktivyavasthanatalJ, 2) para-
miirthayuktivyavasthanata, 3) airayiisritavyavasthanatalJ, 4) sahabhu-
vyavasthanatalJ, 5) Saf!lk/esavyavadanavya vasthanatas ca/
1) tatra saJ!lv.rtiyuktivyavasthanatalJ prav_rttir yathii manobhumau
purve desita tathii veditavyii/
2) & 3) tatra paramarthayuktivyavasthanaJ!l desitavyaJ!l/ katamii
paramarthayuktivyavasthanatalJ prav_rttilJI samiisato dvindhaf!l vijiianam
alayavjjii.anaJ!l pravrttivijii.anaf!l ca/ tatralayavfj'ii.anam airayalJI pravrtti-
vjjii.anaf!l casritaJ!l tac ca saptavidhaJ!l cak,Jurvjjiianaifl yavan mano
manovijiianaJ!l ca/ tad yathii taranga udakaughairitalJ pratJbimbas cadar-
sairitalJI evaJ!l paramarthayuktivyavasthanata asrayasritavyavasthiinalp/
4) tatra sarviipfmani vijiiiiniiny ucyante cittam ity api mana ity api
vijiiiinam ity api/ priidhiinyena tv alayavi.fiianaf!l cittam/ tatha hi tat
safvair b-fj'air acitam upac1!a1J1 ca/ tac ca nityakiilam upadanalambanam
aparicchinna1kabhii.fanalambanaif1 ca/
mano nityakiilam ahaip mametimanyanatmakaJ!l/
vffiiiinaJ!l yad vi,Jayaprativifii.aptJlak,Japaf!l/
tatralayavfj'iianaf!l na kena cid api klesena saIJ7PrayuktaIJ1/ manas tu
nityakalaf!l caturv1dhai1J svarasavahibhilJ saha.failJ klesailJ saJ!lprayuktaip
yad utahaf!lkiiramamakiirakarayil satkayad,r~.tyiismimaneniitmasnehenil-
vepikya cavidyaya/ ete ca klesalJ kwfalakusalavya1qtavfj'iiiine 'viruddhil
nivrtavyakrtalJ svarasavahinas ca/ tadanyas tu vikalpita yathiipratyayaf!l
pravartanta iti veditavyalJ/
**
Two Notes on the Formation 423
-··--
Now [the Collection of] the Decisi?ns ( Viniscayasaipgrahap~ or
VinS ) with regard to the Sadttika BhumilJ (the Stage of the Conscw.us
and Jubconsdous Mind) runs as follows: Five aspects should s_umma~tly
be distinguished with regard to how the conscious and s~bcons~1ous mmd
is activated to function: I) an exposition from the pomt o.f vie': ?f the.
theor of the mundane truth, 2) an exposition from the pomt .of vie"': of
the tJeory of the supreme truth, 3) an exposition from the yomt of view
of the relation between the basis and the based, 4) ~~ exposition fro1? the
point of view of the concomita.n~s, and 5) an expos1t1on from the pomt of
view of the defiled and the punf1ed. . .
Therein, 1) an exposition from the pomt of view of the t?eory ~f th.e
mundane truth [runs as follows]: the conscious and s~bconsc1o~s mmd 1s
activated to function in the way as expounded .abo~e m the portlo~ of the
Stage of the Conceiving Intellect (Manobhiim1 ~ [of th~ Basic Section].
2) & 3) Therein, an exposition from the pomt of v1ew.of the theory of
the supreme truth [and from the point of view of the ~elation be.~een.the
basis and the based] must now be expounded: How 1s the con~c~ous and
subconscious mind activated to function according to an expos1t1on f~om
the point of view of the theory of the supreme ~ruth? .There are, m a
ry two kinds of the conscious and subconscious mmd, the cumula-
summa , · · · sness
tive subconsciousness (iilayavijiiiina) and t~e func-t1?mng con~c10~,
(p ttiviiiiiina). The cumulative subconsc10usness 1s the basis (asraya)
andravr 'J
the functioning •
consc10usness •
1s the.b ase d ( asn
- / 'ta,
) ~n d the latter
.
functioning consciousness is the seven k1.~9~ of perceptive consc1o~s-
nesses, viz. the eye-consciousness ( cak~urv1Jnana) and s? on up to the m~
tellectual conception (manas) and the conceptual consciousness (manov1-
niina). These two are [in a relationship] illustrated by ~he ~ater of a
toad and [its] waves or by the surface of a mirror and [its] images. Its
waves are based on the water of a flood or ~t~ images are ba~ed on ~he
surface of a mirror. In this manner an expo~1tlon f:om the pomt ~f view
of the supreme truth is also that from the pomt of view of the relation be-
tween the basis and the based. . .
4) Therein, all these kinds of su~consc!ous and consc10~s mmd may
be called interchangeably either as mmd ( c1tta) or as con~ept10~ (m~nas)
or as consciousness ( vijiiiina), but strictly spea~ing, t~e mmd ( c1tta) 1s. th.e
cumulative subconsciousness ( alayavifii.ana) m. particular, because 1~ 1s
cumulative of (acita) and is accumulating (upac1t~) all ~eeds [of e~olution]
and accordingly it constantly appears as the bodily ex1st.ence bemg pur-
sued ( upiidiina) and as one common .receptacle-world b.emg presupp?s~d
subconsciously (aparicchinnaikabha;ana). The conception (man~s) .1s, m
L t·c lar [the defiled 'I'-and-'my'-conception (kliJfamanas) wh1~h 1s] of
par I nature
the u ' of constantly conceiving 'I' an d 'my'. Th e consc1~u sness
( vijii.ana) is, in particular, [the six perceptive co~cious~esses] ~h1ch ar~
defined to appear as the respectively correspondmg obJects ( VJJayapratJ-
vjjii.apti).
The~~in the cumulative subconsciousness (iilayavjjiiana) is n~t at all
concomitant,with any defiled mental acts. The 'I'-and-'my'-co~ceptlon, on
the contrary, is constantly concomitant wi~h those four ~ef1led ~.ental
acts which are innate and continue to be active by nature as follo~s. 1) th~
conception to conceive of the bodily existence_ as the rea_l ( sa.~kayadrJ!1)
and thereby to conceive of 'I' and 'my' (aha1J1karam.amakara), 11) the con-
ception to conceive 'I am', iii) the subconsc10us deslf.e to be. attach~d to a
Self ( iitmasneha), and iv) the ignorance underlymg umquely m the
 424
Noritoshi ARAMAKJ
de~pest ( iiveJJiky aVJdyii). These [four] defiled mental acts continue to be
act1_ve by nature and irrespective of whether superficial consciousness is
ethically good, bad, ?r neutral. They are themselves ethically neutral and
yet obscured ~y the ignorance. All the other defiled mental acts are acti-
vat~d to f~~ction on the basis of the conceptions [above J and only when
their conditions are present there.
It is evident that the philosophy_ of the t~~ layers of vij.iana itself constituent of the
supreme truth, as expounded m the V1salamati chapter of the SandhN 1·
developed furt ~er here in p_ar_a~raph 2) _"an exposition from the point of vi~w ~f~~:
1
~uprem~ truth of the Sac1ttJka Bhumil; chapter of the VinSg, as the two quoted
1ll~strat1ons of the ~aves on the water of a flood and the images on the surface of a
m1rror n:iay wel~ evidence. What is new here is the reference to the mundane t th
(saf!lvrtJsatya) m paragraph 1) "an exposition from the point of view of ~h
mundane truth", as well as the introduction of the new concept of the 'd f"l de
co ncep f ion ' (id.1~famanas.\ m. paragraph 4) "an exposition from the point of viewe I ef
1
t~~- ~oncomitants". W~th the introduction of this new concept, the philosoph ~f
VlJnana became e~~a_bhs~ed as the st~ndard Yogacara-Vijfianavada doctrine oithe
three l~yers ~! _vlJna~a: 1) the pursumg ( adana-) or the cumulative subconscious-
ness_ (alayav1J1!ana), 11) the d~f1le~_conception (kiJ~famanas), and iii) the five per-
ceptive cons~~~usnesses (pancavlJnanakaya) along with the conceptual conscio _
ness (manovlJnana). us
Are these two innovations in the SacittJka Bhumih chapter of the v1 s
namely the reference to the mundane truth and the introduction of the ~ g,
conce~t of the kh~famanas, related to each other? I think they are. On the ew
hand, m par~graph 1) "an exposition from the point of view of the mundane tru~:~
a referen~e 1s made to the Manobhumi chapter of the MaulBh. This referenc~
see1:1s ~o imply that at this point in time when the above passage of the Sacittika
Bhumil; cha~ter of t~e VinSg was written, the entire MaulBh was still in the
process of bemg compiled: The c?mpilati?n of the whole MaulBh had not yet been
~omple~ed, ?ecause - ~s ~Ill be discussed m the following subsection of this paper_
It ~a~ first m ~he Sac1ttJka Bhum1"1; chapter of the MaulBh that the fundamental
pn~c1ples behmd the compilation of the entire MaulBh were formulated on the
bas~s ~f the new theory of the three layers of vjj.iana presented in the Sacittika
.8_~131!7iiJ_ chapter ~f ~he VinSg. Therefore, the new theory of the three layers of
VlJn_ana m the Sac1ttikaBh of the VinSg precedes the compilatory principle of the
ent1re MaulBh in the SacittikaBh of the MaulBh and accordingly the reference of
the former to the Manobhumi of the latter as the mundane truth must imply a
reference t~ some source m~terials in t~e process of compilation. In other words, it
seems that It was on the basis of the philosophy of the three layers of vij.iana in the
above~qu?ted paragr~ph _4) from the SadttJka Bhumil; chapter of the VinSg that
the prmc1ple of compilation could be expounded in the SacittJka Bhumih chapter
of the MaulBh, thereby allowing the compilation of the MaulBh as a wh~le text to
take ~lace. In this sens~, at th_e !ea_st, the ~acittJka Bhumil; VinSg's reference to
mundane truth (sai!JvrtJsatya) 1s mtlmately lmked with the compilation-process of
the MaulBh.
On ~he ot~er hand, in ~a~a?raph 4)_ "an exposition from the point of view of the
concomitants of the Sac1ttika B~T1m1"1; of the VinSg, the new concept of kli~fa-
manas was postulated on the basis of four defiled mental acts which are ethically
Two Notes on the Formation 425
t 1 and yet obscured by ignorance (nivrtavyakrta): i) the conception to
neu r\e of the bodily existence as real (satkayadr~'fi°) and thereby to conceive of 'I'
concei
and 'my' ( ahaIJ]karamama~ara) , 11··) t h e conception
· to conc~1ve
· of 'I am ' ( asm~mana
· - ),
... the subconscious des1re to be attached to a self (atmasneha), and IV) the
!11 ) ranee underlying in the deepest uniquely (aveJJiky avidya). Professor SCHMIT-
ign~SEN raised the question in his public lecture mentioned above from which
HAt al sources these four defilements are chosen to form this fourfold set of
tex ~omitants of the newly formed notion of 'defiled conception' (kli~famanas). I
c~~ k he has rightly recognized that the origin of this fourfold set of the deepest
~:~Iements must be found in the distinction betwee_n innate (sahaJ~) and ~oncep-
lized (vi- or pankalpita) states of the satkayadt~/1, as expounded m §1.5.) of the
Vastusarpgrahal}f portion of the YBh. 2s ~ut t h'1s 0~1gm
tua · · 1s
· stl·11 ~recursory an d
accordingly he himself has almost exhaust1vel~ e~am1~ed t~e poss~ble sources ~f
the fourfold set of the defilements perhaps still m v_am. It 1s, I thmk, on~ of h~s
students, Dr. Martin DELHEY, who has penetrated mto the clue for solvmg this
roblem, when he pointed out in his recently published book (DELHEY, 20?9:47 n.
i31) that the four defilements e~umerated in ~~.4 of the S~mahita BhumiiJ of the
MaulBh develop into the defilements quahf1ed as ethically neutral and yet
obscured by ignorance (nivrtavyak[ta) in the Abhidharmasamuccaya (p. 689r). I
think this fact implies that the fourfold set of the defilements has been discovered
in the compilation-process of the MaulBh and has been adopted as the concomi-
tants of the newly formed notion of 'defiled conception' (kli~famanas) in the
Sacittika Bhum1"1; of the VinSg under discussion. Thus again, the Sacitt1ka Bhumil;
VinSg's novelty of the k11~famanas is intimately linked with the compilation-process
of the whole MaulBh. In this sense, the mutual dependency between the above-
quoted paragraph 4) from the Sacittika Bhumil; VinSg and the compilation-
process of the MaulBh must be a historical or text-developmental back~round for
the Sacittika BhT1m1"1; VinSg's reference to the mundane truth (sal!Jvrtlsatya) and
its introduction of the new concept of kli~famanas. Or is there any other possibility
to better explain the textual relationship between the SacittJka Bhumil; chapter of
the VinSg and the MaulBh than interpreted so far?
§2.3 The Sacittika BhumilJ of the MaulBh
As discussed so far, the Sacittika BhT1m1"1; chapter of the VinSg established the
philosophy of the three layers of vij.iana within the framework of 4) "an exposition
from the point of view of the supreme truth" (paramarthasatya). This philosophy
then became the presupposition for founding the compilatory principle of the
MaulBh as a whole as an exposition of the mundane truth (saf!Jvrtisatya). The
29
compilatory principle is laid out in the Sacittika BhT1m1"1; chapter of the MaulBh
as follows:
sacitt1ka acittikii ca bhumiiJ katamiil sii dvividhiipi paiicabhir akarair vedi-
tavyiil 1) bhumiprajiiaptivyavasthiinato 'pi, 2) cittabhriintyabhranti-
vyavasthiinato 'pi, 3) utpattyanutpattivyavasthiinato 'p1; 4) avasthiivyava-
sthiinato 'pi, 5) paramiirthavyavasthiinato 'pill
28
, See MUKAI (1985: §1.5.5), Q5540.183b 1; D4039.16lb1; Tl579.788a6.
9
"" SacittJkii Bhumih of the MaulBh, Sanskrit edition by SCHMITHAUSEN (1987.1:220-
222), Chinese text (T1579.344c- 345a), and Tibetan text (Q5536.182br183b 8, D4035.l60a4-
l6la2).
 426
Noritoshi ARAMAKI
- 1). tatra bhumiprajnaptivyavasthanat. k - .. __ Two Notes on the Formation 427
bhum1h/ manobhtJmJh s:a.,·t. k.- . __ a.· pancan;nanasamprarmkt.a-
- · . • ai: a sancara avita k.- · -
7 - · ;)''""
ek antena sacitlika/ avit.ark.- - . - - - i: a v1caramatra ca bhtJmir ight bhumis as follows: i) the Paii.cavijii.anakayasaipprayukta BhumilJ, ii) the
• - • 1sayam ancarayam bh - -
pattJkam asam1Jihkam fllrr'd'h _ . . umau sasamapaftuuna- ManobhumilJ, iii) the Savitarka Savicara BhumilJ, iv) the Avitarka Vicaramatra
.
k.awa_ · . u asamapattJm ca stk- · - •pr
b~umilJ/ sasamapattyupa attikam· - ·-~paYJtv~ tadanya sacit{j- gh[JmiiJ, and v) p~~t of ~he_Avitarkavicara B_humilJ, vi) the Samahita f!h~m1'f!, and
ca ac1tlika bhumi{l/1 IJJ asal!lJnikalJl mrodhasamapattis vii) the Asamah_1ta Bh~!11ilJ. I woul9 ~~rm1s_e t_hat the last two bhum1s, v1) the
Samiihitii BhumilJ and vn) the Asamah1ta BhumilJ, somehow correspond to the last
. 5) tatra paramarthavyavastha k . ., three stages of the enumeration above in the Sacittika BhumilJ of the MaulBh: vi)
ac1ttJka bhumflJI tat kasya hetoh/ ta;:t~. . /1rup~~~1se.Jo mrvapadhatuh
vati/ tadanyasv avasthasu pra .tt' .. _~ ~ ala1:av1jnana1Jl mruddham bha·- and vii) the conceptionless existence reborn through meditative concentration and
lika bhumir ity uruatei af.a,uavr .!~1!nana1Jl mruddhalJl bhavatiye;a acit- through an accumulation of good karmans (sasamapattyupapattikam asaipjii.1'kaip)
- ~.,,.. 1 ;)'' VIJnanam tu na ni ,.,'d'h and viii) the meditative concentration having [conception as well as feeling] perish
paramarthatah nacittJka bh - . . · TUu. alJl bhavati yena
· um1r 1ty ucyate// completely (nirodhasamiipatti), but I must leave a correct judgement to those who
How should the stage of conscious and sub . . know.
t~e stage of mindlessness (acittJka) b d /onsc1ous mmd (sacittika) and Now, it seems to me that the entire above-mentioned first part of the MaulBh
ffk_a and acittJka, should be known to be e I!1ed? These _two stages, sacit- was compiled according to the compilatory principle stated in the Sacittika BhumilJ
s1tion as follows· 1) an expo ·t· f e defmed by the five kinds of expo- for the sake of propounding the mundane truth (saipvrtisatya). The seven bhumis
t · SI 10n rom the point of · f
~o stages into subordinate sta es 2) .. view o analyzing the of the first part of the MaulBh are so structured that the deeper the meditative
view of whether mind is perverte~ ' an exposition from the point of concentrations are concentrated, the subtler the subconscious defilements are
of view of the conditions by h' h o~ no!, 3) an exposition from the point
4) w IC mmd IS tu t' · discovered to the effect of their spontaneous perishing. Accordingly, in the deepest
an exposition from the point of view of h nc IO~mg or not functioning,
ness, and 5) an exposition from the . t ~ vanous stages of mindless-
meditative concentration here defined as the nirodhasamiipatti even the deepest
Therein, 1) an exposition from ~~mt o_f view ~f the supreme truth. mental acts such as conception ( saipjii.ii) and feeling ( vedanii) are discovered as
stages into subordinate stages e pomt of view of analyzing the two such to the effect of their spontaneous perishing and yet the deepest subconscious-
conscious and subconscious m ~udns as ~ollows: I) the stages of decidedly ness, viz. the pursuing ( iidiina-) or the cumulative subconsciousness ( iilayavijii.ana),
consciousnesses and their c m ~re i) the stage of the five perceptive still remains to support the sarpsaric existence of the yogacara practitioner. How
oncom1tant mental act (p - ..
salJlprayukta bhumifi), ii) the sta e of . . . s ancavIJfianakaya- should the yogacara practitioner then be liberated from the deepest pursuing or
the ~tage of mind attended b logical tonce_1vm~ mmd (manobhumilJ), iii) cumulative subconsciousness, which is itself constituent of the supreme truth?
vestigations (savitarka savicl-a bz- 1J)v~s;igations and philosophical in- There is no doubt that the Sravakabhumi and the Bodhisattvabhumi are re-
by l?gic~l i~vestigations but attencfe~Jb , I~i the sta?e o~ min~ un~ttended spectively the oldest and the second oldest independent texts from which the
( antarka ncaramatra bhum ·i,\ d ) y p losoph1cal mvestigations only textual strata of the entire YBh had begun to develop, and that they accordingly
d · . 'l.1_1;, an v the other st , f .
an -conscious mmd yet still bel . " ages o subconscious-
both logical and philosophical _ongm~ t~ the stage of having surpassed
are older than the other portions of the MaulBh, which were to be compiled
with the exception of the con i~ve~tigati~ns ( avitarka avicara bhumih) following the compilatory principle under discussion. Why were they supple-
tative concentration and th ce~ ion ess existences reborn through medi- mented on the top of the seven bhumis of the MaulBh under discussion and for
s~mapattyupapattikam asa~~~!a'/nn ;~cumulation of goo? karmans (sa- what purpose were the three intermediate bhumis, viz. the Sruta- (Listening to),
v1) and vii) the conceptionl~ss e . t ). ) The stages of mmdlessness are the Onta-(Meditating on), and the Bhiivanamayi (Practicing) Bhumis~ composed
centration and through an ace xis ~n~es reborn through meditative con- to bridge the oldest and the newly compiled portions of the MaulBh? I am not yet
meditative concentration hav· umu ation of good karmans, and viii) the ready to answer this question about the, so to speak, second compilatory principle
comp1etely (mrodhasamapatti).
mg overcome [concept" II
10n as we as feeling] of the MaulBh. Is this second compilatory principle continuous to the first
pdnciple, which has been discussed so far, or is it independent from the latter? As
5) Therein, an exposition from the . . for now, I can only surmise that it is continuous in the sense that the oldest inde-
runs as follows: the stage of mindle pomt of view of t_he supreme truth pendent texts together with the three intermediate bhumis are supplemented on
su~reme truth) is the perfect p s;ntss [fro~ the pomt of view of the
the top of the seven newly compiled bhumis of the MaulBh in order to show that
(mrupadhise.Jo mrvanadhatuh) :ace: ness w1t~o~t any bodily residues
[only] there [in the p~rfect p~a~efut at r~ason IS It so? It is so, because
these oldest independent texts together with the three intermediate bhumis may
cumulative subconsciousness perish ne:s w1!hout any bodily residuesJthe play the role of being practical manuals on the level of the mundane truth
s_tag~s [of mindlessness] are called .:~n~tx1~t. On the contrary, the other (saipvrtisatya) to foster liberation from the deepest pursuing ( adiina-) or cumula-
h~mng consciousness has perished to e ~ss' because [therein] the func- tive subconsciousness (iilayavif.iana). However, as these parts constitute a legacy
sc10usness has not yet perished t . x1st but the cumulative subcon- older than the new concept of the deepest subconsciousness, I think it became
'the stage of mindlessness' from tho exi~t. Acc?rdingly they are not called necessary to propound the final and complete philosophy of the deepest pursuing
e pomt of view of the supreme truth. or cumulative subconsciousness (adiina- or alayavijii.ana) for the purpose of
Th~ above passa?e of the Sacittika Bhumih of the explaining how this subconsciousness ultimately is converted on the pivot of the
behmd the compilation of the MauIBh wh · f Ma~l~h propounds a principle new Mahayana Buddhist truth tathatii in the Paii.cavijii.iinakayasaipprayukta- and
ose Irst part is, m fact, expounded as the Manobhiimiportions of the VinSg perhaps as the supreme truth (paramarthasatya)
placed in proper balance to the mundane truth (saipvfti-) of the entire MaulBh.
 428
Noritoshi ARAMAKI
Two Notes on the Formation 429
But all these problems must remain a theme to be discussed in a separate paper. I
must now conclude this section, §2, with the following remark: - . ht to penetrate into the deepest hidden meaning
1. Naga~Junadri. ~oug dri.1·) of Buddha's teachings, because he was obliged
If indeed the formative process of this Vijiianavada-aspect of the Yogacara- ( bh1sam 111 or sam 11 ddh · t h ·
Vijiianavada philosophy could be understood as discussed here in §2, then even the a resp~nd to the· harsh criticism formulated by early Bu . is / h,_
characteristic Yogacara philosophy based on its doctrine of a subconsciousness ::sophers against the new religious expenence of conversion: dt t~
must have developed within the framework of the two truths, the supreme and the aha anaslltra movement. How did he respond? H~ respon e '
mundane, and could thus be seen as continuing Nagarjuna's two truth philosophy. ~eir {riticism by arguing that the teehest ~id~e:d:~:~ 1:;do~a':i~~::
It would ultimately be intended for attaining a spontaneous perishing of the teachings is meant to teach that ot . ear y . re con-
deepest subconsciousness with its concomitant cause - ignorance ( avklya) or Buddhist fundamental religious expenences ~f conversion we I th
rational conceptualization ( vjkalpa) - of sarpsaric or nihilistic history, if only it is d the pivot of one and the same ultimate truth, name_ y e
discovered as such.
ze:~-1~::;~J~r
verte . on . or the unbornness of the communal essence ~f hf~-as-

s~
anutpattikadharmak~ti), while the respech~e dJrc~-
. which they are converted were opposite, because t e ear y
Conclusion t10ns m fundamental religious expenence
Buddhist · o.f co~version
. was at con- ·t
Ever since my early student days I have been asking the question: What, verily, is . f the human individual-intersub1ective existence o I s
the most essential Buddhist philosophy that has served as the underlying creative version rom · ( · - ) whereas the
mplete perishing (mrodha) or perfect peace n~rvaJJa ' .
source for the history of Buddhism transmitted from India to China, and from
:ahayana Buddhist fundamental religious expenence of convers10~
there on to Korea and Japan, and perhaps now further to the West? In my student . n from Buddha1s zero-dimension of the ·communa
mind, I became determined first to study Asanga's Compend1um of Mahayana as a conversio . d' ·d . I
w
essence of 11·fe -as -such with compassion
. . to mnumerable m ivi ua -
Buddhism (MahayanasalJlgraha), because it seemed to my young mind to be the
inter-subjective existences of sentient bemgs. f h . 1
quintessence of Buddhist philosophy. It has indeed proven itself to be so even after - - . na enetrated into the one-and-the-sameness .o. t e ear y
~~~~~~t
2
my fifty years of study, but the text has continued to demand of me to explore its · aJd the Mahayana Buddhist fundamental. rehg1~u~s expe-
wider and wider historical background as well as its deeper and deeper philosophi-
riences of conversion by discovering two fun?am~nt~l 1dentities. - -
cal implication. I must confess that these fifty years of study have not yet sufficed
i The early Buddhist notion of 'ignoranc~ ( a_VJdra). = the Mahayana
for me to come to a full grasp of the essential Buddhist philosophy that served as ) Buddhist notion of 'rational conceptuahzat10n (,nkalpa). ' -
the underlying creative source for the history of Indian early Buddhism and
ii) The early Buddhist notion of 'perfect penshi~g (m~odha) ,or ~er'
Mahayana Buddhism, or even for the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese Buddhism. It
fect peace , (mrvana. _ ) -_ the Mahayana Buddhist notion off ecstacy 1·f
is, however, now time for me to attempt an interim apology for what I have been
doing and for what I have not been able to do until now. Here in this project, I have
(k - n of the u'nbornness of the communal essen:e o_ 1 e-as-
s/:c:nutpattikadhanna) or 'conversion' ( iisrayapanvrttJ) on th~
tried to summarize the most recent conclusions of my studies of the history of pivot of the zero-dimension of the unborn communal essence o
Indian Buddhism in the direction of indicating the final aim of those studies: to ,,_ t-) 30
life-as-such ( sunya a · I t th hi
interpret the philosophy of Buddhism - commonly shared by Nagarjuna's philoso-
phy of the two truths and by the Yogacara-Vijiianavada's philosophy of the three
non-essences and the three essences - as the principle behind the religious and
IT herehby, r:g~d~:~
- - .

osop Y o conversion
Buddhist u
became the first philosopher to formu a e e p -

as
in the form of the two truths (satyadvaya): the ear!y
- the mundane trut h ( saipVftisaty.a)
- and the ) Maha-
historical conversion in the respective Buddhist histories of human cultures.
ana Buddhist conversion as the supreme truth (paramarthasa.tya ..
With this ambitious project in mind, I had here originally planned first to ex-
pound how Nagarjuna's philosophy of the two truths, viz. the supreme (paramar-
irom then onwards, Niigiirjuna's philosophy came to play a ~1ston:l ~~:
3. role as the truly ontological principle of conversmn ~o expene:e~e no; only
thasatya) and the mundane (salJlv_rtJ"satya), was formulated successively in
N agarjuna's authentic works in order to reveal the deepest hidden meaning of damental religious expenence o~ convd~rsion - eW asei;;~:~an Chinese,
1· · 1 b t also historically - m In rnn as w '
Buddha's teachings. This was to be followed by a discussion of how Nagarjuna's
philosophy of the two truths was continued and developed further to formulate the
~;;~~~s ,;;,d~apanese histories, which it might still do in ourdcontempdora1
histo . 'It teaches two opposite directi~ns of convers10n ownwar an -
Yogacara-Vijiianavada philosophy, which consists of the truth of the three non- ryd. the early Buddhist conversion is converted through co~templa
essences as the deepest hidden meaning of Buddha's teachings, the truth of the ~~;a:n· meditation on the individual-intersubjective subconciousness
three essences inclusive of the vfjfiaptimatrata, and the truth of the adana- and
alayavjjiJana as the founding principle for compiling the MaulBh as the mundane
truth. However, in this paper, I have not been able to expound Nagarjuna's
philosophy in full detail as planned, but have merely discussed the essential 3a The Mahayana _Buddh~st notion of anutpati:~11:~~::::un::-i:r~:s;;;;)t~;:;~t~
mental religious expenen~e disc~vered ~~ready m_ t t j is a later discovery of the Yogacara-
structure of his philosophy in the introductory parts of§ 1.
If I may be allowed to record what I had originally been planning, my thesis
but the Mahayana Buddhist notion °~asray~panvr t .
1
think that the latter
Vijfianavada philosophy, ~s I men!ioned m §l hof .tis pa::·hayana Buddhist funda-
concerning the formulation of Nagarjuna's philosophy consists of the following
three propositions: Yogacara-Vijfianavada philosophy m~erpreted 1·e ~tmer traditional notion of asraya-
memal religious experience of conversion by app ymg i s own
parivrtti and accordingly both are of the same essence.
 430 Noritoshi ARAMAKI
deeper an~ d~eper down to discover the deepest ignorance or rational
conceptuahzat1on., whereas the Mahayana Buddhist conversion is con-
verted on the pivot of the unbornness or the zero-dimension of th
coomun~l essence of life-as-such to be culturally creative through inspirin e
or teachmg to all sentient beings at all times and places higher and high g
· the supreme m1wIJJa
up to attam . of Buddha. er
0~ the_ basis of s~ch an understan~ing of Nagarjuna's philosophy, I have tried in
this artI~le to reahz~ th~ second pro3ect: to expound how Nagarjuna's fundamental
ontol~gical truth "'.1th its !hree essential structures, viz. 1) the deepest hidden
meanmg of Buddhas teachmgs ( abh1'salpdh1'), 2) the mundane truth ( salpv_rtisatya),
~nd 3) the supreme truth (paramarthasatya), was continued and developed furthe
m the Yogacara-Vijiianavada with its four constituent philosophical truths: r This definition is reminiscent of the ent1rc prehistory of the concept of
1. t~e truth of _the three non-essences ( trinil;svabhava) as the deepest
hidden meanmg of Buddha's teachings ( abhisalpdhi);
2. the truth of the three essences ( tn'svabhava) as its reformulation to syn-
thesize the following two truths;
3. the truth of the pursuing ( adana-) or the cumulative subconsciousness
(alayavi.fiiana) as the foundation of the mundane truth (salpv_rtisatya);
4. the truth of appearance-only ( vijfiaptimatrata) as the basis of the su-
preme truth (paramarthasatya).
With this framework in mind, I argued in §1 that Yogacara-Vijfianavada philoso-
phy was formed in a process of four distinct stages:
1. In the old stratum of the BBh, a system of seven stages ( bhiimi) of bodhi-
sattvas' yogic practices was formulated for the purpose of being awakened
to the 'personal selflessness' or 'selfless person' (pudgalanairatmya) as the
mundane truth (samv_rtisatya) and to the 'communal selflessness' or 'self-
less community' (dharmanairatmya) as the supreme truth (paramartha-
satya). Thus, the truth to be known here on the seven stages was endowed
with the essential structure of the two truths, the 'personal selflessness' or
'selfless person' as the mundane truth and the 'communal selflessness' or
'selfless community' as the supreme. These two truths were awakened in
order respective!~ to clear the obscuration of defilements (*1esavaraJJa)
an? the obscurat10n over the truth to be known UiieyavaraJJa). Through
bemg awakened to these two truths higher and higher and clearing these
two obscurations deeper and deeper, the primary conversion of a bodhi-
sattva yogacara's subconscious basis ( asrayaparivrtti) could gradually be
purified - starting from the stage of 'purified aspiration' (suddhadhyasaya-
bhiimi corresponding to the first bhiimi in ten bhiimi-system the DBh) -
and then - ascending to the stage of 'accomplishing practice' ( caryaprati-
patHbhiimi = 2nct to ?1h bhiim1') etc. - could finally be completed on the
stage of 'ultimate perfection' ( ni~fhagamanabhiimi = 10th bhiimi) and the
stage of 'Tathagata' ( tathagatabhiimi = buddhabhiimi).
2. Following this, with the codification of the new stratum of the BBh, a pre-
paratory practical yogic system consisting of the four investigations
(parye~aJJa) and the four complete knowledges of reality-as-such (yatha-
bhiitapari.fiiana) was systematized for the purpose of being awakened to
Two Notes on the Formation 431
the truth to be known with its essential structure of the two truths and
thereby to attain the primary conversion of the subconscious basis
( asrayaparjvrtti) on the stage of 'purified aspiration'. The truth to be
known with its essential structure of the two truths, mundane and supreme,
was now interpreted - in accordance with the new preparatory system - as
'the five categories of reality' (paiicavastu): i) name (naman), ii) referent
(nimitta), iii) concept ( vikalpa), iv) one-and-the-sameness of the commu-
nal essence of life-as-such ( tathata), and v) complete knowledge (samyag-
jiiana). The fifth category of 'complete knowledge' was in Vasubandhu's
commentary on the Mahayanasiitralalpkara 1.2 defined as "[ the truth] be-
ing completed and of the essence of the constituent practices of the Su-
preme Awakening" (parim~pannalp .... bodhip~kJadharmasvabhavalp).
"constituent practices of the Supreme Awakening" (bodhipak~adharmas)
ever since the Dasa-bhumikasiitra and thus points to how the paficavastu
philosophy ultimately is linked with Nagarjuna's tradition_ of the two t=u~hs.
3. With the composition of the SandN, a fundamental axiom of Yogacara-
Vijnanavada philosophy was discovered in its Maitreya chapter in the for-
31
mula as follows: *iilambanavijiiaptimatraprabhiivitalp vijiianalp**
Here in this formula, I recognize that the early Buddhist concept of 'sub-
consciousness' ( vijfiiina) is predicated by the Mahayana Buddhist proposi-
tion of "being taught to be appearance-only without any external object"
( alambanavijfiaptimatraprabhavitam) and thus that the early . Buddhi~t
fundamental experience of conversion away from the subconscious basis
( asrayaparivrttJ: with asraya being vi.fiiana here) is synthesized with the
Mahayana Buddhist fundamental religious experience of conversion on
the pivot of the unbornness or the zero-dimension of the communal
essence of life-as-such ( anutpattikadharmak~anti, with anutpattikadharma
or siinyata being vijiiaptimatra here). Thus, this formula succeeds in syn-
thesizing the two fundamental religious experiences of conversion into one
and the same fundamental truth of 'appearance-only' ( vijiiaptimatrata). In
this sense, the formula represents the newly formulated truth to be known
with its essential structure of the two truths having now acquired the new
implication of their respective conversions.
4. The final conclusion of this synthetic movement was the Paramarthasam-
udagata and Gui:iakara chapters of the SandhN. In these two chapters, the
newly formulated truth to be known with its newly implied essential struc-
ture of the two truths - namely the fundamental truth of appearance-only
( vi.Jiiaptimiitrata) as the truly ontological principle of conversion to synthe-
size the early Buddhist and the Mahayana Buddhist fundamental religious
experiences of conversion - was now redefined as the three non-essences
( trinil;svabhavata), which implied this truly ontological principle of con-
version only implicitly as the Buddha's deepest hidden meaning, and was
again redefined as the three essences ( trisvabhavata), which implied this
truly ontological principle of conversion explicitly as the two directions of
conversion: downward from the defiled being-here-and-now (salpklesa-
dharmas) as the mundane truth (salpvftisatya) to the purified ( vyavadana-
dharmas) as the supreme truth (paramarthasatya), and upwards vice versa.
3
i For the extensive English translation of this phrase, see page 411 above.
432
Noritoshi ARAMAKI
~enc~fo!th, !he fundamental philos~phical truth of appearance-only ( ~~·
1naphm~trata) developed more practlc~lly as the concrete yogic practice of
conversion and the three essences ( tnsvabhava) more philosophicall
the ontological y das-
. . philosophy of the defiled and the purified being-here- an
h
nov:~ s ar~ng m one-and-the-same essence of the ultimate truth - tathac
or sunyata - together. a to be converted on the pi:7ot of one and the .same. zer~- 1mension o t ~ communa1
Further~ in§~-~~ this p~pe~, I outlined the gist of my argument for how the adana-
or the atayav1Jnana, which m the SandhN is itself constituent of the supreme truth
(paramarthasatya), was developed as the founding principle for the compilation of
the M~ulBh as the mundane truth ( saipvrtJsatya). This led me to distinguish the
followmg three or even four stages:
1.The Visalam~ti c_hapter of th~ SandhN, being one of the four original
chapters of this !u!ra, was the first and original declaration of the new phi-
los~phy o~. !~e adana- or alayavijiiana. Herein, the new concept of adana-
or alaya!71Jnana was declared to be itself constituent of the supreme truth
(pa~am_arthasatya) but was at the same time expounded as involved in the
begmmngless mut~~! _caus~lity ( an~djkfi}jkam anyonyahetukam) between
the ~o levels of VlJnana, viz. consc10usness and subconsciousness. This is
n~thmg but the pr_~tityasamutpada as the mundane truth (saipvrHsatya). In
t~~: _sense, the V1salamati chapt~r's p~ilo.sophy of the adana- or alaya-
VlJnana c.ould serve as the foundmg prmc1ple for the compilation of the
MaulBh m order to subsume the early Buddist meditative tradition as the
mundane truth (saipvrHsatya).
2. The. ~acittika B~umil; chapter of the Vinjscayasaipgrahapi consists of an
explicit and ?etailed r.eworking ?f the Visalamati chapter's first and origi-
nal declaratI~n of t~1s new philosophy. When explaining the mundane
truth (saipvr_tJsatya), it makes reference to the Manobhumi chapter of the
MaulBh, which at the point of writing this passage must still have been in
the process of compilation. On the other hand, the Sacittaka Bhzlmih
chapter of the VinSg is designed to give the first and original formulatio~
of the.new conce~t of the defiled conception (kliffamanas) on the basis of
the four concomitant defilements. These four concomitant defilements
must have been discovered in the search for more and more subtle defile-
ment~ (k!eia) on the successively deeper stages of meditation during the
compila!1on process of the MaulBh and more concretely in the list of the
four defilements on the deepest meditation given in the Samahita Bhzlmih
chapter of the MaulBh. · this subconsciousness ( vijiiana) as appearance-only ( vijfiaptimatra) through the
3. The 5_acittika B_h~mil; chapter of the MaulBh is designed to propound the
compilatory prmc1ple behind the compilation of the MaulBh as the mun-
dane_ tr_u~h (saipvrtjsatya). The entire MaulBh up to and including the
Samah1ta and Asamahita Bhumil; chapters consists of the traditional ma-
terials co1!1piled according to this compilatory principle.
4. To end ~it~, the Paiicavijiianakayasaipprayukta- and Manobhumi chapter
of the Vims~ayasaipgrahapimust be regarded as expounding the final and
complete philosophy of the deepest pursuing or cumulative subconscious-
ness ~ adana- o.r alayav.[jiiana) for the purpose of explaining how this sub-
consc1~usn~ss 1s .converted on the pivot of the Mahayana Buddhist truth of
tathata. This philosophy of the deepest subconsciousness is itself defined
Two Notes on the Formation 433
as the supreme truth (paramarthasatya), but it must be the supreme truth
well-balanced with the entire MaulBh as the mundane truth (saipvrtisatya).
Throughout the present paper, I have been concerne? with. d~monstrating h.ow
Nagarjuna's fundamental discovery of the truly ontologd1~al pr~nc1plfe ohf conversion
nee of life-as-such m the two opposite dtrect10ns was transmitted to the
~~e acara-Vijftanavada philosophy, which consiste.d of the four truths formulated
in tte four original chapters of the SandhN respectively as follows: .. _ . _ _
1 The Maitreya chapter propounded the appearance-only ( VlJnaptJmatrata)
· which succeeded to identify the early Buddhist 'subconsciousness' ( vijiiana)
with the Mahayana Buddhist "being taught to be appearance-only without
any external objects" ( alambanavijfiaptimatraprabhavita) and thereby to
establish the truly ontological principle of conversion to be converted away
from the former vijiiana through the early Buddhist conversion and to be
converted on the pivot of the latter vijiiaptimatra or sunyata through the
Mahayana Buddhist conversion.
2. The Paramarthasamudagata chapter propounded the three non-essences
( tnnil;svabhavata), which redefined .the truly onto~ogical ~rinciple ~f co.n-
version as the deepest hidden meamng of Buddhas teachmgs only 1mphc-
itly meaning the early Buddhist conversion as the mundane truth (saipvrti-
satya) and the Mahayana Buddhist conversion as the supreme truth (pa-
ramarthasatya).
3. The Gm;iakara chapter propounded the three essences ( trisvabhava),
which redefined the truly ontological principle of conversion explicitly as
consisting of the early Buddhist conversion to be converted from the de-
filed being-here-and-now to the purified downward and of the Mahayana
Buddhist to be converted vice versa upward.
4. The Visalamati chapter propounded the pursuing or cumulative subcon-
sciousness ( adana- or alayavijiiana) as the founding principle for compiling
the entire MaulBh as the mundane truth (saipvrtjsatya).
Systematized in this manner, the truly ontological principle of conversion ha~ing
thus been discovered by Nagarjuna's philosophy and having thus been systematized
into these four truths of the Yogacara-Vijnanavada philosophy, may teach us
moderns that the Buddhist conversion should be converted through the two
conversions, early Buddhist and Mahayana Buddhist: 1) The early Buddhist
conversion teaches us to be deeper and deeper concentrated on our own indivi-
dual-intersubjective subconscioussness ( vijiiana) here and now and to contemplate
four investigations and the four complete knowledges of reality-as-such, so as
finally to be awakened to and to be converted into the zero-dimension of the
communal essence of life-as-such, and 2) the Mahayana Buddhist conversion
further teaches us who have thus been awakened to and have been converted into
the zero-dimensio~ of the communal essence of life-as-such, to be converted so as
to be culturally creative through inspiring or teaching this ontological truth of life-
as-such to all individual-intersubjective existences of sentient beings at all times
and places. Here the two and yet one conversion, which synthesizes or even
identifies the early Buddhist and the Mahayana Buddhist conversions into the two
mutually interactive and continuous structures of one and the same conversion, are
recognizable: the early Buddhist conversion is converted deeper and deeper by way
 434 Noritoshi ARAMAKI Two Notes on the Formation 435

of being inspired or taught from the cultural creativity of buddhas and bodhisattvas f the greatest Chinese Chan masters, Dongshan (807-869),
Once o ne O
while the Mahayana Buddhist conversion is converted higher and higher by way ot' h
lost 1s " ·
·d ·
h
· 1
. "'ay in a deep mountain during his travel to av01 1mpena perse-
th
being compassionate to inspire or teach all sentient beings at all times and places. · in a thoroughgoing abolition of Buddhism. There e met ano er
cut10n · ·
monk hiding himself deep in the mountams smce many _y~ars. After
.
Now, I am of the opinion that this truly ontological principle of conversion not
only has been discovered by Nagarjuna and not only has been systematized by the sever a1Conv ersations , he asked the monk how he had. been hvmg there m
Yogacara-Vijiianavada philosophers, but that it also has actually converted a the mountains. The monk answered with the followmg poem:
religious and historical conversion within the persons of those philosophers and
thereby has actually converted a religious and historical conversion in the ~0-Js~x. R~wwx, a~*1a1~,
historical transition from the ascetic Buddhist period to the more devotional ~0-JW::fJD. tiX~Dlf:tcp~, 'J#::f:t§~i .
For the white cloud floating over there, the green mountam h~re looks
Hindu period. In the same way, when it was transmitted to China, Korea, and like a father. For the green mountain sta_nding there, the white cloud
Japan in the form of Buddhist philosophy as either Madhyamaka or Y ogacara- looks like a son. Even if the white clo~d lmgers a~l day lo~g, the green
Vijiianavada, this truly ontological principle of conversion has actually converted a mountain cares nothing at all. The hidden meanmg of this allegory -
religious and historical conversion within the persons of the Buddhist philosophers h ld vou
SOU • wish to know - is that both touch each other, every moment,
belonging to these traditions and thereby has actually converted a religious and eternally.
historical conversion in the historical transition from the Medieval period to the
Modern period of the respective histories. But how? Dongshan responded with a poem of his own:
Further, in our own contemporary history of the predominantly Western 'capi- ~1Ef,CJ4"r A, A ~iL-1'15'ilt tiX~DJlt cp ~, -:t::-::f :l:: .
talistic world-system' - perhaps the more developed, the more degenerated -, this Th~"way, or th~ communal essence of life-as-such,_ is not conc~rned with I

truly ontological principle of conversion is actually needed to convert a religious conforming to man, and man is not concerned with ~onformmg ~o the I

and historical conversion within the persons of any religion and within the political
w or the communal essence of life-as-such. The hidden meamng of
thi:y ~llegory - should you wish to know - Is that the one ages and the
leaders on our earth, and shall thereby actually convert a religious and historical other does not. 32
conversion in our future historical transition from the more and more devastating
'capitalistic world-system' to an ecologically harmounious 'world-system'. But how? Shakespeare,Sonnet29
Within the compass of the present paper, I cannot enter into any further dis- When in disgrace with fortune and men's eyes,
cussion to explain how this truly ontological principle of conversion has played its I all alone beweep my outcast state,
religious and historical role in Indian, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese histories, as And trouble deaf heav'n with my bootless cries,
well as of how this truly ontological principle of conversion shall play its religious And look upon myself and curse my fate,
and historical role in our own contemporary history, but let me merely adumbrate Wishing me like to one more rich in hope,
the fact of the Chinese, Korean, and Japanese religious and historical conversions Featured like him, like him with friends possesed,
along with the possibility of converting our present global capitalistic history into Desiring this man's art, and that man's scope,
With what I most enjoy contended least;
an ecological future by first summarizing my above discussions in the form of two
Yet in these thoughts myself almost despising,
general questions and thereafter by quoting a few lines from a Chinese Chan or Haply I think on thee, and then m_y _state,
Zen poem together with some lines from an English renaissance sonnet. The two Like to the lark at break of day ansmg
general questions run as follows: From sullen earth, sings hymns at heaven's gate;
For thv sweet love rememb'red such wealth brings,
Who among us on earth can be deeper and deeper subconsciously That then I scorn to change my state with kings.
concentrated in meditation so that he or she may eliminate the deepest
subconscious condition - ignorance or rational conceptualization - of our
nihilistic history of the evermore globalized 'capitalistic world-system'?
Who among us on earth can be wider and wider open and omnipre-
sently inspired in a cultural creativity of life-as-such so that he or she may
be awakened to the widest and omnipresent well-spring of cultural creati-
vity - the zero-dimension of the unborn communal essence of life-as-
such - in order to create the most unique and most variegated cultures of
our future ecological history of harmonious cultural communities?

The two poems, one taken from Chinese Chan or Zen and the other stemming
from the English renaissance, sing of the fundamental ontological conversion in
their respective histories as follows:

32
Excerpt from "Yin Shanheshang" (PIWfDfi1tt) from Ziitang Jf (mfl~~), fascicle 20.
436 Noritoshi ARAMAKJ
Appendix: Stages of Mahayana Practice
the old stratum of BBh the new stratum of BBh
1. the foundation
(adhara)
1.1 the lineage
(gotra)
1.2 the beginning of
the will [to Awak-
ening] ( dttotpada)
[In what bodhisattvas practice]
(yatra iffcyante)
1.3 benefit for oneself and others
( svaparartha)
1.4 the truth meant ( tattvartha)
1.5 supernatural power (prab-
hava)
1.6 maturation ( vjpaka)
1.7 Awakening (bodhj)
[How bodhisattvas practice]
(yatha iilzyante):
1.8 the nature of the lten] powers
( balagotra)
1.8.1 confirmation ( adhjmukti)
1.8.2 quest for the dharmas
( dharmaparye!jaka)
1.8.3 teaching the dharmas
( dharmadesaka)
1.8.4 practicing the major and
minor dhannas ( dharmanud-
harmapratjpanna)
1.8.5 right instruction and
admonition ( samyagavavada-
nusasaka)
1.8.6 physical, verbal, and mental
acts of the nature of expedience
( upayapragrhitakayavanmanalJ-
karma)
(1.3 =) 1.9
generosity ( dana)
(1.4 =) 1.10 including the bodhjsattvasila of
morality (sila) the new stratum
(1.5 =) 1.11
patience (k!Janti)
the Mahayanasiitrala.Jikara
1. the proof of the Mahayana
(mahayanas1ddhj)
2. taking refuge ( saraIJagamana)
3. the lineage (gotra)
4. the beginning of the will [to
Awakening] ( dttotpada)
5. practice for oneself and others
(pratjpatti)
6. truth ( tattva)
7. supernatural power (prabhava)
8. maturation ( vipaka)
9. Awakening (bodhi)
10. confirmation (adhimukti)
11. quest for the dharmas
( dharmaparye!jaka)
12. teaching the dharmas
( dharmadesaka)
13. practice (pradpatti)
14. instruction and admonition
( avavadanusasana)
15. acts endowed with
expedience( upayasahitakarma)
16. the super-acts (paramita)
Two Notes on the Formation 437
(1.6 =) 1.12 -
endeavor ( vuya)
( 1.7 =) 1.13 medi-
tation ( dhyana)
(l.8=)1.14
wisdom (prajna)
[17.] conducts to attract
(1. 9 =) 1.15 con-
ducts to attract ( saf!]grahavastu)
( sa]!lgrahavastu)
[18.] worship, service, and
1.16 worship, service, and
contemplation of infinity contemplation of infinity
(pujasevapramaIJa)
(pujasevapramaIJa)
[19.] practices constituent of
1.17 practices constituent of
Awakening ( bodhjpak!jya) Awakening (bodhjpak!jya)
1.18 virtues of a bodhisattva [20.] virtues (gw;a)
( bodhisa ttvaguIJa)
[Which bodhisattvas train]
(ye iilcyante)
[2 1.] practice and accomplishments
( ca1yaprati!jfh:i)
21.1 characteristics (hnga)
2. characteristics (linga)
21. 2 the groups of householders
3. the groups (pakwa)
and mendicants (grhipravrajita-
pak!ja)
4. the superior 21.3 the superior aspiration
aspiration ( adhyasaya) (adhyasaya)
5. stations ( v1'hara)
5. rebirth ( upapatti) 21.4 comprehension (parigraha)
6. comprehension 21.5 rebirth ( upapatti)
(pan'graha)
7. stages ( bhumi) 21.6 stations and stages
( viharabhumi)
8. practice ( carya) 21. 7 practice ( caiya)
9. major and minor 21.8 the supreme virtues of
marks on Buddha's body Buddha ( buddhaguIJa)
(!ak!ja1Januvyaiija11a)
10. the ultimate and
autonomous stand of
Buddha (prati;;fha)
I
I
I,'
 438 Noritoshi ARAMAKI
Two Notes on the Formation 439
Abbreviations and Sigla THAUSEN, Lambert (1984): "On the V!jnaptimfitra Passage in Saipdhimrmocana-
BBh Bodh1'sattvabhzlmj, edition by DUTT (1966). ScHMI sutra VIll.7" in Studies of Mystic1'sm in Honor of the 115dh Anniversa1J1 of Kobo-
D Derge edition of the Tibetan tripifaka. Daishi's Nirvfi-{Jam, Acta lndologica 6, pp. 433-455.
DBh Dasabhzlmikaszltra, editions by RAHDER (1926) and KONDO (1936). (1987): Alayavijnfina: On the Origin and the Early
MaulBh Maullbhzlmi - Development of a Central Concept of Yogacara Philosophy, Stu~ia Philol~gica
MSA Mahayanasiitralaipkfira. Buddhica Monograph Series lVab, vols. 1-2, Tokyo: The International Institute
Q Peking edition of the Tibetan tJip1jaka. for Buddhist Studies.
SandhN Sandhinirmocanasiitra. KLA Karunesha ( ed.)(1973): Sravakabhumi ofAca1J1a Asaliga, Patna: K.P. Jayaswal.
SBh
T
Sravakabhzlm1; edition by SHUKLA (1973).
Taisho edition of the Chinese tripifaka.
i~~H~SHI, Koichi (~m :_%-)(20?5): IF Bo~atsu }iJJ . 1 Shinjits~gi honJ _ka~a 1 5~6
ketchaku bun naka Bosatsu JI J e no sh1s6 tenka1: vastu gamen o chushm to sl11te
VinSg V!n1scayasaipgrahapi.
YBh Yogficfirabhzlmi
( IT':g~:ttt~ 1 ~~ffi£_J -/Jd·:i 1 :tm5s:tR:5}q=r:g~:tlliJ ""0)-~J~~lffl : _va~tu
iI~~ tp,C,, t L -C.)[Philosophica/ Development'i from the Bodh1sattvabhum1 to
the Bodhi5attvabhzlmiviniscaya: with special reference to the Concept of Vastu as
Bibliography used in the Tattvartha Chapterj, Tokyo: Sankibo (UJ*m{~~if*).
ARAMAKI, Noritoshi 0¥Ul:sz:~{~) (1976a): =ti~/- H-) ["Notes on the trisvabhava TUCCI, Giuseppe (1936): "The Ratnavali of Nagarju_na (Concluded from p. 252)" in Journal
(I)"], in T6y6 gakujutsu kenkyzl Cf]l*f,fLJ'Utf~) 15.1, pp. 18-36. of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britam and Ireland, 1936.2, pp. 423-435.
- - - - - - - - - - - (1976b): =ti~x/- H=) ["Notes on the trisvabhava WoGIHARA, Unrai (1930): Bodhisattvabhzlmi, A Statement ~f Whole Course of the
(II)"], in Toyo gakujutsu kenkyzl C~:!1-t~filtjfitf~) 15.2, pp. 17-34. Bodhisattva (Being Fifteenth Section of Yogacarabhzlm1), Tokyo: Sanshusha.
_
11
• • (20?0): "Toward an Understanding of the Vijiiaptima-
trata m lflsdom, Compass10n, and the Search for Understand1ng: The Buddhist
Studies Legacy of Gadj1n M Nagao, edited by Jonathan SILK, Honolulu: The Uni-
versity of Hawai'i Press, pp. 39-60. II
. . . (20?5): "The Dharmadharmatavibhaga or the Ontologi-
cal D1stmctlon Between Bemgs and Being-as-such - Philologically Studied and
Philosophically Interpreted" in Bukkyogaku Sem1na ( 1l f!J.. ~ -t ~ -j- - )
[Buddh1'st Seminar] vol. 81, pp. 102-80.
DELHEY, _Martin (20?9): Samahita BhzlmilJ: Das Kapitel iiber die Meditative Versenkung
1m Gr~ndte1l der Yogficara~hiim1; Teil 1-2, Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und
Buddh1smuskunde 73.1-2, Vienna: Arbeitskreis fiir tibetische und buddhistische
Studien Universitat Wien.
DUTT, Nalinaksha (1934): The Paiicaviipsatika Prajiiapfiramita, Edited with critical notes
and 1ntroduction, Calcutta Oriental Series No. 28, London: Luzac & Co.
=-=----____ (1966): Bodhisattvabhzlm1; Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute.
Kondo, Ryuko (1936): Dasabhzlmifvaro nfima Mahayanaszltram, reprint 1983, Rinsen
Buddhist Text Series vol. II, Kyoto: Rinsen Book co.
KRAMER, Jowita (2005): Kategorien der Wirklichkeit im friihen Yogficfira: der Filnf-vastu-
Abschnitt 1n der V!n1scayasaipgrahapi der Yogficfirabhzlmj, Contributions to
, Ti~etan Studies vol. 4, Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag.
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1983.
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V!ngtame) accompagnee d'une explication en prose et Triipfika (la Trenta1ne)
avec le commentaire de SthiramatJ; Orig1na sanserif publie pour la premiere fois
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LINDTNER, Christian (1982): Naga1funiana: Studies in the Writings and Philosophy of
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RAHDER, Johannes (1926): Dasabhzlmikaszltra: academisch proefschrift ter verkrijg1ng van
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Utrecht, Leuven: J.B. Istas.
 Kuiala and Akuiala

:~~::d ··---- ----·----- . . . ...... . . . .

i:;::~etations of the nature of Buddhist ethi~~:~~~id-;~~~;;~uch-;~;~·
441 I I

In order to understand the various treatment f h

Kusala and Akusala akusala in the early y ogacara treatises in h. t . s O
· t e c~:mcepts .kusala and
I
be dealt with is the question of the literal a is ~ncallerspective, the first point to
Reconsidering the Original Meaning their meaning and employment in the /:_e;_;~hO t~ese ter~s, more precisely: I I

1
of a Basic Pair of Terms of Buddhist Spirituality and Ethics Buddhism (ch. 1 and 2). Having clarifi dth· . armic canomcal t~xts of early
their definition and application in th e .1s issue, I shall pass on to mvestigating
and Its Development up to Early Y ogacara - _ e vanous strands of Abhidha · d.
earIy Y ogacara materials (ch. 3 and 4) Th. ill h . rma, me1u mg
which intrinsic quality constitutes a f~cto:s wk t,,. ~n give me,, the cause for asking
?).
I I

ts usa a. or akusala (ch.

I '

shall tum to the integration of new as Finally, I

I I
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN yanist perspective that are observable i pe\ s ysug~es!mg or representmg a Maha-
n ear Y ogacara sources (ch. 6).
1· Ori~al ~eaning(s) of ialsaia and alafsal
The most thorough mvestigation of the me . - . '8 I I

At first glance, the present paper may appear to have little connection with the akusala so far is to my knowledge L aruCng of. the Pah terms kusala and
. subject of this volume, viz., Yogacara studies. But kuiala and akusala (Pa. kusala
I I

. C
k usaJ.a m ' , ance OUSINS's paper "Good killful
anon and Commentary" (1996) z Th or s :
and akusala) became important concepts for Buddhist ethics and spirituality
COUSIN~'s excellent article, I disagree with him ongh I ha~e learnt muc~ from
already in the canonical sermons and still more so in the Abhidharma texts and in
the exegetic and systematizing literature of the Sravakayana .schools. Since a strong
the crucial point, viz., the original meanin of
call their terminological use i e th . g
l:Js}J.me
pomt~;, an~ especially on
. _a_a and akusala m what I shall
current of Yogacara and especially its foundational treatise, the Yogacarabhum1; more precisely: states of mind or' e~~tione1r afp!icatto? to characterize dharmas,
and closely related texts like the Abhidharmasamuccaya are firmly rooted in kulaia and alrolaia · th· f ·. .s _an a so,. actions. According to COUSINS
traditional Abhidharma, it is hardly surprising that most if not all important m is unction ongmally m·eant "skillful" d " ' ·,
respectively, and not "good" and "bad" "ri h 11 . 11 ,, an unskillful", I

Abhidharmic concepts are not only employed as a matter of course but are also 11
"unwh~lesome", or "advantageous" and ;'disfd:a and w~~ng , wholesome" and I

discussed and analyzed in detail. For a full understanding of the doctrinal been nghtly pointed out by COUSINS himself ntageous . How9Jer, as has ~}so
implications of these discussions, it is indispensable to study them in the context of
are not confined to their terminological use id ~c~:~nces of kzisaia an~ akui'ala
the differences of opinion among and within the various Abhidharma schools as also as non-terminological e ress· . u ~st sources. We do fmd them
well as against the background of the historical development of these opinions, the Vedic and post-Vedi"c H" d xp mns, Ill Buddhist texts as well as in J aina
motives at work and the concepts involved. In view of their centrality, kusala and ' m u sources It se th d . '
start from such non-tenninolo ical o~curr ems me o. o1o~cally reasonable to
akusala would seem to be a particularly suitable object for a case-study. I have to order to delineate the semantic ~ossib Tf ence~, ~sp~c1ally i.n early sources, in
admit, though, that the present paper is only a very preliminary attempt, focusing cal meaning may be ascertained. i i ies on t e asis of which the terminologi-
mainly on the question of the basic semantic content of these terms in the early
Buddhist canon and their interpretation and delimitation in later strands of the
tradition, with special attention paid to the early Yogacara treatises. 1 An exhaus- . 1.1. Non-terminological use . ·
tive treatment, which would have to include not only a much more systematic and Accordmg to COUSINS (1996-1 49) k r,,.J • • •
meanings: · ' usa/a m non-termmolog1cal use has only two
comprehensive lexical study of the use of kusala and akusala in the canon as well as
annotated translations of the pertinent text portions from, at least, the Vibha~a, the
Yogacarabhumi and the Abhidharmasamuccaya but also some discussion of 1. as an adjective, it means "skillful, experienced"
2. as a neuter substantive, it means "welfare, well~being".
1
The present paper is based on a lecture delivered in London more than ten years ago.
COUSINS (1996-149-152) ad ·t Ii h . .
On this occasion, Dr. COUSINS presented a formal response, defending the main points of to find additio~al meaning~ins t~ g; v;.nat10ns, but rejects TEDESCO's attempts I I

his position. Unfortunately, I have not found the time to elaborate and finalize this lecture etymology. 3 e e ic sources, as well as his attempt at an
the way I had intended, nor shall I be able to do so in the next few years. For this reason, I
have decided to offer a revised but still altogether provisional version for inclusion into the
2
present volume; I am very grateful to the editor for accepting it and for kindly helping me In what follows, unspecified page nu b . .
with a number of formal problems. I also want to thank Dr. Anne MACDONALD for a article. COUSINS (2006) is b . ll . m ers_ m c?nnect10n with COUSINS refer to this
number of most valuable corrections. - As I found out by mere chance only after the com-
3 as1ca y a repnnt of this article. 11
~f. TEDESCO (1954), deriving different mea . f ,. ,. . ,. .
pletion of this paper, important aspects of the analysis of kusala in the Abhidharma- sukrfa, respectively. TEDESCO's hypoth . mngs o kusala from suk.n; su/qta and
I

kosa(bhaffa) and in the Yogacarabhiimi have already been pointed out in YOSHIDA (1993: W. KNOBL (1981·25£) and . M es1s was accepted, e.g., by P. THIEME (1971·690n)
m AYRHOFER (1956-244) but ·
(1956:77-83) and ·in MAYRHOFER . ·'
360-364). - Cross-references in the present paper are to the chapters (ch.) and/or the (1992·379) d. ' 11· re:1ected, e.g., by w. WDST
sections (#)within the chapters. TuRNER ( CDIAL No 3365) 0 f h. , an ~ailed mgemous but very doubtful'' by
. . ne o t e problems involved in TEDESCO's theory IS, . apart 11

I
 0
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
442
My own opinion is that the non-termin?logical occurrence_s <;>f kusala ~nd
akusala, especially in Vedic, but also inBuddh1st texts, cannot be h~ut~d to the two
meanings accepted by COUSINS. Leaving aside the ~ontrove~sial issue of the
etymological derivation of kusala, I shall try to s~bstantrnte I_llY view by me3:11s of a
philological re-examination of so~e of the p~rtment matenal, most of which ha~
already been discussed, though with partly different results, by TEDESCO (1954.
131-134), PREMASIRI (1976:64f), and COUSINS (1996:149f, etc.).
1. The use of kulaia as an adjective meaning "skillful", "~xperien~ed" (in ordi-
nary crafts or in ritual, intellectual, and spiritual matte~s, with _or without such a
c9mplement being explicitly me~tioned) is ~ttested m Ve~ic texts frnm the
Satapathabrahmal}a4 o~';"ard and is common m _early. Budd~st as ~ell as non-
Buddhist sources. Akusala in the sense of "unskilled, mexpenenced also occurs
but is less frequent. 5 In the earliest Jaina sources and in the Suttanipata, the ~se of
kusala as an adjective meaning "skillful, experienced" is by far the p~edom1~ant
one.6 But as far as I can see, this use is, if we disregard the controversial termmo-
from the missing motive for the assumed metathesis, that the earliest av~ilable o~rrence
(in MaiS, see ch. 1.1 # 3.1) is of ak11;sala, which ~ould push,. the form~tmn of kusala back
into a fairly early period since a direct formatmn of akusala from a-sulqt(a) ?ppears
improbable, a-su- being unusual (AIG II,1, add. 25 [ad 7928]) and -~erhaps restncted ~o
cases which were no longer felt to be compounds w!th su-. In additmn, t~e fact that its
earliest occurrence is in a text belonging to a Vedic school that accordmg to, WITZEL
(1989:113) was located in a more Western area does not exactly support TED~SCO s the?ry,
presupposing as it does an Eastern vernacular as the basis. of the format10n of kus~Ja.
COUSINS (1996:150-152), too, rejects TEDESCO's theory and mstead resumes a suggestion
by J. CHARPENTIER, who connects kusalawith gothic *hug(s)(thou~t; ~adness"). ~lJST
(1956:78f) mentions a considerable number of further etym?logical denvatm~s of kusa/a by
previous scholars, none of whj-ch, however, ~,e seems to fm? acce?table.. His own theo,?'.
starts from the expression kusaJi_;lq "to shear and takes kusala (with native grammar [. ].
AIG II,2:865; cf. also the Buddhist 'etymologies' at Asl 391-10, AK.Vy_ 6014f or_ NA 348csf [~ee
fn. 42]) as a derivation frnm kusa "kusa grass" because such gras~ 1s used m the shearmg
ceremony. Not being an expert in this matter, I prefer not to commit myse!f. _ _ _
4 SatapathabrahmaIJa (ed. A. WEBER) 11:4.2.(1, 4, and 13):_ kusa!a man;:amanal;
(implying expertness in ritual or theory of ntual); cf. also Chandogya-upam~ad (ed.
LIMAYE & VADEKAR, 1958) 1.8.1: udgithe vai kusa!aiJ smaJ;i. . . .
5 I have noted an occurrence in Siiy II (§ 640: punse a.kheyaIJJJe akusale apamc;/Jte
aviyatte amehavi bale, i.e., a person is characterize~ as inexperienced and unwise), b~t
there seems to be none in the earliest parts of the Jama canon (no entry under akusala, m
YAMAZAKI and ousAKA, 1999). EDSI: 107b lists two Vedic occurrences (under akusala
adj., B). There is one double occurrence in Sn (v. 879~ = 88?d: ~ala ~kkusa!o). Occu~~en-
ces in other Pali texts: e.g. D 1.85 16, etc. (yatha balam yatha mufham yatha ~usa:am, cf.
PTCl.10; SaJighabhedavastu (ed. R. GNOLI) Il.25127f: yatha biilo ... yatha akusalo); A
IV.418z2 ( biilo avyatto akhetta.i.iii akusalo); Vin 11.15934 ( akusalaka). .
6A differentiated statistical survey of the occurrences of kusala and ak:1sal~ m the
canon would have required more time than I had at my disposal, th~ more s~ smc~ it would
hardly yield instructive results unless aspects of meaning are taken mto consideration. That_
on this condition interesting insights are to be expected becomes clear by the exam~le of
the Suttanipata: in this. coll~ction (which, to be sure, is by no means chronolog1ca~i
homogeneous) akusala 1s qmte rare (two double occurrences), but kusala occurs about -
times. But apart from one special case (Sn v._965) to be de8:1t with belo~ (see_fn. 167), the~~
is only one instance where kusala is unambiguously used m the termmological se~se, a
this is in a prose passage (Sn p. 135) which is in all likelihood fairly late. Another mstance
Kusala and Akusala 443
logical use for the time being, almost7 exclusively restricted to a characterization of
persons, at any rate in the pre-exegetical literature.
2.1. As a neuter substantive in the sense of "welfare, well-being", Ja!laia is well
documented in both Buddhist and non-Buddhist sources (from Taittiriya-
upani~ad8 onward). Shades of meaning would seem to ranf:e from "health" ( arogya,
anamayrl to "good luck" (bhadra), 10 "happiness" (sukha), land "security" (khema,
ksema).
· 2.2. Like Jailala, so also akcllala is occasionally met with as a neuter substantive,
and in this case it means "misfortune, calamity'' or "[something] calamitous", as in
Jataka II.243,21 (mahantarh akusalarh = "a serious misfortune"), or when we read
13
in the _Saiighabhedavastu: vyaktam asramapade akusalarh bhavi_syati "clearly
some misfortune (announced by bad omens!) is roing to happen in the hermitage."
At M I.1714t, etc., akusalarh bhayabheravanl may mean: "[some] misfortune,
15
[some] danger or terror", but here akusala may also be taken as an adjective in
16
the sense of "bringing misfortune, calamitous".
which comes at least close to the terminological use is 'one of the two (double) occurrences
of akusa~a (Sn v. l~b = 369b: mOla ak<k>usala samillratase; for the other, see fn. 5). It is
thus o~vmus that m the strand of the early Buddhist' tradition that is represented by the
Suttampata, kusala and akusala in the terminological sense are practically absent, apart
from a couple of occurrences which may either reflect it~ or represent its status nascendi. -
In the Patimokkhasutta, the words kusala and akusala in the terminological sense do not
occur - a fact which is hardly surprising since the monastic rules are concerned neither
with the karmic nor with the spiritual perspective but rather with harmony within the
Sangha and its reputation in society. The word kusala does occur, but only in non-termino-
logical use (ice' etam kusalam, see ch. 1.1 # 4.1 with fn. 37).
7
For a possible exception (S I.65 3t), see ch. 1.2.2 # 1.4.
8
T~ittiriya-upani_sad (ed. LIMAYE and VADEKAR, 1958) 1.11.1: satyan na
pramad1_tavyam I dharman na pramaditavyam I kusalan na pramaditavyam / bhiityai na
pramad1tavyam; OLIVELLE (1996:183): "Do not neglect the truth. Do not neglect the Law.
Do not neglect your health. Do not neglect your wealth." .
9
Cf. COUSINS (1996:139 and 158 n. 4); Apastamba-dharmasiitra (ed. G. BOHLER,
Poona 1932) 1.(4.)14.26-29.
10
Cf. Pat;rini 2.3.73; AmK 1.4.25-26.
11
Cf. Sn v. 981: sukham ca kusalam pucchi "... and asked after his comfort (and)
welfare" (NORMAN). Cf. Panini 2.3.73.
12 '
AmK 1.4.25-26; 3.3.204; AbhVL no. 2027. For the equation of kusala and
khemaf#ema in Buddhist sources, see fn. 237. An antonym of khema is bhaya "danger"
(e.g., Th 980).
13
Saiighabhedavastu ( ed. R. GNOLI) II: 1284r. Similarly, Jatakamiila (ed. P.L.
VA ID YA, Darbhanga 1959) 6710: vyaktam akusalam me putrayoiJ ("clearly some misfor-
tuneMhas happened to my two children") . ·:.
. Cf. also SHT IV p. 131 (frgm. 36 A3; B4 and 6): akusalam bhayabhairavam. The
Chinese Ekottaragama (T125.665c4) has :lsUti::f~$: = "are afraid of evil, akusala
dharmas."
15
Bhayabherava may mean both something dangerous and frightful and the fear it
arouses; cf. Ps 1.113m: bhaya = fear, bherava = frightful thing or animal (cf. also S I.lO~u
and S~y §§ 124-126 = 1.2.2.14-16; BoLLEE, 1988:59f). Later, Ps (1.12(hz) says that from
here (1.e., M l.2lz, but acc. to the µka [CSCD, MiilapaJJJJlisa-µka § 49] already M I.2031f)
onward. bhayabherava refers exclusively to the (frightful) object ( arammaIJa). Before his
aw~enmg, the Buddha expected to see this frightful something, and when there was a
n01se around him he thought that it was now approaching him. But instead of waiting for
 $ 'l
444 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
3.1. Actually, it is precisely in this latter meaning that we must understand
aiallala in what is probably the earliest available occurrence of Jallala/ akusala
namely MaitrayaJJi-Samhita 1.11.10. 17 In this passage, which has not been take~
into account by TEDESCO and COUSINS, it is stated that by means of the eight-
syllable [spell] Brhaspati conquered the eight directions: the four cardinal points
and the four akusala ones. 18 As the Kafhaka-samhita 19 confirms, the latter must be
the intermediate regions. As a property of the intermediate regions, - aku.sala
cannot reasonably mean "unskillful". It rather would seem to mean "inauspicious"
or "baneful11 • In fact, the belief that the intermediate regions are inauspicious is
also attested to in other Vedic texts: 20 . ··
3.2. In view of the fact that alailala as an adjective is thus also used in the sense
of "inauspicious", .we can, accordingly, expect adjectival Jailala to also have the
meaning of 11bringing or foreboding good luck", "auspicious". Indeed, this meaning
fits perfectly at Aitareya-araIJyaka 3.1.3, 21 where the opposite of speech qualified as
kuiala is a curse. 22 In other cases, too, speech characterized as Jailala may there-
fore not be skillful speech but rather auspicious, lucky or, in a less magical
ambience, beneficial, benevolent, or simply friendly speech, as, e.g., in the Af!haka-
vagga (Sn v. 973: vacam pamu.ice kusalam), where NORMAN translates: "He should
utter a good word." The Mahaniddesa (5045r) offers, besides "arisen from know-
the bhayabherava to come near, he decided to remove it (now, it seems, the fear within
himself), i.e., acc. to Ps I.1211ff: to investigate the imagined frightful thing and (by realizing
that it was, in reality, some harmless creature) not to perceive it anymore, and thereby to
remove his own fear of it (cf. Ps 1.121m).
16
This is partly confirmed by the commentator (Ps I.11332-114-z) in that he explains
akusala as akkhema. "Partly": because the commentator tries to do justice to the ambiguity
of the compound bhayabherava by distributing the two facets of "fear" (as a mental state:
cittutrasa) and "something frightful" ( as an object: bhayanakarammaJJa) to the two mem-
bers of the compound, respectively; naturally, he understands akusala as "insecure,
dangerous" (akkhema) only in connection with the frightful object (i.e., bherava), whereas
in connection with fear he takes it to mean "reprehensible" (siivajja).
17
Cf. AIG 11.2: 402 ("unheilvoll"). Similarly EDS I.107b (s.v. akusala adj., A).
18 Maitrayapi-samhita (ed. L. VON SCHROEDER) 1.11.10 (vol. I, p. 1723): Bfhaspatir
a~fiksarayii~fau dfsa ud ajayac catasro dfsas catasr6 'kusali(fJ).
1
§ Kafhaka-samhita (ed. L. VON SCHROEDER) 14.4 (vol. I, p. 203 13): ••• catasro disa.5
catasra upadisa(!J). . LIMAYE & V ADE.KAR (1958:16): aicaryo vakta kusalo sya Jabdha / aicaryo jiiiita
20
See BODEWITZ (2000:19f): "... sometimes the totality of the intermediate quarters
of space is equated with the world of the forefathers (Pitrloka) and hell ... ". It may be worth
mentioning in this connection that also in medieval Japan evil influences were considered
to come from the northeast (STONE, 1999:97;163). From a semantic point of view (cf.
ch. 1.2.2 # 2.4; ch. 3 # 3.2; ch. 5 # 2[b2]), it may be worth noting that the GaJJ<Javyiihasutra
(ed. VAIDYA: 39512) contrasts an insecure (alcyema) quarter or direction (dif) with a·secure
(k~ma)one.
21
Aitareyarapyaka (Anandasrama Sanskrit Series no. 38, 1959) 22613 : na tv evanyat
kuialad briihmaJJaJiJ bnlyiit ("To a brahmin, he should not say anything but what is
auspicious"). SayaQ.a (ibid. 22615f) comments: tvam sukhena tJ~fhety evam kuialam (v.l.
vacanam) bnlyat
22
Ibid. 225,18-20: Atha yady enam nirbhujam bruvantam para upavadet, p(fhivim
devatam ara!J7 prthivi tva devatanwatity enam bnlyad; ... ("If somebody else should,blame
him while he is reciting the samhitii text, he should speak to him: 'You have hurt the
goddess earth, the goddess earth will hurt you!"').
', 1 t '·11 I
- - - --
._ ...___.....- -..- -
• 23
Kusala and Almsala
- .... - ..---..--·-----»--·-·-»•-»•»•--»·---..- - - - - -..- - - - -..- -..------·-·-··-·--·---·---·--·------- ..
ledge" (iia1Jasamuf!h1ta), the explanatmn connected with (spmtual) profit"
• n • • •
445
.. ··--····-···-- \
(atthilpasamhita) and "connected with the Dhamma" ( dhammilpasa!/Jhita), which
would suggest "beneficial (for the addressee)". 24 Similarly, in the Afanafiyasutta,
the Buddha is asked (?) to look at the assembly kusalena, "with a benevolent,
25
friendly [eye]".
3.3. The meaning ''bringing good luck", "auspicious" would seem to be appro-
priate also at Siiy 1.2.2.23 (§ 133), where a gambler is stated to win akkhehim
}a]salehi. BOLLEE (1988:65) translates this as "mit geschickt gemachten Wurfeln"
('with skillfully made dice"), but without further support such a meaning appears
unfounded, and "with dice bringing good luck" seems more probable.26
3.4. It would thus seem that in contrast to (a)lallala in the sense of
"(un)skillful", which as far as I can see is practically restricted to persons, the
adjectival ( a)Jailala used with regard to impersonal things has the meaning
"(in)auspicious", "( un)fortunate".
3.5. There are only very _few (partly doubtful) cases where kuiala qualifying a
person seems to have a similar meaning. At Kafha-upani~ad2.7, kuiala is doubt-
lessly used of persons, but obviously in the sense of "fortunate", "lucky11 • 27 This
would explain its use at Itivuttaka 21 8_11 , 28 where.urusala clearly characterizes a
person practicing benevolence as "fortunate" in the sense of acquiring pufifia, i.e.,
beneficial potency. But here the commentary seems to support a variant reading
23
This is the only gloss taken over by S~-a (II.574rn).
24
This use is also found in the Manusmrti, e.g. 6.48: akru${a!J kusalam vadet (Kulluka:
kusalam == bhadram "auspicious"). In the Manusmrti, also akusala occurs in connection
with speech (11.34/35: tasmai (sc. brahmaJJliya: Medhatithi] nakusalam bnlyat), and PW
(I.10b) is probably correct in giving "unheilvolles Wort" ("sinister speech") as the meaning,
although the commentators prefer explanations like "unpleasant, disgusting" ( ani${a,
bibhatsa) or inappropriate (ayukta). Cf. also Mahabharata (crit. ed.) 12.159.18.
25
D III.197 19 : kusalena samekkhasi The Sanskrit has avek$asva for samekkhasi, Tib.
bdag la dge bas gzigs su gsol (AµinSu 40f, etc.). Sv III.96412f explains kusalena as
anavajjena nipuJJena va sabbaiiiiutaiianena, but cf. Ramayapa (crit.ed.) 2.31.19 paiya tvam
kusalena mam (GORRESIO: "con occhio benevolo"). .·
26
Silaiika has tatpatajiia!J kuialo nipuJJaiJ ("skillful, (i.e.,] expert, [because] he knows I I
how they will fall"), which means that he refers kusala to the dicer and may hence have read
the text as kusale hi instead of kusalehi (cf. BOLLEE, 1988: 65). .
27
kusalanusi~fa!J ((. HUME (1931: 347) translates (more or less like DEUSSEN): "Wonderful is
the declarer, proficient the obtainer of Him! Wonderful the knower, proficiently taught!"
Quite differently OLIVELLE (1996:236 and 378 n. 7), following RAU (1971:164) and his
emendation to kusalo 'nusif.ta!J (ibid., 173), which restores the parallelism of the two lines:
"Rare is the man who teaches it, lucky isthe man who grasps it; Rare is the man who knows
it, lucky is the man who's taught it." There can be no doubt that OLIVELLE's (and-RAU's)
rendering makes much better sense and that this is one of the rare cases of kusala being
used of persons in a sense different from the more frequent "skillful, expert, wise";
28
"Even when one cultivates, with a mind free from hatred, benevolence towards one
animate being [only], one becomes fortunate thereby. [All the more] does one accumulate
abundant 'merit' when one feels sympathy with all animate beings."
ekam pi ce piiJJam adutfhacitto mettayati, kusalo tena hoti I
sabbe ca paJJe manasanukampam pahutam ariyo pakarotipuiiiiam //.
It follows from the use of puiiiia in the last quarter that in this verse kusala refers to the
karmic perspective. CT. also It-a (see fn. 29).
 4
446 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
kusali(from kusalin "characterized by good. luck"). 29 At Theragiithii v. 33,30 a monk
is said to be benevolent (kusala, comm. hitesin) towards living beings just as a
mother is to her only son. 31 Here, too, the commentary presupposes ·kusalin
instead of kusala, probably in the sense of "characterized by benevolence". 32
· 4. There is, in my opinion, probably one more non-terminological meaning of
kusala, and COUSINS's rejection of it does not convince me. . na te kusalam menire. I do not think that "skillful" or "wise" fits the context here;
4.1. According to Suttanipiita v. 712, an ascetic should think after his alms-
round:
''alattham yad, idam siidhu; niilattham, kusaliim "iti
NORMAN translates:
"'Since I received (something), that is well; I did not receive (anything), (that
too) is good."'
COUSINS33 fmds this unconvincing and suggests that the mendicant who re-
ceived nothing says to himself: "be skillful", i.e., don't let the mind fall into an
unskillful response such as annoyance or depression. But since the text continues
with stating that the mendicant remains the same ( tiidl) on both occasions and just
returns to his tree, there is good reason to understand the first line as expressing
precisely this "sameness", namely that he reacts in both cases by s~ing "alright", i.e.,
by acceptinE the matter as it is, and to take siidhu and kusaliim 4 as more or less
equivalent. The meaning "alright" or "fine" is also the most ~robable in practi-
cally36 all occurrences of the expression ice' etam kusalam, 7 which is .almost
29
Cf. DP s.v. kusali(n)l. - The commentary (It-a l.933r), to be sure, reads kusalo ti
atisayena kusalava mahapu.i.io~ pafighadi-anattha-vigamena va khemi, but kusalava and
khemi suggest that the commentator may have originally had a reading kusali before him,
which is actually found in the parallel passage A IV.151u (beside se O Jam); cf. also PD hp
v. 246 kusali tena hoti beside GDhp v. 195 kusala and Uv 31.43 kusalarh ("thereby, welfare,
. or beneficial [karma], arises"). As for the commentarial explanation of kusalin as khemin, it
agrees with the explanation of kusalin in Th-a ad Th v. 33 (see fn. 32), but in the present
context khemin would have to be understood differently, viz., as "characterized by [having
provided fothis own] security (in the afterlife]."
30
yathapi ekaputtasmirh piyasmirh kusali siya I
evarh sabbesu papesu sabbattha kusalo siyii #. · be explained as an idiom with a tendency towards a trivialisation of "fortunate" to "fine", "al-
31
Or: as parents (miitapita) are to their only son (thus v.l. ad Th-a I.101 4, confirmed by
the ~fallel in the Apadiina-af!hakatha [PTS p. 334], which has miita pita ca). · On the phrase ice' etarh kusalam, see PTC II: 65b and COUSINS (1996:158 n. 4);
Cf. DPs.v. kusa!i(n)2 ("benevolent"). - The commentary (Th-a 1.100m and 101 7)
reads kusali not only in the first but also in the second line, where a fem. subject is out of
the question. Hence kusali must here be a masculine form, i.e., the nominative singular of
kusaHn. Actually, the commentator explains kusali as a male person ( etassa!) "from whom
(cf. VON HINDBER, 1968:§262) kusalarh, i.e., safety (khemarh), well-being (sotthibhavo),
can be obtained," i.e., "one who is characterized by desiring the well-being of sentient
beings, one whose attitude [towards them] is one of benevolence" (sattiinarh hitesi
mett'ajjhasayo).
33
In his response to my lecture.
34
Neuter singular with metrical lengthening (cf. NORMAN, 1992:285).
35
Cf. also Sn-a 49715f: kusalam = sundaram "fine, alright".
36
Exception: A I.1974r: ahu pubbe Jobho tad ahu akusalarh~ so etarahin'atth1; ice' etarh
7 mup<janarh karoti madrakaroti). In the same sense, one may use bhadrakf: "The barber
kusalarh. Mp II.30631 : kusalarh khemarh.
Kusala and Akusala 447
invariably embedded in the pattern "If A, then it is alright; if not A, then there is a
bl 11 38
pro·4.2. · of t h'1s use of k usa1am
eml n· view m t h e Bu ddh'1st canon, I do not see why 1t
r /'~ 1 • • ·
might not have a similar meaning at Aitareya-briihmaJJa. (ed. M. HAUG) 7.18. Here
we are told that Visvamitra asked his 101 sons to consent to the installment of
sunal).sepha, his adopted son, as the eldest, but that the 50 elder sons did not agree:
the natural meaning is no doubt: "They did not find it alright (or correct)".39
4.3. Likewise, in the case of Chiindogya-upani,sad 4.10.2 (LIMAYE and
vADEKAR, 1958:115, brahmaciiri kusalam agnin paryaciirit), I think that "cor-
rectly" or simply "well" is more appropriate than "skillfully" because tending the
sacrificial fire may not require much ritual skill but rather attention ("correctly" -+
"carefully"; cf. OLIVELLE, 1996:133: "The student has ... faithfully tended the
fires"). 40 After all, the person concerned is only a Veda student who is not yet
entitled to complicated ritual performances.
4.4. As for the expression kusali-kr used in the Afvaliiyana- and Gobhila-
grhyasiitra41 in the sense of "shearing", its literal m~aning may be "making (the hair)
correct", "(das Haar) in die gehorige Ordnung bririgen", or perhaps rather "making
(the hair or head) auspicious" ("gliickbringend"),.42 Cf. the parallel expressions
madrii-kr and bhadrii-kr for "shaving".43
37
Frequent in the Patimokkhasutta, e.g., samghadisesa no. 10: if the monk gives up his
wrong behavior after having been admonished, then this is,alright (/the matter is settled); if
not, he incurs a salighadisesa offence. Theoretically, one might argue that in this case we
may as well translate "then this is skillful/wise", but this does not work in cases like Spk
I.25112f, where we read, with reference to a sown field: "If there is rain, it is alright (or:
fortunate, fine?); if not, ... " (sace vuf!hi atthi, icc'etarh kusalarh; no ce atth1; ... ). In the case
of sarhghadisesa no. 10, Sp (608) gives the following explanation: etam pafinissajjanarh
kusalam khemarh sotthibhtivo tassa bhikkhuno, which seems to mean that if the monk gives
up his wrong behavior after having been admonished, then he is safe, i.e., no longer in
danger of committing an offence. Thus, in this passage kusala is taken as a ·neuter noun in
the sense of safety or well-being. But in another passage (Sp 673) kusalarh in our
expression is glossed with sadhu suf!hu sundararh, and in yet another passage (Sp 293)
precisely the same syntactical pattern in which ice' etarh kusalarh is usually found occurs
with sadhu instead (sace haranti, stidhu; no ce haranti, ... ). Perhaps, this use of kusala can
right".
38
SWTF II:96a: ity evarh kusalam "so, in dieser Weise (ist es) gut, richtig, korrekt"; VON
HINDBER (1998:39): "so ist es gut"; PRUITT and NORMAN (2003:17): "that is good".
39
At most, I should consider the possibility of: "They did not find it beneficial,
fortunate (for themselves)." ·
4
°Cf. also Sankara's explanation of kusalam as samyak, though Sankara is, admittedly,
by no means an infallible authority for Vedic semantics.
41
TEDESCO (1954:133); WOST (19~6:79f).
42
Cf. NA 348c5r: "Or kusala has the meaning 'auspicious', because it attracts good luck,
like kusa grass" (~1i~1f, ~at$fl, fj~filafw, tzDat$Wio ).
43
Kasika ad Pal)ini 5.4.67: "madra means· auspicious; madrakaroti [means:] he
performs an auspicious shaving [of the head]" (madrasabdo maiigalarthafJ; maligalarh
shaves (the head of] the young man" ( bhadrakaroti napitafJ kumaram).

448
•••-•••••••-•••••·-·--•·•--·---•••-•••••-•••••••-•--•••••••-••••-·-··-·--•·•••·•-•.. -·•
1.2.1. Range of Employment in Sutra and Vinaya
The use of kuiala and akuiala in the terminological sense, qualifying &roughly
speaking) dharmas, not persons, seems to be a Buddhist innovation. 4 Before
trying to clarify the original or basic meaning of these terms, it is necessary to
ascertain the range of their usage. 45
1. To begin with, it is well known that kusala and akusala are often used to
qualify actions which we would characterize, respectively, as moral, like abstaining
from killing, or as immoral, like killing. 46 Moreover, they may qualify the internal
drives from which those actions proceed: like greed, hatred, and disorientation,
47
and their opposites. But kusala is, in the canonical sermons as well as later on,
also applied to religious acts like taking refuge, 48 which we would hardly call moral,
and; as COUSINS (144-146) rightly emphasizes, to meditative or spiritual practices,
like the applications of mindfulness, and to the entire eightfold path to liberation. 49
Accordingly, factors preventing or disturbing meditative or spiritual wactice, and
the wrong counterparts of the eightfold path, can be qualified as akdsala. In some
texts, even the result of the path to liberation, namely liberation ( vimutfl) itself, is
included in what is characterized as kusala. 50
2. From a Buddhist point of view, it may be reasonable to distinguish between
two main perspectives, or frames of reference, of the employment of the terms
kusala and akusala: 1. the karmic perspective, referring to attitudes, actions or
practices insofar as they are envisafied in the context of their intramundane
consequences, sometimes in this life, 1 but especially in the afterlife, 52 and 2. the
44
An investigation of the reception of the typically Buddhist use of kulala and aia.!lala
in non-Buddhist texts (e.g., the Yogabha»'a and its VivaraJJa: cf. WEZLER, 2001:296; FoIT,
2004:92f n. 3) is beyond the scope of this article.
45
For a detailed survey, see GEIGER (1920:105-112 = 1973:204-211).
46
CT., e.g., M I.473_9 and 12.17; 48924-490s; II.2610r and 273r; A I.189ff (no. 65 and 66);
201ff (no. 69). Cf. also the ten kusala and akusala kammapatha (A V.264-268; D III.269 1_9).
Violence, strife, slander and false speech: D II 591_3; MI 1103_5 •
47
Cf., e.g., M I.479•11 and 18•20; 48921.24; A l.189ff (no. 3.65 and 66); 201ff (no. 3.69).
48
A IV.24512-23.
49
E.g., D III.10211.14.
50
E.g., AV.241 (no. 10.136). Cf. also D III.10214•18• For a different interpretation of
vimukti in this connection, see AKBh 38714-388 14.
51
E.g., M III.21413_15, etc.; A I.134f (no. 3.33.1); AKBh 2301 and 2325-2333; Y 18410-
18616·
52
Thus undeniably in, e.g., A V.26619-21 + 26822.2s or M III.16424-16510 + 1711r 1726. Cf.
also ch. 1.1 # 3.5 with fn. 28. The view advocated in different ways by several scholars
(KEOWN, 1992:116ff; VELEZ DE CEA, 2004:130f; ADAM, 2005:74f) that kusala is, in contrast
to pu.i.ia (see ch. 1.2.2 # 2.3.1), only used with refe.rence to actions or attitudes which are,
or in so far as they are, conducive to or favorable for nirvaIJa is therefore misleading.
Passages like A V.266ff clearly show that actions may be characterized as kusala even when
they are envisaged solely in the karmic perspective. This is, moreover, supported by most of
the definitions of kuiala found in non-Theravada sources ( cf. ch. 1.2.2 # 2.4, etc.) and by
the fact that these sources often restrict akuiala to the karmic perspective alone ( see ch. 3
# 6.1) and define puJJya as a special part of kuiala (see fn. 80). It may well be that
;
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN Kuiala and Akuiala 449
•••-••••--··-·-~••••-••-•••·---·-•••••-•••••••-•-•••-•••--•·-·--••••••••-•••--•-••-••••••-•••-••·-•-••-H"•••-••••••- ••••••••-•••••-·-···---·-·•-•rn••--••><••-••••-·-- •••••••••••••••·--·-··----•·-···-.. - • _
1.2. Terminological use ~rientated spiritual perspective. !here has ~een s~me controversy wi~h
· gard to this distinction, but its presence m the texts, mcludmg the early canon, m
;:rms of two different perspectives, is an undeniable fact. I shall come back to
this issue in ch. 2.
3. In view of their much wider range of employment, I agree with COUSINS t~at
the terms kusala and akusala can hardly be understo~d as purely ethic~l cate~ones
d hence cannot have "good" and ''bad" in an ethical sense as the1r consistent·
:eral meaning. But I hesitate to subscribe to his opinion.that an ethica~ nuance is
never part of their meaning in the Sermons and a later d~velopme~t. ~
3
n_ot ?o
deny that early Buddhism is 'satigha-centere~' and. that its .core 1s spmtuah~
conducive to liberation, and that from the vtewpmnt ?f. this core ~he karmic
perspective, central though it i~ ~or lay fol~owers, 1s subs1dia~:, But this d~~s not
automatically imply that a spec1f1c adaptat10n. of th~ terms ~ala and akus_ala to
the karmic perspective must ·be later than thelf use m the spmtual one. This may
well be the case, but can we, before having solved the arduous problem of
stratifying the pertinent Suttapita}{a materials, be sure that the Buddha, or early
Buddhists, used kusala and akusala in the terminological sense from the very
outset, and that they did not rather introduce it only,,at a somewhat la!er sta~e, as a
kind of terminological innovation (which might even have been motivated Just by
the need for a term covering both perspectives)? My view on the literal meaning of
kusala and akusala in the terminological sense does'·,not, however, depend on the
solution of such chronological issues.
1.2.2. Semantic reconsideration of the term~olo~cal me~g ·
1.1. As already mentioned, even in what I call the termmolog1cal use, kusala and
almsala have, according to COUSINS (143), the meaning "skillful" ~nd "1:1nskill~l",
because the primary context of their terminological use is med1 tat10n, _wh!ch
requires skill or experience. But is the mere fact th.at ~uccessful m~~1tatton
requires skill or experience on the part of the med1ta!mg_ person suff1c1ent. to
guarantee that it was· precisely this aspect that the apI?hcatt~n of the express10n
kusala to the meditative practices themselves was ongmally mtended to convey?
Do we find convincing textual support for such an assumption? ··
1.2. In a sense, we do. As pointed out by COUSINS (139f), we find, among the
commentarial explanations of kusala, the meaning kosallasambhilta, "produced by
(or, more precisely: arisen from) skill",54 'skill' being further explained as insight
· (pa.i.ia) 55 or an appropriate bringing to mind (yoniso manasikara).56 For COUSINS,
(a)kusala was first used in the context of the path to liberation, but a~eady in the_ cano~ca.l
period it obviously came to be used as a term for ( un)wholesome a~t10ns and ~tt1tudes m a
comprehensive sense, covering both the spiritual and the karmic perspective, whereas
pu.i.ia is confined to the latter. This is also, as far as I can see, the purport of PREMASIRI
(1976). . .
53 COUSINS (1996:142±): "... and it may be wondered whether a widenmg of the
meaning of kusala to refer to the 'good' in general is in fact a later development."
54
E.g., Asl 6232r; 636; Sv III.883 29r; Spk III.14h; Patis-a 2065; see COUSINS (1996:139f).
55
Asl 635. .
56
SumaiigalaVJlasini-puraIJafika (ed. L. DE SILVA, PTS) III.825r. - As already p~mted
out by COUSINS (160 n. 23), the 'etymological' explanation of kusala as kusena ( = naIJena)
Jatabba found in some Pali sources of the commentarial period (Asl 396, etc.), also has
parallel~ in non-Theravada sources. COUSINS quotes AK.Vy 1.6014r ( ad AK 1.29): praj.ia va
 450 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
!he reliability of this definition of the meaning of kusala in the terminological sense
1s supported by the fact that it does not perfectly fit in with the Abhidhammic
system of the Pali school, since the latter accepts states of mind which are kusala
but which are58
dissociated from knowledge (iiapa). 57 As is expressly stated in the
Atthasalini, in such cases the application of the definition of kusala as "arisen
from skill = insight" is possible only by convention (rll{jh1) but not in the strict
sense. COUSINS (142) therefore concludes that this definition was rather embed-
ded in the source material of the commentarial literature of the Pali school. He
t~es this, if I understand him correctly, as an indication of earlier origin, and he
pomts out that similar explanations of the meaning of kusala are available in
Abhidharma works of the Sarvastivada school of Northern India (160 n. 23). This is
doubtlessly correct,59 and it also holds good for the Yogacarabhllm1; where one
meaning o! kusal~ is given as.. ~'being/ skilled (or experienced) in thoroughly
understandmg reality" ( vastupan;nakausalya). 60
l.~. Even so, the explan~tion of kusala as "arisen from skill (=insight)" is post-
canomcal, attested to only m sources postdating even the canonical Abhidharma
texts. Moreove_r, in our sources it figures as merely one among several eX£lanations,
and to prefer Just this one as representing the original meaning of iailaia in the
term~ological sense while rejecting the others would be acceptable only if the
canomcal sermons themselves supply sufficient evidence to support this choice. We
therefore have to decide the matter on the basis of conclusive evidence from the
canonical texts themselves.
1.4. This is all the more so in view of the aforementioned fact that the non-
terminological use of kusala in the sense of "skillful" is almost invariably confined
kusa iva tl~peti kus~fi? tam /anti adadata iti kusalafi. Though this may be a minor point, it is
perhaps worth notmg that the relation between prajiia and the kusala dhaimah is
somewhat different here: the kusala dharmafi are not the product or. result of praj.ia· but
rather· stated to take prajiia [as a companion?]. This is, at least, what Sthiramati's
~om~~~~a7 on th~ Pa.ic~skandhaka suggest.s: "'kuia' is among the quasi-synonyms of
pra1n~. Ja means to take. [Those factors which] are taken hold of (pangrh11a) by prajiia
or [which} take hold of prajiia are the kuialal}" (Q5567.64a4 : yang na ku sha ni shes rab kyj
rnam grangs su gtogs pa oII la ni Jen pa stel. shes rab kyis yangs su zin pa 'am/ shes rab
yon!{f su 'dzin pa ni dge ba rnams so II; cf. NA 348c3-5 ).
_ _ ?· Dhs ~7~, 1s and 19:. the kamavacaram kusalam cittam somanassasahagatam
n~!Ja':1ppayuttam 1s accompanied by saddha but not by pa.ilia ( = amoha = samma-
dif!/11 ). - I must confess, with due respect, that I have some problems with
FRAUWALLNER's (1972:112-115; 1995:73-77) interpretation of the system of the Cittakanda
of_the Dham_masaliga!Jl, but a detailed discussion would require a separate paper. -Ct.', in
this C?nnect1on, perhaps also S II.4011•13 = A II.158 11 _13 together with Spk II.5813.15 and
espect.ally Mp III._14510.21: ~hildren acquiring wholesome kamma by imitating their parents'
worship of a shnne ( cetJya) although they do not know the wholesome nature of this
activity; similarly, they commit an unwholesome act if they throw clods at monks, regardless
of whether they are aware of the unwholesomeness of this act or not, and this is stated to
holdsrood even for dogs pursuing monks and biting them, etc.
Asl 636.14; COUSINS (1996:141).
59
For further material, see ch. 5 # 2[c] with fn. 238.
~o Y 6315f: samasatas tu dvividhafi kusalartha(fi): i~faphalaparigrahartho vastupariiliii-
0
kausalva-tatphalarthai ca ( tatphala refers to nirviiJJa: YVy 138b8 and 139a1; cf. ch. 3 # 5.3).
Conversely, one of the meanings of akuiala consists in being an obstacle for the kuiala
dharmas "because reality is not understood correctly" ( vastuno 'samyakpanj'.iatatviit: y
63rn).
Kusala and Akusala 451
~o persons. 61 The only possible exception I ha~e found so far is its use as an ~d;erb,
in the phrase dakkhakammaraputtena ukkamukhe sukusalasamf-!a~a!th_am 'very
skillfully burnished in the mouth of the furnace by a clever goldsmith , s?1d of gold
(S I 65 3f). 62 One could thus imagine "skillful" to be used as an attnbute of a
meditative practice in the sense that it is skillfully practiced, but in this case the
very same practice might also be called "unskillful" if practiced unskillfully. The
terminological use as understood by COUSINS would, therefore, presuppose a
.further step, viz., that the respective meditative practice as such. is "skil~",
regardless of whether it is practiced wi~h or without s~~l. In other word~: a ~ertam
meditative practice would be called "skillful" because 1t IS chosen for cultivation ( or
was discovered) due to expertise in spiritual matters, or by a person possessing
such expertise. Such a shift of usage is, to be sure, not unthinkable, 63 as the
aforementioned Abhidharmic defmition demonstrates; however, it is not a matter
of course either, and I am reluctant to accept it for the sermons unless there is
convincing evidence or no other choice. Now, it has already been pointed out that
the mere fact that ialsala and akusala in the terminological sense are most
frequently used in connection with meditative practices ~ay, to be sure, e~clude
the possibility of a primarily and consistently ethical meanmg; nonetheless, 1t does
not automatically force us to accept "skillful"/"unskillful" because the reconsidera-
tion of the non-terminological meanings of kulaJa and akusala has shown that
other alternatives are available. Thus, in order to settle the matter, more specific
evidence, and such that comes from the canon itself, is required.
1.5. In this connection, it is worth noting that COUSINS (144) points to a couple
of canonical passages where expressions meaning "wise", like pap(jita, and even
kusala applied to a person in the sense of "expert", are used in the same context as
kusala in the terminological sense. E.g., in A I 1044_8, a person is said to be wise
(paJJ{jita) on account of three factors, namely bodily, vocal, and m:ntal actions
qualified as kusala. Or, in A III 431 (no. 6.79), we read that a monk IS capable of
attaining a ( or the?) kusala dhamma he had not attained before if he possesses six
qualities, the first three of which are specified as ''being expert (kusala) as regards
income or gain (aya), loss (apaya), and devices (upaya)" - expressions .from the
economic sphere which the text, of course, uses in a metaphorical sense. But the
material connection between a person being wise or expert in spiritual matters,
on the one hand, and actions or dhammas qualified as kusala, on the other, does
61
Actually this is, in my opinion, the simple reason for the omission, at Sv III.88326-36,
of the meaning cheka (used to explain kusala in the sense of "expert" or "skillful", said of ·
persons: see fn. 115) - which has created unnecessary problems for the µka-author (cf.
COUSINS, 1996:140) -, for the basic text is concerned with dhammas only. For the same
reason, cheka is, to be sure, mentioned as a meaning of kusala at Asl 3810r but not applied
to the expression to be explained, viz., kusala dhamma. .· ... :
62 With variant readings; cf. also the new ed. by SOMARATNE (PTS, 1998:1504) and the
parallel passages M III.10217f and A I.181 16r. Interestingly enough, even in this case Ps
IV.1486r and Spk I.125m refer sukusala (probably ad sensum) to the goldsmith: dakkhena
sukusalena kammarena ... sampaha{!ham; similarly Sn-a ad Sn 686, where this analysis is
grammatically unproblematic because the agent is not mentioned separately, and Mp
II.29215r where it would at least not be ungrammatical.
63 E.g., the quasi-synonym pap(jita ("wise") is, normally, applied to persons only.
However, at Dhs 78 and 2263_8 it is, exceptionally, used of dhammas, in the metaphorical
sense of factors occurring in a wise person or making a person wise (Asl 5119-21), as ,is
confirmed by the (similarly unusual) use of the antonym bala in this passage.
 7
452 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
not necessarily imply a semantic relationship. The double use of kusala in A III
431 may be merely accidental or just a play of words.
1.6. What may help us to settle the matter is a closer look at canonical defini-
64
tions or expressions functioning as quasi-synonyms or antonyms of Jal/ala and
akulala in the terminological sense. I admit that even definitions must be treated
with care since we cannot a priori exclude the possibility that the definiens may not
express the literal meaning of the definiendum but may rather point to its function,
range of application, or the like. Likewise, in the case of juxtaposed expressions, we
cannot a priori be sure that they are meant to describe one and the same phe-
nomenon (as they, to be sure, often do in the sermons), and to what extent such a
common purport goes along with semantic synonymity or quasi-synonymity: But
(quasi-)synonymity or antonymity wiU be highly probable if there is cumulative
evidence and agreement with one of the non-terminological meanings of kusa/a
and aiallala, and if it is, additionally, corroborated by the exegetic tradition.
1.7. In the case of kusala applied to persons ("skillful"), there are indeed ap-
65
propriate quasi-synonyms like pai;l(jita, nipuJJa or pa.i.ia, and antonyms like" biila.
But COUSINS does not adduce any canonical passage where the meaning
"(un)skillful" is made explicit for kuiala and akulala applied to dharmas, i.e., used
in the terminological sense, by way of a definition or at least suggested by a similar
set of quasi-synonyms or by antonyms, nor have I myself come across such a
passage. Rather, the passages where kusala or akusala in the terminological sense
are defined, accompanied by quasi-synonymous expressions or contrasted with an
antonym point in a different direction, and in spite of COUSINS's reservations I
consider the cumulative evidence conclusive.
7 24
2.1. A fre~uent quasi-synonym of akusaia66 and antonym of kusala6 is papa(ka)
''bad", "evil".6 Just one example: In a (probably comparatively old) stereotyped
description of the path to liberation, we read that if a person does not guard his
sense-doors, piipakii akusalii dhammii may consequently flow or rush into him
70
(anviissaveyyum), 69 just as flies rush upon a filthy, stinking thing or person. I do
not see any reason not to take papaka and akusala as quasi-synonyms reinforcing
each other, since both share the meaning "foreboding, or involving, misfortune". In
the context of the path, it makes perfect sense to understand these dhammas as
64
I.e., expressions that are semantically related but not entirely equivalent.
65
Seefn. 5.
66 Especially, when akusala qualifies dhammas and discursive thoughts ( vitakka),
mostly in connection with meditation and spiritual practice, but also with reference to evil
conduct (duccarita). Cf. GEIGER (1920:109f = 1973:208f).
67 E.g., Dhp 183::::: Uv 28.1; Th 872 = Dhp 173::::: Uv XVl.9 (cf. NORMAN, 1969:247).
68 Unfortunately, papa is not a very precise word; it may point to social or moral disap-
proval (cf., e.g., papako kittisaddo: M 1.12611), but it may as well simply qualify something
as being in a poor or miserable condition (e.g., piipakam (duj)jlvitam: Vin IIl.7234£), or as
foreboding or involving misfortune, harm or disadvantage ( e.g., ma kaffci papam agamii: A
II.735), or, occasionally, even imply unskillfulness (e.g., papanapita "a bad barber": Kas1kfi
ad Pa.1p.ni 2.1.54 and 6.2.68; emphasis is, however, on the person's being contemptible
(kutsita)).
69 E.g., D 1.70 _ : yatvadhikaraIJam enam cakkhundriyam asamvutam viharantarh . · ·
9 12
piipakii akusala dhamma anviissaveyyum, tassa samvaraya pafipajjati
70 AI.280f.
Kusala and Akusala 453
stimuli or emotions that are pernicious, baneful or detrimental, 71 namely for
meditative concentration and for the monk's spiritual progress.
2.2. This meaning is also supported by another recurring phrase 72 speaking of
the evil, baneful dhammas which lead to pollution and rebirth, which are fraught
with distress (s~(d)dara), 73 which have a disagreeable result (dukkhavipiika), and
which lead to b1rth, aging, and dying in the future. Since all the additional attri-
butes indicate disagreeable effects, they make excellent sense as explications of
akusala taken as "baneful" or "detrimental". 74 Since the word "unwholesome" is
defined as "detrimental to physical, mental or moral well-being" in Websters Third
New English Dictionary (p. 2515), this common rendering of aiallala in the
terminological sense would seem to be quite acceptable, provided that "mental" is
understood to include the spiritual dimension. According~, kuiala in the termino-
logical sense must mean "beneficia1"75 or "wholesome", 6 be it in the sense of
71
The change from "ill-boding" or "foreboding/involving misfortune" to "detrimental" is
deliberate, with the aim of indicating the transition from the magic Vedic world-view to the
Buddhist principle of dependent arising (pratityasamutpada).
72
A II.1112-14: samyutto piipakehi akusalehi dhammehi saJikJ1es(ik)ehiponobhavikehi
sadarehi dukkhavipakehi ayatim jatijariimaraJJikehi, tasma ayogakkhemi ti vuccati Cf. also
M I.28012f, etc.; 41524r, etc. (akusalam idam kayakammam dukkhudrayam dukkhavipakam,
etc.)i II~.l161r, etc.; D III.575_7; S IV.1869f; DhSk 7 R2 (395r) and 8 V8 (41 30-421):
akusalam . . . dulJkhodayam dulJkhavipiikam~· BoBh 12524f: piipakair akusalair dharmaih
sarhklesikailJ paunarbhavikailJ sajvarair dulJkhavipakair ayatyam jatijaramaraIJiyaiJ.r, AKBh
36910. Cf. ALLON (1997:229). For akusala = dukkhavipaka, see also the Bahitika-sutta (see
fn.100).
73 Cf. Buddhaghosa's explanation of kusala as niddaratha (Sv III.883 ; cf. also
VlbhaJiga-a!fhakatha (PTS) p. 14; COUSINS, 1996:139f). Semantically, niddaratha appears
to be cl?se to khema (see# 2.4 and ch. 1.1 # 2.1). This fits in with niddaratha being used
(at Paµs-a I.961; COUSINS, 1996:158f n. 8) to explain upasama, just as khema/ksema
("security") can be a quasi-synonym of (kusala and) niivaIJa ( cf. S IV.371; AKBh 2027f,' etc.; I
see ch.3 # 3.2). B?Bh 12525 (see fn. 72) has sajvara instead of sa(d)dara, and at ASBh 759f,
kfema as a quasi-synonym of niiviiIJa is preceded by nirjvara and nisparidaha. For the I
alternation niddara/nirjvara, see Dhp 205 = Sn 257 and Uv 28.5. ·
74 This m_ipression is further corroborated by the fact that in A II.11 (see fn. 72) the
perso~ who 1s not yet free of those dhammas is called "one ·who has not yet obtained
security from bondage" (ayogakkhemin; cf. NORMAN, 1993: 278f; cf. also Jiitaka I.275 16f
[vs.]:. yo ... bhaveti kusalam dhammam yogakkhemassa pattiya), i.e., ultimate well--being,
bu_t _1s bound to ?e reborn ~ = "Unheil"). The point of evaluation here is obviously the
spm~al pe~s~ect!ve. Otherwise, A II.17211_13, referring to evil actions (piipakani kammani)
as bemg sa,Jikilesika, etc. (see fn. 72), but not using akusala !
75 Cf. SrBh(Sh) 50812f, juxtaposing kusala with arthopasamhita. Cf. also passages like A
1.19120-26 and 1906-12 (Kalamasutta), where the dhammas that are stated to be kusala and
akusala are also stated to be (among other things, for which see# 3.1) conducive:to benefit
and happiness (hitaya sukhaya), and to detriment and suffering (ahitaya dukkhaya),
res~ectively. Such passages would, to be sure, by themselves only prove material
eqmvalence, but in combination with the evidence already adduced it is obvious that there
also is a semantic equivalence or at least an overlap. Cf. also the characterization of
akusala as "causing harm" and kusala as not doing so, which will be discussed in ch. 5
# 3.lff.
76
_ This would seem to be the meaning of kusala also in a passage of the later half of the
~UY_aga<Ja, viz., Siiy 2.7.10 (§ 849), stating that for householders even to refrain only from
killing mobile (tasa), living beings (i.e., animals), unless forced to do so, is already kusala.
The commentator Silatika states that this attitude of householders is kusala because it
454 Lambert SCHMlTHAUSEN
"conducive to absolute welfare (i.e., to nirva.JJa)", or of "having an agreeable result
or retribution, leading to heaven, conducive to benefit and happiness".77 This
meaning of kusala would thus connect with its use, attested in the Aitareya-
a.raJJyaka, as an adjective in the sense of ''bringing good luck" or "conducive to well-
being", i.e., "beneficial" (see ch. 1.1 # 3.2).
2.3. Other expressions that are sometimes juxtaposed with kula!a or that are
used in its place in similar contexts would seem to point in the same direction, or at
any rate do not support "skillful".
2.3.1. The most significant is pu.i.ia/pu]Jya,78 of which "entailing happiness",
"beneficial" 79 is at least one prominent shade of meaning, referring either to actions
or attitudes conferring agreeable results in the afterlife 80 or to the stored potency
deriving from them ( and occasionally even to the agreeable rebirth obtained
thereby). 81 Thus, pu.i.ia creates no problem as a quasi-synonym82 of kusala if
''wholesome" is accepted as the literal meaning of kusala83 and as long as kusala is
applied to the karmic perspective. 84 Likewise, statements characterizing kusala and
akusala as conducive to benefit (hita) or detriment ( ahita), respectively, 85 would be
little more than a paraphrase of their literal meaning.
Kusala and Akusala 455
86
2.3.2. Another expression closely related to kusala is kalya.JJa, which in
Buddhist texts may sometimes just mean ''beautiful" (as when a woman is called
janapadaka/ya.JJf "the beauty of t~e regio~") or_ "~xcellent" in the s_ense of social
appreciation (cf., e.g., the express1~n kalyaJJo kittJsaddo~: ~d may, _m such a case,
semantically come close to kusala m the sense of anava1~a ·~for w~ch, see # 3.1).
But the primary meaning of kalya.JJa, and the only meanmg m Vedic texts, even m
88
connection with women or fame, is rather ''beneficial", as is confirmed by
coromentarial explanations tending to equate ka/ya.JJa with bhadda/bhadra "lucky,
fortunate" and also with pu.i.ia ''beneficial". 89 Likewise, subha, a synonym of kusala
in later sources,90 means "splendid, beautiful, pleasant" as well as "auspicious, lucky,
beneficial".
2.4. ·It is in conformity with these canonical materials that commentaries and
91
later systematic treatises, including the Yoga.ca.rabhrlmi, frequently explain
aial/ala as ''what has an undesired result" and, accordingly, kusala as "what has a
93
desired result" 92 or as "conducive to security" (k~ema), an intewretation found in
94 9
the Viniscayasamgrah81Ji as well as in the Abhidharmakosa. Since one of the
terms used for "result", viz., vipaka ("ripening"), comes to be closely associated with
karmic retribution, 96 the definition of kusala as "what has a desired result/

causes kusala. If the latter is understood as ''well-being", the meaning that suggests itself
for the basic text is ''beneficial"; cf. JACOBI's (1884:423{) rendering: "and this turns out to
86 E.g., Vin III.72.sr (It 25 18r; cf. M III.1654.8 and 17127.31; A I.15513; 15~; II.1741sr):
katakalyaJJO katakusalo katabhiruttaJJo, opposed to akatapapo akataluddo akatakibbiso
(karmic perspective, cf. COUSINS, 148, pointing out that in 'this context "kusala is very much
to do with future consequences"); A 11.366 (cf. fn.113): kalyaJJadhammata kusaladhammata;
I

their benefit". I I
77
E.g., A 11.5420-22; III.511s-11; IV.24512-14: kusalabhisanda ... sovaggik;J sukhavipaka s U.11817: na kiiici vadami aiiiiatra kalyaJJa aiiiiatra kusala. Cf. also fn. 89. I

I I
87 Cf. Mp III.210sr, explaining kalyaJJadhamma as anavajjadhamma.
sagg_asamvattanika ... hitaya sukhaya samvattanti · I ',
78 E.g., puiiiiabhisanda kusalabhisanda: S V.391 , etc.; A II.54-zo, etc. (cf. fn. 77; Mp 88 Thus convincingly BEUCKER (2006). I am obliged to Prof. Adelheid METTE for 1' I

4 I

~II.9226 expressly declares kusal° to be a vevacana, i.e., synonym, of pufi.i"); AKBh 19725 ; pointing out this work to me and kindly lending me her copy. , I

89 Cf. It-a 102 : kalyaJJam bhaddakam puiiiiam; Petavatthu-a!fhakatha (PTS) 96:

SrBh(Sh) 4296; kusalakiriya puiiiiakiriya (v.l. cariya): D II.2832f; M III.16923r; S I.101 18r (cf.
0
3
Spk I.16729.32, expressly confirming the quasi-synonymity of the expressions and specifying bhaddakam ti ... kalyiil}am kusalam; 11617r: katakalyaJJO ti ... katabhaddako katlipakaro;
the practice as the ten wholesome ways of action). On the other hand, at M 11.1995 12224£: kalyaJJam ti ... kusalam puiiiiam. I'
90 E.g., AK IV.8d as a metrical equivalent of kusala (AKBh 2028; cf. also AK IV.9c:
(pu.i.iassa kiriyaya kusalassa aradhanaya, in a question to a brahmin), kusala would rather I

seem to refer to the (ultimate) welfare as the goal ( cf. D II.21625 : kusalassiidhigamaya; cf. akusala as antonym). i I

91 y 631Sf (see fn. 60), pointing out two basic meanings of kusala, the first of which is 11'
also fn. 111).
79 Cf. its association with kaly81Ja and bhaddaka (see fn. 89; puJJya and bhadra already I I
"taking possession of a desired result" (iJfaphalapadgraha). Conversely, one of the
in l_?gveda 2.43.2: cf. FrLLIOZAT, 1980:101), and the fact that papa is the common antonym meanings of akusala is am~faphalaparigraha (6311). II'
92 Pali commentaries: Sv III.883 or; Asl 381or; Patis-a I.20516r (kusala = sukhavipaka
of all of them (for bhaddaka vs. papaka, cf. It 26f; for pufiiia vs. papa, see PREMASIRI, 3

~-~::f
11 I

1976:66{). [bahuv.]); cf. COUSINS (1996:139 and 141). Non-Theravada sources: Vi 263a14r; Ct-8 1 I

80 (Sangitiparyaya); cf. 263a19f; Vi2 204a19.22; b16-19; cf. 204a23f; Vi3 460Cgr; 467a11-11; cf. 466esr;
The restriction of puiiiia/puJJya to the karmic perspective (cf. PREMASIRI, 1976:68{) I' I';
is confirmed by later definitions, which even tend to limit its application to wholesome Abhidharmahrdaya (T1550) 811a3f ~~ i!&~::f~ and am; MAHrd.88lc21 and '1
1
I

(kusala) karma conducive to a fortunate rebirth or fortunate circumstances in the 'sphere 882ag; ArthNib 108sf (cf. COUSINS, 1996:152): bodhipakwalJ kusalalJ, k$emarthena, 11
I
I

rl
I

of sensuality' (kamadhatu): cf., e.g., AK(Bh)227m; Y 1924r. Cf. also Mahiiniddesa 901st (on 1$faphalatvat / tadvipalcyas cakusalalJ, ak$emarthena, am~faphalatvat I (spiritual I I

Sn v. 790), restricting puiiiia to the wholesome karmic impulses (kusalabhisalikhara) persgective!).

belonging to the three mundane spheres ( tedhatuka) (PREMASIRI, 1976:72). 3 The ambiguity of khema!k$ema may derive from the fact that in the canonical texts
81 a. CousINs (1996:154) (referring to It-a I.73 -74 ). the Path is qualified both as khema ("secure", e.g. S 1.12314) and as khemagamin ("leading 1:
30 8
82 Semantic closeness or overlapping ('quasi-synonymity') does, of course, not exclude to security = nirvaJJa", e.g., S IV.3713). I

functional differentiation. . 94 Yt zi 232a -b (see fn. 185). 1111 [

8 2 '1'
83 95 AK IV.45ab + AKBh 227 r (see fn. 237); ArthNib 108sr (s. fn. 92); cf. also Sn-a 1.231.9
Apart from being linked to the karmic perspective, pu.iiia tends to be used (though 7 I 11
I

by no means exclusively) for the 'stored beneficial potency', whereas kusala, even in the (ad Sn v. 14), qualifying the miila (i.e., Jobha, etc.) as akusala in the sense of akkhema 111 I

karmic perspective (see fn. 52), is normally used to qualify the beneficial actions or (spiritual perspective?) or savajja (see# 3.1) and dukkhavipaka (karmic perspective?). In 1 I

attitudes themselves from which such potency results; cf., e.g., D III.58z1.23 : kusalanam ... Vi 263a11 and a 29 (Vi2 204a17 and bu; Vi3 466c15) and AKBh 202s, k$emais used only in the 11:i I

dhammanam samadanahetu ... puiiiiampavaddhatJ: sense of accomplished security ( = nirvaJJa; see below ch. 3 # 3.2). I

M • • 96 For the possibility of a wider meaning of the expression "having an agreeable/desired

Se.efn. 52.
85 See fn. 75. or disagreeable/undesired result/retribution" in the Siitras, see Vi 260a22.24: "[The expres-
 456 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
retribution" is occasionally supplemented by "and what leads to nirvana" 97 in ordc
to cover the spiritual perspective as well. 98 Even if referring to karmi~ retributionr
"having an agreeable result" is merely an explication of the meaning "beneficial':
narrowed down to the karmic perspective.
. 3.1. Some _cano~fal passage~;) howev_er, point in yet another direction, explai-
mng or replacmg kusala and akzisala by "rrreproachable" (anavajja) and "reprehen-
99
sible" (savajja), respectively. This is sometimes further followed by or specified as
what is, respectively, praised/condemned by the wise (vi.i.iuppasattha/'garahJ'ta) 11 H1
or worthy/unworthy of the noble ones (alamariya/nalamariya), 101 both of which
point to evaluation from a social, moral or spiritual point of view. The most
important of these passages would seem to be the one found in the Bahitika-
sutta.102 In this text, conduct of body, speech, and thought qualified as akusala is
expressly specified or defined as conduct that is reprehensible (savajja), i.e.,
according to the Chinese version, condemned by the wise. Reprehensible conduct
sion] 'undesired result' used in this [discussion refers to] 'suffering' in the form of pain
(dulJlcha-du!Jkhatii: retribution). [When the expression] 'undesired result' [isJ used in the
Siitras, [it refers to] all the three kinds of 'suffering' ( dulJlchatii)." Cf. also Y (ms.) 76b (Yt
6
dzi l68a2r): "'having an agreeable result in the future': because it is conducive to ·nirvana
without any remainder of 'possessions'" ( iiyatyiirh sukhavipaka iti nirupadhiie~nirva~a-
sukhiivahaniit: spiritual perspective!). · ·
97
See ch. 5 #2[b2] with fn. 237.
98
In the case of aiallala, there is, at least in some schools like the Vaibhasika a
tendency to limit it to the karmic perspective: see ch. 3 # 6.1 with fn. 202. For th~ ea,rly
Y ogacara sources, see ch. 3 # 6.2 with fn. 212.
99
For passages associating kusala and anava1]a, see COUSINS (1996:162 n. 55). See also
D 111.8211.14 and 21-29; M 1.11931; NidSa 16.4 (cf. Vi 245b5 and Y 205 6_8); Samathadeva,
Af_Jhidha171!ak~iaflka (Q5595.277b4,Derge4094.243a3>: dge ba nigang zhig yin/ <midge bc1
m gang zh1g yin I> kha na ma tho ba dang bcas pa nigang zhig yin I kha na ma tho ba med
pa ni gang zhig yin I (negated forms placed second in accordance with M.111 20528r and D
III.6l14r; cf. NidSa 16.4).
100
AI.189-191 (Kiiliimasutta); 194-196; II.191-193.
101
102 I.1639fr; III.82f; A IV.363 10ff. a. also D 1.11524 ( ariyas11fkusalaslll).
D successive re-definitions or specifications, which in my view unfold two facets of the
M 11.114-116 (no. 88); Chinese version: MA no. 214, esp. 798a26 -b1 and cs.12 (Engl.
transl. of the Chinese: ANAi.AYO, 2007:156-166). In the Chinese version, the concepts
employed for the step-by-step specification of (a)kusala are almost identical with those
found in the Kalamasutta, etc. (see fn.100). However, in the context of the Bahitikasutta
the definition of savajja/anavajfa as "condemned/praised by the wise" is somewhat odd
because the whole sequence of specifications is meant to define actions that are (not)
det:sted, or found reprehensible, by intelligent, wise ascetics and brahmins, so that arriving
agai? a~ "condemned/praised by the wise" amounts to circularity. To be sure, this circularity
(which 1s not found in the Kiilamasutta, etc.) is surmounted at the end of the sequence by
grounding (ir)reprehensibility in the fact that the actions concerned entail or do not entail
injury. But the redactors of the Pali version (M II.11418ff and 11519ff) may nonetheless have
been dissatisfied with the circular course of the preceding part of the argument. At any rate,
the explanation of siiva1]a/anavajja as "condemned/praised by the wise" is missing here.
Inste_ad, ..the Pali ~ersi?n (cf. al_so A I.97f and M I.11931f) has "(not)involving injury" (sa
/avy~ba1jha) and ~avm~ a pamful/pleasant result(/retribution)" (dukkha 0 /sukhavipaka),
but m view of the fmal what harms (/does not harm) oneself, others or both" this would
s~em to create ju~t another redundance, and "having a pleasant result(/retribution)" hardly
fits th~ context, viz., the ~onduct of the Tathagata. - For the sequence kuiala - anavadya -
avyabadhya, cf. also Yt YI 32asr (Yc 762an20; cf. fn. 285) and AS 601rn (with ASBh 723.6).
Kusala and Akusala 457
~ n e d as conduct that entails injury and suffering. Conduct qualified
1n
as its
jaJsala is, accordingly, defmed · ·
as meproac h able (1.e.,
·. praise r
· d b ~h ~ Wise · ) , and
. roachable conduct in its tum as conduct that does not entail tnJury but has
irrep ant consequences. Smee . . . Isuf~1.enng
"enta1·1·mg mJury . " and "havmg . p 1easant
1
P eas quences" correspond to the established semantic content of akusala and
conse . . . I .
1,., . ,8 viz ., "detrimental" and ''beneflcrn ", 1t wou.
Id appea.r. t h at "repre h ens1"ble " and
j\.uS31,, .
"irreproachable" may just be another facet of therr meamJ?-g. .. .
3 2 According to COUSINS, the equation of kusala WIth anava11a 1s, however, a
e ~f· material equivalence but semantic difference. 103 The Pali commentaries, on
~:: other hand, not only list anavajja as one of the meanings of kusal~, bur even
rd it as its typical meaning in the teaching method of the Suttantas (m contrast
rega
to kosallasambhuta belongmg · tot~~ ~eamngs · · 1o f t h e_Abh"dh
tJpica 1 aroma_).. I_t 1s
104 ·
true that anavadya ( = Pa. anava11a) ts rarely 1f ever ment10ned by ~arvast1vada
urces as a meaning of kuiala, but it is found in the Yogacarabhum1, and as the
~~e (i.e., general?) meaning of kuiala at that: "Kuiala is of one kind, in the sense
of bemg . irreproac
. h able. 11105 .
3.3. In view of the semantic possibilities of Jpli'aia in non-terminological use
(ch. 1.1 ), it appears unwarr~Jed to discard the ex~getic _tradition which regards t~e
canonical explanation of Jai§ala as anavadya as d1sclosmg a facet of the semantic
content of Mala. In my opinion, the evidence rather indicates that "alright", "right"
and hence "irreproachable" may indeed be a possible connotation of kusalain the
terminological sense 106 already in the canonical texts, at least in certain contexts.
This connotation of "right" and "wrong" in kusala and akusala would appear
particularly suitable in the case of such actions and. ~ttitudes we ~o~ld call ':moral"
and "immoral", which in the canon are often called good behaVLor (sucanta) and
103 COUSINS (1996:149): "In fact they are not synonyms ... ". A similar view is taken by
VELEZ DE CEA (2004: 133-138), who interprets kusala in terms of either ~oral realis~ _or
virtue ethics, anavajja in terms of either virtue ethics or social conventions, and h1taya
sukhaya sarhvattati, etc., in terms of consequentialism. This may be defensi?le in the case of
the Kalamasutta, etc., where the criteria are simply juxtaposed, but hardly m the case of the
Bahjfikasutta (see fn. 100), where the terms are used in what is clearly a sequence of
semantics of kusala/ akusala and at the same time try to disclose an ever deeper reason why
one kind of conduct should be practiced and the other avoided (I shall return to this point
in ch. 5). In my opinion, this attitude is implicit also in the Kiiliimas~tt~ etc. (~. fn. 75)._-:
In the case of other occasional equivalents of akusala and kusala like 'black and 'white
(e.g., D I.163t), the equivalence is doubtless material only, not semantic. As far as I can see,
this is also true of the pair "impure" (asuci) and "pure" (suci) (A 1.292-294: no. 141 and 144,
no. 145 and 148). . .. .
104 Sv 111.883 _ (COUSINS, 139; 149). In connecting the meanmg anava11a with the ,
32 34
teaching method of the Suttantas, Buddhaghosa (ibid. 88335 ) ma.kes ~pecial mention of t~e
Bahitikasutta (COUSINS; text: biihiya 0 ,· cf. also Asl 63 15r). Yet, m his commentary on this
very suttanta, Buddhaghosa (Ps 111.34624) curiously enough explains akusala ~s
akosallasambhiita; perhaps because the akusala and kusala conduct concerned 1s
demonstrated to be, respectively, absent and present in the Buddha himself. ,. _
0 105 Y 629f: ekavidharh kuialam, anavadyiirthena; cf. also 2056: te punap kusala
anavadyatvat 0/ akuialap savadyatvat 0/.
106
All the more so since occasionally (A V.240-242 and 273-276) not only
"irreproachable" and "reprehensible" but also. sadhu ("straight, ~ight")_ and asii~hu take !he
place of kusala and akusala in parallel suttantas. In a non-termmolog1cal meamng, we fmd
kusaliim as quasi-synonymous with siidhu ("alright", "fine") at Sn 712 (cf.ch. 1.1 # 4.1 ).
 458 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
''b~ d beh av10r
. " ( uuccan
A "t ,\ 107 • I 108
a" respective y. But m . •
VIew .
of expressmns like""right
mmdfulness". (s~1;1_ma!~ti) or."right me_ditati:e conc~nt~ation" (~ammasamadhi), 109
the connotatmn nght 1s not mcompatible with meditative practices either.11°
~ _ 3.~. In some places, we find the idea that someone may attain or accomplish
111
nayam dhammam kusalani, Which COUSINS (145; 161 n. 36) renders with "the
method, the dham1:7athat i~ skillful", but his own explanation(" .... the rightway")
does not support his rendenng. The phrase would seem to require closer investiga-
tion.112 Even so,
113
it may be worth mentioning that in what looks somewhat like a
verse-parallel we find hita instead of kusala, which would point to "beneficial",
"wholesome".
107
sucarita and duscarita occur sporadically in Vedic texts; I have noted Atharvaveda
9.5.3b ( d~scarita)_; Yti.J~saneyi-sa1f:hita 4.28 (both); Taittiriya-brahmapa 3.3.7 (both; the
text e?'Plams: v_rpnam an(faril duscaritam, and /jukarmaril satyaril sucaritam); Taittirlya-
upam~ad 1.11.2 (suj; Kafha-upani~ad 2.24 ( dusj. They seem to be absent in the
i?-scriptions of Asoka and rare in th~ earliest Jaina sources: YAMAZAKI and OusAKA (1999)
list only on~ occurrence of ducca1?y~ril (Isibhasiyairh 17) and one of sucaritaril (ibid. 27).
The. same 1s true _of the Suttampata: only two occurrences of duccarita (v. 407c and
v. 665c). -Accordmg to the Saligitipa.ryaya (T1536.378a28 -b8 ; cf. Sang 63 [§ 3.1 ]}, duscarita
may ~efer to th~ tenfold bad behavior of lay people (killing, ... sexual misbehavior, etc.:
karrmc p~rspect1ve ), to _the tenfold bad behavior of monks and nuns (killing, ... unchastity,
et~.: ~pmtual persp~cttve), or to all behavior that is (karmically) unwholesome Cf~
b~s~an = akusa/a~: mcorrect (~p];!lpfr5 [ fe1Jf su6yfn = ayogavihita, perhaps in the sense of
ansmg from ayomsomanaskara [cf. AKBh 2586; cf. also Y 137. 13], i.e., impeding liberation)
or o?tstructive to meditation (fjg~ifJE neng zhangai ding). 1 '
. Cf., e.g., It n?. 64-65 and no. 83 (5517fr and 783. 9; cf. Uv 7.4-6), where duccaritaand
sucanta
109
alternate with akusala and kzfsala (sc. kamma), respectively.
For kusala = samyaiic, cf. Sankara's gloss on Chandogya-upanisad 4.10.2 (see
fn.40). · VELTHEM's French translation, which is, however, somewhat imprecise): In
110
Cf. M I.11931: vita/daI akusala ... sava1}a, in the context of meditative concentration-
~ V.2~2 (no. 140): savajja/anavajja characterizing right/wrong view up to right/wron~
liberation.
111
. -~.g., M I.51~2r and 5152: na aradheyya iiayaril dhammaril kusalam; 50219 : vinita
anye naye dhamme kusa/e; M II.18134, S V.19u, and A I.6916r: (na) aradhako hoti iiayaril
dhammaril kusalam; cf. GEIGER (1920:109 = 1973:208). The Central Asian Sanskrit
f~a~ents ~on!irm tht:. wor?ing, reading nrayam ,dharmaril kusal[fril ( SWTFII.94b ), but the
Sra~~-fabhum1 has ~yayyam dhaz:mam kusalam (SrBh(Sh) 273 17; SrBh(Tai) II 14616f).. ·
The tr~nslat10ns quote? m SWTFII:94b show that translators disagree with regard
to t~e. meamng an~ syntactical status of kusa/am, which some take as an adjective
qualifying the precedmg noun(s), whereas others regard it as a substantive. If we follow the
verse-para,~el in A II.~; (see _fn: 113), we would have to take kusalam as an adjective in the
se~se of wholesome qualifying, probably, the path to liberation (cf. Spk III.l31u:
anyamagga-dhammaiiJ; for kusalaril dhammaril in this sense, cf. Th v. 83; Jataka I.275,
;· 54): somebody m~y, or may not, att~in or accomplish the right method/access (iiaya), the
patter~ of con~~ct (dhamm:) that 1s wholesome (kusala), i.e., conducive to (ultimate)
well-bemg. But nght, correct for kusa/a would also make good sense in this case. For the
Path as the object of aradhaye, see Dhp 281d. On the other hand, ifwe take the phrase as a
sequence of nouns (2+ 2+ 3 syllables; cf. also DE JONG, 1999), it may culminate in kusala in
the ~?-se of ultimate well-~eing:. somebody m~y attain/~ccomplish the (right) path, the
1 "wholesome" (see SHETH, PaiasaddamahapJJavo 340); cf., e.g., Dasavey 4.10d: cheya-
(!~lvif1c) pa~tern of conduct, (ultunate) well-bemg ( = mrvaJJa; cf. fn. 78 and A III.326zsr:
nayassa adh1gamaya mbbanassa sacchikiriyaya).
113
A II.3711: hitam_ devamanussanaiiJ .iayaril dhammaril pakasa)'I: The prose (A II.36sr,
etc.) runs: bahu 'ssa Janata anye iiave patiffhapita yadidam kalyana-dhammata""* kusala-
. --
Kuiala and Akuiala 459
3.5. Whether the connotation of "right" and "wrong" as such is a later develop-
:te,
ent in the terminological use of kusala and akusala requires further study. At any
this connotation would not suit well s11:ch passage~ w~ere ~sala dhamD?as
re described as if overwhelming a person like somethmg mtrudmg from outside
(cf.# 2.1). But I hesitate to follow COUSINS in declarin~ this connotat~on to be
much later, at any rate if "much later" means post-canomcal. And as pomted out
bove (ch. 1.2.1 # 3), the elaboration of a chronological development of the
~eaning of Jailaia and akulala within the Sutta- and Vinayapifaka would presup-
pose a c~nsensus with regard to the stratificati~n of the material, which has so far
been achieved at best only very roughly. ·
4. If the preceding argumentation is correct, the original meaning of iallaia in
the terminological sense is something like "beneficial", "wholesome", with, probably,
an additional connotation of "right", "correct". In a sense, one may even render
kulala in the terminological sense by "good" in the sense of good for somebody, or
for attai~ing ~ c~rtain ben~f~t, or in the sense of ?eing ~fPr~;e~ by !he wi~~- But in
my opimon 1t 1s not, ongmally, connected with kusala skillful (or good at
something",114 "good" in the sense of technical excellence: KEOWN, 1992:119£),
normally said of persons only. 115 The association of.kusala in the terminological
sense with the meaning "skillful" as expressed in its commentarial explanation as
kosallasambhtlta is, in my opinion, a later device, probably motivated mainly by
Abhidharmic considerations (see ch. 4 # 3).
5. I am aware of two more cases - both of them unique, as far as I can see -
where the two uses of kulala, viz., the terminological one and that of "skillful" used
of persons, have deliberately been merged: .
5.1. The first has already been pointed out by COUSINS (1996:152, quotmg VAN
Skandhila's Abhidharmavatara - a treatise of the Sarvastivada school - kusala said
of dharmas is indeed explained as meaning "skillful" (* susik~ita), because these
dharmas produce, like a skillful painter, a pleasant bodily form (sc. in the next life):
"Or [kusala] has the meaning of suS1k$ifa, because [these dharmas] produce
(* abhinirvartayanh) a beautiful bodily form (* nlpa or * bimba, Ch. miao sexiang
fr!}~{~), like a skillful painter."116 This is obviously nothing but an attempt to
dhammata* (* v.l. 0 tiiya). Here, the noble' method/access (ariyo iiayo, acc. to GEIGER
(1920:109 = 1973: 208), the eightfold noble path) is defined as the norm (dhammata),
which is excellent (kalyapa) and kusala, and here kusala could, to ~e sure, mean
"wholesome", "leading to (ultimate) welfare/security" but may at the same time convey the
nuance of "right", perhaps even "excellent".
114
Cf. DPs.v. kusala 2.
115
This meaning appears as cheka in the Theravada commentaries (e.g.: Ps III.27lzor;
Asl 381or; Patis-a I.205 16r). See also fn. 61. Cf. also the Tibetan rendering of kusala as mkhas
pa (also used for pap<Jita, nipupa, etc.) when it has the meaning "skillful" (said of~ pers~n),
but as dge ba ( also used for kalyapa, subha, svasti: etc.) when it is used in the te~ologtcal
sense. It may be worth noting that in Jaina Prakrit cheya means both "skillful" and
pavagaril (SCHUBRING: "what is wholesome and what is evil"; CilJ7Ji [Indore 1933] 1614:
cheyaril = hitaril). .
116 AAvat(V) 88 _ (transl.: ibid. 19; Ch.: T1554.982b 9f): yang na gzugs bzangfD mngon
13 2
par grub par byedpas legs par lobs pa 'i don te I ri mo mkhan legs par lobs pa bzhm no//. Cf.
 f
460 Lambert SCJ-IMITHAUSEN
connect the meaning of adjectival kusala in the terminological sense with·the only
meaning of adjectival kusala that is current in classical Sanskrit and recognized by
the indigenous lexicographers, 117 namely "skillful". Its perspective is clearly the
karmic one only, and it is offered as an alternative (yang na) to the .primary
explanation of kusala as "conducive to security" (lcyema), i.e., "beneficial'.', which
Skandhila expressly refers to both the karmic and the spiritual perspective (by
specifying it as leading to agreeable existences or to liberation).
5.2. An entirely different and rather specific situation presents itself in the
Pafisambhidamagga commentary (Patis-a III 5498_11). The main motive here seems
to be one of philology. The passage is concerned with the explanation of the
expression arammaIJiipatfhana-kusala-vasena of Pafisambhidamagga II 2919, which
refers to arammaJJiipaf!hana-kusalo (II 272s), i.e., a person "who is experienced in
[achieving] the object's becoming present [to the mind]". The problem is that in
connection with - vasena ("on account of'') kusala can no longer denote the person
who is skilled or experienced but must refer to his being skilled, i.e., it presupposes
the virtual presence of an abstract suffix: "on account of [his being] skilled in ... ". 118
This is what the commentator, too, realizes ( tasma kosallavasena ti attho). But in
order to arrive at this interpretation he feels obliged to take a detour (which is
probably influenced by the reinterpretation of kusala as kosallasarhbhiita), and he
states that in the present passage kusala means "knowledge" (.iaIJa), for knowledge
may also be called "skillful" (kusala) because it belongs to a skillful person (.iaIJarfl
pi hi kusalan ti kusalapuggalayogato kusalarh), just like dhammas are called "wise"
(paJJifita) because they belong to a wise person. 119 Thus, in this passage, the word
kusala, used in the basic text of a person in the sense of "skillful, expert" (not 1kusala
in the terminological sense!), is in the commentary interpreted as "knowledge"
because the context requires an abstract, i.e., expertness, kosalla, which the
DhammasaiigaIJi (Dhs 1119_21, etc.) lists indeed as one of the quasi-synonyms of
insight (pa.i.ia).
2. Different Perspectives
1. If the primary meaning of kus'aia in the terminological sense is nbeneficial" or
"wholesome" and that of akuiala ''baneful", "detrimental", "unwholesome": with
reference to what can attitudes, practices, and actions be categorized as either the
one or the other? The answer has already been anticipated, in a provisional way, in
ch. 1.2.1 # 2 by introducing two perspectives: the karmic and the spiritual. In a
more systematic way, we may distinguish between three levels of human aims
(puru§artha): welfare in this life (secular perspective), in the afterlife (rebirth,
also ADi 174f: "kusala means skilled, as in the case of a skillful [person]; it should be
understood as being metaphorical[ly applied] to the cause of [karmic] fruition" (silcyitartha{1
kusa/arthalJ praViIJaVat 0/ vipakahetav aupamiko dra~favyalJ).
117
E.g., AmK 3.3.204: pa.ryapti-k~ema-puIJye~u kusalam, sik~ite tri-lu (TEDESCO,
1954:133b: "kusala means as a neuter substantive 'ability' ..., 'welfare,' and 'good deed,' and
as an adjective of three genders, 'skilled'."). Similarly AbhVL no. 2027: kusalam dharma-
pa.ry8fti-k~emeJu, triJU si/cyite. , (apramada): MPS 4.12-16. Cf. also KEOWN (1992:45 and 125).
1
Cf. the meaning pa.ryapti "competence" for kusala as a neuter substantive (see
fn.117). · 121 ); cf. also the same set adduced as present-life negative consequences of klesas in Y
119 Cf. Dhs 7 and 226 _ .
8 38
Kusala and Akusala 461
--
karmic perspective , an d m
• ) 120 . t.h e absolute sense (mrvaJJa,
. - spmtua
. . I perspective
. ) .121
From a traditional Buddhist point of view, these three perspectives are arranged
hierarchically, the first being the lowest and the last the highest.
122
2.1. As far as I can see, kulala and akulalaas adjecdves qualifying dharmas are
only very rarely used with ex~lusive or primary reference to t~e s_ecular level. As a?
exception, one can, perhaps, adduce a passage near the begmmng of the Sanskrit
MahaparinirvaIJasiitra, where the kusala dharma.lJ which' according to the Buddha
will flourish and not decrease among the Vr.jis as long as certain social patterns of
behavior are maintained most probably do not refer to moral or religious qualities
(which would be beneficial from the karmic and spiritual perspective) but rather to
a fortunate, secure, and unassailable economic and political situation. 123 These
aspects of secular welfare are, however, by no means detrimental to moral and
spiritual growth, and it is hard to imagine that in any Buddhist text an action or
attitude that yields profit in· this life but entails evil consequences in the afterlife or
is spiritually detrimental would be qualified as kulala.
2.2. Not infrequent~, however, the texts point iout that dharmas that are ( or
may be) qualified as kzisala and akuiala in the karmic or spiritual perspective tend
to have, respectively, agreeable and disagreeable consequences already in the
present life as well. Successfully cultivated spiritual practices, e.g., and especially
the various levels of deep meditation, are described as involving a state of non-
sensual happiness and equanimity, 124 and keeping· the moral precepts not only
leads to rebirth in heaven after death but is often described as also entailing
happiness in this very life because one is free from.contrition 125 and feels at ease
among people or in meetings, receives social approval, enjoys economic success
due to non-negligence, runs no risk of being punished, and dies a peaceful death. 126
127
As against this, breaking the moral precepts tends to have the opposite effects.
120 This label is admittedly somewhat imprecise in view of the fact that karma may also
have effects in the present life. But its typical causality works in the afterlife. Therefore, I
use 'karmic perspective' in this specific sense,pradhanyena.
121 Cf. STEINKELLNER (2003:327). The same distinction was also made by Dieter LANG
in an (unpublished?) article entitled "Drei Ziele", which the author showed me more than
20 years ago. For Jainism, see WILLIAMS (reprint 1983:xix).
122 In my opinion, this hierarchy of perspectives ( and of the values connected with
them) is of fundamental importance for an understanding of Buddhist ethics, but going into
details would exceed the limits of the present paper. For some observations in this respect,
mainl~ concerning Mahayana Buddhism, see SCHMITHAUSEN (2003).
12 MPS §§ 1.14-38. In the Pali version, it is merely stated that the Vajjis will flourish
and not suffer decrease, without mentioning kusala dhammas.
124 E.g., D I.70 t and rn; 73 ff, etc.; cf. also Yt zi 232b6 (see ch. 3 # 5.5[4.]) and 64bs
4 2 25
(pleasant sensation and joyful state of mind due to not harming anybody and increase of
irreproachable dharmas ).
125 Cf. A II.121 . ; 20417f, etc.: dit!h' eva dhamme sukham viharati avighatam
21 29
anupayasam apadfaham; no anxiety and contrition in the hour of death: M III.17126-34; Yt
zi 64b7 (Yc 602c28f): 'gyod par medpar 'chi ba 'i dus byedpar 'gyur ba.
126 See, e.g., M III.170 -171 ; D II.86 _ = = =
26 34 1 16 III.23616-28 Vin I.2273s-22812 Vism 1.23
::::: Yt zi 64b6_7 (Ye 602c26_29); similar set of present-life advantages of non-negligence
127 See, e.g., M III.163 -165 ; D II.85 . , etc.; A I.47 ~4822; 20224-27, etc.; II.121f (no.
14 11 12 28 8
1706_9 (AHN, 2003:84-86 [k-o ]). However, in S IV.343-348, it is pointed out that actions like

462 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
As the Yogacarab~umi puts it, a person ~eciding and attempting to kill someone
else ~ay succ~ed m d~mg. so _or may fad .. In the first case, he will in any case
expenence pa~ful retnbutmn m the afterhfe, but he may also incur punishment
or ~eproach m the present life. Even if he is unsuccessful, he may incur
pumshment or reproach in this life or at least suffer from frustration because his
attempt failed. 128
3. In .the first place, however, the attributes Ja!laia and akdlala qualify dharmas
as beneficial or detrimental in the spiritual and/or in the karmic perspective. 129 In
terms of the spiritual perspective, emotions, attitudes, and ~ractices are Ja!lala if
they are. conducive or favorable to final liberation, and akulala if they impede or
delay this goal. In terms of the karmic perspective, they are Ja!lala and.· akulala
according to whether they entail, respectively, mundane welfare or misfortune
especially in the afterlife, i.e., in the first place, a desirable or undesirable rebirth. '
. 3:1. As for who] esom_e attitudes and practices, some have, to be sure, a special
affimty to one p~rspec~Ive or ~o the other. E.g., liberality ( dana), 130 at any rate
donatmg matenal gifts, will mostly be connected with the karmic
perspect~ve, wher~as the eightfold path has its natural place in the spiritual
persp~ctive, especially the last three members (cf. M no. 117). However, basically
most If not all of wholesome dharmas may be helpful in both perspectives, and in
11:1urd~r or theft do not always lead to secular punishment and that the view that they
wev1 tablyentaiI suffering in this very life is erroneous. ·
128 Y 194z-15 (read d.~tadhiirmikam in 194 and icchavighatanidanam in 194 ; in.194 ,
11 15 12
th~ s~ntence katha_m d!$fadharmasamparayikam avadyam prasavati? yatha ubhayavya-
badhaya cetayate has dropped out. For iitmavyabadhaya cetayate, etc., the text presupposes
the so~ewhat u~atur_al me~ning "he plans [killing someone else) with the effect of injuring
/harassmg/troubling himself, etc.). Less explicitly Y 1703_5 (complete text in AHN, 2003:84
[9.e-g)) and Yt zi 12a2-4 (Ye 582b1s-21). Similar but slightly different in detail, J.iana-
p~asthana T1544.928bs-26 (T1543.783a29-b1 9; cf. DEMIEVILLE, 1961:469-471; Vi 226b9-c 27 ;
l
VI2 ~3bii-Czo). Cf. ~lso Samyuktiigama T99.229b13.17 and T100.422b28-c1.
2
Cf. Y 6213: 1$/aphalam kusalam against visamyogaphalam kusalam; SALOMON and
Cox (19~8:146): upadhiphalam kusalam against visamyogaphalam kusalam. Similarly,
though without ref~rence to 1!11~al~, M III.72 (cf. PREMASIRI, 1976:69), distinguishing
between a correct view ( sammaditfl11 ), etc., that forms part of pu.i.ia and results in worldly
'possessi~ns' ( upadhi, especially rebirth in fortunate circumstances) and a supramundane
correct view, etc., that forms part of the Path (to nirvaJJa); cf. also Mp V.6920, where it is
stated that having wrong views entails failure ( viradhana: A V.211z3) with reference to
he~~en (saggato:_ karmic perspec~ive) as well as with reference to the Path (maggato:
~pmtu~ perspective). In the Abhidharmasamuccaya, kusala in the spiritual perspective is,
m the first place, represented. by what is wholesome as the antidote [of defilements and
obsta~l~sJ yiratipak$8fa/J ku_~aJ_am: 2211-19), and kusala in the karmic perspective by what is
beneficial m terms of acqms1tion (parigrahatalJ kusalam), but see also fn. 132. - I am, of
course, ,aware of the fact that the concept of karma itself is occasionally extended. to the
spiritual perspective, as, e.g., at A II.230-232 (no. 4.232) or M 1.389-391 (no. 57; cf.
~ ~ Y , 2000:44; ADAM, 2005), where the fourth type of karma (A II.2328_17) is the
mtent10n. ( ~etana_!) to abandon ,'.karm~c'. k~r,ma ~n order to. attain liberation ( asavakkhaya).
In my opm1on, this could be an mclus1vistic re-mterpretatmn of a karma-based soteriology
(Jainas?).
130 I~ the canon ~n_ly rarely qualified as kusala (thus A IV.236 ), but in non-Theravada
11
systematic texts classified as part of pUJJyabhagiyam kusalam (e.g. AK(Bh) 26721 + 274rn;
AS 2215f(see fn.132)).
Kuiala and Akuiala 463
- ~ n e they fructify seems very much to be a matter of personal aspiration, but
~ IC may also have unintended (or not primarily intended) side-effects in the other
132
t e~pective. 131 This is made explicit when, e.g., the Abhidharmasamuccaya ~tates
r::t by meritori~us action in ~he fo~ of lib~rality or. moral~o/ one m~y ~cqmre, to
be sure, rebirth Ill heaven or Ill a nch and h1g~-ranking f~~ly (ka~1.c, ii:itramun-
dane perspective), but also suitability or readmess for spmtual pu~if1cat10n. By
large lay followers will normally act from the karrmc perspective, and monks
and ' . . . 1 . 134 b t th·
and nuns sh~uld, ideally, be or!e!1-tated wwards the spmtua persp~ctive? U lS
1
i:
d' stribution IS by no means a ngid one, and there are, e.g.,136texts m which a monk
described as practicing for the sake of a fortunate reb~h. . ··
3.2. In the case of unwholesome attitudes and practices, there IS, of cour~e, no
corresponding aspiration (who wants to b~ :ebo~ _in hell?), and_ w~at is _detnmen-
tal in the karmic perspective (e.g., killm~ h~mg bemgs) _is mvanably al~o
detrimental in the spiritual one. But the opposite 1s not necessanly the case. E.g., m
e spiritual perspective, sexual intercourse as such would seem to be unwhole-
th
some because it involves attachment, 137 whereas m •
th e 138
karmIC
. perspect'1ve only
sexual misbehavior (kamesu micchacaro) is unwhol~s~me. But abstention from I I
131 CT. ADAM (2005:74f). · . _ - -
132 AS 2215f: parigrahatalJ kusalam katamat? yad danamaren~ pu1Jyak_!-1yavast~n~ va
silamayena va svargopapattiparigraho va a<fhyoccakuloP__apattJpangraho va vy~vad8:-1a1!u-
ldilyaparigraho va. ASBh 27 12r confirms the two perspectives by expr~ssly refemng the fi~st
two parigrahas to intramundane happiness (abhyudaY_a) and t.he th~rd ?net? the attam-
ment of niIVaIJa ( <niIVaIJa> prapti). - Cf. also the motives for hberahty hsted m A IV.2361-
9 (no. 8.31) = D III.258 _ and 236 16-2373 (no. 8.33) as well as Sang§ _8.3 (T1~36.~la1s-b20)
10 16
and AKBh 27019.21, ADI 214z4 , etc.,.which include, besides psychological motives like fea~,
social and economic motives, and purely ethical motives (Golden Rule), both the karmic
perspective (missing in A no. 8.31, but cf. D III.258ir26~2) a?-d the spiritua_l persIJt:ctive,
viz., giving in order to clarify, embellish, and prepare ones mmd and to attam the highest
goal <AKBh 270z1: uttamarthasya praptaye danam dadati~. . . _ _
133 Cf. also the possibility, in the Mahayana, of (re-)directmg (panJJamana) wholesome
karma to Supreme Awakening.
134 a. rn. 138.
I I
135 Cf. HARVEY (2000:46, with further references). Wishing for pleas~nt rebirths and
eventual attainment of niIVii]Ja at the time of the future Buddha Maitreya: LANGER
I I
(2007:23). _ . . .
136 An impressive example is M III.99ff (no. 120), but as ANALA':"O (20_?6:509!) pomts
out, at least aspiration to rebirth in a heaven of the sphere of sensuality (kamadhatu) does
I I
not befit a monk. ·
137 Cf. MPPU 395c f: "The monastic precepts are for the sake of attaining niIViiJJB in
4
I
this life. Although sexual intercourse [as such) does not injure other sentient beings, the
mind is ensnared [by it); therefore, it constitutes a serious offence [for monks and nuns]"
(n1Zt$ ~4-t!tl&i.fil~t&o ~i~ 1n~,~~~, ,G-~~t& ~:k~o ). . . . ~-
138 At least in the Pali canon, in the case of the path to hberat1on, which 1s normally for
monks (and nuns), right conduct (sila) includes absolute chastity (brahmacariya) ~e.g., D
1 I
I.63 r; M I.17927f; A II.2092f), whereas ordinary right conduct of lay persons (outside the
27
uposatha observances), which is normally declared to be conducive to hea':en ( sagga: e.g.,
M I.288 . ) or favourable rebirth (e.g., A V.26822_25 ), requires only abstent10n from sexual
35 37
misbehavior (kamesu micchacaro: e.g., M I.28732r; A V.26621r). There seem to be very few
exceptions to this distribution. E.g., at M III.251 (no. 141) and D II.3_121~r, the n~ble
eighfold path leading to the cessation of suffering is described, but th~ third t~em of nght
action (sammakammanta) is defined as abstention from sexual nnsbe~avior (25124r),
although absolute chastity would seem to be required ( as is confirmed by the parallel at S
 ¢
464 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
sexual intercourse may be beneficial not only in the spiritual perspective but also
( and still more so than mere abstention from sexual misbehavior) in the karmic
perspective, as when it is practiced by lay followers during the uposatha days. 139
. 3.· Specification of the range of employment of
Ia!la!a and aJailaJa in the Abhidharma traditions
and its semantic implications
0. One of the achievements of the canonical Abhidharma works is the attempt to
fix the range of employment of the categories Jalla!a and akuiala, which constitute
one item within the scheme of properties applied to the list of dharmas - basic
factors of existence established on the basis of the Siitras and considered to
comprise everythin2: that exists - in order to determine their common and distinc-
r;t and alaisala
tive features. If kusala r,,, .,~.<,;' ·1 wouId h ave to
are to cover all dharmas, 8Aw,a1a
be taken in the sense of a mere negation of kusala,. i.e., as "not wholesome". ,But in
most if not all of its occurrences in the canon it is used in the sense of something
opposed to kus'aia, i.e., "unwholesome"= "detrimental", "baneful", implicitly.admit-
ting of the possibility of factors that are neither kui'aia nor akuiala. For this reason,
most Abhidharmic traditions 140 share the assumption of a third alternative, namely
avyalqta, "unexplamed· [as e1t
'h er Aw,a1a
1~,<,;'.1 or a kr"'.1]1114111
usa1a , neutra1"142Th . ereiIwere,
however, interesting disagreements concerning the precise distribution of dharmas
to the three categories. Some examples may be welcome, just to indicate the
problems involved:
1. Accordinf to Theravada Abhidharma, the five sense-perceptions are exclu-
sively neutral, 1 3 and this is also the position of the Siiriputrabhidharma 144
(Dharmaguptaka School). The Sarvastivadins, on the contrary, assumed that
V.9m; no specification in MA 469b1_6 and T32.816b 10_18 ); perhaps in these passages some of
the eight members of the path are understood as being, basically, practicable already before
entering the·Buddhist Order. On the other hand, there is A IIl.27~_9 , where a monk's right
conduct, including absolute chastity, is stated to lead him to rebirth in heaven. A systematic
investigation of these patterns and their disttjbution over the different Nikayas ( and
Chinese Agam.as) might be rewarding.
139 Cf. A I.211-215; IV.251-262.
140 According to Kuiji (m£, or rather Ji£), the (or some?) Mahasatighikas seem to
have rejected the existence of avyalqta dharmas (BAREAU, 1955:67 no. 39). If this was
actually the case, they may have defined akusala in the sense of a simple negation
(prasa/Yaprati~edha).
14
CT. AKBh 208 : kusalakusalabhaven.ivyakaraJJad avyalqtalJ. Another explanation
says: ''because they are not explained with regard to (i.e., as entailing an agreeable or
disa?!;eeable) retribution" ( vipakam praty avyakaraJJad ity apare: ibid. 209 ). ··
42 Not used in the Sutras in this sense. Outside the Abhidhamma, the trichotomy
kusal~akusal~avyakata is found in the SamathakhaJJ<Jaka of the Cullavagga (Vin
II.91ur; cf. also T1428.916a25fr; Tl435.252a100).
143 Vism 14.95; Kv 10.4;. Cf. Dhs 87 -90 and 117 z-1192; Vibh 9021f: among the 18
21 38 3 dharmas that are kusala are part of [all] the [five] skandhas (cf. also Yt zi 79b2f :::::: Ye
dhatus, 16 are exclusively avyakata, and only two (sc. manov1nfia1Ja-dhatu and dhamma-
dhatu, cf. Vibh 71 33f and 897_25 ) can also be kusala or akusala. For the special meaning and
function of the manodhatu in TheravadaAbhidhamma, see Vism 14.115 and 118.
144 SA 539a _ : 13 dhatus, including the five sense perceptions, are exclusively avyakrta;
7 11
among the vi;nanas, only the manovi;'fiana can also be kusala or akuiala; cf. also 530c1rn,
and 549b23_z7.
Kusala and Akusala 465
~;~;~~;erceptions may also be kuiala or akuiala, 145 a view we also find in the early
146
Yogacara treatises. The reason for this difference of opinion would seem to lie in
a different analysis of the process of perception. For the Theravadins, 147 sense-
perception is only one moment taking place immediately after the act of directing
one's attention to the object, and it is followed by a purely men ta] process of
apperception, ascertainment, and emotional reaction, and it is only the latter that
can be kuiala or akuiala. As against this, in the Yogacarabhiimi, 148 the phase of
emotional reaction may revert to sense-perception, which then (in contrast to the
perception at the beginning of the process) may be kuiala or akuiala, not by its
own reflective activity but due to the impulse ( avedha) of the preceding mental
process (manovjjiiana).
2. For the Sarvastivadins,149 as also for the Sariputriibhidharma 150 as well as
151
other schools including the early Yogacaras, 152 visible matter (riipa) and sound
(sabda) may be kuiala or ·akuiala, that is, if they have the form of wholesome or
unwholesome actions of body and speech, i.e., of bodily and verbal actions aroused
by wholesome or unwholesome emotions, respectively. The Theravadins dis-
153
agree, obviously restricting, in their Abhidhammic system, 154 the terms kusala
145
PrakaraJJa (T1542.727a 15f): kusala and akusala dharmas comprised in 10 dhatus, i.e.,
in all except the five material sense faculties and three sense objects, viz., smell (gandha),
taste (rasa), and tangible (spra~favya); cf. AKBh 204_ 15. Detailed discussion of the sense
percegtions: NA 348cu-349b7.
1
AS 224r and 23u: ten dhatus contain also elements that are kusala or akusala, just as
in the PrakaraJJa ( see preceding note). See also fn. 148.
147 Cf., e.g., Vism 14.115 and 117-123.
148
Y 102_6: tatra cak§uIViffiane (ms.) utpanne trlJJi cittany upalabhyante yathtikramam:
aupanjpatikam, parye~kam, niscitam ca/ tatradyam (ms.) cak~uJVJj.ianam eva, dve mano-
vif.iane/ tatra niscita<c> cittat prabhrti [thus ms.] samkleso vyavadanam ca dra~favyam/
tatas tanna(syandikam cak,suIVijfianam api kusalakusalam pravartate, na tu svaVJkalpa-
vasena/ tavac ca dvayor manovif.ianacak~urvij.ianayolJ kusalatvam va kli~fatvam va (ms.)
yavat tan mano nanyatra v1k~jpyate I; 591_6 : ... kli~fakusalamanovij.ianavedhat samanantare
cak§uradiVJjnane kli~fakusaladharmotpattir, na tu vikalpat te~am avikalpatvat (ms.). ata
eva cak~uradi-(e.c.; ed. 0dini) -VJj.ianani manoVJj.ianasy.inuvartakanfty ucyate. Cf. also 61:
"Moreover, in two ways [visual perception] follows the lead of the manovif.iana (which
comprises apperception and reflection): in that it follows it in being wholesome or defiled,
and in that it follows it in giving rise to karmic action" (punar dvabhyam akarabhyam
manovii.iananuvrttih: ca (ms.)).
149 :,· . ' kusalaldistanuvrtti<
'' ' ta>§ ca karmasamutthananuvrttitas
'
PrakaraJJa 757b21.27 : among the twelve ayatanas, the four that may also be kusala or
akusala include nlpa and sabda in the form of wholesome and unwholesome acts of body
and speech (kaya- and vag-VJj.iapti), respectively; cf. also 727a15.17 : the ten dhatus, four
ayatanas, and five skandhas that may also be kusala or akusala include nlpa and sabda;
AKBh2014.
150 ' i'
SA 530b29-C3 and c,_10; 539a11-14 and a1s-22; 549a2s-b2.
151
Kv-a (16020_24) ad Kv 16.7: Mahisasakas and Sariunitiyas.
!
152
Y 6211 (samutthanataiJ) and 13 (kusalam nlpam ... ); cf. also 1702lff; AS 224r:
608b26f), of ten dhatus and of four ayatanas, including, acc. to ASBh 277r, nlpa (i.e.,
wholesome bodily action) and sabda (i.e., wholesome verbal action); 22 7r: utthanatalJ
kusalam katamat? tatsamutthapitam kayakarma vakkarma; analogously for akusala: 231f
and 23 5f.
153
Kv 16.7 + Kv-a (160f); Dhs 23434-36 (nlpa listed under avyakata only); Vibh 1220+24:
sabbam nlpam ... avyakatam. Accordingly, in Theravada Abhidhamma only four of the five
 466 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
and akusala to the sphere of intention or decision as a mental process. 155 In
contrast to this, the afore-mentioned schools advocate a wider use, which may be
. -~·· -·-·----~
understood in the manner of ever widening circles: Some dharmas are kusala or
akusala by nature (svabhavatalJ, like greed or hatred, see ch. 4); others (like the
mind, citta) are so only if associated with the former ( samprayogatafi); yet others
(namely acts of body and speech) are so only if and because they arise from
wholesom~ or unw~oleson:ie emotions or states of mind (samutthanatafJ). 15 h
Though this pattern 1s occas1onally also found in Theravada Abhidhamma, 157 it was
not taken to imply the wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of the material factors
constituting bodily and vocal action. 158
3.1. For Theravada Abhidhamma, niIV8{1a is "unexplained" (avyalqta), 1s 9
160
whereas the Sarvastivadins and the Dharmaguptakas 161 take the pratisamkhya-
nirodha ("cessation due to consideration"), which corresponds to niIV8{Ja, to be
kusala. The latter position is also found in the Yogacarabhrlmi, both in terms of
162
pratisamkhyanirodha and in terms of nirvaIJa constituted by the coming to rest
of all pollution ( samklesavyupasama), 163 i.e., of rebirth and/or of its causes.
3.2. This disagreement, too, can be explained as a matter of different termino-
logical decisions: Theravada Abhidhamma has limited the meaning of kusala
khandhas, two of the twelve ayatanas and, since the sense perceptions are also excluded
(see # 1), two of the 18 dhatus can be kusala, akusala, or avyakata, whereas all the others
154 nlpa and sabda, are exclusively avyakata (Vibh 62u, 73 9r and 90m).
including '
In the Pali canon itself, there is no reason not to take qualifications of bodily or
vocal kamma as kusala or akusala (e.g., M I.415 29r, etc.) literally.
15
. ~Accordin~~· they d~fine the -karmic act of 'killing a living being' (pii]Jiitipata) as the
mtentmn (or dec1s1on) to kill ( vadhakacetana: Ps I.198rn, etc.: see GETHIN, 2004:171; 174;
195 n. 17). The starting point of this position is probably A III.415 7r: "It is intention/decision
that I call action; [only] after having formed an intention/decision, one acts with the body,
by speech, or by mind" ( cetan.iharh bhikkhave kammarh vadami; cetayitva kammam karoti
k_ay:na vacaya manasa) In t~e Sarvastivada canon, the wording of the passage differs
significantly: "There are two kinds of action: the action that consists in intention/decision
and the action [that ta~es place] after the decision" ( dve kam1a1Jl - cetanti kam1a cetayitva
ca (AKBh 19210; cf. MA600a24)).
156
Vi 263a23-b25 ~ 74la9-b4; AKBh 2012r; cf. also 2025ff; MA.Hrd 874b29-c6(cf. RYOSE,
1987:76-78; Y 6211: trividharh (sc. kusalam): svabhavatafi sarhprayogatafi samutthiinatal;;
AS 22s-s and 232-6-
157 Dhs 1801_11 •
158
. In th.every pa~agraph referred to in the preceding note, all matter (sabbarh nlparh)
· 1s exgiessly mduded m_th~ ne~tral (avyakata) ~hammas (Dhs 18017).
Dhs 23~36 (nibbana listed under avyakata); 18017 (asalikhata dhatu listed under
avyakata), Vibh 11234c and 43014 = Pa!is II.1091 (nirodhasaccarh avyakatarh); Kv 19.6 +
Kv-~~179f). Cf. COUSINS (2006:23).
PrakaraJJa T1542.757clf; cf. also T1542.727a15_20 (only the kuiala dham1as contain an
el~ment that is to be comprehended by nirodhajiiana, the object of which is pratisarhkhya-
mrodha); AKBh 2013: pratisarhkhytinirodhah ... kuialah.
161
SA 530cm and 539b3 (pratisarhkhyilnirodha co~prised in the kusala dharmtiyatana
and 1"g_hatu); 557c2f (nirodhasatya is kusala; cf. BAREAU, 1955:195).
y 6214.
13
~ Yt zi 64b1: "[kusala] occurs also in the sense of the calming down of pollution" (dge
ba nI .•. kun nas nyon mongs pa nye bar zhi ba las kyang yod do//), i.e., in the sense of
nirvaJJa (ibid. 232b5r: see # 5.5).
---~-
' Kuiala and Akuiala
;ri~ly to "wholesome" or "b~neficial" ~ the sense of "cond~ci ve to ":elfare,"
467
which means: conducive to ultimate secunty or to good fortune m th~ afterlife. The
Sarvastivadins and Y ogacaras, on the other hand, have opted for a wider use of the
term kusala, by extending, e.g., its application to the 'result consisting in dissocia-
tion' ( visamyogaphala) of the wholesome dharmas 164 or by including the semantic
aspect of "security" (k$ema) as an accomplished state or as the goal, 165 which
corresBonds to "welfare" (health, etc.) as one of the non-terminological meanings
of kulaia 166 (ch. 1.1 # 2.1) but is applied by them, in doctrinal discourse, to
ultimate welfare: 167 According to some sources, niIVaIJa, and only niIVaIJa, is
kusala in the ultimate sense (paramarthatalJ) because, being the definitive
cessation of all suffering, it is absolute security. 168 Viewed from this perspective,
164 Vi 263b12f, b17, b22 (~-=::.~ifN~mE*M~*l&~~) and bz7. For ~mt* dengliu
gu6, see fn. 177. . .
165 Vi 263a + and a ; AKBh 202 • - As pomted out by COUSINS (1996:160 n. 18),
9 11 29 8
explanations of kusala in terms of khema are. indeed occasionally found also in the P~i
commentaries, e.g., Ps I.113f (see fn. 16); Th-a 1100 (see fn. 32); It-a 1.93 (see fn. 29). In his
view, this explanation may reflect influence from Buddhist Sanskrit writers or from
lexicographical sources. However this may be: in my opinion, the explanation of JailaJa as
ksema is reminiscent of a central facet of the original meaning of kulala, a facet that is
s~mewhat marginal in the Theravada commentarial tradition (perhaps because it fits,
primarily, nirviiJJa, not regarded as kusala in this school) but not entirely unknown ( cf. the
semantically related meaning niddaratha "free from distress": see fn. 73).
166 a. AKBh 202 , stating that nirviiJJa is kusala (well-being) like health (arogyavat),
8
whereas the basic spiritual factors ( alobha, etc.) are kusala (beneficial/wholesome) like a
salutary medicine (pathyau~dhavat: ibid. 20210r). , _
167
Vi 263a9+11 (cf. Vi2 204a16+17): 1:131:~i&~~o ... tl:31:~ifffi~~o -Such a use
of kds'ala is not entirely alien to the canonical texts, including their Theravada recension; cf.,
e.g., the use of kusala for sammiiditf111; etc., up to sammiivimutti (see ch.1.2.1 # 1). There
are also passages where it is not easy to decide whether kusala is used for the goal or for the
means. At Sn v. 965 kusalanuesin ("in quest of kusala") is more likely to mean "in quest of
[ultimate] welfare" than "in quest of what is wholesome/beneficial", though this aspect may
not be excluded; cf. Mahaniddesa (PTS) 4865r: nibbanarh ca nibbanagaminirh ca pafipadarh
esantena. a. also M I.1663sff where the related expression kirhkusalagavesin (perhaps:
"searching whether there is any [ultimate] well-being") is followed by the probably quasi-
synonymous phrase "seeking the supreme state of highest peace" or "supreme security from
bondage" ( anuttararh santivarapadarh pariyesamano, later - yogakkhemarh nibbanarh-),
and what is found is precisely this suprem.e security, nirvaJJa. But "searching for what is
wholesome" (i.e., for the true path to liberation) makes good sense too. Perhaps here too
both aspects are intended - For k~ema as referring to nirvaJJa, cf. Y (NirupBh) § 3 and AS
6414f (Q5550.109a8-b1) with ASBh 75 1or (nirviiJJa is "security" because it constitutes a state
without danger /fear (Jigs pa med pa, bhayarahita)), based on S IV.371 (no. 28) ~
T99.224b9.
168 Sarvastivadins: e.g., Vi 263a f (cf. Vi2 204bu; Vi3 466c15): J»jj!ii&if, ffl J»jj!i~ NP
28
~11l~ 31:~i&~~; 741a 14; AKBh 202Jr: ... nirvii]Jarh hi sarvadulJ.khavyupasamalJI tata.lJ
paramak~ematvat paramtirthena kusalam, tirogyavat/; cf. also 2751s; MAHrd 874c3; NA
546a22_29; 596a1_3; Vibhajyavadins: Vi 263a29r + hz (Vi2 204hz+4; cf. Vi3 466c17f); 741a15+17· -
The question whether the immaculate ( antisrava) factors that constitute the supramundane
Path are to be regarded as wholesome in the absolute sense (thus RYOSE, 1987:74) or not is
not discussed in these passages. Actually, the inclusion of these factors in the category of
samskaraduhkhata was controversial and is rejected by the mainstream V aibha~ikas and
the Yoga.car.as (cf. SCHMITHAUSEN, 1977:923f), and according to Vi 30a2r both nirvana and
the noble (i.e., supramundane) Path are kusala in the ultimate sense (~tgy1E!.~ ~~-~),
 $
468 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
---·---..----·---·-··-··--··-··---..-------------···--------·-··-- ····--·-···---··-··---···-··-··-···---···-·-·-··-·-··-----..---·····-----·
the whole of sarhsara is, in the ultimate sense, akusala, because it is ultimately
insecure. 169
4. According to the early Yogacara sources, the category of kusala includes
also the correct views, actions, meditative states, insights, and virtues of liberated
170
persons as well as their compassionate altruistic activity for the sake of other
171
sentient beings. A similar view seems to have been held by the V aibha~ik<as, 172
and it is in conformity with the statement of the Bahitikasutta that the Tathagata
possesses all wholesome/excellent qualities (sabba-kusala-dhamma-samanv-
but Vi2 2la19 does not use this terminology. Cf. also Dharmapfila's commentary on Catuh-
sataka 16.23 (T1571.246b2z-C1; cf. HOORNAERT, 2004:127f), where two kinds of kusala ..:.__
defined as "(conducive to) peace" ( anhe ~f[J, k~ema?) - are distinguished: mundane and
supramundane. Only the latter destroys defilements forever and is thus conducive to peace
forever and therefore wholesome in the ultimate sense, whereas the former suppresses
defilements only temporarily and is thus, in the ultimate sense, not wholesome ( akusala).
169
Vi 263b1r and b10; 741a22f and 2sr; AKBh 202i1: samsaralJ paramarthen.ikusalal;,
sarvadulJkhapravrttyatmakatvena paramak$ematvat I; MAHrd 874c6; AS 23 6r: paramartha-
to 'kusalam sarvasamsaralJ /. - This use of kuiala and akusala would manage without the
additional category of avyalqta as long as morally and soteriologically neutral uncon-
ditioned entities like apratisamkhyanirodha and akasa (which are avyak[ta in the ultimate
sense according to AKBh 2033.5 and AS 2~) are not taken into account.
170
lJ_nambiguous is Y 19216 (asaik$8m karma: yad asaik$aSantanikam kusalam (ms.))
and Yt z1234au (Ye 668a14-16): "The supramundane conditioned dharmas and the mundane
kusala [ dharmas] of an arhat, [i.e.,] one in whom all impurities have vanished(* k$i.JJasrava),
may be called the 'dharmas characteristic of one who need not train anymore' (* asaik~a
dharmalJ)" ( dgra bcom pa zag pa zad pa 'i chos Jig rten las 'das pa 'dus byas dang Jig rten pa 'i
dge ba gang dag yin pa de dag ni mi slob pa 'i chos rnams zhes bya o). Cf. also Y 6312f: punar
dasavidharh (sc. kuialam): asaik$I samyagdf${ir yavat samyagvimuktilJ samyagjiianam ca,
i.e., the dharmas constituting the eightfold path insofar as they continue to occur in arhats,
plus right liberation (see fn. 167) and right comprehension; Y 193rn (asaik$am kusalariJ
karma); AS 2222f (see fn. 177). Cf., in this connection, the fact that the 'absorption into the
cessation of feeling and apperception' ( samjiiavedayitanirodha), into which arhats may also
enter _(Yt zi ~Ob?r), is cl~ssified as ,exclusively kuiala in the Sarvastivada tradition (AKBh
7?9f), m the Sanputrabhidharma (SA 530c19, 539b1 and 549b18), and in early Yogacara (Yt
z1 76b2_3 = Ye 607b5r; AS 2219.21).
171
According to Yt zi 64b2, the term kusala may also be employed in the sense of
benefiting other sentient beings (sems can la phan 'dogs pa las). This refers to the final
stage in the spiritual development of a person (ibid. 63b3_4), and the characteristic
~holesome_ factor of this stage is doing no harm [to others] ( avihimsa"), which is comprised
m compassmn (karupa)(ibid. 63b7. 8). Cf. also Yt zi 232b7_8 (see# 5.5[5]).
172
I did not have time for a systematic investigation of this issue, but see AKBh 105 23 ,
where it is stated that an asaik§arh cittam, i.e., a supramundane state of mind of an arhat,
may be followed by another aiaik$am cittam or by a kusalam cittam belonging to one of the
three mundane spheres, or Vi 953b25 and b27f, where it is pointed out that an arhathas cut
?ff all akusala dharmas but is endowed with kusala dharmas (rol~il Blr~~r:t ,'IIGfilt~
$). Cf. also AKBh 1506: na hy arhato lauldkam nasti kusalam dharmalambanam saumana-
syam, i.e., .arhats do have a feeling of joy which is mundane but kusala (i.e., spiritually
secure, or rrreproachable ), e.g., when they meditate on the qualities of the Buddha (AK.Vy
3156r). Cf. also Prakarapa T1542.744c4 + b 25_28: margasatya, which is saik$a or asaikJa, is
exclusively kusala (viz., supramundane: ibid. 697c22r). · tries to store beneficial karma, which would make sense only if he were still striving for a
Kusala and Akusala
469
·ggata). 173 As against this, the Theravada Abhidhamma, at any rate in its definitive
form, seems to classify all states of mind of an arhat as avyak[ta: 174 The
Theravadins are, of course, aware of the fact that an arhat has states of mmd that
. are quite similar to the beneficial or irreproachable states ~f mi?d of n~n-arhats in
that they are accompanied by non-greed ( alobha), etc., butm spite of this the_1 have
decided not to call these states of mind kusala in the case of the arhat 17 Once
again, this decision seems to be essentially due to the implicit presupposition of a
narrower definition of the term kusala, viz., strictly in the sense of "wholesome",
i.e., "conducive to [one's own] welfare", which does ,not make sense with the
arhat, since he has already attained ultimate welfare and is no longer subject to
rebirth. 176 By contrast, other schools like the early Yogacaras have opted for a
173 M II.11615r (cf. PREMASIRI, 1976:71; KEOWN, 1992:118); Udana (PTS) 661s-1s; D
I.115 24 (samapo ... Gotamo ... ariyasili kusalasili; Sv I.2862r: anavajjatfhena kusalam; cf.
COUSINS, 2006:23). Cf. also M II.25 18. 20 + 2834-2912, where the person possessed of the ten
qualities characteristic of one who needs no further training ( asekha dhamma), i.e., ~n
arhat, is stated to be the one to be called sampannakusala and paramakusala, transl. m
NANAMOLI and BooHI (1995) as "accomplished in what is wholesome, perfected in what is
wh~lesome", and by PREMASIRI (1976:71) as "endowedwith kusala" and "(of) the highest
kusala". But the precise meaning of these compounds may be in need of reconsideration;
perhaps "whose welfare is complete, who is perfectly secure"?, or even ''whose impeccability
(/excellence?) is complete, who is perfectly irreproachabte"?
174 Once again, I have to apologize for not having had enough time for an exhaustive
investigation. Perhaps the Theravada position was stimulated by passages like M II.2710-24,
where it is stated that a monk should practice in such a way that even wholesome conduct
(kusalasila) ceases. Cf. also MI1indapaiiha 14619f: "[An arhat] has done with the wholesome
and the unwholesome" (hatam kusalakusalam). This does not, of course, mean that an
arhat abandons ethical standards. On the contrary, since he has completely eliminated
greed, aversion, and delusion, it is simply not possible that he might intentionally kill a
sentient being, etc. (D III.13314fr; 2354ff; cf. HARVEY, 2000:44£).
175 Among the three groups of wholesome states of mind, the supramundane
(lokuttara) states of mind do not occur in an arhat(cf.. Vibh 114,4 : maggasaccam se.kham)
but are confmed to the supramundane Path-nioments (Vism 14.88), the fourth and last of
which is immediately followed by the attainment of arhatship, in a state of mind which
belongs to the category 'resultant states of mind' (phalacittani: 22.29-30) and is classified as
vipaka (fruition) and hence neutral (14.105). As for the other two groups, viz., wholesome
states of mind belonging to the sphere of sensual desire (kamadhatu) or to the two higher
mundane spheres (riipa- and anlpadhatu), they occur only in ordinary people (puthujjana)
or in saints who still have to train (sekha), i.e., are not yet arhats (14.109). Although similar
states of mind do occur in arhats, they are included in the category of 'active' (ldriya)
neutral states of mind (ibid.; see also COUSINS, 2006: 23). In the case of those among these
states of mind of the arha t that pertain to the kamadhatu, it is expressly stated that they are
'accompanied by causes' ( sahetuka: ibid.), viz., by alobha, adosa, and amoha, i.e., by the
factors which in the first place constitute a state of mind as wholesome but in the case of
the arhat must be neutral (cf. the notion of avyakata-miilas: Dhs 975 and 1233.4). Cf. also
the fact that the 'faculty of having already attained complete insight' ( aiiiiatavindriya
!ajnatavindriya), which is asekha ( asai~a), i.e., characteristic of arhats, is neu!ral
(avyakata) according to Theravada Abhidhamma (Dhs 117f [§§ 5?3 and 555]) but kusala
• I
I,
according to the Sarvastivadins (Vi 740a29-b1; AKBh 466-s) and the SA (564eiu).
176
a., in this connection, the argumentation in Kv 22.2 (cf. BAREAU, 1955:238 no. 205),
where the Theravadin rejects the position that an arhat enters final nirvapa (i.e.: dies) in a
wholesome (kusala) state of mind by pointing out that this would imply that an arhat still
11

470 LanlbertSCHMITHAUSEN
wide~ use of the term kuiala, to the effect that they can include in this category
emotions and actions or meditative practices of persons free from desire, even
though_the~ serve no lo~ger as~ means for one's own desirable rebirth or spiritual
perfection, 1.e., are not conducive to welfare/security" but rather "characterized b
welfare~security'' o~, as the Abhidharmasamuccaya puts it, an outflow (wwanda)
the attamment of liberation. 177
. 5. I_t should b~J clear fro~ the preceding paragraphs that in the Abhidharmic
d1scuss1ons on laisala there 1s a close connection between the range of application
and the r~s:pective de!i?ition _o! ,!<usala. I~__lheravada Abhidhamma, the implicit
pr~~uppos1tion of _a ngid deftmt1on of kusala as "conducive to welfare" (in the
spmtual and karmic p~rs~ective) seems to be an important reason for an extremely
narrow range of application. Among the non-Theravada traditions, at least those
that are well documented tend towards a wider application of kuiala. This is
achieved by different strategies:
5.1. One way is the adoption of a wider or more flexible definition of kusala in
terms of its semantic content.. An example is the definition of kuiala as ksema in
the Abhidharmakoia( bha~ya), because Jcyema could be used not only. in the
~ense of "conducive to security"178 (in the spiritual and karmic perspective) but also
m the sense of "(ultimate) security" as the goal and thus allowed to include nirvana
( # 3.2). Another example would seem to be the definition of kuiala as "irr.e-
proachable" (anavadya), which is not mentioned in the Vaibhasika sources but
adopted by the Savitarkasavicaradibhumi of the Yogacarabhu°mi1 79 and which
not only_ fits actions ~nd_ atfMudes. that are flawless in the karmic and spiritual
perspective but also ll1IV81Ja and impeccable states of non-sensual bliss or peace
fortunate rebirth. Against this, the opponent presupposes a spiritually orientated notion of
kusala when he argues that the arhat's final state of mind must be kusala because he dies in
a state of mindfulness. - The Theravadins' rejection of mental states qualified as kusa/a in
the case. of the. arhat ~eems to lend additional support to the assumption (ch. 1.2.2# 1.2)
that the1r Abhidharm1c system does not start from the definition of kusala as kosalla-
sambhiita = based on paiiiia; for why,should the mental states of an arhat not be based on
paiiiiii?
177
AS 2222f: "What is wholesome in terms of outflow (ni_syandata.fi)? The mundane and
supr~undan~: _<=_?mmon and non-common excellent qualities, viz., the supranormal mental
faculties ( abhIJna ), etc., of a p~rson who has attained tranquillity (i.e., nirviiJJa), [accruing
to such a P~;8~n! thro~gh t~:_mfluence of this [tranquillity]" (upasamapraptasya tadadhi-
fatye1!a va1se~ika guJJa abhIJnadayo laukikalokottar;i/J siidharaJJasiidhiiraJJa.fi). Cf. also the
mc~~I?n of the (~nfortunatelY, unspecified) ni_syandapha/a (~mE:W: deng-liri guo) in some
def1mtions of_kusala an~ akusala in Vi 263b12, etc. (see fn. 164). In Y 102-6 (see fn. 148),
sens~ percept10ns followmg after a defiled or pure manoVIjiiana are stated to be kusala or
akusala
vs because they are the outflow of the latter ( tannai~andika)
~· . conducive to security ( bde ba, 3('~ anyfn: *ktjema). Since "conducive to security" is defined
See ch. 1.2.2 # 2.4 and ch. 5 # 2[b2J.
179 See fn.105. This meaning of kusala is, of course, also found in the Theravada
commentarial tradition ( e.g., Asl 3810r and 623u; Patis-a I.205 16r; for further occurrences, see
COUSINS, 199?:!58. n. 5), _but referred to as the Sermons' way of employing the term
(Suttanta-par1yayam patva: Sv III.88329_33; see also fn.104) and clearly not the meaning
presugposed in Theravada Abhidhamma.
1 According to Kv-a (1803_ ) ad,Kv 19.6, the Andhakas regarded nirvana as kui'ala in
5 aktjema does not cover the whole of samsara (cf.# 5.4) but only a part of the samudaya-
the sense of "irreproachable" (yesaril ... anavajjabhavamatten' eva nibba~am kusalan ti
laddhi seyyathapi Andhakanam7 ...), taken in the weak sense of "unassociated with
defilements," which holds good for everything except unwholesome (akusala) factors (Kv-a
4
Kusala and Akusala 471
. the present life. 181 This is, to be sure, not explicitly pointed out by the text, which
1:ther presents a set of heterogeneous lists of aspects of ktJiala or factors regarded
rs kusala in the ekottara type, i.e., proceeding from a one-item list (sc. anavadya)
182
: lists gradually increasing in items up to ten. But. Jaken as a whole these lists .
0 183
J include both nirvaJJa and the pure dhannas of an arhat. -
5.2. Another strategy starts from certain (mental) factors as being kuiala by
nature and then extends the range of the application of the term to factors that are
associated with them and to actions prompted by them ( # 2), or even to the 'effect
consisting in dissociation' ( visamyogaphala, i.e., the pratisamkhyanirodha =
nirvana: # 3) and to the homogeneous effects (nfsyanda: # 4) attained through
them: These extensions are normally intended to be cumulative, amounting simply
to a wider range of application of kuiala.
5.3. The same effect could also be achieved by a combination of different defi-
nitions based on different semantic aspects of the word kusala. Thus, the afore-
mentioned Yogacarabhumi passage continues with a more technical definition of
kusala, in which i~faphalaparigrahartha, i.e., the meaning "entailing a desired
result" (karmic perspective), is combined with vastuparijiiiikausalya-tatphalartha,
i.e., the meaning "expertness in comprehending reality and the result of this
[comprehension]", which_ comprises th~ spiritual. perspective ~s .~ell as its result,
viz., the attainment of wrvaJJa. 184 In this case, too, the two defm1tions would seem
to be simply cumulative. 185 The same is true 186 of a complex definition of kuiala
offered by the Vibha#, in which three single definitions (or semantic aspects) are
combined: 1. "being supported by expertness (i.e., comprehension)" (J5ffpfr~
qiaobian suo chi, *kauialyaparigrhita), referring to the (supramundane) path,
2. "entailing a desired result" (tmm~* nengzhao aiguo;, i.e., the mundane
wholesome factors (karmic perspective and preparatory spiritual practice), and
3. "(being) security (by its very nature)" ( ('[1:)3(~ (xing)anyin, *k~ema), i.e., the
, · - 187
trut h of cessation, wrvaJJa.
5 .4. The situation is somewhat different in some other ·complex definitions
reported by the Vibha~a. In these, a definition of kusala based on certain mental
17927-180 1), including those which are regarded as neutral (avyakata) in Theravada
Abhidhamma.
181 Cf. D I.70 : anavajjasukham.
5
182 y 629-6314.
183 Y 62 (see# 3.1) and 6312f (see fn. 170).
14
184 y 6315f (see fns. 60 and 91).
185 This is not so clear in Yt zi 232a8-b2 (Yc 667b26-c1), where dharmas are stated to be
kusala for two reasons: 1. because by their very nature they are not mistaken and opposed
to the mistaken dharmas (ngo bo nyid kyis phyin ci <log tu gyur pa ma yin la I phyin ci [ =
Derge 4038 zhi 220b5]> Jog tu gyur pa'i chos roams kyignyen po), and 2. because.they are·
as "suitable for going to a fortunate destiny [in the afterlife] (* sugati) and to nirvaJJa" ( bde
'gro dang I mya ngan las 'das par 'gro ba dang mthun pa yin pa 'iphyir bde ba yin no II), the
two definitions would seem to be alternatives unless the first reason is taken to refer to
the supramundane path only and the second to mundane wholesome factors as being
beneficial both karmically and, in a preparatory way, spiritually.
186 This is clear from the fact that in the corresponding definition of akusala, the aspect
satya, i.e., unwholesome dharmas (Vi 263a11_13).
187 Vi 263a _ ; Vi2 204a15 _17; missing in Vi3 (466cs).
8 11
 Kusala and Akusala 473
472 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN

factors that are ~iala by nature and then extended to the factors associated with S]) f persons free from desire. A similar multi-faceted definition, with a less
0
them and the act10ns prompted by them (cf.# 2 and# 5.2) is contrasted with th ([ atic sequence of the items, is found in the first Bhrlmi of the
system''-"vasamurahani. 190 However, this • ·
passage mserts · 1 item,
one add"1t10na · ·
viz.,
definition of kuiala in the ultimate sense (e.g., as k$ema), referring to nirvan: • o/
VJOJSCa_,. e:,~. • ,, • db " ([4])
for from the perspective of this latter definition the whole of samsara, includin~ "/(Usala due to building a strlpa" ([x]), and "kusala const1t~te y pure states .
even the factors that had been qualified as kuiala before, turns out to he ears as "kuiala due to the purity of the mental contmuum [of the respective
akuiala. 188 This two-level use of kuiala is also involved in the equivocal use of the a~~son]" (*cittasantativiiuddhitaiJ?). . , .
definition of kuiala as Jcyema in the Abhidharmakoia( bhawa). p 5.6. A kind of encyclopedic survey of the vanous, partly hetero~eneo~s ~:pJ?bc~-
5.5. In the ViniicayasamgrahaJJi, we come across yet another pattern. This . s of the term kusala, but again without reference to the semantic poss1b1bt1es, 1s
t1onsented in the Abhidharmasamuccaya. The survey starts wit. . h the distmctlon
. . of
pattern combines several definitions of kuiala, but there is no visible attempt to
relate them to the semantic possibilities of kuiala. They rather seem to be formula- p~at is kusala by nature, association, and arising, but inserts the latent residues
ted from a functional perspective. The most systematic passage in this regard is w( .~c-<11Ja) of wholesome mental states as being kuiala in the sense that they follow
VuJa. 191 • 1d • h k m, • th
from the Cintamayibhrlmiviniicaya: 189 at the latter's heels ( anubandhata{1 ). This set. cone ~ es :wit us: ~ m e
. ate sense (paramarthatah ), which, however, 1s redefined m the Abh1dharma-
ultun
The subdivision of this [category ofj kusala should be known to be amuccaya192 as referring to the .
tathata or Suchness,193 the ever-accomp1·1she d true
established as fivefold: :~ality defined as the 'selflessness' (nairatmyaJ or emptiness ( srlnyata)of the whole-
[1] what has a desired result in the future(* ayatyam iffaphalam); some, unwholesome, and neutral dharma~, 1 4 and it is .t~e comp~ehension of !his
[21 what counteracts [spiritual] pollution(* samklesapratipak§a), i.e., [the suchness that leads to the attainment of mrvaJJa as a spmtual achievement (wh~ch,
factors] beginning with the contemplation of the disgusting (* asubha), in its tum, is kusala in the sense of coming to rest: see below). The ne:1 set 1s _a
etc., which are the opposite of passion for sensual pleasures (* kama- distinction of kusala attained by birth ( upapattilabhatafJ1 due to prevmus habit
raga), etc., up to the noble eightfold Path (* aryaffiiligo miirgalJ), which is · 95
(pziJVabhyasa) against kusala due to effort (prayogatalJ ). The last set is essen-
the opposite of all defilements (* sarvaklesa);
[3] what is characterized as the coming to rest of pollution. tiaUy a rearrangement of the categories distinguis~ed in th~ . two Viniscara-
(* samklesavyupasamaprabhavita): nirvaIJa; . samgraha!Jl passages discussed above. It starts with. [x] rehg1~ms veneratio!1
[4] what is characterized as pure states (*vihara): [the meditative states].· (pzijakarman) which is kuiala du~ to _the person or teach~ng to which reverence 1s
of [persons] free from desire ( * vitariiga) who dwell in secure ( *kusala) paid (puraskaratalJ), and [5] kusala m the sense of he~pmg \anufrahatafJ) other.
blissful states in this life (*dr$fadharmasukhavihara), like the arya- sentient beings (cf. ch. 6 # 2), followed by [1] what 1s kuiala m the sense of
[ nnara]s (i.e., the concentrative absorptions of emptiness, transpheno- procurin~ (parigrahataiJ) a fortunate rebirth or good. conditio~s for spiritu~
menality, and disinterestedness: szlnyata-, iinimitta-, and apraIJihita- , progress, 96 [2] what is kusala in the sens~ of co~ter~ctmg J?ollut10n, [3J w_hat 1s
samadhi: Bobh 6320r); kusala in the sense of coming to rest ( upasamataiJ, 1.e., m the first place, mrvaJJa: cf.
[5] what is characterized as benefiting [other] sentient beings(* sattvanu- ch. 6 # 3), and [4] what is kuiala as an outflow (n~syandatalJ) of having come to
grahaprabhavita): the manifold beneficial [acts] of altruistic activity 197
rest, referring to the distinguished qualities of liberated persons.
(*pararthacarya) of those very [persons] free from desire (*vitaragaIJam
eva), i.e., of sravakas, bodhisattvas, and Tathagatas, who have compas-
sion for others.
6.0. It goes without saying that problems similar to those with kufala have also
arisen in connection with the precise delimitation of the use of akusala. Some of
This passage systematically extends the application of kuiala beyond the sphere of
karmic and spiritual unwholesomeness ([1] and [2]) to nirvaJJa ([3]) as well as to
blissful meditative states in this life ([4]) and to the beneficial altruistic activity
190 Yt zi 64bu (Ye 602c15_18): yang dge bani [2.] kun nas nyon mongs pa'i gnyen po las
188 kyang yod do// [3.) kun nas nyon mongspa nye bar zhi ba las kyangyod doll [1.] 'dodpa'i
Vi 263a24-29 and a29-b2; Vi2 204a26-b2 and b2-4; Vi3 466c11 -1s and c 15_18 .
189 Yt zi 232b _ (Derge 4038 zhi 221a _ ; Ye 667c4- ): dge ba de'i rab tu dbye bayang 'bras bu yangs su 'dzin pa las kyang yod do II [4.] sems kyi ( e.c.; Q and Derge: ni) rgyud dag
48 14 11
roam pa lngas roam par bzhag par rig par bya ste / pa las kyang yod do// [x.] mchod rten byedpa las kyang yod do II [5.] sems can la phan 'dogs
[1.] phyi ma la 'bras bu 'dadpa dang I pa las kyang yod do II
[2. J kun nas nyon mongs pa 'i gnyen po ni 'di ]ta ste I mi sdug pa la sags pa 'dad chags la 191 AS 221 and 23s. .
sags pa 'i ( Q: ma 'i) gnyen po yin pa nas I 'phags pa 'i lam yan Jag brgyad pa nyon mongs pa 192 AS 23 r: paramarthato 'kusalam katamat? sarvasamsar,alJ.
6
Wamscadkyignyenpoyinpa'ibarduoll 193 AS 22 : paramarthatalJ kusalam katamat? tathata. .
8
(3.] nyon mongs pa nye bar zhi bas rab tu phye bani 'di lta ste I mya ngan las 'das pa aII 194 AS 12z0ff, reconstructed; cf. Tib. (Q5550.62a8ff and Q5555.166a1_3, a3r, etc.) and Chin.
[4.] roam par dag pa 'i gnas pas rab tu phye ba ni 'di lta ste I 'dad chags dang bral ba I (T1605.666a23ff); the original text does not seem to have distinguished two kinds of
tshe 'di la bde bar gnas pa dge ba 'phags pa la sags pas gnas pa roams kyio II nairatmya. ,,
[5.] sems can la phan 'dogs pas rab tu phye bani 'di lta ste/ 'dad chags dang bra] ba 195 a. y 62 ; Yt zi 6484r (Ye 602CJr) and 233a2-6 (667c15_24): kusala dharmas become
10
roams kho na'i ste/ gzhan la snying brtse ba can gyi nyan thos roams dang/ byang chub strong through effort, previous habit, etc. a. also AKBh 1064.
sems dpa 'roams dang I de bzhin gshegs pa roams kyi gzhan gyi don spyod pa 'i dge ba sna 1"" See fn. 212.
tshogs gang dag yin pa roams so II 197 See fn. 177.
 474 Lambert SCI-IMITHAUSEN
.. -........ -····-··-·······-··-·····- . ····-·······-·--···-----········-··-·
198
them are simply analogous and hence not in need of being discussed in detail. A.
pointed out above ( # 0), akulala is not normally understood in the sense of "n ~
wholesome'_', i.e., as a ~~r~ n~gation of "wholesome", probably because such
unders~andmg would dimm1sh its usefulness as a negative criterion in the spiritual
and still more so in the karmic perspective. On the other hand, if alaila!a is
un~ers~ood as a _real antonym of Ja!lala, it can either be used as the opposite of
kusala m the ultimate sense (see # 3.2) in order to devaluate the whole sarhsaric
world and to motivate practitioners not to be content with any mundane achieve-
ment~; in~luding r~birth in heavenly worlds, or it can be understood as the antonym
of kusala ma relative sense, so as to characterize particular attitudes and actions as
counterproductive because they oppose or impede 199 wholesome karma and/or
spiritual progress. But as indicated above (ch. 2 # 3.2), in the case of unwholesome
factors this twofold efficacy cannot be related to personal aspiration but must have
some independent, objective basis. In this connection, the crucial question arises
whether what is spiritually detrimental is also karmically baneful, or whether this is
not necessarily so. And, if spiritual unwholesomeness does not necessarily involve
karmic unw~o~esomeness, should akdlala be taken to cover both or only the latter?
Actually, this issue seems to have led to controversies, of which I can give only a
provisional idea.
6.1. One controversy focuses on defilements (klesa): are all of them unwhole-
some ( akuiala) or not? The Vaibha~ikas are of the opinion that some defilements
are neutral ( avyalqta). This holds good especially for all defilements connected
wit~ high~r spheres of mundane existence, viz., the sphere of non-sensual corpo-
reahty C-:upadhatu) and the sphere of incorporeality ( ariipyadhatu), and for the
wrong view of an Ego (satkayadrJP) as well as some other defilements 200 even in
the sphere of sensual pleasures (kamadhatu). 201 The reason is that the use of the
term akuiala has, in at least the dominant current of Sarvastivada Abhidharma
. d to t hk
been restncte . . 202 Hence, factors considered an obstacle'
e arrmc perspective.
to the attainment of nirvapa but compatible with wholesome beneficial actions
203
like liberality and not sufficient to instigate baneful ka;ma entailing evil
198
Cf., e.g., Y 6311-1s; Yt zi 232b2f and 232b8-233a2; a complete treatment of akusala
parallel to that of kusala is AS 23r23 18, followed by a similar one of avyakrta (ibid. 23 _
2415). Parallel to Yt zi 63bi-65a3 is the ensuing detailed treatment of klesas ~nd upaklei;s
(AHN, 2003:88-95 and 215-230).
199
Cf. Y 6311: "Unwholesome is what is the opposite of the wholesome dharmas and
what is an obstacle to them" (kusaladharmapratidvandvabhiltarh avaranabhutarh ca tesam
aku{Efiam_). Cf. also AKB? 227s: a~$e~am akusalam k$emapratidvandvabhiivena. · Abhidhamma (two akusalahetus, sc. Jobha and moha, but not dosa, in nlpa- and
. Viz., the.wrong_VIew of clmgmg to [one of] the extremes (antagrahadr$P) and the
ignorance associated with the two wrong views that are avyiikrta.
201
AKBh 2909_~5; Jiiiinaprasthiina T1543.785a2rn (T1544.929c4ff); Vi 259Cz3, 260b9f, c23 _25 ,
261a1_4, aur, etc.; VI2 202b3r, etc.
202 S
. ee, e.g., ~~ 2278: ak~e1!!am ~salam ... yasyani${O vipiikaiJ, as against 227 7
k$emam kan1!a k_usalamyad I${avipakarh mrviiJJapriipakarh ca; similarly Vi 263a16_18 (:::: Vi3
466C?t, ?ut V12 differs) and AAvat(V) 8810r and 874u: "akusala means ak~ema because [the
respective factors] produce the sprout of a disagreeable rebirth" ( sridpa yid du mi 'ong ba 'i
mfi:gu mngon par 'grub par byed pas mi bde ba'i don ni midge ba'i don to), as against
"kusalameans k$em_a (Ch. :'.?i•
an_yfn) be~ause [the respective factors] generate the sprout
of an agreeable reb1rth and of l 1 bera t 1 on (mok$a)" ( sridpa yid du 'ong ba dang thar pa 'i
2 3 mngon par 'grub par byedpas I bde ba 'i don ni dge ba 'i don to//).
myu{,F
Vi 260a1_3; Vi2 202b10-12; AKBh 29016·
Kusa/a and Akusa/a 475
--·····-·· ---····--···-·-----····-···········--·-···-·······-···--- ..... -··-····--·-··-·-···-..--- . ···-···-·----..-------···--- -- -- -- -- --- ---- - --- -- --- ----- - ----- - -------------- -------··---...------..------..--..·-·-··---·-
~eb:r~h204are assigned to the category of avyalqta, forming the sub-category
"neutral but obscured" (niv[favyakrta), which is defiled (kliJfa) but not unwhole-
:n some (akusala). 205 In the Yogacarabht1m1: a speculative (parikalpita) view of an
Ego is sometimes distinguished from an ~nbomJsahaja) one, and only the latter is,
occasionally, declared to be neutral ( avyalqta). ..
6.2. But there were also schools and masters who regarded all defilements of
the sphere of sensual pleasures (kamadhatu), 207 or even all defilements without
exception, 208 as akuiala. Thus, in Theravada Abhidhamma, Kathavatthu XI.1
seems to reject a classification as avyakata for any defilements, including wrong
views ( dif!hi), ignorance ( avijja), and longing for rebirth [in higher spheres]
( bhavaraga), and there is, a~ far ~s I c~ see, no indication of a ~e1;1t~al ( avya!~ta)
view of an Ego (sakkayad1f!h1) m therr system. 209 In the Sarvasttvada traditmn,
Buddhadeva argues that the view of an Ego (satkayadr~/1) must be akuiala because
it is erroneous (* viparyastatvat) [and] because it entails insecurity (* akJema-
tvat).210 He continues: "If [even] satkayadr~fiwere not akuiala, then which dharma
might be there that could be called akuiala!?" 211 This position would seem to be
based on a definition of akuiala as detrimental or obstructive to nirvliJJa. In the
early Y ogacara texts, too, this wider use of akuiala is sometimes taken into account.
Thus, the Abhidharmasamuccaya 212 distinguishes three categories, of which only
204 Vi 260a _is; Vi2 202brn-zs.
7
205 Cf., e.g., AS 211f: "'Defiled' is what is unwholesome or neutral but obscured"
(akusalarh nivrtavyakrtarh ca kli~tam); AKBh 2759 (cf. Vi 713c18f): kli~taniirh dharmaparh
savadya nivrtii hina iti paryayiil;z. The expression nivrta, related to the term nivarapa, i.e.,
obstacles to meditative concentration, indicates the spiritual perspective, as is confirmed by
NA 595c17_19: "The defiled dharmas ... are also called 'obscured' (/'obstructive') because they
obstruct the path to liberation" (~~f:Jl~ ... ?JJ\~1HI, tJ1fml~MfiltJlt&). rt is
noteworthy that, in contradistinction to akusala, siivadya is in this system primarily
connected with the spiritual perspective (cf. also ArthNib 1092_4).
206 AHN, 2003:242 with n. 312; in AS 212f, 23 t, 23 (sasarhprayogarh manalJ) and 2414,
2 24
what is stated to be avyak[ta are the defilements (klesa) associated with the subtle,
continuous Ego-feeling ((kli~{arh) manas) and those of the nlpa- and anlpyadhatu
(because they are covered or concealed by tranquillity: samathopagil<fhatam upadaya). AS
528t classifies the innate satkaya- and antagriihadrfti as bhavaniiprahiitavya, but this need
not imlly their being avyiik[ta.
20
Vi 259c16r; Vi2 202a26f·
208
Vi 259C<)_11 :::: Vi2 202a20_22 (Dar~tantikas). .
209 As for the problem of defilements in the higher spheres according to Theravada
anlpadhatu acc. to Vibh 4065_12 and40719_21, but none according to Dhs 1903rl911; cf. Vism
14.89 akusala is kiimavacaram eva; Kv 14.7 and 16.10), I must leave it to the specialists.
210
Vi 260a27r:'. ::fJ!ITTlEI: Il:t.~Jt~ ~:IH¥Ut4 ~::p?;c •... , m~T~; Vi2 202b28-Ct
differs: "Bhadanta Buddhadeva says: This dr$!i must be akusala [because] what it
apprehends is erroneous and [because] it generates [additional?] error (*vipaiyiisa)" (~~
{~~t~~§JlEI: Lit~ ?fril'.Sl~1ffifiU ?JJ\~Mfili ~~T~). I 1'
211
Vi 260a r: ~t'f Jt~iPT~~' J!tg{i:iJ~oJ~T~; Vi2 202cu.
212 AS 23 4-28 : parigrahato 'kusalarh katamat/ yathii<pi> tat kiiyena duscaritarh caritva
I
1 18 I I
vacii manasa duscaritarh caritvii durgatau va sugatau vii ani$farh phalarh grhpiity ak~epakarh
va paripilrakarh vii I vipak$ato 'kusalarh katamat I ye pratipak$avipak$ii dharmal;z I paripan-
thato 'kusalarh katamat I ye kusaliintariiyikii dharmiil;z /. Cf. also Yt zi 232b2r and 232b8-
233a2, where the definitions of akusala are stated to be exactly the opposite of al 1 aspects
of kusala, including the spiritual perspective (kun nas nyon mongs pa'i gnyen po'i mi mthun
476 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
the first refers to the karmic perspective: 1. actions that are unwholesome because
due to them one obtains (parigraha, grhpati) an evil retribution, be it rebirth in an
evil destiny or accessory evil in a basically desirable destiny; 2. factors that are
(spiritually) unwholesome because they are directly opposed ( vipak~a) to the
'antidote' (pratipakfa), i.e., the factors of the path to liberation; 3. factors that are
(indirectly?) unwholesome because ther impede the wholesome factors
(kusalantarayika): e.g., frequenting crowds. 2 3
6.3. If the term akusala is used to characterize unwholesome attitudes and
actions regardless of whether they are unwholesome in the karmic or in the
spiritual perspective, it would nonetheless seem difficult to assume that being
akusala in the spiritual sense (i.e., binding one to sarhsara, thus entailing some kind
of rebirth and hence some kind of suffering, 214 at any rate suffering in the. ultimate
sense, sarhskaradul;ikhata) necessarily implies karmic unwholesomeness~ i.e.,
having an undesired result in the form of evil rebirth or some supplementary
effect involving suffering in the sense of pain ( dulJkhadulJkhata). 215 Even for those
who distinguish between unwholesome and neutral defilements, the former may be
karmically unwholesome only virtually but not always actually, or at any rate not
always strong enough to entail gross evil actions and evil rebirth. 216 In fact, the
Viniscayasamgrahal}i formulates three criteria of unwholesome ( akusala)
defilements conditioning evil rebirth: continuous intensive cultivation, perpetra-
tiQn of evil bodily, vocal and mental actions, and influencing other persons in the
direction of unwholesome attitudes or actions. 217 . are rather mere conventional denominations (samv[fi) of certain aspects of other
4. Factors that are kusala or akusala by their very nature,
in contrast to other factors that are so only secondarily
In the preceding chapter, I mentioned that dharmas qualified as kusala and
akusala are, in Abhidharmic texts, sometimes distributed, so to speak, in concentric
circles, with those that are kusala and akusala by their very nature in the center.
There are, however, different views concerning the precise delimitation of this
central group of factors that are kusala and akusala by nature and at the same time
pa 'i phyogs (kyis) = *saiiJldesapratipak$avipak$atal;l). In other passages, akusala is the
opposite of kusala in all aspects except that of the visarhyogaphala (Vi 263b 11 •29; cf. also Y
63
rnJi3 / 1.-
· 214 ASBh 2720r: kusa - ~'--d'harma-ab..1..:-,_
ant.aram.Ka
:.,,•-
• • . - -d'lJVi111.
111.Ksnamg.anasammrpiata
'' '
,~,._
:.,,• .
Cf. Vi 260a1g...zo.
215
Cf. Vi 260a1or (Foio :::f~nlt~ ?lt~::fff!gmJi:§r~~~) and 14f (roio ::f~7Jiti ?JJ\1§
::f-%~~~~). CT. also the Vaibha~ika argument at Vi 260a24-27: "This view of an Ego
(satkayadr$!i) causes the continuation of becoming (bhava, i.e., rebirth), but [this becoming)
is not [necessarily] of the kind of suffering in the sense of pain ( dul;lkhadul;lkhata). ...
Moreover, this view of an Ego produces, to be sure, rebirth (punarbhava) and is [thus] the
root of suffering in the form of pain and stated to increase suffering, but it is not the
vipakahetu (i.e., the concrete karmic cause) for this [pain] ..." (!Et~:§rJi!, -%~t§*I ~FEE
~ fl~ lft~JrJe, iU~1~~ ~EE::4' ~~ttfE, rm::fWfJslm~~~o ...).
... 0
216 Cf. the statement of the Vaibh~ika (Vi 260am and alSf) that akuiala are only such
factors as, when increasing, inevitably lead to gross evil actions of body and speech (like
killing living beings, etc.) and hence to evil rebirth or retribution (cf. also MPPU 709a16-20 ).
Such factors are, in the first place, greed (lobha), hatred ( dve~) and disorientation (moha):
cf. AI.2011s-20211; Samyuktagama T99.274b24-26; AKBh 24015-241 17; Vi 243a7.20.
217 Yt zi 115b . (see AHN, 2003:103 and 244).
58
Kusala and Akusala 477
confer this quality on their associates and on the actions arising from them. In the
present paper, I must confine myself to a few remarks.
1. In the first chapter of the ViniscayasamgrahaIJl and in the Abhidharma-
samuccaya, all emotions or mental attitudes that are regar~ed to be ?lways
wholesome or unwholesome are stated to be, respectively, kusala or akusala by
nature. 218 In the case of the wholesome factors, eleven such factors are li~ted. In
the first chapter of the Viniscayasarhgrahapi, 219 the sequence of the enumeration of
these factors is explained by their dominant function in successive stages of
spiritual development: faith (s.r:addha) is typic8:l of the_phase of decision [to_ foll~
the Buddhist path?] (nges pa'l dus); compunction (hn) and shame (apatrapya)
characterize the phase of turning away from pollution (i.e., resolving to abandon
unwholesome actions, etc.); non-greed (alobha), non-aversion (adve~), non-
delusion (amoha), and exertion (virya) mark the phase of engaging in wholesome
action (i.e., si1a); tranquility (prasrabdh1) distinguishes the phase of mundane
detachment (lauldka-vairagya, attained by meditative concentration, samadh1);
vigilance ( apramada) and equanimity ( upekfa)_ mark th.t: phase ~f ~upram~n_d_an_e
detachment (lokottara-vairagya, attamed by ms1ght,pra1na); n~~-mJury (avih1m_sa),
comprised in compassion, characterizes the phase of benefitmg other sentient
beings. From the point of view of an economy of principles, however, the text
points out that not all of these factors are entities. in their own right. Three of them
factors (or clusters of other factors): vigilance and equanimity are just specific
aspects of the triad non-greed ( alobha), etc., combined with exertion ( virya), and
221
non-injury is a specific aspect of non-aversion (advefa). Thus t~ete are, in re~lity
( dravyataiJ), only eight factors that are wholesome by nature: fa1th,. compunct10n,
and shame as preconditions, non-greed, etc., plus effort as the crucial wholesome
factors (in the karmic and spiritual perspective), and tranquility a~ a special
requirement for the mundane path aiming at irreproachable st~tes of bhss or pe~ce
in states of meditative absorption ( dhyanas and anlpyas) and m the correspondmg
heavenly spheres.
2. In the Vaibha~ika School, there is a tendency to reduce the number of fac-
tors that are wholesome by nature even further.
2.1. According to one position, 222 kusala by nature are the five spiritual facul-
ties (indriya), viz., faith, effort, mindfulness, conc~ntratio_n, and ~sight, ~nd
akusala by nature are the five hindrances or obscurations (mvaraIJa), VIZ., l?ngmg
for sensual pleasures, malice, dejection and drowsiness .(styana-middha),
excitement and worried over-scrup';1lousness (au<:fd~wa-kaulqtya), and doubt - a
view that clearly starts from the spmtual perspective.
218 Y t zi 63b r ::::: Y c 602b15.11; AS 22sc and 232-4·
4
219 Yt zi 63b . ::::: Y c 602b11.22-
58
220 According to the definitions in Y ogacara sources ( e.g., AS 611.1~), hri is. shame m~e
feels of one's own accord, and apatrapya is shame in the sense of bemg afraid of pubhc
blame or bad reputation.
221 Yt zi 63b -64a -::::: Y c 602b22•27; the same reduction is adopted in AS 620-71,
8 2
222 Vi 263b _ ; Vi2 204b1sr; Vi3 467as~11-
25 29
223 Cf. the canonical background of the five nivaraJJas, which in the stereotyped
description of the path to liberation (e.g., M 1.181 16.28 ; D 1.7121-30 + 7320.25) are stated to be
eliminated immediately before entering the first dhyana.
478 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
2.2. According to another view, 224 the factors that are unwholesome by nature
are greed (lobha), hatred ( dve~a), and disorientation (moha), and those whole-
some by nature are their opposites: lack of greed ( alobha), etc., i.e., precisely those
attitudes or emotions which already in the canonical texts are stated to be the basic
unwholesome and wholesome factors ( aiallala- and kulala-milla}2 25 and the source
of all unwholesome and wholesome actions, respectively. 226 This position would
227
seem to work in both perspectives. In the standard Vaibha~ika system, however,
desire and disorientation (/ignorance) are not exclusively akusala, because they
also occur in states of mind that are merely spiritually detrimental but not
karmically baneful. 228 In this case, desire and ignorance function as "basic ·neutral
factors" (avyak[tamilla). There is, however, a disagreement regarding the number
of such basic neutral factors between the Kasmiras and the 'Outsiders' (Bahyaka)
or 'Westerners' (xifang zhushi @JJ~gffl, Pascattya), 229 and it may be worth I
mentioning that the Abhidharmasamuccaya (689) agrees with the list of the
'Outsiders'.
2.3. Still more restrictive is the view230 that akusala by nature are only those
factors that are co-extensive with akusala, i.e., exclusively and invariably present in
224 Vi 263a f and b f (second opinion); b 9f and b22f; Vi2 204a2 r and b6f; bis; Vi3 466c
25 4 1 8 13
and c2or; 467a4f and a6. Cf. also AKBh 202w (together with hr! and apatrapya: see # 2.3) and
20222 (together with ahrikya and anapatrapya); thus also MAHfd 874c1 and c4. - In his
translation of T1554.982b25r, VAN VELTHEM (AAvat(V) 19), after having enumerated the
three kusalamillas and their opposites, writes: "Elles ont pour nature propre ( svabhava) la
sagesse (prajiia) deja evoquee." But Tib. (ibid. 8738r) clearly shows that the subject of this
sentence (to be supplied; no pronoun in the Chinese text!) is not the three kusalamillas but
only amoha : "Amoha is of the nature of prajfia, and is the opposite of ajfiana" (gti mug
medIlsa ni shes rab kyi rang bzhin te mi shes pa dang mi mthun pa 'i chos so II).
As is explicitly stated at Mp II.31729f or Asl 344,27.29, the compounds akulalamiila
and kulalamiila may be understood both as tatpuru$aS and karmadharayas, because}obha,
etc., and alobha, etc., are not only the cause of unwholesome and wholesome factors,
respectively, but are also themselves unwholesome and wholesome, respectively, as is clear
from M I.489mr and A I.20122ff·
226 M I.47 _ (NidSa § 23.7a-7e); A I.2011sff and 20310ff (T150.882a24ff and b2orr); D
320
III.21410.22 (Sang § 3.3-4); D III.2757. 12 (Daso 3.5-6); It 45 9.13 . Cf. M I.489f; A III.338f
(no. 6.39); V.86f (no. 10.47). Cf. also Y 1913-4: kusalam karma yad alobhadve$amoha-
nidanam I akusalam karma ya! lobhadve$amohanidanam I
227 As for canonical contexts, A III.338f (no. 6.39) and also I.201 -203 (1st half of no.
18 8
3.69; see ch. 5 # 3.3) are concerned with the karmic perspective. On the other hand, M 1.47
starts, to be sure, from the list of ten (a)kusalas of lay followers-(kamesu micchacaro!) but
(in contrast to its parallel NidSa § 23. 7) ends up with the spiritual perspective ( dftfh' eva
dhamme dukkhass' antakaro hoti), as does M I.489f (so hoti araham khlJJasavo).
228
In the Theravada system, it is the three basic wholesome factors (alobha, etc.) that
may also be neutral (see ch. 3 # 4). According to Vism 17.69, they cannot therefore be
wholesome by nature and constitutive of the wholesomeness of the factors associated
with them (cf. also fn. 233).
229 AKBh 29110-2921; Vi 795a11ff and b rr. On the 'Outsiders' and 'Westerners', see
13
C. Cox in WILLEMEN et al. (1998: 150), etc.
230
Vi 263am and b4c (first opinion); cf. also 263b 16.20, 259c24 and J.ianaprasthana
T1544.929c1.10 with Vi 260cnrr; Vi2 204a2s and b6; b14c; 202bsr; Vi3 466c12f and 19f; 467a1_4;
AKBh 57 lf. In AKBh 202w and 22, this view is combined with the one based on the three
(a)kusalamiilas. In the canon, compunction and shame, and lack of them, do appear as a
pair of beneficial and baneful factors (e.g., A I.51; 96-98; S Vl), respectively, both in the
karmic perspective (e.g., A I.96f [no. 31-52] and, occasionally, in the spiritual perspective
Kusala and Akusala 479
unwholesome states of mind, as when akusala by nature (in the karmic perspective)
is confined to lack of compunction and shame (ahrikya and anapatrapya). 231
Analogously, compunction (hri) and shame (apatrapya) are stated to be kusala by
nature.
3. Yet others reduce kusala and akusala by nature to a single, basic factor,
respectively. Thus, the Vibha~a mentions a view according to which the only factor
that is kusala by nature is insight (j.iana), and the only factor that is akusala by
232
nature is disorientation (moha) (Vibhajyavadins), ·and another opinion accor-
ding to which this role is ascribed to appropriate and inappropriate bringing to
mind (yoniso and ayoniso manaskaraiJ: Parsva). 233 It is tempting to connect these
two positions with the definition of kusala as arisen from, or connected with, skill
or expertise (kausalya), i.e., understanding or insight - a definition which the
Vibha~a ascribes to the Dar~tantikas. 234
5. What is the intrinsic quality
that constitutes a factor as kusala or akuraJa?
1. In the case of the final goal, nirvaJJa, its charac~erization as kusala ("welfare") in
the sense of ultimate security (k~ema), beyond an suffering or danger-and-fear
( bhaya), is self-explanatory.
2. But why are attitudes and actions kulala or alals'ala, especially such as are
said to be so by nature, be it in the spiritual or (also) in the karmic perspective?
The definitions found in the post-canonical Abhidharmic treatises do not exhau-
(A I.96 [no. 21-30]; cf. S II.195-197 [no. 16.2]), but they do not seem to play a prominent
role.
231 DELA VALLEE POUSSIN (1923-1931:II.164): "Le disrespect (ahrikya) et !'absence de
crainte (anapatrapya) se trouvent toujours et exclusivement dans la pensee mauvaise." Cf.
Vi 261a1sr-
232 Vi 263a29-b2 and b9; Vi2 204b2c and b9r; Vi3 466c16t and Cz3r (different ascription and
partly corrupt). Cf. S V.1 (T99.198b15f and 19; A V.214; It 34): avijja ... pubbarigama
akusalanam dhammanam samapattiya. ... vijja pubbarigama ... kusaliinam dhammanam
samapattiyii. - These Vibhajyavadins are obviously not the Theravadins, because they are
reported to consider ni1Va1Ja to be kusala in the ultimate sense (Vi 263b2; Vi2 204b4; Vi3
466cl//· . . . .
Vt 263b 11•15 ; Vt2 204b 11.14; Vt3 466c26.29 (Gho~aka!). Cf. also V1sm 17.69
(yonisomanasikaradipa_tibaddhokusaladibhavo) and 14.163. -The canonical basis for such
a view may be a sermon like A I.13 1•6, where the Buddha declares that he does not perceive
any other single factor on account of which the akusala dhamma arise and the kusala
dhamma disappear to such an extent as they do on account of ayoniso manasikara, and the
other way round on account of yoniso manasikara. But several other factors are accorded
the same importance, and the purport of the emphasis is hardly doctrinal but rather a
matter of spiritual practice, probably of pedagogic requirements in specific situations. Cf.
also S V.91 (no. 46.32: all kusala dhamma are based on yoniso manasikiira, but in the
immediately preceding suttanta they are stated to be based on appamada) and A V.86f (no.
10.47): ayoniso manasikara listed, besides greed, hatred, and disorientation, as yet another
condition for committing evil (papa, i.e., unwholesome) deeds, and yoniso manasikara as
yet another condition for committing wholesome deeds.
234
Vi 259~-11; Vi2 202a20.zz.

480 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
stively answer this question. For systematic investigation, we may reduce these
definitions to the following types:
a) irreproachable (anavadya) - reprehensible (savadya), 235
bl) having an agreeable or desirable effect /retribution (sukha- or
i~{avipaka) .+ having a disagreeable or undesirable effect/retribution
( dufJkha- or ani~pivipaka),236
b2) conducive to security (k~ema) - not conducive to security (ak~ema),
the former being explained as what has a desirable karmic effect and
what leads to nirvaJJa,237
c) arisen from or accompanied by skill/expertness (kosalla/kausalya, i.e.,
insigh~,238 or being unmistaken ( aviparyasta) and contrary to the mis-
taken, 39 .+ arisen from or accompanied by lack of skill (i.e., delusion), or
being mistaken.
The definitions b2 and £ are clearly (competing?) alternatives, whereas bl (if
limited to the karmic ~erspective) and£ (if limited to the spiritual perspective) may
be complementary.24 Definition ~ merely tells us how attitudes or acts are
evaluated by society or by competent persons, definition h points out their
effect; but neither discloses why they are evaluated positively or negatively, and
why they have an agreeable or disagreeable effect. In the case of defmition £, this is
different, at least if we refer it to the spiritual perspective. Since bondage is
conditioned by desire ( (I$JJ3), which in its tum is based on ignorance ( avidya), it is
235 See fn. 179.
236 E.g. Sv 883 , etc. (see fn. 92); Vi 263a t, etc. (see ibid.); Y 63 5 and 11 (see fn. 91).
30 14 1
237 E.g. Vi 263a t; AKBh 227 (see fn. 202); AAvat(V) 87 r88 (see ibid.); Yt zi 232a -
16 7 4 1 8
b2 (see fn. 185: second reason). The same dichotomy without using the concept of k$ema: Y
6213: i~faphalam visaiilyogaphalaliJ ca (sc. kusalam) and Yt zi 79b2t (Ye 608b 26f):
Wholesome factors may be so "in the sense of having a pleasant result in the future or in
the sense of being an antidote (pratipak~a) for defilements (klesa) and suffering ( dulJkha)"
(phyi ma la bde ba 'i 'bras bu 'i don dang nyon mongs pa dang sdug bsngal spong ba 'i don
gyis), but unwholesome factors are invariably unwholesome, (also) in the karmic
perspective, because they have a painful result in the future or because they generate
misbehaviour ( duscarita, which in its tum ·has a painful result in the future). Cf. also AS
2215t (see fn. 132), defining kusala in terms of parigraha as conducive to a favourable
rebirth (in heaven or among men) or to conditions suitable for spiritual purification (not
yet, it seems, to nirvaJJa, the final goal, conducive to which is the next category, viz.,
pratfesEJ#atalJ kusalam). . always being intent on the welfare (hita) of oneself, others, both and (in short) the whole
Asl 6232£, etc. (see fn. 54); V1 259c1or ( ... ~~. 83~J51£Jifriil~i!&o ); 263a8r and arn
(:E1*J5@!pfr~ ... i!&~~o ... :;s$jpJ51J!J:ifrt~ ... i!&~~~o ); Y 6315-18 (see fn. 60).
239 Yt zi 232a -b (see fn. 185).
8 1
240
Thus explicitly Vi 263a8_10 (see ch. 3 # 5.3): kusala defined as * kausalyaparigfhita
indicates. the ma.rgasatya, kusala in the sense of *i${aphalajanaka refers to impure
wholesome dharmas forming part of dulJkha- and samudayasatya. Similarly, Yt zi 232b4f:
"[conducive to] a desired result in the future" and "counteracting [spiritual] pollution" as
two out of five obviously complementary levels (see ch. 3 # 5.5 with fn.189); Yt zi 64b1 (see
fn. 190): "As for kusala, there exist [factors that are so] in the sense of being the opposite
side of [spiritual] pollution (*sarhklesapratipak$afaiJ), ... and [factors that are so] in the
sense of taking possession of a desired result (* i${aphalaparigrahata1J)"; AS 22 15_19 (cf; ch. 3
# 5.6). Cf. also the explanation of Y 6315f in YVy 138b6-139a2).
~ .
I
Kusala and Akusala 481
If-evident that the decisive factor for attaining liberation is insight. Thus, what
seakes attitudes or actions conducive to nirv8!Ja is their being directed by or
:wards insight, and what makes them counterproductive is their being opposed to
insight. The same would hold good for greed (lobha) and avers~on ( dosa, dve~a):
·nee nirval}a is complete freedom from attachment and avers10n, the unwhole-
s~meness of these emotions in the spiritual perspective is obvious, as is the
:holesomeness of their opposites, i.e., their absence· or positive attitudes like
liberality and benevolence (metta, maitri).
3.0. Even so, the intrinsic quality that renders attitudes or actions kulala and,
especially, aiallaia in _the kar°!i ~ perspective remains probl~matic even in the ca~e
of definition £. In this case, ms1ght could mean that one 1s aware of the karffilc
consequences of certain actions, and lack of insight could mean that one is
unaware of or mistaken about these consequences241 and thus ready to get involved
in actions with evil karmic consequences but not in those with a fortunate outcome.
Likewise, greed and aversion, too, are stated to motivate actions with evil karmic
consequences, whereas their absence or opposite leads to abstention from such
actions, which is karmically beneficial,242 or even to wholesome activities like giving
( dana). 243 But why do certain attitu?es or _actirn;is have ~g~eeable or ~isagreea?le
karmic consequences? My answer 1s nothmg but a provtsmnal flashlight, startmg
from some indications in the canonical siitras and scraps from exegetic and
systematizing texts.
3.1. According to a few siitras, the reason why certain actions of body, speech, .
and thought are aiallala is that they involve injury, damaging either oneself or
others or both ( attavyabadhaya ... paravyabadhaya ... ubhayavyabadhara g{ sam-
5
vattantJ).244 Conversely, actions which do not involve such injury are ialsaia.
3.2. What kind of actions are meant would seem to become dear from other
sermons.246 According to them, persons who torture themselves (attantapa) are.
241 Cf. Mp III.14510-21 (see fn. 57).
242 Cf., e.g., M I.47J_ ; 489 r490 ; A I.201ff (no. 3.69); Vi 605cur; AKBh 24015ft; Y
20 2 8
1839-12• I
243
Cf. Asl 12729 : alobho c'ettha danahetu. I owe this passage to the kindness of Dr.
Rupert GETHIN.
244 E.g., M no. 61 (I.415 -419 : Ambala!{llika-Rahulovadasutta; M no. 88 (for parallels,
25 35
see ANALAYO, 2006:231) II.11415-116 12: Bahitikasutta; MA no. 214; cf. ANALAYO, 2007); M
no. 110 (III.21zr22z and 2322_30); A I.114i2-34; 156-159 (no. 3.53-55).
245 At A 11.179 • , the negative formulation is supplemented with a positive one, viz.,
7 11
world (i.e., all people or sentient beings), but the passage is not a definition of kusala
dhammas but of a wise person (paJJ<jifo mahapaii.io). As pointed out above (ch. 1.2.1
' # 1.5), I do not think that the ( quite natural!) association of a wise person (who might be
qualified as kusala but isn't in the present passage) with a behavior that is, in other places
(e.g., Y 11713f) but not here, qualified as kusala is strong enough to justify the assumption
of an original semantic connection of kusala qualifying dhammas with kusala qualifying
persons.
246 M I.341-349; 411-413; A II.206-211; SHTIII p. 128f (no. 879); IV pp. 201-203 (no.
165(27)); Sang 122-125 (§ 4.44; T1536. 406ar407b 17). The connection with these siitras
would seem to be corroborated, at least partly, by S IV.330-340 (no. 42.12: Ra.siyo; T99
no. 912; TlOO no. 127) where the person who does not think of injuring himself or others or
both (33913-340 11) is contrasted, on the one hand (331 10-33711), with persons who enjoy
 482 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
ascetics practicing excruciating self-mortification, persons who torture others
(parantapa) are butchers, hunters, dacoits, etc., and persons who torture both are
high-ranking people performing Vedic sacrifices including self-mortification and
slaughter of animals. These three types of persons are contrasted with the Buddhist
ascetic
2 7
who refrains from all the three kinds of violence in order to attain libera-
tion. ~ The ultimate perspective is thus the spiritual one, 248 but it is hardly
questionable that at least violence against others is not only spiritually detrimental
but also entails painful karmic retribution.
3.3. This is indeed confirmed by another text, which we may call the
I 249 A
'Akusa1ammasutta
.1 -.,
. ccord"mg to th"is text, the basic
. unwholesome factors
( akusalamiila) are greed (lobha), aversion ( dosa), and delusion or disorientation
(moha), but equally unwholesome is what one contrives (abhjsalikharotJ)under the
influence of these factors as well as the actions by which a person who is over-
whe~~d- (ab~ibhqta)_ by th~se facto_rs and whose mind is under their sway
(panyadmnac1tta) mfhcts, UilJUstly, pam upon others. 250 And it is such a person
whom the text declares to encounter suffering and trouble already in this life and
to ~ave the prospect of rebirth in an evil destiny after death. 251 Conversely, the
basic wholesome factors (kusalamiila) are non-greed (alobha), non-aversion
sensual pleasures- some of whom use violence (sahasa) for obtaining them-, and with self-
torturing ascetics on the other (33712-339 13).
247
Perhaps one may say that in these passages the Buddha accepts the conclusion
which r_enouncers and ascetics drew from the older belief in the revenge of the victim ( see
# 7), viz., that safety from being injured cannot be obtained unless one abstains from
i~juring others, and at the sa~e time surmounts it by pointing out that real transcending of
vmlence ( and hence the attamment of ultimate security) excludes all acts of violence even
violence against oneself, and requires overcoming the inner disposition to vioience
which is possible only by means of meditation and insight.
248
. As tor the _self-torturing ascetic and the ritualist, from the Buddhist perspective the
aim of therr practice may have been only a state of temporal, intramundane happiness (like
t~e wo_rld of god Brahman), but in their own view it was probably the highest goal (hence
liberation). Therefore, these two positions can be taken as wrong (because violent) and
hen_ce unsuccessful methods for attaining higher states or eve·n (allegedly) liberation. Such
an interpretation is not applicable in the case of the second type (i.e., the person who
tortures others) as it is explained in the text, since in this case no religious dimension of the
violence involved is discernible. The picture would, however, change if the butchers, etc.,
were replaced by warriors dying in battle while killing enemies, to whom ascent to heaven is
promised already in the ]Jgveda (10.154.3) and, of course, in the Epic (cf., e.g., HARA,
!001:137-141). Omitting soldiers and warfaring kings from the list is surely deliberate, but
ma conversation with a 'professional' soldier (S IV.308f) the Buddha is reported to have,
a!ter a:I,rejected the view that a warrior dying as a hero goes to heaven, just the oppo-
site bemg the case ( cf. SCHMITHAUSEN, 1996:65-68).
249
A I.202-205. . 256 To adduce just one example: In the Ambala!fhika-Rahulovadasutta (M no. 88), a
250
A I.20123-zs: ... yad api luddho fobhena abhibhuto pariyadinnacitto parassa asata
dukkham upadahati vadhena va bandhanena va janiya va garahaya va pabbajanaya va ... ,
tad 'J_gi akusalam.
1
A I.202zs_27, etc.: d~tfh' eva dhamme dukkham viharati ... kayassa bheda param
maraJJa. du~gati pafikaiikha (karmic perspective). - Another interesting passage in this
connectioi: 1~ D I.2~33-22912- He~e, the argument is that a view leading to debarring others
from _obta1~g spmtu~ perfect10n or heavenly existence (i.e., preventing them from
benefit and msofar causmg damage to them) is an unwholesome state of mind (T1.113c28f
actually uses ~~ bushim = akusala) which entails an evil destiny ( durgati) in the afterlife.
Kusala and Akusala 483
(adosa), and non-delusion (amoha), but wholesome is also what a person who is
not greedy, etc., devises and the fact that such a person, not being overwhelmed by
greed, etc., desists from unjustly inflicting pain upon others. In this case, only the
Chinese version refers to the karmic result (viz., rebirth in a fortunate destiny), 252
whereas the Pali version switches over to the spiritual perspective, describing the
outcome of wholesome attitudes and actions merely as happiness and, finally,
complete liberation in this very life. 253 It must, of course, be added that karmic
unwholesomeness is not confined to the physical act of killing, etc., but is in~er~nt
already in the intention or decision to do so, or in the espousal of an anomic view
reducing inhibitions. 254
4. There can thus be little doubt that an action or attitude is karmically un-
wholesome if it is connected with, or entails, violence against others. But does this
also hold good for violence against oneself? According to the Chinese version of
the 'Akuialamiilasiitra', · one· gets the impression that it does. 255 Some other
sermons, at first glance at least, point in the same direction but would require more
careful investigation, which is, alas, beyond the limits of the present paper. 256
~52 T150A.882c14 and ezs: 8~:!ft tll!~H~ = *kayasya bhedat ... sugati.lJ pratikaJik.sya
(An Shigao).
253 A I.204 _ : ... d~tfh' eva dhamme su.kham viharati ... , d~tfh' eva dhamme
15 22
parinibbayatJ'. Similarly, at S ·IV.330ff (Rasiyo, cf. fn. 24?~ the o~erall perspective is the
spiritual one (cf. 3302r331 9 ; 33719f; 339w34012, more expl_1c1tly Samyuktagama T99.229b2:2f
and T100.422c5), but in the case of the persons who en1oy sensual pleasures the karnuc
perspective is indicated (331 16r, etc.: na puiiiiani karoti), which is not astonishing in view of
the fact that the addressee is a layman. In the Chinese version, the karmic perspective is
referred to also in connection with the expressions atmavyabadhaya cetayate, etc., the
punishment for which a person is stated to incur in this life and/or in the afterlife
' (T99.229b14, etc.; T100.422b29f, etc.).
254 Cf., in this connection, the three mental "courses of action" (kammapatha), viz.,
coveting (abhijjha), malevolence (vyapada), and wrong view (micchad~tfhi). Coveting and
malevolence should probably be understood as implying a decision, determination or
readiness to commit acts motivated by greed and aversion, respectively, and wrong view as
the deliberate adoption of a theoretical position denying responsibility or sanctioning
misbehaviour. Their karmic effectiveness is considered to be particularly strong when they
occur at the moment of dying (M III.21411 _13 , etc.: wrong view; S IV.3094-11: malevolence,
wrong view). Cf. also the definition of the karmic act of killing a living being (paJJatipata) as
the intention (or decision) to kill ( vadhakacetana) in Theravada Abhidhamma ( see
fn. 155).
255
T150A.882a29f and b16: ... -@!El.:@-, 3t~Jt~. ijJ'j1.WJ~, ~ZJJ'~o ...•:!ft ~~~o
Instead of :!ft~ shen qi, T. VETTER (oral communication) suggests reading ~:!ft qi shen
("another person"); 1tr qi may render para in An Shlgao's translations (ZACCHETTI,
2007:409t).
monk is admonished to examine beforehand every action in order to make sure that it does
not entail injuring oneself, others, or both (attavyabadhaya samvatteyya, etc.) and is thus
not akusala dukkhudraya dukkhavipaka (M I.415 20ff). Here, everything depends on
whether in canonical phraseology du.kkhudraya dukkhavipaka indeed implies, for all the
three alternatives, painful consequences in the afterlife, and not, in the case of injuring
oneself, merely painful consequences in this life or just some kind of rebirth, or deepe!
involvement in samsara (spiritual perspective). The same holds good for the parallel in MA
436c9fr (phraseology partly dubious; cf. SHT V no. 1117) and in the Vinaya of the
Mulasaivastivadins (Q1032 je 201b5ff; T1442.76la8ff) as well as for the quotation in

484 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
. 5. In som~ post-canonical non-Theravada treatises, however, we find indica-
tions of the Vlew that onlywhat involves injury to others is karmically unwhole-
so1:lle. In the Vibha~a, e.g., one argument for the view of an Ego ( satkayad_r$fi)
b~mg neutral ~avyalqta) and not unwholesome (akuiala) is that it is merely a
misunderstandmg of ones 1
own person but does not involve any violent treatment
257
of others. In some Sarvastivada treatises as well as in the Yogacarabhumi, the
unwholesome act of taking life (praJJafipata) is expressly narrowed down to
intentionally killing another living being. 258 The view that an action is akusala
because one intentionally injures others259 occurs also in the ChenfshfJim (~fUoo
"Treatise demonstrating the Truth"), 260 ascribed to Harivarman, 26 as well as in th~
Yogacarabhumi2 62 and in the Abhidharmasamuccaya.263 Occasionally, we also find
the complementary definition of kuiala as what benefits others. 264
SrBh(Tai) I: 8816ff (SrBh(Sh) 559ff). - Apart from pertinent passages in the sermons (see
fn. 244.), there is also interesting material in later sources ( e.g., Ps IV.808ff; cf. also ch. 2
# 2.2 with fn. 128), but a detailed discussion would exceed the limits of this paper.
257 Vi 260a3_7 (Vi2 202b12-d: Iltlf ffi.rJi Ul3Zfs § 1ffl ::fii}~ftg i&~~§c ...; Vi 260b22f;
AKBh 23722f: paranugrahopaghatabhisamdhy-abhave katham ... kuialakuialatvam. Cf.
~ h 2901~r: the defilements belonging to the spheres of non-sensual corporealitY. and
mcorporeabty are neutral, not unwholesome, because otherwise their retribution 'would
~~ve. to be painful, but this is not possible because at this level there is no cause involving
lilJunng others (paravyiibadhahetvabhiivat); ADiv. 560: "Killing, [actions proceeding from]
greed (like stealing and sexual misbehaviour), and falsehood are - so should one know -
the cause of evil destinies because they are undertaken [with the aim/result of] harming
others" (parapi(japravrttatvad vadhalobhanrtadayaiJ apayahetavo j.ieyiilJ); LAMOTTE, 1949:
740f. As against this,_ according to Yt zi 115bz (AHN, 2003:10324 and 242f; Ye 622a26f) one
~e~~n for the sahapI satkayad_r~ti's being avyalqta is that it is not a basis for seriously
lilJUrtng oneself or others, and NA 381c5r merely states that pain (du1Jkha) is the
ret~tion ( vipaka) of an act involving harm (E~fj~~1Ul~).
. Abhidharmahrdaya (1'1550) 814b4r (ffiftp.$);.cf. T1551.842a24r; MAflrd.893a28 -b 1;
Abhidhanz:~rta (T1553) 966b12f; AK(Bh) 24312f (parasy.ibhrantimara.pam); Y 1818r
(par:gra1pm). Cf..also LAMoT~E.(1949:785) (T1509.154c13: ~ftp.f~~~. ~F~~J}).
. Or at l~ast mtends such mJury (ChShL 295b7_15), or deliberately adopts a view which
provides a basis or (pseudo-)justification for such injury (AKBh 2381).
260
The title was taken as going back to Skt. * Tattva- or * Satyasiddhi On the basis of a
Chin~se transli~eration, WILLEMEN (2006) has recently proposed J.ianakayaprodbhiito-
padesa, but this sounds rather strange, and the matter would seem to be in need of
reconsideration.
261 ChShL 293D]r: "[An action] is called [to hav~] an unwholesome character because.[it
~volv~s] injuri~g others" (J;).Jfftp.t&~::f~ffl); 294a9f (i&f'f~U~ ~F::fi&fu: only an
mtentmn~l ~ct 1s an offence, not an unintentional one); crn: "You teach that the defining
c~~actenstlc of ~holesome and unwholesome [actions] is that they harm or benefit others"
(&~ ~~f§ ~ff~{-&): There is also definition of akuiala in terms of a mere negation
(prasa1yaprat1~dha) of kusala (cf. ch. 3 # 0): "These actions like killing are called 'not
wholesome' because they are not for the benefit of others" (293b6r: lftfi~ jp~frjftp. t&~
::f~).
262 Y. 1479f: "An a~tion that hurts another person without being the remedy of a
present-lif~ ~b~erved disease (cf. ChShL 292a5_8 and a2rb 1; Mllindapa.iha 111,29-112, 18) is
not bene~1c~al . (yat ?aravyabadhak_am karma na ca drJ.ta- [ = ms.; ed. d.~tam]
-do~pratikriyam, tat tavan na dharmaya kalpate); Y 1877_11 : the ten unwholesome courses
of ~ction (karmapatha) are constituted by eight kinds of hurting ( upaghata) [other] sentient
bemgs,. whereas the wholesome courses of action are constituted by the opposite (i.e.,
benefitmg them: anugraha).
Kusala and Akusala 485
6. This view has, however, not gone undispu~ed. _In the c_h~ngshi Jim, it is
t eked by an opponent265 with the argument that m this case smc1de would not be
:~:holesome since (or as long as) it does not inju~e. any other pe~son. The sa1?e
uld hold good for abusing oneself or practicmg sexual .misconduct with
wo self. 266 The opponent thus seems to advocate a position according to which
~n~ic unwholesomeness is not limited to actions injuring others but includes
ati·ons which are directed against oneself, and not only such as involve violence.
ac h . .h
s·nce the opponent also mentions the case of a person w o 1s angry wit 267
~other person but does not manifest. his anger in. words or phy~ic~l a~ts, it
would seem that for him karmic unwholesomeness 1s .not neatly d1stmgu!s~able
from merely spiritual unwholesomeness, and. p~rhaps _mherent to all sufficiently
gross or intensive instances of the latter. Similarly, m the case of wholesome
actions the opponent attacks benefiting o~hers2is the crit~rio~ of (k~rmi~)
wholesomeness by referring, among other thmgs, to the cult1vat10n 269 of fnendh-
ness (maitri), which is usually praised as being particularly wholesom~ although
in its normal form of mere well-wishing it does not really benefit any other
person.27° In this case, Harivarman in his rejoinder does indeed come u~71with. a
benefit for others (like timely rain and protection from natural disasters), but m
72
the case of suicide he simply rejects the opponent's view2 by stressing that no
263 AS 23rn: "What is unwholesome in the sense of damaging [others]? To act wrongly
towards [other] sentient beings by means of body, speech, or thought" ( upaghatato 'kusalam
katamat?yathapi tat sattve~u kayena vaca manasa mithya pratipadyate). . .
264 AK.Bh 23722f (see fn. 257); Y 187,7_11 (see fn. 262); ChShL 292a2: "An act10n bywh1ch
one provides others with agreeable things: such an action we call kuiala" (~J;)Ji:iJ*~g,W{~
~:rt~~*~~); 292air. The ChShL takes care to point out that "agreeable means_ ~~at 1s
good for them in the long run, including the karmic con~equ~nces. Fo~ the VJ_n__1!caya-
samgraha1Jl and the Abhidharmasamuccaya, see ch. 6. Cf., m this connectmn, PraJnaka!a-
gupta, PramEiJJavarttikalaliktira (ed. R. S~TYAYAN':,. Patna 1953) 14~zsr, d~fim~g
dharma as ''benefiting others" (paranugraha) and emphasizmg that adharma 1s n?t J~St 1~s
absence or anything else but its opposite, viz. injuring [others] (upaghata). This view 1s
rejected by the Mimarilsa: HALBFASS (1991:93); HOUBEN (1999:145).
265 ChShL 294c11-29·
266 ChShL 294cz r: "Moreover, if somebody abuses himself, or com!1'1-its sui~ide, or
7
practices sexual misconduct with himself, he also incurs an offence" (X~ § JI ~ § ~J.t
~@~~tr, ?JJ\~1~~).
267 ChShL 294cz r. Harivarman replies (ChShL 295b
. .
6 12_15) that such thoughts anse with
the (latent) intention to hurt the other person, and that the other person will certainly
become annoyed if he becomes aware of them.
268 Like cleaning a stiipa: ChShL 294ezo; cf. AKBh 272,s-11·
269 Cf., e.g., A IV.151 1_11 ::::: It 21 8-221 (karmic perspective).
210 AK.Bh 272 (yatha maitryadi~ antareJJapipratigrahakam paranugraham va puJJyam
13
bhavati svacittaprabhavaih ...).
271 ChShL 295a -b3. As against this, at NA 769b17_19 the wholesomeness of the four
29
apramaJJas (maitri, etc.) is established from the spiritual perspective, e.g.,_ by the f~ct th,at
they counteract greed, aversion, etc. (lltll9~£ ~pff ~{-&, fPJ~ut~;J¥~aa·[1:o fig:xrrJ-tr&
~HJ~t&o ... ).
272 ChShL 295brn: &§, §~ ... ~1~~~' ~*::f~. CT. also LAMOTTE
(1949:785)(see fn. 258): "se tuer soi-meme ... n'est pas un meurtre." According to Hari-
varman (ChShL 295b20_22 ; AIYASWAMI SASTRI, 1975: 242sr;. 1978:213 [not ent~ely cl~ar]), it
is only on account of the Path (m~lz9~'i!&, i.e., because life, and more precisely existence
as a human being, is a presupposition for practising the Path?) that [the Buddha] has
 486 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
• Kuia!a and Akuia!a
wholesome or unwholesome karma derives from [cherishing or injuring] orie's own
body.213
7. We could still take another step and ask-why injuring others is unwholesome
and why abstaining from it is wholesome. Why is injuring others considered to hav~
evil consequences in the afterlife, and abstention from it, or benefiting others
believed to entail a happy destiny? One answer may be that this idea, which earl;
Buddhism has in common with early Jainism, developed in connection with the
arising of early polities, as a means to back up public morality274 and to compensate
for the shortcomings of secular justice. But this is not the whole truth, for it cannot
ex~lain why unwholesome acts include the killing of animals, and not merely
ammals that are other people's property, but just animals in general. For this, we
have to go back to an earlier cultural stratum, which is still alive in some Vedic
texts and now and then surfaces even in later sources, viz., the idea of the victim
especially slau~htered animals, but also felled trees, etc., taking revenge in th~
5
yonder world. This view surely presupposes some kind of empathy,276 some
in~ing of the fact that even non-human sentient beings ( to which even plants were
believed to belong) dislike pain and cling to life, and may long for revenge if
injured, just like humans. In the ascetic movements, both aspects are further
developed. On the one hand, the killing of non-human sentient beings (in
Buddhism: animals, in Jainism also plants, etc.) is integrated into the karma theorv
( automatic punishment instead of revenge). On the other hand, empathy i~
explicitly stated as a principle in terms of the Golden Rule and manifests itself in
277
sympathy (daya), compassion (kamJJa), benevolence (metta) and caring (anu-
kampa). On this basis, not to injure others (including animals) and helping them
~eceives _a purely ethical (but of course also spiritually wholesome) motivation,
1rrespect1ve of the karmic perspective. 278 • .
stipulated in the Vinaya that if a person [tries to] commit suicide in an unwholesome state
of mind (~ A~{i' § l~), .he incurs an offence due to a defilement (?) (J.;)ffi'litoz:t~~; cf.
BoBh 1106r: kli$fam apattim apanno bhavati?).
273
ChShL 295b19f: M~ ~ff£§ :§t1H~1M-f:go
274
It would seem that earliest Buddhism (like the Vedic religion) laid more emphasis
o~ the ~ros~ct of at~aining heaven by wholesome karma than on threatening evil-doers
with reb1rth m bad existences (though this is by no means lacking). Cf., in this connection,
the exclusive emphasis on the positive side in the Vinaya stock phrase of the Buddha's
i~struction of lay people: discourse on donation or generosity, discourse on morality, and
discourse on heaven ( danakatham s11akatham saggakatham, e.g. Vin I.1536f; 1811 ; 1916f). Cf.
also the exclusive emphasis on heaven in the Asoka inscriptions.
275
·For this and the following considerations, cf. SCHMITHAUSEN (2000b:253-282), with
further references.
276
Cf. also IZAWA (2008).
277
Cf. also Brhadara]Jyaka-upani$ad 5.2.3 (LIMAYE and VADEKAR, 1958:258), on
which see METTE (2002:34f).
278
The preceding remarks do not of course pretend to draw a full picture of the
background of the process of ethicization in ancient India, which may be much more
complex.
487
6. Mahayana influence in early Yogacara sources
1. Looking back to the early Buddhist lists of actions declared to be unwholesome
karma, 279 it is obvious that most if not all of them consist in, involve, intend or serve
to justify injuring ,,or ~urting oth~rs. 280 This is also conspicuous in the n~spective
categories of akusala m the Abhidharmasamuccaya, where even the cult1c aspect
(puraskaratal;l) is defined as an institutionalizing of sanctuaries ( caitya) or cults
based on wrong views and connected with injury ( himsa; probably referring, in the
first place, to bloody sacrifices) and thus inducing many other people to accumu-
late detrimental karma (apuJJya). 281· As for wholesome karma, however, the
connection with benefiting others is less obvious. It is conspicuous in the case of
liberality ( dana) and, at least in the form of a mental attitude, inherent in benevo-
lence (metta, maitri), but hardly perceptible in, e.g., the case of the cultic venera-
tion of a Buddhist sanctuary (puraskarataiJ kuialam). 282 In the case of wholesome
actions in terms of correct behavior ( ilia), the formulation is largely negative:
abstention from killing·, etc. But it should be kept in mind that the injurious
actions from which one abstains are, in a sense, the natural state of affairs, that
desisting from them and leaving others in peace is by no means a matter of course
but requires decision and considerable effort. Besides, in the stereotyped definition
of the elements of correct behavior, positive elements like sympathy ( daya) and
carinj (anukampa) are by no means missing283 and may unfold a dynamics of their
own.
4
2. In the ViniicayasamgrahaJJl and the Abhidharmasamuccaya, however, bene-
fiting others is only one category of kuiala among others. In the passage from the
Cintamayibhiimiviniicaya (see ch. 3 # 5.5), it is the last of five categories of kuiala,
and like the preceding ones, it is not understood as a common feature of all kuiala
279 E.g., the ten akusalal;z karmapathaiJ, or the five precepts for lay followers, provided
that the fifth precept ( abstention from intoxicating liquors) is understood as motivated by
the fact that by drinking liquor a person becomes susceptible to breaking the other four
precegts (A IIl.21h16).
2 This is self-evident for the first three unwholesome courses of action; for the
remaining seven, see Ps I 11426-29 and 1155_7. Cf. also MPPU 709a14r: +~~~ ti:m:11~~
rt. 281 AS 2310_13.
282 AS 22 _ (see ch. 3 # 5.6). Cf. also AKBh 2725_9.
12 14
283 E.g. D I.63 _ (monk) or M I.287 _ (lay person): paJJatipata papvirato ...
20 22 27 29
dayapanno sabbapaJJabhiitahitanukampi Cf. also the fact that the definition of non-
aversion (adoso), which is basically negative (e.g., Dhs 1333-36, 23 20_23 and 6534-36, or Vibh
16928_30), is enlarged by the addition of expressions of benevolence, sympathy, and caring at
Dhs 18836-1894: katamo adoso? adoso adussana adussitattam mettam mettavana mettavi-
tattam anuddava ... hitesita anukampa avyapado avyapajjo (I have to thank Dr. Rupert
GETHIN for this passage). Similarly, non-malevolence ( avyapada), negatively defined at
Dhs 1412_15, is equated with benevolence at Vibh 8638r. Other positive elements, though not
expressly termed kusala, are, besides liberality: caring for one's parents, family members,
and seivants ( e.g., D 111.189-192, where such conduct is stated to make the quarters secure
(khema)), or planting parks, building dikes, digging wells, etc., qualified as pu.i.ia (cf.
VETTER, 1988: 84f). .
284 In early and 'mainstream' Buddhism, altruistic activity (including teaching) is not a
conditio sine qua non for one's own liberation but rather a kind of gratuitous supplement
springing from the cultivation of sympathy, compassion and benevolence. Cf. SCHMIT-
HAUSEN (2000a:123f).
 Kusala and Akusala 489
488 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN

dh~as 285 but rather qualifies only the altruistic activities performed, out of ~-o~- znci chapter of this text292 it is stated that for a bodhisattva there are tw~ doors ~f
pass10n, by persons free from passion: sravakas, bodhisattvas, and Tathagatas. The rance or sources of income ( ayadvara), of wholesome dharmas: exertion for his
en t ' (sviirtha), i.e., for his a~ammen~
·
sit~ation is _similar in the tre~t1:1ent of kusal~ in th~ firs.t Bhrlmi of the Viniscaya- own benefit of Supre°:1-e Aw ak · and e~ert10n
. enmg, ·
samgrahaIJ1. He;e, too, benefttmg other sentient bemgs is the culminating phase of for the benefit of others (parartha), i.e., freemg all sentient ~emgs fro1? all kinds of
1

a process of kusala gradually developing until it assumes, in liberated persons, the
form of compassion.286 Likewise, in the Abhidharmasamuccaya, 287 the category
"~sala in the sense of benefiting" (anugrahata1J)2 88 is defined as benefiting sentient
be~gs by means of the four b~ses of gathering or winning over (samgrahavastu), 289
which strongly suggests bodh1sattvas and Tathagatas. It would thus be tempting to
understand this interpretation of kusala (viz., in the sense of benefiting others in a
sense limited to the salvific activity of Awakened beings) as a Mahayanist turn. But
!he ~eference to sravakas in the Cintamayibhrlmiviniscaya passage shows that even
1f st~~lated by M~hayana thought it has been adapted to a tendency to integrate
Mahayana and mamstream Buddhism- a tendency typical for the Yogiicarabhiimj
as a whole and also for the Abhidharmasamuccaya.
ffering. Strangely enough, in the chapter on a bodhisattva s nght conduct
t1a) 293 the term kusala is used only in connection with what corresponds to the
f:rm~r 'door of entrance', namely si1a assembling w~?lesome dharmas (1:u~ala-
dharmasamgrahaka), which mainly comprises trad1t1onal acts of meditat10n,
mindfulness, care, and veneration, and their dedication to the bodhisattva's own
attainment of Supreme Awakening. Sila benefiting others (sattvanugriihakam
silam), however, is presented as a category of its own. This may perhaps be t~en to
indicate that this part of the text still presupposes a narrower understandmg of
kusala in the sense of "conducive to (one's own) welfare". But I will stop here, since
the Silapafala of the Bodhisattvabhumi will be dealt with in Michael ZIMM?R-
MANN's article in the present volume.

3. Decidedly Mahayanist is, however, a brief appendix to the treatment of the

~ategories "~holesome" (kusalfJo "unw_holesome" (akusala), and "neutral" (avyakrta)
m the Abhkfharmasa;nuccaya. In this appendix, the text states that dharmas may
also ~e kusala, akuiala, or avyak_rta in terms of display (nidarsanatafJ). This is
explamed as ref~rring to the activities, sometimes even looking baneful, which
Buddhas and high-level bodhisattvas merely exhibit or di splay in order to
?enefit sentient beings, like the mock-executions of mock-criminals by King Anala
m chapter 20 of the GaIJ<Javyiiha~ Another Mahayanist addition is found in the
d~~ition of ~hat is kusala in the sense of coming to rest ( upaiamata.lJ), 291 i.e.,
mrvaIJa. I.n. this case, the Abhidharmasamuccaya not only specifies "coming to rest"
as compnsmg both complete abandonment of attachment, aversion and disorien-
t~tion, i.e., nirvaIJa with a remainder of 'possessions' (sopadhiie~a), and nirvana
without any remainder of 'possessions' (nirupadhise~a), but also adds to these the
Mahay~ni~t ~oncept of nirviiIJa not fixed [in either nirvaJJa or samsara]
( apratJ~fh1tan1rvaIJa).

4. When searching for a decidedly Mahayanist interpretation of kuiala in the

Yogacarabhumi, one would naturally turn to the Bodhisattvabhiimi In fact, in the

285 Cf., however, Yt yi 32ast (Ye 762a _ ), where anavadya, following upon kusala
17 19
("what is conducive to an agreeable result"), is defined as "what is conducive to the benefit
of o¥s~self 3:11d others" ( bdag dang gzhan la phan pa yangs su 'dzin pa).
Y t 21 63blff, esp. b3-4 and b 7_8; 64b2 (Yc 602b8ff, esp. b 15 and b22 ; ew).
287
AS 2214: anugrahata,fi kusalarh katamat? yac caturbhih sarhgrahavastubhih
sattvan
288
anuurhnatah.
b: ' •
· ·
In a set probably adapted from the aforementioned treatment of kusala in the
Vin1~~ayasarhgr_ahaIJi _( esp. Yt zi ?4-blf: see fn. 190) ..
~eneros1ty ( dan_a), affect10nate speech (priyavadita), helpful activity ( arthacazya)
and haVIng the sa~e aim ( sam_anarthata):. BoBh 149-158; Mahayanasutralalikara( bhawa)
?"'1·72.(ed. Sylva1!1 LEVI, Pans 1907). According to these sources, arthacazya focuses on
~structmg others m wholesome attitudes and activities, while samanarthata means acting
m the same way as one adhorts others to act. For further information see KRAGH
(2006:206-208). '
290 292 BoBh 1221-23,
AS 241s-1s,
291 AS 2219-21, Cf. fn. 163. 293 BoBh 966ff·
~-·

490 Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN

A
Abbreviations and Sigla
Aliguttaranikiiya, ed. R. MORRIS, E. HARDY, London: PTS 1885-1900.
--
J(v-a
Kusala and Akusala

Kathavatthu(ppakaraJJa)-a!fhakatha, ed. N.A. JAYAWICKRAMA, London: PTS

1979.
491

AA vat Le traite de la descente dans la profonde Joi (Abhidharmavatiirasiistra) de Majjhimanikaya, ed. V. TRENCKNER, R. CHALMERS, London: PTS 1887-1902.
l'arhat Skandh11a, traduit et annote par Marcel VAN VELTHEM, Louvain-la- Chinese Madhyamagama, T26.
Neuve: Institut Orientaliste 1977. *Misraka-Abhidharmahfdaya, Tl552.
AbhVL Sridharasena, Abhidhanavisvalocana, ed. L. JAMSPAL in collaboration with A. ManorathapllraJJf (Aiiguttaranikaya-a!fhakathii), ed. M. W ALLESER, H. KOPP,
WAYMAN, Naritasan Shinshoji 1992. London: PTS 1936-1957.
ADi Abhidharmadipa with Vibha~aprabhavrtti, ed. Padmanabh S. JAINI, Patna 1959. MPPU Mahiipraj.iiipiiramitii-upadesa, Tl509.
AIG Jakob WACKERNAGEL, Albert DEBRUNNER: Altindische Grammatik, vols. 1-3 MPS Ernst WALDSCHMIDT, Das MahiipannirviiJJaslltra, pt.1-3, Berlin: Akademie-
Gottingen 1896-1930 and 1957 ( addenda to vols. I and Ill). ' Verlag 1950-1951.
AK(Bh) Vasubandhu, Abhidharmakosa(bhaffa), ed. P. PRADHAN, ist ed., Patna: K.P. NA Sa.Iighabhadra, *Nyiiyiinusara (or 0siiriJJI); Tl562. .
Jayaswal Research Institute 1967. Chandrabhal TRIPA'fHI, Fiinfundzwanzig Slltras des Nidanasamyukta, Berlm:
NidSa
AKTU Samathadeva, Abhidharmakosafika Upayika, Q5595 (mdo 'grel, mngonpa, vols. Akademie-Verlag 1962.
tuand thu). Pafisambhidiimagga, ed. A.C. TAYLOR, London: PTS 1905-1907.
AKVy Patis
Yasomitra, Abhidharmakoiavyakhya, ed. Unrai WOGIHARA, reprint, Tokyo: Saddhammappakiisini (Pafisambhidiimagga-a!fhakathii), ed. C.V. JOSHI,
Sankibo 1971.
London: PTS 1979.
AmK Amarasi.Ihha, Amarakosa, ed. HARAGOVINDASASTR1, Banaras: Chowkhamba PDhp Patna-Dharmapada, ed. Gustav ROTH in Heinz BECHERT (ed.): Die Sprache
Sanskrit Series Office 1957. der altesten buddhistischen Uberlieferung, Gottingen: V andenhoeck &
ArthNib Viryasridatta, Arthaviniscayaslltra-nibandhana, ed. N.H. SAMTANI, Patna 1971. Ruprecht 1980: 97-135.
AS Abhidharmasamuccaya of Asaiiga, ed. Pralhad PRADHAN, Santiniketan 1950. Ps Papa.icaslldani (Majjhimanikiiya-a.tfhakatha), ed. J.H. WOODS, D. KOSAMBI,
ASBh Abhidharmasamuccaya-bhaffa, ed. Nathmal TATIA, Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Re- LB. HORNER, London: PTS 1933-1938. '
search Institute 1976.
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Ii
492
T
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN
Taisho Shinshii Daiz6ky6 (:f(IEffrffff*~*I), the Sino-Japanese Tripitaka,
published in Tokyo, 1922-1932, in 100 volumes.
' ------=--=--
Th Theragatha, ed. H. OLOENBERG and R. PISCHEL, 2nd ed., with Appendices by
K.R. NORMAN and L. ALsDORF, London: PTS 1966.
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439: Cox in WILLEMEN et al., 1998:232), T1546.
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383 (Cox in WILLEMEN et al., 1998:232), T1547.
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Y The Yogacarabhiimi of Acazya Asanga, ed. Vidhushekhara BHATTACHARYA,
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Yc Chinese translation of the Yogacarabhiimi, T1579.
Y(NirupBh) Yogacarabhiim1:· Sopadhika and Nirupadhika Bhiimi, ed. L. SCHMITHAUSEN,
in Papers in Honour ofProf. Dr. Ji Xianlin on the Occasion ofHis 8(/h Birthday,
ed. Lr Zheng(*~) et al., Jiangxi: Jiangxi renmin chubanshe 1991, vol. II, pp.
687-711.
Yt Tibetan translation of the Yogacarabhiimi: 05536 (mdo 'grel, sems tsam, vol.
dzi) and 05539-5543 (vols. zi-yi); Derge 4035 (vol. tsh1) and Derge 4038-4042
(vols. zhi-'i). References are to O unless specified otherwise.
YVy Yogaciirabhiimi-vyakhya, 05544.
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The Yogacarabhiimi Corpus
Sources, Editions, Translations, and Reference Works
Martin DELHEY
Introductory Remarks
0.1 In the following pages, an attempt will be made to give a critical overview of
the basic research tools relating to the Yogacarabhum1(sastra) which we have at
our disposal, including, among others, the extant textual witnesses and the
available editions and translations into modern languages. Such an undertaking
seems to be useful, since the Yogacarabhumj (henceforth: YoBh), the fundamen-
tal work of the Indian Y ogacara school of Buddhist thought, is both extra-
1
ordinarily important and bulky. Moreover, publications that are aiming at its
systematic exploration by means of critical editions and the like are typically
numerous, confined to small parts of the text and scattered over many different
independent publications like scholarly journals, festschnften or book-length
monographs that are, as regards their subject-matter, often not limited to the
YoBh alone.
0.2 There are some excellent bibliographical sources available which have an
objective that is related to the present endeavor. YOKI's (1962) catalog is still an
important reference work on Indian, Tibetan, and East Asian primary Y ogacara
literature, especially because this is the only pertinent publication that gives not
only a survey of the extant works but also gathers all the information on those
The present contribution is the greatly enlarged version of a paper I gave during the
conference "The Yogacarabhumjand the Yogacaras" (Seoul, October 2008). I am grateful
to the participants for helpful suggestions. I am indebted to Prof. Dr. Kazuo KANO, Prof.
Dr. Birgit KELLNER, Dr. Kenichi KURANISHI, Prof. Dr. Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN, and to
Prof. Dr. Francesco SFERRA for providing me with some of the materials dealt with in this
study. My revered teacher Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN was so kind to read the penultimate
draft of the present article and to communicate very helpful comments, suggestions, and
corrections to me. - Technical notes: The equals sign ( =) is used to denote corresponding
passages in different sources, regardless of the question whether there are minor or even
major differences in their wording. - East Asian names are treated exactly like Western
names as regards the order of the family name and the given name, if they appear in
transcription. - Sanskrit terms and titles are given in the stem-form except for terms consi-
sting of more than one word. - In some places, Korean characters and romanization are
used; they have been inserted by the editors of this volume. The same holds true for many
of the conventions used in the present article, like, for instance, the use of the siglum Q for
bstan 'gyur texts.
1 rence work for anyone who is doing research on any given area of Indian philosophy and
As regards its comprehensiveness, the YoBh is, if I am not mistaken, among the
extant Indian Buddhist dogmatical works only eclipsed by the *Mahavjbha.Ja (T1545).
The YogacarabhrJmi Corpus 499
2
urces that are Jost. HAKAMAYA's bibliographical notes in the Tokyo edition of
so
the sems t5am section of the Derge bsTan -gyur (IJ
I
.1.LJ-\.l'V\lvU\.YA, notes contam very
A TT A 1' ,< A ) •
luable references to older Japanese scholarship on the Yogacara literature (up
~i ca. 1980). 3 The section on the YoBh in SUGAWARA's contribu~ion to the third
olume of Bongo Butten no Kenkyii (SUGAWARA, 1990:318-329) gives an excellent
vverview of the extant textual sources and the basic research work done on them
(with special reference to ~anskrit sour_ces ~~d editions). Jonathan A. SILK pro-
vided the most up-to-date list of Sanskrit editions (SILK, 2001:15?-158) and much
valuable information and observations on reference works relatmg to the YoBh
(ibid.:150-168). But even this rather recent publication is already dated. Moreover,
his list was never meant to be an exhaustive bibliography of Sanskrit editions. 4 SILK
also abstains, save for very few remarks, from reviewing the editorial work critically.
2
In my view, attempts like these should be made far more often in the different fie_lds
of Buddhist textual studies than it has been done up to now. It can prevent us from drawmg
premature conclusions regarding an immediate and linear dependence of one source up~n
another, if we have a clear idea of how many lost works might have been composed m
between.
3
One may also consult an article on the Y ogacara texts by the same author which has
been written at roughly the same time (HAKAMAYA, 1982). A reprint of this article contains
an addendum where many references to pertinent publications from the 1980s and '90s are
given (HAKAMAYA, 2001:103-107). .
4
This has explicitly been stated by SILK (2001: 152 and 158) himself. Nevertheless, there
are only very few gaps in his list. Some additions to SILK's contribution are included in
DELHEY (2009:15 n. 45). These additions are, howev~r, superseded by the present
article. - One might also mention the publications of the SRAv AKABHOMI STUDY GROUP
which usually contain very comprehensive biblipgraphical pieces of informati?n.' especi~lly
regarding editions which are based on the Sravakabhumj MS. - Oth~r bibhograph1cal
sources are for various reasons less useful for the present undertakmg, although the
present contribution owes something to all of them .. NAKAMU~'s (198?) bibliographical
survey is a mine of information, but contains, at least m the pertment section (NAKAMURA,
1980:256-258), so many misleading statements - and at times even serious errors (seen. 55
for an example) - that it can only be used with the utmost caution and is entirely useless
when one tries to get an overview of the preserved textual witnesses of the YoBh. The
service which POWERS (1991) has rendered to the scholarly community with his Yogacara
bibliography has duly been acknowledged in a lot of reviews ( e.g., TILLEMANS, 1993~.
However, other more problematic aspects of this bibliography come clearer to the fore, 1f
one consults the more critical reviews by DE JONG (1994) and, especially, by WYZLIC
(1995). More serious than the numerous omissions - which are to a certain e~tent certai1;1ly
inevitable, if one compiles such a bibliography - are the countless errors which occur with
regard to those items which have found their way into this book. DE JONG (1994) and
WYZLIC (1995) have only listed some of them. Many of these errors suggest that POWE_RS
has never seen the respective publications. Unfortunately, he does not mark these entnes
accordingly. BANDURSKI (1994:61-66) only contains bibliographical information on those
YoBh manuscripts of which there are photographs in Gottingen. PFANDT (1986) is a refe- I
rence work which is restricted to providing information on translations into Wester?
languages (see ibid.:21f., 89, 120, 140 for relevant entries.) This bibliographic~l source_ is
ii
I
,I,
already dated. POTTER'S continuously updated bibliography of the Encycloped1a of Ind1an
Ph1Josophjes (URL: http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/) is certainly an important refe-
has accordingly also been used with profit by the present author. However, the relevant
sections contain many gaps and errors - which is understandable enough, if one considers
 500 Martin DELHEY
?.3.1 There are, as is well known, alre_ady many _studies available that try to
elucidate aspec!s of th~ complex _dogmatic and phtlosophical teachings of the
YoBh or ~fits l~terary history. It might have been desirable to include a bibliogra-
phy and d1scuss10n of these secondary sources in the present survey but this
for severa.1re.asons 1mposs1
· ·bl e: Fust
· of all, the writer of the present article
' was
devotes
most of his time at present to entirely different areas of buddhological research
Secondly, such a comprehensive state-of-the-field report would probably requ · ·
~oak-length dim~nsio~s. Thirdly, there are countless relevant scholarly contri~: ~
t~o~s that are wntten m Japanese, and the present writer feels due to his rath
hm1ted proficien.cy in this l~ngua~e unable to study all of them. Fourthly, it is st~~
~ery hard, someti?1es even imp~ss1ble to pin access to all these Japanese materials,
if one does not hve and work m Japan. Finally, it should be noted that at least
so~e of the majo:1" pro~lems of YoBh research have recently been extensively and
reliably summarized m an easily accessible Western language publication
(D.E.LE~U, ~006). A thorough knowledge of the available textual sources and
ed1tt~ns 1s, m my view, indispensable for any further research on the above-
me1;1t10ned proble:ns. Therefore, i~ has within the framework of the present contri-
but10~ been considered as especially useful to give an overview of these basic
matenals rather than summarizing the state of the field regarding problems of
textual and philosophical history (see, however, §0.4 for some brief pertinent
remarks).
0.3.2_Unfortunately, the present writer felt, due to time constraints, not even
able to. give a truly com~lete overview of editions, translations, and reference works
regard1~g. the YoBh. It 1s, however, hoped the present contribution contains a com-
plete c_nt1cal sun:'ey of all editions that are based on at least one of the extant
Sanskr~t ma_n_uscnpts or fragments. As a matter of fact, it is only with regard to the
Sanskrit editto?-s that the p~e.sent ':riter has already systematically collected the
relevant mate~rnls ~~fore v.:r:tmg this contribution.6 Regarding partial translations
as well as p_artrnl cnt~cal ed1t10ns _of the Tibetan and Chinese texts, certainly major
gaps remam, especially ':hen 1t com~s to publications written in Japanese.
Moreov.er, t?e present wnter has abstamed from collecting any information on
translatI?n~ lll!o modern Korean or Chinese. Nevertheless, the present writer deci-
ded _to hm1t himself not only to a discussion of the Sanskrit editions since he is
confident the other bibliographical notes contained in the following ~ages are of
some help for _many researchers, at least for those scholars who are not mainly
preoccupied with research on early Y ogacara literature. Moreover, the informa-
that POTT~R is perform~ng a !1~rculean labor. MARTIN (2009) is, strictly speaking, simply
the author s .o~n working bibliography on Indian Buddhist authors and their works;
nevertheless, 1~ 1s an extr~mely worthwhile reference tool; some of the countless entries and
remarks co~tai~ed therem also p_ro~ed to be helpful for the present paper. SUEKI (2008) is
an ext~aord~n.anly ~seful ~eta_-bibhography and has accordingly been used quite often by
me while wntmg this contnbution.
5
This holds tr~e regar~less ~f the fact that nowadays the contents of some of the
cou?tless Japanes~ Journals m which such contributions have been published have become
available on the mternet (see GeNii, the National Institute of Informatics academic
contfnt portal; URL: httr!lge.nii.ac.jp/genii/jsp/index-e.jsp ).
In my survey of ed1t10ns, I have also included some unpublished M.A. theses which
have not (o~ no~ yet) ~een (completely) superseded by published versions but which are
freely accessible m the library of the Asia-Africa-Institute of the University of Hamburg.
The Yogacarabh umi Corpus 501
······································-···················································································································· ············
f n collected here is hopefully comprehensive enough to give the reader a general
i
I
i~~a of the present state of the systematical exploration of the extant YoBh texts.
0.3.3 One more remark on the scope of the present contribution is necessary.
Pre-modern translations of the YoBh have _been s!udied i~ the. course of t~e
enturies very intensively and extensively outside India, especially m Central Asia
(in particular, as it seems, i~ ~iinhuang), Chin_a, Korea, and Japan. As an outco?1e
f these studies, many trad1t10nal commentanal texts have been produced,_ which
~re partly still extant. However, the present contribution is conc~rned with the
YoBh as a work of ancient Indian Buddhism and with thos~ matenals that a~e ?f
immediate relevance for uncovering the message and wordmg of the YoBh m its
original historical context. Therefore, h~rdly_ anything ~ ill e written here on the f
later reception and history of the YoBh m Asian Buddhism.
0.4.0 The literary history and character of the YoBh as well as its place within
the larger framework of early Y ogacara literature and the Indian Buddhist history
of ideas have been much debated during recent decades. Although these problems
belong, as mentioned above, not to the subject-matter of the present contribution,
it might not be out of place to make some very brief general remarks on the YoBh
as seen in modern scholarship to provide the reader with some background
knowledge on the textual sources and the context in which much of the research
work cited below has been written. 8
0.4.1 The name YoBh can be understood either as meaning 11Treatise on the
Levels of Spiritual Training 11 or as 11Treatise on the Levels of Those W~o E:ngage in
Spiritual Training 11 (DELHEY, 2009:3 and n. 2). In some recent pubhcat1ons, the
latter alternative has been preferred (DELHEY, ibid.; SCHMITHAUSEN, 2007b:213).
The YoBh was by far the most bulky and certainly also the basic work of the Indian 11 .
Yogacara school. In spite of the fact that this school represents one of the two
main branches of Indian Buddhist Mahayana thought, there are many parts of the I
YoBh that confine themselves exclusively to a description of the conservative
Buddhist world-view of the Sravakayana. Sometimes the Mahayana seems to be
referred to in a neutral tone as one possible way to salvation in the latter sections;
in other places of the YoBh, a certain tension between the different approaches is
recognizable. The very title of the YoBh as well as the designation of the adher~nts
of this school as Y ogacaras suggest a special emphasis laid on spiritual practice;
there are indeed many passages of the YoBh that can serve as examples for these
practical concerns. However, in many other places dogmatic and exegetical
concerns are predominant, and often the different topics of the Buddhist world-
view are dealt with in the same dry and scholastic way as it is known, for instance,
from abhjdharma works of the Sarvastivadin. As a matter of fact, the later tradition
7 !,
For all further references to the Sino-Japanese traditional YoBh literature, see the I
pertinent sections in YOKI (1964) and DELEANU (2006:251f.) . . .
8
The reader might be reminded once again that the state of the field regardmg many
problems of YoBh research has recently been comprehensively summarized in D E~EANU
(2006); I will only refer to some of the important sections in that monograph m the
foll owing brief overview.
502 Martin DELHEY
regarded the YoBh as a whole as an abhMharma work. 9 There are even cl~~-r-i~d~-
cations in the YoBh itself that strongly suggest that already the authors and
compilers of the YoBh held this view regarding their text (see DELHEY, 2009:3f.
n.3).
The YoBh has been ascribed to Asanga in the later Indian 10 and the Tibetan
traditions, and to the Bodhisattva and future Buddha Maitreya in the East Asian
tradition. Both ascriptions seem to be based on legendary accounts in which both
above-mentioned figures make their appearance; therefore, the difference be-
tween the two traditions is in my view not as great as it appears at first sight.
Nevertheless, this matter is for the following reason a rather complex one: In the
early Y ogacara school - that is, in the pre-Vasubandhu tradition - a second
historical person and great Buddhist master besides Asanga seems to have been at
work who might have been called Maitreya(natha). For this reason, there was, at
least in earlier scholarship, a controversy about which of these two persons
composed the YoBh. However, it seems that nowadays most, though certainly not
all, YoBh experts subscribe to the view that the YoBh is a compilation rather than
the work by a single author. 11 References to and discussions of publications,
wherein these two basic views are advocated - each of them occurs, by the way, in
many different varieties -, are easily accessible (see SCHMITHAUSEN, 1987b:13f.
and 183ff.; and DELEANU 2006:154); hence, most pertinent scholarly contributions
will not be listed here. The present writer is of the opinion that SCHMITHAUSEN's
hypothesis according to which the YoBh came into being as the result of a complex
process of compilation and redaction of heterogeneous materials is the most
convincing. 12 . from consulting other texts belonging to this recension. Moreover, there seem to
This hypothesis is closely linked with a certain viewpoint on the more general
literary history of the early Y ogacara texts. According to this opinion, the YoBh
contains a large amount of materials that predate all other early Yoga.cam works,
including even the most important siitra of the Y ogacaras, viz. the Samdhli1ir-
mocanasrltra.13 The latter text came, however, into being, before the co~pilation
9
See, e.g., the citation from *Samathadeva's Abh1dharmakosabhawa commentary inn.
10. Another example is Sthiramati's commentary (Q5567, D4066) on Vasubandhu's Paiica-
skandhaka. In the beginning, the objection is raised why Vasubandhu wrote this short
Abhidharma manual, in spite of the fact that works which examine the characteristics of
dharmas had been written earlier, namely, the YoBh and so on.
10
See, e.g., *Samathadeva's *Abhjdharmakosafikopayika (Q5595.(tu)146a3f): "The
Elder Asanga has said in the authoritative treatise on the abh1dharma of the Great Vehicle
which is called Yogacara (!), in the chapter on the major and minor bodily characteristics
(Lak$a1ylnuvyaiijanapafala) of the Bodhisattvabhumi ... " (gnas brtan thogs med kyis theg
pa chen po'i chos mngon pa 'i bstan bcos rnal 'byor spyodpa zhes bya ba las byang chub sems
dpa'isar mtshan dangdpe byadkyjfe'u las ... bshadpa ... ); Patna MS of the BoBh (no. 4 in
§1.2i as edited in BoBhD 28228 : lqtk iyam acaryaryasaligapadanam.
1
SUGAWARA (1990:318 n. 5) stated already two decades ago that explanations accor-
ding to which the YoBh is rather a compilation than a work by a single author are predomi-
nant among Japanese researchers. This is remarkable, since there can be no doubt .that the
vast majority of YoBh specialists are working in Japan.
12
The most important pertinent publications of this scholar are: SCHMITHAUSEN
(1969a:812-819); SCHMITHAUSEN (1987b, the most relevant passages can easily be found
in the index of texts appended to these volumes); and SCHMITHAUSEN (2000).
13
SCHMITHAUSEN (1969a:819-823); SCHMITHAUSEN (1987b:11-13 with many referen-
ces to pertinent publications by Japanese scholars, 183ff.); SUGURO (1989: Summary, esp. p.
The Yogflcflrabhilmi Corpus 503
action process of the YoBh had come to an end; it has even been nearly
an d· re1d incorporated into the YoBh m · t he f orm of extensive · · ·
citations ( see
entire Y f · f h Y - - h 1 d
2 2.5.3). Finally, it should be noted that the or~a~10n o t_ e oga~ara sc oo .an
§ · dual development of its most charactenstic doctnnes obviously mamfest
the gra es in this multi-layered corpus of early matena · 1s. R egar d'mg t he pro bl em
thems elv . . .
b
lute chronology, it should be mentioned that we have a termmus ante quem
f O
o a s arts of the YoBh in the form of an early 5th century Ch'mese trans 1atmn .
furW me P · ·
of th e B
oBh, which contains cross-references to some other chapters of the 'h .
entITe
.
k It is more difficult to find a fixed terminus post quem for the YoB , smce it
wor
is not· yet quite clear which of. the extant India~
· ~uddh'1st matena · 1s can b e re gar d e d
manifestations of the prehistory of the Yogacara school. Moreover, only s~me of
:~ese possible candidates can themselves ?~ assigned with mar~ or less certaii:ity to
a fixed point in time. But some very prom1smg attempts to elucidate the pre-history
of Yogacara doctrines have been made (see DELEANU, 2006:1?7-162 for all further
references). The present writer has argued on another occasion (DELH~Y, 2?09:
10-13) that a recent attempt by Florin .DELEANU (2006:183-1?6) to assign fixe?
dates to the different parts of the YoBh 1s somewhat problematic for methodologi-
cal reasons. It should, however, be noted that DELEAI'_ill hims~lf. did not fail to
mention the very tentative and conjectural character of his chart (1b1d.:195). .
The canonical texts which the authors and compilers of the YoBh transmitted
14
were obviously those of the so-called Mulasarvastivada recension. This is, among
others for two reasons very important to note: To begin with, text-critical work on
the nu'merous exegetical portions of the YoBh texts can profit to a certain degree
be quite a few instances in which doctrinal innovations of the com~ilers of ~he
YoBh only become fully understandable against the background of this recension
of the canomca . 1texts. 15
0.4.2 Finally, some remarks on the structure of the ~oBh corpus seem i:iot ~o
be out of place here, the more so as the systematic overview of. YoBh maten.a~s m
§2 of this contribution is ordered in accordance with certam presuppos1t~ons I
i
regarding this problem. It is more than likely that the divis~o.n of the corp~s. 17:to
I
five parts, as it appears in the Chinese tra°i~lation, i~ more ongmal than the d1~1s10;11
into eight parts of the Tibetan bstan 'gyur. Accordmgly, §2 of the present article 1s
subdivided in §2.1-5. Regarding the order of the third to fifth part of the corpus,
the historical sources are widely at variance; however, in the present contribution
12f.); SCHMITHAUSEN (2000); and DELEANU (2006:172-176). Most recently, BUESCt.IER
(2008) has tried to refute ScHMITHAUSEN's hypothesis on the orig~n and ~arly ~o.ctn~al
history of the alayavijiiana concept. However, in terms of literary history his stratification
seemingly only differs in relatively few, though important, det~ils. .
14 See DELEANU (2006:159) for references to the most important pertment research
contributions. Cp . also DELHEY (2009:74f.).
15 See, e.g., SCHMITHAUSEN (1987b:19f.) and DELHEY (2909:68 n. 188). .
16 In the Tibetan translation of the Basic Section, the SrBh and the BoBh, which are
the two most bulky chapters, are omitted; instead they have been transmitted as ~eparate
parts of the YoBh. The same omission can be observed in the YoBh MS (No.2 1~ §1.2).
However, it is very likely that in both cases rather practical .reasons t~an different
viewpoints on the structure of the YoBh are to be held responsible for this p_r?ce~ure.
Regarding the separation of the *Vinayasa1pgraha1Jf from the Vastusa1pgraha1J1 m Tibet,
see §2.5 of the present contribution.
504 Martin DELHEY
-·-····················-·-·-·-········
the testimony of the Chinese translation has been followed regarding thi~
a~ well. 17 ~he first and second part of the YoBh are both structured in accordance
with the fixed set of seventeen levels ( bhumi); their number and sequence is
among others, well attested by their enumeration in the very beginning of the firs~
part (Bh. 3). This does, however, not entail that each of the first two parts is further
subdivided into seventeen sections. Instead, in both parts sometimes two or three
levels ( bhiimi) are dealt with together in one and the same section. The sections
within the different parts are sometimes further subdivided into smaller units that
even receive their own colophons (like, for instance, the so-called yogasthanas of
the BoBh, which are again subdivided into chapters [pafala ]). The numbering of
the subsections within §2.1 to §2.5 of the present contribution very often deviates
for certain practical reasons from the structure - but not from the sequence _
within the five parts of the YoBh.
0.5 It is not my intention to provide a history of modem scholarship on the
YoBh here. However, a short historical sketch concerning the discovery and
exploration of the Sanskrit manuscripts might be useful. A dim knowledge about
the YoBh and its importance was already present in Western scholarship by
roughly the middle of the 19th century. 18 At that time, scholars had to rely on
Tibetan and Chinese sources and their translations into Western languages for
gaining some knowledge about the YoBh. This situation did not change fundamen-
tally until th!,_year 1904 when the Japanese scholar Unrai WOGIHARA ( = Unrai
OGIWARA [J.x1*~*D traveled from Strasbourg to Cambridge in order to study
and tr~nscribe a very old Nepalese manuscript of the BoBh, which was the only
Sansknt codex of the YoBh known at that time (No. 3 in §1.2). 19 WOGIHARA's
preoccupation with this Sanskrit text probably marked the beginning of serious
modem scholarship on the YoBh as an Indian Buddhist text. The fate of YoBh
studies continued to be firmly linked to the discovery and availability (and also the
legibility) of Sanskrit manuscripts in the one hundred years to come, although
important and influential publications relying exclusively or predominantly on the
translations have already been published when no Sanskrit texts or only a small
part of them was available. 20 During the 1930s, WOGIHARA published his edition
of the BoBh at last. By that time, a second BoBh manuscript of very late origin had
been found, which WOGIHARA also used in his edition (No. 6 in §1.2).
At about the same time, Ra.hula SANKI~TYAYANA discovered no fewer than
three fairly old different Sanskrit manuscripts containing parts of the YoBh during
his heroic and extraordinarily successful travels to Tibet in search of Sanskrit
17
For details on this problem, see DELEANU (2006:47) and DELHEY (2009:4 n.6).
18
In 1859, for instance, Carl Friedrich KOEPPEN already referred to the work as
"famous" and cited older publications on this subject. He identified Asailga as its author
and stated that this Buddhist scholar had written this work probably in the fourth or fifth
century, thereby laying the foundation for the Y ogacara school as a scholastic system of
Buddhist thought. He confuses, however, the Y ogacara school with Tantric Buddhism
(KOEPPEN, 1859:32).
19
It is not necessary to go into any further detail here. The early history of the
reception of the BoBh in modern scholarship is well known and has moreover been
described before. See especially WANGCHUK (2007:357-359). ' '
2
°For instance, Tucc1's studies on pre-Dignaga texts on Buddhist logic including the
Hetuvidya section of the YoBh (especially in his journal article TUCCI 1929 on this subject)
or UI's (1958) book-length study on the YoBh.
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus 505
--- - ----
~~~bk;- manuscripts. 21 Two of them he found in Zha lu (No. 1 and 4 in §1.2), and a third
one was discovered in Sa skya by him (No. 2 in §1.2). He took photographs of all
three codices. Back in India, he obviously handed all his negatives over to the Bihar
Research Society in Patna (BANDURSKI, 1994:13). 22 Shortly afterwards, Giuseppe
TUCCI visited the same places as SAN~TYAYANA and took his own photographs
of the three manuscripts containing parts of the YoBh. Unfortunately, until very
recently these materials in the possession of TUCCI remained unknown to the
. 23
scholarly pu bl1c.
In the following decades, several Indian scholars published editions on the
basis of SAN~TYAYANA's YoBh photographs. Paul DEMIEVILLE already com-
plained in 1954 about the fact that these important materials had - except for a
very short excerpt - not yet been published. 24 However, even decades later a
considerable amount of text contained in these manuscripts remained unedited. In
1991, J. C. JHA of the K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute in Patna mentioned that
there is a program in this institution to publish all these texts (see SHUKLA, 1991:
11). Still, as regards editions by Indian scholars the situation has not changed until
the present day. Access to the photographs has always been very restricted; only
very few prints found their way to other parts of the scholarly world. The largest
collection of materials gathered by SAN~TYAYANA, which also included prints of
the photographs mentioned above, was acquired in the 1960s and '70s by the
Seminar fur Indologie und Buddhismuskunde of the University of Gottingen and
later handed over to the Niedersachsische Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek in
Gottingen (see BANDURSKI, 1994, for a catalog of these materials). Other prints of
the manuscripts under consideration here are in the private possession of Prof. Dr.
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN. The late Prof. Dr. Alex WAYMAN managed to obtain
prints in the 1950s; however, it seems that he only possessed the photographs of
one of the MSS (No. 1 in §1.2). SCHMITHAUSEN received the first copies of these
MSS in 1969 (see SCHMITHAUSEN, 1969b:9), and immediately started to make use
of them; he did not, however, start to prepare full-fledged critical editions or to
entrust his pupils with these tasks until quite a few years later, when he received
21
The impact his discoveries had on YoBh studies is enhanced by the fact that he also
found manuscripts of some closely related Y ogacara texts, especially of the Abh1dharma-
samuccaya (incomplete MS) and Abh1dharmasamuccayabhawa. .
22
Later on, the negatives were for some time stored in the K. P. Jayaswal Research
Institute (see, e.g., BANDURSKI, 1994:13), before they were returned to the Bihar Research
Society (ibid.:15 n. 17).
23
A decade ago, Francesco SFERRA published a first preliminary report on TUCCI's
collection (SFERRA, 2000). At the time when that article was written, only the photographs
of one BoBh MS (No. 4 in §1.2) had been found (see SFERRA, 2000:410). In the meantime,
photographs of the other two MSS have been identified as well, as becomes clear from the
thoroughly revised and enlarged version of the preliminary report (see SFERRA, 2009:41, 46,
I I
47). In August 2009, Prof. Dr. Francesco SFERRA informed me about this discovery and
sent me electronic copies of all these photographs together with a preliminary table of
contents. I am deeply indebted to this scholar for his kind help. For more general informa-
tion on Tucc1's collection and his expeditions to Tibet and the Himalayas, see SFERRA
(2009:passim) and NALESINI (2009:passim). i
I
24
DEMIEVILLE (1954:340 and n. 1). At that time, only a very small portion of the YoBh I
MS was available in a critical edition (namely, BHATTACHARYA, 1946). Later on, CONZE I
(1963:226) lamented the slowness of the process of editing these materials in his review of
BHATTACHARYA's (1957) and WAYMAN's (1961) partial editions. I,.I
I,
 506 Martin DELHEY
.............___ _
permission to prepare such editions (on the condition that they are published in
romanized transcription rather than in Devanagari characters). 25 Most of the
editions and translations of his pupils have been published quite recently, that is,
within the last ten or twelve years.
The best set of prints has been made in the 1950s in Patna where they are still
stored. 26 Nevertheless, one can be quite certain that all scholars alike, whether they
are from India or from other parts of the world, had to struggle with the problems
posed by the partly very unsatisfactory quality of SAN~TYAYANA's photographs.
These difficulties are also responsible for the fact that those prints that are
accessible have never been made widely available, for instance in a facsimile
edition, since secondary copies, including electronic ones, tend to be even harder
to read than the primary prints on which they are based.
In the meantime, a few new materials have been discovered and some of the
manuscripts from Tibet have reappeared. In 1970, the Nepalese German Manu-
script Preservation Project microfilmed another MS from Nepal, which contains
only the BoBh (No. 5 in §1.2). Kazunobu MATSUDA made important discoveries of·
further fragments of the YoBh in Nepal (No. 9a and 9b in §1.2) and in Leningrad
(now Saint Petersburg; No. 8 in §1.2) during the 1980s. Among the MSS photo-
graphed by SAN~TYAYANA and TUCCI, the two MSS from Zha lu (No. 1 and 4 in
§1.2) were, together with many other Sanskrit texts, brought to Beijing in 1960 -
obviously from Sa skya where they seemingly had been kept for longer time -, and
stored for some decades in the "Palace of Culture of the Nationalities" (~~:X1t
'g Minzu wenhuagong) in Beijin~ before they were returned to Tibet in 1993
where they are now kept in Lhasa. 7 Before this was done, microfilms were made
to facilitate further research in Beijing (see Hu VON-HINOBER 2006 for all details).
Early in the 1980s, at about the same time when in Hamburg SCHMITHAUSEN
and his pupils began to prepare critical editions, some scholars from Taisho
University in Tokyo started to publish new partial editions of the Sravakabhiimi on
the basis of one of the two Zha lu MSS (No. 1 in §1.2). This study group first had to
rely on prints from SAN~TYAYANA's photographs as well. However, in the early
1990s they gained access to the microfilm stored in Beijing. As a further result of
the cooperation with colleagues in China, a beautiful facsimile edition of the MS
was published in 1994. In Hamburg as well as in Tokyo, the Tibetan and Chinese
translations (see below) have generally been taken into full account. A typical
feature of most editions prepared in Germany are parallel editions of the Tibetan
text (on the basis of at least two textual witnesses), while the Sanskrit editions
associated with the SRAvAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP are generally accompanied by
Japanese translations on facing pages.
25
Oral communication by Prof. Dr. Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN.
26
This collection of photo-prints is, for instance, mentioned in ROTH (1970:XVIII).
Some years ago, the now late Dr. ROTH explicitly told me in personal conversation that
these are the best prints which have ever been made. It is, however, at present unclear to
me whether this set also contains prints made from those negatives which are relevant for
the ~resent article.
7 tion, although the publications mentioned above do not explicitly state this. I am neither
It is somewhat unclear at which place in Lhasa the original manuscripts are kept now.
According to HU-VON HINOBER (2006:286), they are stored in the Nor bu gling kha.
GYURME (2009:303), however, states that they are kept in the Tibet Museum.
The Yogiiciirabhumi Corpus 507
Overview of the Extant Primary Sources
1.1 We have two complete and primary premodern translations of the YoBh at
r disposal. 28 Both texts are not only extremely worthwhile for the study of the
oucient Indian original work, because the Sanskrit text is only partly preserved (see
:~.2 below). They also provide us with important informatio~ regardin~ the critical
valuation of the wording as preserved in the extant Sansknt manuscnpts and the
~nterpretation of its meaning. The rendering into Chinese is called Yuqie shidi Jun
(ffrJ{jJOgfflttiz~; T1579) and has been provided by Xuanzang's (X:*, 602?-664)
translation bureau. 29 The bstan 'gyur contains one complete Tibetan translation of
the work, which dates from the beginning of the ninth century. 30 Premodern
translations into other languages besides Tibetan and Chinese are generally of very
limited relevance for recovering the original text of the YoBh. All of them seem to
be secondary translations from Tibetan or Chinese. 31
28
As regards their completeness, it should, however, be noted that the two translations
are at variance regarding the presence or absence of some sections of the Vastusa1pgraha1Ji
See below, §2.5.
29
On the production of this translation, its textual witnesses and the relative use of
consulting other editions of the Chinese canon than the Taisho edition, see the comprehen-
sive discussion in DELEANU (2006:106-146). - No less than ten other Chinese texts are
enumerated as partial translations (see the convenie:gt overview in YOKI, 1962:61). S~ven
of these correspond to the BoBh as a whole or to its Silapafala; the other three translations
correspond to parts of the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi (SUGAWARA, 1990:319 ?ote 7). See i?id.
and the appropriate places of §2 for details. - The problem of a lost Chmese translat10n,
the so-called *Saptadasabhumisiistra by Paramartha, has been extensively dealt with in
DELEANU (2006:196-201).
30
This fact is well known. See, e.g., DELEANU (2006:73-77) for more details and refe-
rences. As regards the testimony of the oldest Tibetan catalogs, the reader may now also be
referred to the new Lhan karma edition by HERRMANN-PFANDT (2008). It is especially
noteworthy that recently another early Tibetan catalog which has for a long time been
considered to be lost, namely the 'Phang thang ma, has been discovered and published.
This ancient document lists the YoBh as well. See HERRMANN-PFANDT (2008:346[ff.]). See
ibid.: LXXIII for references to editions of this catalog. - The Tibetan translation of the
YoBh is preserved in all five editions of the bsTan 'gyur known to be extant. As regards the
text of the YoBh, these are clearly distinguished into two groups, namely, in the textual
witnesses Peking (Q5536-5543), Narthang and Ganden (the "Golden Tanjur"; G3535-3542),
on the one hand, and the block prints Derge (D4035-4042) and Cone, on the other hand
(see DELEANU, 2006:78ff.; KRAMER, 2005:67; WANGCHUK, 2007:381). For studies on frag-
ments from Dunhuang of the Tibetan YoBh, see FUJITA, 1979; /HAKAMAYA, 1985:220-22~;
ISHIKAWA, 1992, 1993, 1994. Cp. also the remarks on the Sriivakabhumi fragments m
DELEANU (2006:77f.).
31
DELEANU (2006:17f. n. 1) only mentions a Mongolian translation made from the
Tibetan version and traditional Japanese kundoku translations made from the Chinese
version. See ibid. for further details and ibid.:61 for additional remarks on the traditional
Japanese renderings (in the bibliography of the present contribu_tion only one o~ the
kundoku translations is listed, i.e., Seishin KATO, 1930-1935). There 1s, however, seemmgly
also a Uighur translation of the YoBh extant (see VON GABAIN, 1961:509; VON GABAIN,
1963:222). I assume that this is also only a secondary rendering from the Chinese transla-
aware of any publications devoted to a study of this manuscript nor have I found a refe-
rence regarding its whereabouts. - NAKAMURA (1980:257 n. 24) also states that "fragments
of the Old Khotanese translation of the Bodhisattvabhilmi" are extant. However, I suspect
 510 Martin DELHEY
7) A short Central Asian BoBh fragment (SHT III 964) 42 from the ·
German Turfan collection. Material: paper. Date: no date given in
MS; probably written approximately between the ih and 10th
century. 43
8) A·comparably long fragment of the Viniscayasa!!]grahaJJi stored at
the Saint Petersburg branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies of
the Russian Academy of Sciences (Leningrad Ms. Ind. .VIl.23
[421 ]).44 Material: paper. · sometimes very lengthy quotations from the YoBh. 52 Although this work has -
9) A compilation of single folios taken from eight different manu-
scripts; Stored in the National Archives in Kathmandu (accession
no.: 1/1697). Material: palm-leaf. Date: no date given in MS; cer-
tainly fairly old (see MATSUDA & STEINKELLNER, 1991:140 for de-
tails). Reproductions: Microfilmed by the NGMPP \reel no. A 39/3).
Two of the single folios contain text from the YoBh: 5 · ,
a) one folio of the Viniscayasa!!]grahaJJI. ·46 ' five commentaries in Tibetan language that are counted as translations from
b) one folio of the ParyayasBI!]grahaJJI. 47
Only the fragments no. 8 and 9 contain text belonging to the second to fifth part of
the work. The other manuscripts cover, taken together, nearly the whole Basic
Section. 48 The codices nos. 3 to 6 as well as the small fragment no. 7 coritain only
text belonging to the BoBh (see §2.1.9 below for some more remarks on these
MSS). The remaining two manuscripts no. 1 and 2 both contain no passages of the
BoBh, but cover, taken together, the rest of the Basic Section nearly completely.
While the greater part of no. 1 contains nearly49 the complete text of the·· Sriivaka-
bhiimi, no. 2 c~ntains all chaRters of the Basic Section with the exception of the
BoBh and the Sriivakabhiimi 0
Since the SrBh MS also contains quite a few other chapters and parts of other
chapters, the contents of no. 1 and no. 2 overlap to some degree .. Therefore, even
42
Transcribed in wALDSCHMIDT et al. (1965ff., vol. III, p. 225). ' i
43
My estimate is exclusively based on SANDER'S (1968:46f.) remarks concerning the
date of MSS which have been found in Sorcuq and are written in "nordturkistanische
Brahmi, Typ a.'' - See below (§2.1.9.4) for further details on this fragment.
44
See MATSUDA (1988) for details. See also below, §2.2.1.2. According to an e-mail
communication by Prof. Jonathan SILK dated April 19, 2010 (in which he cites from an
e-mail message he has received from Prof. Kazunobu MATSUDA in November 2009),
further folios of the same manuscript seem to be stored at the Potala Palace in Lhasa~·They
are, however, seemingly unaccessible to the scholarly public.
45
See MATSUDA (1990) for further details. Some pieces of information can also be
gathered from his publications written in English; see MATSUDA & STEINKELLNER (1991:
139-141) and MATSUDA (2002). The news of this discovery came too late to be included in
SUGAWARA (1990). · (Bh. 137; see lIAKAMAYA, notes, vol. 10, p. 3.)
46
This fragment belongs to the passage where the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra is cited. See
below (§2.2.5.3) for details.
47
See below (§2.4).
48
See n. 49 and 50 for informaJion on missing folios and lost alcyaras, respectively.
49
Three small parts of the Sravakabhiimi, corresponding roughly to seven to eight
folios in the Peking edition of the Tibetan YoBh are missing (see SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY
GROUP, 1994:3 n.7). . It is true that quite a few passages seem to be translations of the same, or nearly the same,
50
Only in the beginning and the end of the manuscript, small amounts of text ·are
missing, since a few folios are damaged in the margin. Cp. also n. 36.
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus 511
.---··"··-·· ·····
quite a few chapters other than the BoBh are completely or partly preserved in
more than one manuscript. Neither of them is the copy of the other (ENOMOTO,
1989: 21; see also DELHEY, 2006:130).
1.3 The relatively few citations of YoBh passagesJh other preserved Sanskrit
texts will be dealt with at the appropriate places in §2. There is one lndian51 text,
the Xiilnyang shengjiao Jun (!imffl~~~!1if; T1602), which consists to a large part of
apart from. one or two citations~ 3 - only c?me do~ .to us in Xuanzang's ?inese
rendering, It can be very helpful In recovenng the ongmal text of the YoBh.
1.4 No Indian commentaries on the YoBh are preserved in the original lan-
guage. There is one short Chinese text, the Yuqieshidilun shi (ffrJ{JJaSf!H-tgit~;
T1580), 55 which is generally regarded as an Indian commentary, while there are
Indian texts. 56 Four of these are exclusively devoted to the BoBh (as a whole or
only to parts of it),57 while the fifth text, the *Yogacarabhiimivya.khya (Rnal 'byor
spyod pa 'i sa rnam par bshad pa; Q5543, D4042) was presumably originally. - or
was at least intended to be - a commentary on the whole work (or on the whole
Basic Section). In its transmitted form, however, it remains a torso. 58 The Chinese
text mentioned above (T1580) seems to be a related yet different commentary. 59
.,
51
There is at least one short quotation in the *I;ogacarabhiimivyakhya (see SCHMIT-
HAUSEN, 1987b:261 n. 99, who refers to Kazunobu MATSUDA). This is one of the reasons
why there can be no doubt that this text originated in India and was not compiled by
Xuanzang himself. . . · ,
52
For a concordance of parallels between the YoBh and the Xiifnyang Jun, see HAYA-
SHIMA & MORI (1990:54-68). This table collects the relevant information contained in
earlier pertinent Japanese publications, but also contains additions by HAYASHIMA and
MORI themselves. For a bibliography of this text, see ibid.:79-82 and HAYASHIMA (1997).
, More recently, CHOI (2001) has published an importantbook-length study on this text.
53
Seen. 51. .
54
This holds especially good in those cases where the respective part of the YoBh is
only preserved in a few better textual witnesses. It goes without saying that much·critical
judgment is needed to evaluate which deviations in the Xiifnyang Jun may point to a diffe-
rent reading in the original YoBh and which readings are peculiarities of the originaltext
of the Xianyang Jun. .
55
NAKAMURA'S (1980:258 n. 29) remark that the Sanskrit text has been found and
edited is quite obviously a (rather strange) mistake.
56
SUGAWARA(1990:318f. and 320 n. 8).
57
For some details on these texts, see below (§2.1.9).
58
It stops abruptly in the commentary on the Savitarkadibhiimi of the Basic Section
.
59
The Chinese commentary consists merely of a correspondence to the introductory
section of the *Yogacarabhiimivyakhya. MUKAI (1979:42) has pointed to the similarities
between these sections in the two texts. SILK has even suggested that both texts are ren-
derings of the same Indian commentary (SILK, 1997:240 n. 44). However, the many
differences between both texts render this assumption extremely unlikely ( see also
DELEANU, 2006:265, who also cautions against a premature identification of the two texts).
Sanskrit text. But there are far too many deviations - e.g., statements or even whole topics
dealt with that can be found only in one of the two texts or elements which are found in
512 Martin DELHEY
Both works are of special importance when one is interested in the YoBh as a
whole and how it was conceived in later Indian Buddhism. 60 It seems that quite a
few more commentaries on the YoBh have been written in India, however, these
. h ave not come d own to us. 61
commentaries
Detailed Survey of Sources, Editions,
and Modem Translations
2.0 In the following pages, an overview regarding the materials available for
each part, section, and subsection of the YoBh will be presented: It should be
noted that there are countless publications wherein very short passages from
different parts of the YoBh are translated or dealt with in a text-critical way. For
obvious reasons, hardly any of these brief citations will be mentioned. 62 An extra-
ordinarily high amount of such passages - which, above all, are dealt with in a
philologically extremely sound way - are contained in SCHMITHAUSEN (1987b ).
These can be found quite easily by using the indices of the monograph. 63
Before we begin a detailed overview, some more remarks on editions, modern
translations, and reference works pertaining to the work as a whole should be
made. The Chinese text of the YoBh is available in modern editions, in which
variants from different textual witnesses are collated and, at least partly, also
critically evaluated. The so-called Taisho edition, which is by far the most wide-
spread version of the Chinese canon, also contains such features. However, one
must be aware of the fact that this edition, though it certainly is impressive, does
not fulfill the highest standards of textual criticism (see, e.g., YUYAMA, 1994:231);
moreover, in the meantime some more textual witnesses have become available. 64
Recently, a collated edition of the Tibetan YoBh has been published within the
framework of an on-going publication of the whole bsTan 'gyur (ZT). However,
both texts but are filled with different contents - to make SILK's assumption likely. In my
view, there are only two possible explanations for the differences. Either both texts are
renderings of different commentaries. In this case, the literal agreements can easily be
explained by the fact that both texts belong to the same (partly certainly oral) commentarial
tradition· handed down from generation to generation amongst the Y ogacara scholars. A
second possibility is probably less likely, but can maybe not be excluded outright: Xuanzang
might have compiled a mixed commentary from different written (and perhaps also oral?)
sources for his Chinese pupils. · ·
60
Therefore, they certainly deserve more scholarly attention than they have, to the best
of mti knowledge, received so far. This has already been stated by SILK (1997:240 n. 44).
1
See YOKI (1962:61-77), but compare now DELEANU (2006:249f. and 263f.).
62
I have, however, decided to list all partial editions (Sanskrit [if available], Tibetan,
Chinese) and translations contained in SAKUMA (1990), although quite a few of them are
limited to very tiny text portions as well.
63
Another monograph containing numerous text passages from all over the YoBh is
KRITZER (2005). The original wording is given in Tibetan (with text-critical remarks) and
Chinese throughout. If the Sanskrit text is extant, it is given as well (he also makes use of
some earlier emendations, e.g., by SCHMITHAUSEN regarding these passages). However,
this holds only good for the Sanskrit text as contained in the older book-length editions like
BHATTACHARYA, 1957, although KRITZER is well aware of the fact that many other
editions are available (see KRITZER, 2005:XV, n. 8). This is rather strange. Did he have·no
access to any of these materials? See also TAKAHASHI (2005b) regarding this monograph;
64
Cp. the reference at the beginning of n. 29. . ·
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus 513
---------------------------------
~dition can by no means be called a critical one. 65 A complete English trans-
lation of Xuanzang's Chinese rendering is scheduled to be prepared within the
framework of the BDK English Tripitaka Series. 66 The Japanese kundoku ren-
derings of the entire Chinese YoBh (seen. 31 for refer~nce~) can, without denying
their merits and usefulness, not really be called translat10ns mto modern Japanese,
since they merely reproduce the Chinese characters in the Japanese word order
and with the addition of Japanese grammatical particles.
A very comprehensive trilingual index of the YoBh has been published, in
Japan (YOKOYAMA & HIROSAWA, 1996 and 1997). However, SILK (2001:15~-168)
has severely, and rightly so, criticized these two volumes. One major pomt of
criticism regards the fact that the editors have only taken very few of the edited
Sanskrit texts into account. As a result, no Sanskrit equivalents are given for
passages that are already a~aJlable in Indian language and unrel~able ones for
other passages, since bad ed1t10ns have even been chosen as a basis when better
ones are available (ibid:). Nevertheless, the index is certainly helpful, if one uses it
with due cautfon. 67 SILK (ibid.) has also mentioned other published indices of the
YoBh. 68 The most noteworthy addition to Silk's discussion is the index by CHOI
(2002). 69 This index is especially important for two reasons: Firstly, it is, unlike
65 On ZT, which as a matter of fact does not pretend to be critical, see DELEANU (2006:
90f. ). Cp. on this edition - which is sometimes referred to as the Sichuan or Chengdu
edition - also W ANGCHUK (2007:19). According to the bibliographical details contained in
the volumes of this edition, the place of publication is Beijing. Accordingly, my esteemed
friend and colleague Prof. Dr. Dorji WANGCHUK asked me to correct the pertinent
bibliographical detaH given in W ANGCHUK (2007:392). Nevertheless, the designation as the
Sichuan edition certainly makes some sense, since the collation bureau that is in charge of
preparing this edition is located in Chengdu, Sichuan ( oral communication by Dorji
WANGCHUK). . ·
66 Since this rendering has been announced as part of the first series of this gigantic
project which aims at the translation of the complete Chinese Buddhist canon, one can be
confident that it will be published in the foreseeable future. Many of the volumes which
have appeared so far have not only been produced by serious scholars but even by experts
in the respective texts. Therefore, there is good reason to look f01ward to this publication
with great anticipation. However, it would be very naive to assume that such a project can
render translations from the extant Sanskrit texts superfluous (the same holds, by the way,
even good for translatio1'S from the usually more literal Tibetan version; see YUYAMA,
1994:230f., on this topic). And even regarding the parts of the YoBh that are not extant in
the original language, a translation based on both the Tibetan and Chinese versions is
certainly more desirable, if one wants to come as close as possible to the thoughts expressed
in the lost Sanskrit original. Moreover, the translators of the BDK series are explicitly dis-
couraged by the editors from including extensive annotations for scholarly use in the
volumes.
67 Its usefulness has been enhanced by the decision to make an electronic searchable
version of the index freely available in the Internet. It seems, however, that nowadays only
an archived version from 2002 remains available at the Internet Archive (URL:
http://web.archive.orglweb/*/http://www.buddhist-term.org/yoga-table/).
68 In the present contribution, they are briefly mentioned at the appropriate places of
§2. An older index of the YoBh (INABA, 1952), which seems to include Sanskrit equivalents
from the BoBh, has not been available to me. See SILK (2001:166f.) and SUGAWARA r
I
I
(1990:328 n. 56) for this item. . i I
69 An earlier form of the same index can be found in CHOI (2001:213-360). The only I
differences between the older and the newer versions seem to consist in the facts that in the

514 Martin DELHEY
YOKOYA~ !!4- HIROSAWA (1996 and 1997), based on a very reliable editi;n.
Second_ly, it is methodologically praiseworthy since it takes grammatical and
syntactical features (also of the Chinese versions!) into consideration. It is
h.9~ever, b~se_d on a limited amount of text, namely on some sections of th;
Sravakabhum1 a~d _their parallels in t~e Xiifnyang Jun. Therefore, we urgently
ne~d more such md1ces. Recently a Chmese-Tibetan Index has been published in
Chma (HUANG et al., 2001), which is, however, of no practical value - at least if
one wants to deal with the YoBh as an Indian text. 70 •. '
. It goes without saying that a significant amount of the vocabulary of the YoBh
1s not covered by the general dictionaries of the Sanskrit language. Regarding the
BoBh, however, some help is available, most notably in the form of EDGERTON's
Ba,ddhist l:!ybrid S~sk:it Dictionary (EDGERTON, 1953), but the second part of
Urs Bodh1sattvabhum1 Index (UI, 1961:313-591) is helpful as well, at least for
those scholars who read some Japanese (DE JONG, 1987:164). Other pertinent
references are WOGIHARA (1904 and 1908) or DEJONG (1987:166-171). Insofar as
the .f!oB_h shares ~uch of its peculiar vocabulary with other parts or'the YoBh, the
publicat10ns ment10ned above_ are also us~f~l, though not sufficient, for the study
of the latter texts. The SWTF_ 1s a~other d1ct10nary that can be helpful at times; its
sc_ope has, however, been defmed m such a way that only very few texts associated
with the Miilasarvastivadin recension of canonical materials are taken into account
(see SWTF, vol. 1, p. XXIV-XXVIII). Further corrections and additions to
EDGERTON (19?3) ca~, of course, also be found in editions of certain text portions
of the Yo.f!h or m studies of ~elected dogmatic problems written on a philologically
sound basis. There a~e cons1~erably less problems with regard to the grammar of
the preserved Sanskrit texts, smce they largely follow the rules of classical Sanskrit.
Howev~r, deviatio~s from this_ standard ,.do occur once in a while, particularly, as it
seems, m the earhest texts like the Sravakabhiimi and the Bodhisattvabhllmi
Moreover, problems with regard to the syntax occur quite frequently in certain
parts of the text. 71
In recent years, electronic searchable texts of primary sources have become a
very important research tool. The Chinese72 and Tibetan73 translations of the
YoBh are already available in such a format.
lat~er one a Sa~sk~t-Chinese-lndex_ an~ a Pinyin-Index have been added to the original
<?hmese-Sans~t-Tibetan-Index, which 1s arranged according to the Japanese pronuncia-
tion of the Chinese characters. . YoBh, which might point to the fact that this section w~s .the historical nucleus of the larger
70
No Sanskrit equivalents or locations of the entries are given.
71
For recent discussions of the language of the Sravakabhiimi and the Samahita
Bhiimi.f!, see. DELEANU (2006:58-59, with further references) and DELHEY (2009:97-104),
respectively. · beginning ofn. 16.
72
There are at least two different electronic versions of the Chinese Buddhist canon
available: 1) The version of the Chinese Buddhist Electronic Text Association (CBETA
Taipei) as ava~able in the Internet (URL: http://www.cbeta.org/) and regularly updated
CD-ROM versions; 2) The SAT Daiz6ky6 Text Database by the SAT Daizokyo Text
~atabase Committee (yniversity of Tokyo); URL: http://21dzk.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/SAT/
~ndex_en.html. Both versions are based on the Taisho edition of the canon, and both have
m recent years even entered the variants which are given at the bottom of the latter edition.
The Y_ogacarabhum_i Databa~e (URL: http://ybh.chibs.edu.tw/) by the Dharma Drum
Buddhist College (Jmsh~, Taiwan) collects source texts in Chinese, Sanskrit, and Tibetan
and enables ~he user _to Jump between the parallel passages in the different texts and to
read them side by side. Although the database is in its present state far from being
The YogacarabhtJmi Corpus 515
The summary of the YoBh (and YoBh research) that has been contributed by
H. POTTER (1999:398-433) to his own Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies is
K arl· f · 74 V
£ understandable reasons only of limited help ulness. ery detai·1e d synoptic
.
or sentations of the whole contents of the YoBh in East Asian languages are
~::Hable; they are based on the traditional Sino-Japanese way of analyzing the
structure of the text (see, e.g., [Huimin] SHI, 1986:137-199, or the tables of
contents in Seishin KATO, 1930-1935). ·
A. The Basic Section· ·· 75
2.1.1 The first of the five parts of the YoBh is the so-called Basic Section
(05536-5538, D4035-4037).76 The int:oduction _and the first six ~hllfl!1s are only
extant in the YoBh MS. The bhiim1s one to five have been edited m BHAT~A-
CHARYA (1957)(Bh.).77 In this edition, the Sans~it text h~s bee.n compared with
the Tibetan translation. One must, however, take mto consideration that BHATTA-
CHARYA prepared this edition at a time when far less ref~rence works for !he stu~y
of the Tibetan versions were available. Moreover, he _did often not ~eciph~r his
manuscript correctly or emended the text· unn~cessanly or _even tacitly. Finally,
already DEMIEVILLE (1958) noted that the Chmese translat10n should also have
been taken into consideration.
There is neither a new edition nor a complete translation of the Paiicavijiiana-
kayasaipprayukta BhiimilJ ( YoBh MS 1b-3b2) available. 78 The same holds true for
complete or perfect, it is already a useful tool for those researchers who read some Chinese.
On this database, see also BHIKKHU et al. (2002).
73 Release VI of the Asian Classics Input Project (URL: http://aciprelease.org/r6web()
contains the whole Tibetan text; earlier releases of this project contained only parts of it.
Basis of the input project was obviously an edition of the Derge block prin~.
74 Some of the problems are mentioned by POTTER himself m his pref~ce to the
pertinent volume. Other certainly not unimportant rea~ons a:e the scope of his Encyclo-
pedia ·of Indian Philosophies and the fact that Buddhist philosophy does not belong to
POTTER'S fields of specialty. .
75 It remains still somewhat unclear how this part of the YoBh has been called m the
Indian Buddhist tradition. Recently, Florin DELEANU (2006:45f.) suggested to reconstruct
the title as *Maulyo Bhiimayaf;l ("Basic Levels"), since the singular expression Maull
Bhiimih is attested in a Sanskrit fragment of the ViniscayasaJ!1grahaJJi as one way to refer
to one ·of the seventeen bhiimis. However, in the beginning of the Basic Section itself as
well as in the colophons of the Sanskrit manuscripts, this section is simply 'referred to as
compilation referred to as YoBh today. See DELEANU 1b1d. for all further references.
' 6 On the division of this section into three parts in the Tibetan translation see the
·
77 The headings added in brackets by this editor often obscure the real structure of t_he
text (CONZE, 1963:228; see ibid. for an adequate overview of t~e contents of the third
chapter, which deals with bhiimis three to five). Moreover, at least m the last 30 pages.or so
of the edition something went wrong in giving the folio numbers o~ the manuscnpt: -
BHATTACHARYA (1946) had already edited one passage from _the third chapter ?ea~mg
with wrong views regarding the atman roughly a decade befo~e h_1s book-le~~th pubhcahon.
This edition was, to the best of my knowledge, the first publication that utilized one of.the
YoBh manuscripts discovered and photographed by Ra.hula S~TYAYANA. The edited
passage has been incorporated with slight variations in Bh.. 1296-1378·
78 The section has, however, been discussed by SCHMITHAUSEN (1987b:110-117),
mainly from the viewpoint of higher textual criticism.

516 Martin DELHEY
- - - - - - - - ---· -----····-·······-········-····---
the second chapter, the Manobhiimi ( YoBh MS.3br21a3). 79 SCHMIT;;~~~E
(1987b:127-132), h?we~er, contains a new edition, translation and discussion of
241.10,_ and a very tmy p1ece·(Bh. 271_3) has been edited and translated.in SAKUM~
B:
(1990.1~5f.). ~IYAMA (2000) has rend~red a cosmological portion of this
chapter m!o English ( = Bh. 3?21 -4~1_4). 0~ ~his occasion, KAIIYAMA also gives a list
of ~orrect10ns to t?e Sanskrit e~it10n (ibid.:83f.) and discusses variant readings
denv~d from the Tib~tan an~ _Chme_se translations in the notes to his translation.80
The hst of 64 categories of hvmg bemgs (sattvanikaya) occurring in Bh. 48 7.,493 fr
been very ~omprehensively dealt with in HAKAMAYA (1999). as
The third c~apter ( YoBh MS 2la3-63a6) deals with the bhumis three to five
nan_iely t_!t~ ~ar:_itar~a ~avicara Bhumi.lJ, the A vitarka Vicaramatra Bhiimil;z, and th~
Antarkav1cara Bhumil;z. CHAN (2007:146-184) translates and discusses much of a
passag_e concerned with causati~n theory (Bh. 105-112). A long section (Bh. 118 1-
1609). 1s devoted_ to the refutat10n of 16 heterodox Buddhist and non-Buddhist
d?ctrmes (paravada). Among these, the first two sections, which refer to Samkhya
views (Bh. 11814-1226), have been partly emended (on the basis of the· MS)
translated and discussed in WEZLER (1985). The first (Bh. 118 -120 ) and th'
secon d s-a.qikhya secf10n (Bh · . 12022-1226) have been translated and
14 . discussed bye
11
FURUSAKA (2001)_ and MIKOG:'-MI (1969), respectively. HAYASHIMA (1991a,
1?91?) h~s dealt with the Buddhist no-self doctrine as it appears in the Xianyang
11.!n; m_ th1s co~text he has also translated at least parts of the Sanskrit text,of the
atmavada sect10~ (Bh. 13213-1342 [in HAYASHIMA 1991a]).81 MIKOGAMI (1967) has
translated a~d discussed large parts of the section which is devoted to a refutation
of the doctrme that the Self and the World are eternal (sasvatavada; Bh. 137-142);
CHEMPARATHY (~968-1969:94-96) rendered the section on the erroneous belief in
a creator of the umverse (Isvaradikar~rvada; Bh. 144r145 18) into English. 82
79
It s~ems that Kairyii SHIMIZU has translat~d (p_arts of?) this chapter into Japanese,
accom~amed ~y ~extual notes. I have not seen this senes of articles; see the entry SHIMIZU
(198~) m_ the b1bhography; cp. also the reference in SCHMITHAUSEN (1987b:605). · . I
It 1s somewhat unclear to what extent K.AJIYAMA made use of a copy of the MS as
well. I v~guely ~~member that the late Prof. K.AJIYAMA mentioned his use of the MS when I
was talking !o.hlm ten or twelve years ago, and Prof. SCHMITHAUSEN was so kind to tell me
that he defn~1tely gave Pr?~· KAJIYAMA some copies of the respective folios. However,
more corrections to the ed1t10n could be added on the basis of the MS, and in at least one
case K.AJIYAMA even proposes an emendation which turns out to be wrong if one takes a
look at ~he mru:iuscript (sa eca in Bh. 31 17 should be emended to sa ca, which is the
man~scnpt readmg, rather than to sa eva, which is KAYIJAMA's suggestion).
. Unfortunately, the ~eco~d part of this article, viz. HAYASHIMA (1991b), was not
available to me. -T?e way_m ~h1ch SHUKLA (1969) is cited in POTTER'S bibliography (seen.
4) suggest~ t~at this pubhcat10n contains an English translation of the atmavada section.
Howeve~, 1t 1s rather a p~raphr~se t~an a translation. Cp. also HAKAMA YA, notes, where
SHU~A. s treatme?-t o~ this text 1s designated as an analysis.
His translation 1s very ~~od. C?nly in a few places does one gain the impression that
C~EMPARATHY was not fam.Ihar with every feature of the idiom in which the YoBh is
written. In n. 44b he suggests to emend sa cet to sa cet because a feminine pronoun is
~eeded. However: sa ~e~ has become petrified in this text and can even be understood as a
1 1
-smgle word ~eamng if. On p. .9.5 (end of first paragraph), CHEMPARATHY translates:" .. .
1
by whom t~1~ happens to th~m mstead of ". . . that is why these (living beings) think: .... 11
(... I yena~~am evaip ~h~~atJ._.., Bh. 14~1s), -SCHMITHAUSEN (2000:254-259) has examined
the refutation of the mh1hst view (nastikavada; edited in Bh. 151 w 155 5) from the viewpoint
517
The Yogacarabhfimj Corpus
The only partial new edition of a large amount of text. contained in Bh. that _,is
·1able in published form and is based on the Sanskrit MS covers the klesa-
avai ,_,esa section (AHN, 2003:56-87; = Bh. 16010-17010). This edition marks a
sam1U
· endous progress83 and shows.clearly that BHATTACHARYAs
1 · ' p10neerm_
· · · g work
tremust be superseded by a better one. The Sansknt · text1s
· · also accompame · dby an
m notated German translation (ibid.:158-214). Another, unfortunately unpub- i .
~hed new edition and German translation covers roughly the first half of the
:!ctio~ on karmasaipklesa ( = Bh. 17011-18222) contained in t~e chapter on the
third to fifth bhumis (AYMORE, 1995). KRITZER (1_999:83-~6) cites and translates
relatively long passage from the pratityasamutpada sect10n (Bh. 2006-201i3) as
:en as many other shorter passages elsewhere in his monograph. KRITZE~ always
compares the Tibetan and Chinese versions and suggests some emendat10ns; he
has, however, not made first-hand use of the MS. HARADA (2004) translates p~rts
of the pratftyasamutpada section as well (Bh. 19813_-20320 ~nd 2146-14): He also gives
a revised version of the Sanskrit text on the basis of Tibetan, Chu~ese, an_d the
Vastusa!pgrahaJJI parallel (for which, see §2.5 and n. 201 ), but he obv10usly did not
have access to the MS, either.
The text of the sixth bhiimi, the Samahita Bhumil;z ( YoBh MS 63a6-82b6), re-
mained for a very long time nearly84 completely unpublished. Most recently,
85 a
critical edition of the whole Sanskrit text has appeared (DELHEY, 2009). The
beginning of the text and several short passages from all over the chapter are :i
I I
translated into German. ·
2.1.2 The short Asamahita BhumiiJ ( YoBh MS 82b6-83as) is extant in bo~h th_e
SrBh MS and the YoBh MS. A critical edition on the ba~is of both manuscnpts 1s
available (DELHEY, 2006:134-136). 86 Recently, the _SRAVAKAB:IDMI ST{}~~
GROUP (2007:275-280) published a revised version of its o~ earlier _Asaff!al11ta
Bhumi/;1 edition,87 in which most, though not ~11, of the var~rnts cont~med m the
other edition mentioned above have been mcorporated. Translat10ns of the
I
I
;
of higher textual criticism, but many remarks regarding different readings are also included
'.
in his discussion.
· 83 To give ju~t one example: Two very important definitions, namely, ~hose of ig~orance
(avidya) and doubt ( vicildtsa), _appear ~ a co1mpl~t~ly garbled form m Bh. while they
appear correctly in the manuscript and m AHNs ed1t10n. See DELHEY (2007) for further
I
I '
details.
84 A few , very short citations can be found mainly in the works of Lambert
SCHMITHAUSEN, including, among others, the famous "Initial Passage" of his monograph
on alayavij.iana (SCHMITHAUSEN, 1987b:276, n. 146). , .
85 See Internet, URL: http://wWW.istb.univie.ac.at/wstb/WSTB_73_errata.pdf for a first . I
errata slip. Moreover, it should be noted that Tucc1's photographs of the YoB~ MS (see I
I,
§.1.2) were not yet available when the final draf~ of this bo_ok w~s sent to the publishers .. 1
86 This publication contains a couple of mistakes which might create some confusion,
11
though they do not concern the critical editions and translations themselves. The correc-
tions have been included in the errata slip mentioned in n. 85.
87 The first edition is contained in SRAVAKABHOMISTUDYGROUP (1992a). The YoBh
MS has not been utilized in either edition. ·
88 This happened in spite of the fact that the before-mentioned edition reached the
members of the Study Group only shortly before they finalized their book draft.
518 Martin DELHEY
chapter into German (DELHEY, 2006:140-144) and modem Japanese (SRAVAKA-
BHUMI STUDY GROUP, 2007:275-280}89 have been published.
~-1:3 Alex WA':"MAN (1969:378-37~J h~s ed~t~d t?e Sacittika and Acittjka
BhumiiJ on the basis -of the SrBh MS. This ed1t10n 1s superseded by Lambert
SCHMITHAUSEN's ·(1987b:220-222) very reliable version, wherein all relevant
textual materials, including the pertinent part of the YoBh MS (83a5-83b5), have
been taken into account. WAYMAN (1984:329-330) has translated the chapter into
English.
2.1.4.1 The Srutamayi BhiimiiJ ( YoBh MS 83b5-102b4) is divided into'-five sec-
tions, which have the five "b_ranches of knowledge" ( vidyasthana) as their subject-
IIJatter. The text of the whole chapter can be found in the YoBh MS, while in the
SrBh MS section one dealing withthe knowledge of Buddhist doctrine ( adhyatma-
vidya) is missing except for its end. The quite long part only preserved in the YoBh
MS remains nearly completely unedited. A short passage from this part has been
critically edited and discussed in SCHMITHAUSEN (2000:246-254)( = Q5536.184a 6-
185b6 = T1579.345hi-c16). 91 The end of section one has been edited critically and
translated into Japanese, but only on the basis of the SrBh MS (SRAvAKABHOMI
STUDY GROUP, 2007:281-305). 92 The same holds true for the very short second
section, which deals with the art of healing ( cikitsavidya) (SRAvAKABHOMI STUDY
GROUP, 2007: 304-305). 93
2.1.4.2 Quite in line with the extraordinarily great interest scholars have always
taken in that section of this chapter wp.ich deals with the art of logical ,reasoning
(hetuvidya)94, no.fewer than four scholars have published editions of the Sanskrit
text. However, none of these publications are based on both of the extant manu-
scripts. While PANDEY (1986:334-348) took the YoBh MS as his basis, SHUKLA
(1991: Appendix l}I, pp. 14-25), YAITA (1992:511-546),95 and WAYMAN (1999:3-
41) relied on the SrBh MS. YAITA's edition additionally makes use of a very broad
range of other textual materials.96 Moreover, YAITA compensated for the fact that
he did not use the YoBh MS to a certain extent by incorporating PANDEY's
readings. 97 However, unfortunately PANDEY's edition contains numerous mis-
89
Revised version ofthe pertinent passage in SRAv AKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (1992a).
· correct and which can even be found in the SrBh MS. YAITA did not. decipher his
90
The Sanskrit text has been reproduced without alterations in WAYMAN (1984:327-
328), where, however, the text-critical notes have been omitted.
91
Very short citations from the manuscript can be found in some other publications,
for instance, in the introduction of Jong-Nam CHOI's monograph on the seventh chapter of
the Xianyang lun(CHOI, 2001:40-41) and in SAKUMA (1990:147-148). - .
92
Revised version of the pertinent parts in SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (1992a and
1993
~.R ev1se
. d vers10n
. o f t he, pertinent
. · s'RAv AKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (1993).
part m
94
See WAYMAN (1958:29) for some references to older literature on the subject.
95
A recent revised version of this edition1will be dealt with further below.
96
He made full use of the Tibetan and the Chinese translations and also compared the
citation of the hetuvidyii in the Xianyang Jim, which is only preserved in Xuanzang's
Chinese rendering. - Some corrections to YAITA's edition can be found in YAITA &
TAKANO (1995:218).
97
It should be noted that most of these readings are not included in his footnotes but in
additional notes at the end· of his edition, since PANDEY's article became accessible to
The YogiiciirabhOmi Corpus 519
-----------------
- - o f his MS as well as misprints. In most cases, the Sanskrit text presented
~eaYAITAis not affected by this problem, because YAITA only gives PANDEY's bad
yadings in the notes. There are, however, also cases where PANDEY's readings
re . 98
create more confus10n. _ _ __ .
SHUKLA's edition, which was published roughly. at the same time as YAITA's
.tion is by far inferior in quality. SHUKLA obviously took only the (photographs
eofdlthe) 'SrBh
/ MS into account, without the help o~ any oth er re levant matena ·1s.
Moreover, he very often deciphered h!s manus~npt wrongly. WAY~AN (199~),
who four decades earlier had been the first who-c1tedparts of a Sansiq1tMS while
dealing with this section (WAYMAN, 1958), took, in addition to the SrBh MS, at
least the Tibetan translation and the editions of PANDEY and YAITA into account.
99
Nevertheless, his edition is of inferior quality when compared to YAITA's. Finally,
it is important to note that OBERHAMMER (1991-2006) contains numerous, some-
times very long citations from the Hetuvidya accompanied by text-critical notes
and German translations. In the second and the third volume, YAITA's readings
are most often adopted;.there are, however, in the two latter volumes as well as in
the first one, quite a few places where different, and obviously often superior,
readings are proposed. 100 Recently, the present writer has gained access to a book
written by YAITA, which contains, among others, his hetuvidya edition (YAITA,
2005:95-124). This revised version marks a certain progress regarding both the ar-
· · 101 H
rangement of the notes and t h e variants given or a dopted as pnmary.
. owever,
there are also several obvious mistakes (e.g., the two examples mentioned in the
beginning of n. 99) that have not been .corrected. Moreover, quite obviously YAITA
YAITA only very late in the process of preparing his article for publication (see YAITA,
1992:511; also cp. ibid.:576). ·
98 See, e.g., §3.21 in Y AITA's edition, where PANDEY's reading tattvabhisa1pdhanato
(PANDEY, 1986:336, znd line from the bottom) has been adopted by YAITA, since t~e word
has accidentally been omitted in his MS. The YoBhMS (97a2), however, has defimtely the
reading tattvabhisa1pbodhanato, which makes, of course, much more sense than P ANDEY's
reading. - , -
99 It is true ,that there are a few passages in which WAYMAN offers a better text than
YAITA. By checking a few selected passages mainly from. the beginning of the Hetuvidyii, I
discovered two readings in WAYMAN's (and PANDEY's) text that almost certainly are I
I
manuscript correctly in these two places. In YAITA (1992:1 *9), lokasraviko is certainly
wrong for Jokanusraviko. As a matter of fact, the ~ara nu, ~hich is missing in YAITA's and
SHUKLA's editions, has been added in the margin.of the SrBh MS. In YAITA (1992:1 *13)
nata 0 has to be changed to nata~ YAITA does, however, not fail to mention PANDEY's
re~dings in his notes. Moreove~, there are far more passages where it is WAYMAN who
presents an ungrammatical or unidiomatic text or a reading that simply makes no sense,
although PANDEY and especially YAITA had already chosen the right reading before him.
100 OBERHAMMER states in the prefaces to the volumes (see, e.g., OBERHAMMER, 1991-
2006: vol. 3, p. 10) that the text-critical remarks have been contributed by Lambert
SCHMITHAUSEN.
101 In this version, YAITA has rearranged his notes in such a way that now all of them
can be found below the edited Sanskrit text. This is, of course, much more convenient than
the earlier arrangement (for which cp. n. 97). Moreover, obviously he has added readings
from the new edition by WAYMAN in his notes. The Sanskrit text itself seems to contain
quite a few minor - and once in a while also major - corrections as well (including, of
course, those which are contained in YAITA & TAKANO, 1995).
 520
Martin DELHEY
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus 521
still has to rely on P ANDEY's edition for variants from the YoBh Ms Th~ re·f··
--··· I

to 0 BERHAMMER (1991-2006)(see above) also remains valid. · . erence ; - ~ a is ENOMOTO (1989). 107 It has been produced with much care and
Sarirard ag.both. manuscripts. Unfortunately, the accomp.anying detailed commen-
The hetuvidyii has been translated into Hindi (PANDEY, 1986), modern Ja a- .
15base on · · · not yet avai·1able o f t h'1s ·
nese (YAITA, 1992:547-576; revised version id. 2005:22-41), and English (Wfy_ nry remams · • completely unedited, and a translat10n 1s . I
i
l • 108 , 1,'
~ ' 1~99:3-41). YAITA & TAKANO (1995) have published a trilingual index f section.
this sect10n. o
2 1 6 The Sanskrit text of the Bhavanamayi BhumiiJ is only pr~s~rved in th.e
2.1.4.3 The last two sections of the Srutamayi Bhumi.{1, which deal with th 0 11
~ MS (139a -153a3) and has not been published so far. The ongmal Sansknt
~ 1 O f 1·ts main ~ections are contained in a short article by SUGAWARA (1998).who
kno~led_ge _of Iangua~e (sabdavidya') and of various practical skills. (silpakarma~
sthanavidya), respe~tlvely, h~ve only 9een edited critically and translated into
tit
. es king on a critical edition
1s wor 109
of this chapter. For more ·detai·1s, ·see sUGAWARA' s i '
, '

Japanese on the basis of the SrBh MS (SRAVAKABHOMISTUDYGROUP 2007·3()6- article in the present volume. I Ii
I

313).102 ' ·-
21 7 WAYMAN (1961) was the first scholar who presented an analysis of ~he
text ~f ·the Sravakabhumi (05537, D4036) on the basis of the Sanskrit manuscnpt.
2.1.5 The fairly long O"ntii11Jayi Bhumi(l is completely preserved in the YoBh
MS (102b4-l~9a1). And in the SrBh MS only the last' 10-20% seem to be missing. d ·t d numerous passages· of varying length from the codex and translated
He e i e . .. f . h rt
h 110 His n'lonograrh represented, 1Il
H~w:ever, fa~rly l~r?e p1~fts have not yet been edited at all and only two of the 1'nto English. spite O Its many S O -
t e~ s a truly_ pioneering effort 11 The many deficiencies of the only complete
eXIstmg partial ed1t10ns are based on both manuscripts. The text is divided into commg , / . kn 11:t Th ' I
I

~hree sections. The first ~o sections pf the text, have been edited and translated edition of the Sravakabhumi by Karunesh SHUKLA (1973) are well ow~. e
mto Japanese on the basis of the SrBh MS (SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP f .. t half that is the first two yogasthiinas (Sh. 1-166 and 167-348, res.pect1vely),. of
4
°
2007:~15-336). ~1 The third se~tion, ~hich is called "Analysis [of the meaning] of
irs
this text 'is now available
, .
i~ far more reliable . .
editions, wh'1ch are a1so accomp ~med
1
cano_mcal texts ( dharmapravicaya~, 1s much longer than the first two. Basically, it by Japanese translations (SRAVAKABHOMISTUDYGROUP, 19~8 and.2007). The I, I

~ons1sts ~f three sets of

verses? which are all accompanied by a commentary. The artial editions of these chapters by some of SCHMITHAUSEN s puptls (SAKUMA,
i990 [ = Sh. 19221 -2022; 270 15_20 ; 271 15-2726; 283z-2843; 3203_5]), CHOI (2001 [ = Sh.
I

I I

mtroduction _of the th1rd sect10n and the Paramiirthagiitha and its commentary .
I 'i
I

have been edited and translated first in WAYMAN (1961:163-185). Later, WAYMAN 14i-158; 37r51 9 ; 585-6011 ; 190, 8_21 ; 26313-2644; 2652-s; 27015-27223; 27523-277!3]), 1. I

presented a slightly cor~ected v~rsion (WAYMAN, 1984:333-352). SHUKLA (1991: MAITHRIMURTHI (1999 [ = Sh. 207r2102]) should, however, always be taken mto '

pp. 26-29 of th~ appendices) edited merely the canonical verses. The only partial consideration as well, although some of them appeared early enough to be taken I i
I

(ve:ses 28-41 with commentary) edition and translation of this subsection on the :11
I
basis 10~f both manuscripts has been p~blished by SCHMITHAUSEN (1987b:223-
1
241). The second set of verses, the Abhiprayikiirthagiitha, has been edited by 01 Only one verse is given in SHUKLA (199~:. appendices, p. 31?; some verses are
WAYMAN (1984: 354-357) and (partially) by SHUKLA (1991: Appendix IV, p. 29- contained in SCHMITHAUSEN (1970:50-54, cp. also 1b1d:114f.; and 1987a.382-387).
108 i
31 ). Much progress has been made by a critical edition of the verses and the ENOMOTO (1989:21) has stated his intention to translate the verses. . .
109 I
commentary that has been .published by the SRAv AKABHOMI STUDY GROUP Moreover, Alexander VON ROSPATT's article in t~e pre~ent ~olume de~ls ~1th this
(2007:33?-.370; with accompanying Japanese translation). 106 However, none of the chapter as well. KWON (2003) has obviously dealt extensively with this chapter m his Ph.~.
dissertation. If I understand the pertinent sections of his summary c?:rectly (the .thesis
three ed1tio~s takes the YoBh MS into account. WAYMAN (1984:357-366) has
translated this second ~~t of verses i~to English and summarized the commentary.
itself was not available to me), he has appended a critical or coll~ted ed1~10n.of the !1betan
and Chinese texts of this chapter as well as a Japanese translation to his d1ssertat1on. He I

The only complete edition of the th1rd and longest set of verses, which is called did seemingly not use the original Sanskrit text of the ~~apter. .· .
11

11

11
0 Chapter 5 (pp. 135:..162), w~ich c~ntains an ed1t10_n ~nd t~anslatl?n of t?e sect10n on I
102
These are revised versions of the pertinent parts in SRAv AKABHOMI STUDY ~ROUP the ascetic rules regarding the mgest1on of food (a.hara), 1s repnnted m WAYMAN ii
(1993). · (1997·335-368) with apparently unchanged wording. The text has only been refo~matted.
10~
Namely, ~CHMITHAUSEN (1987b:223-241), and ENOMOTO (1989) (see below for Many. passages from the SrBh have been trans!ated or/and cite? fro!11 the MS m other
some more details on these two editions). The beginning of the chapter is dealt with in publications by WAYMAN, including passages which are not contamed m WAYMAN (1961),
SCHMITHAUSEN (2000:259-263); the discussion includes several citations of the Sanskrit see, e.g., WAYMAN (1978:31-42). · · ...
111
text on the basis of both manuscripts. On the whole, the reviewers received his monograph very well, although cntlc1s~
104
These are revised versions of the pertinent parts in SRAv AKABHOMI STUDY GROUP was also voiced (see DELEANU, 2006:59f.). DE JONG (~976~) seems to re~ard WAYMANS
(1993). edition at least as superior to SHUKLA's text, although his review also con tams some examp-
105 s les of mistakes in WAYMAN's book. I
ee Sct~MITHAUSEN (1987b: n. 1394) for corrections regarding those verses which 112 'I
have not been mcluded in his new edition: Howeve~, as SCHMITHAUSEN (ibid.) points,out, See, e.g., DE JONG (1976a), SCHMITHAUSEN (198~a:457), and.DELE~~u (2006:~0).
113
the parts of the commentary not re-edited by him contain many more unacceptable These publications also supyrsede this ~roup s own earlier ed1t1ons published
~eadmgs than the verses. Therefore, a new edition of the entire commentary is certainly an successively in the form of articles (SRAVAKABHUMI STUDY G~O~P, _1981-1991_ and 1994-
important task for the future. 2006, respectively), although SILK (2001:159f.) cites a passage m SRAVAKABHUMI STUDY
106
This is a revised version of MAEDA (1991). GROUP (1998) where the earlier right readin~ has ?een .replac~~ by~ wrong one. At any
rate, many true corrections have been entered m their revised ed1t10ns m book-form.
 523
The Yogiicarabhiimi Corpus
522 Martin DELHEY -----------
.~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~

-----z.1.SThe short Pratyekabuddhabhumi ( Y_o_Bh MS 153a4-lS~b2) is agai~ pr~-

into account by the members of the SRAvAKABHDMI STUDY GROUP. 114 Th d · two manuscripts There are three edit10ns of the Sansknt text, but, hke m
of course, holds true for the German translations 115 that accompany th e same, serve 10 of the rretuvid~a none of these is based on both codices. WAYMAN
(1990) represents another, though unpublished, partial edition of the el:- JOST the case ni ..,,. ' ~ 123 .
97·191-193)122 and YONEZAWA (1998) rely on the SrBh MS, while PANDEY
bhllmi ( = Sh. 2915-3075) produced at the University of Hamburg. ravaka- (19 )· 124 takes the YoBh MS as his basis. YONEZAWA, however, takes WAYMAN's
Up to now, only small parts of the third chapter have been edited · (l~87pANJ)EY's editions as well as the Tibetan and _Chinese translations into
SAKUMA (1990 [= Sh. 395r3986; 4021.20; 4044-405 9; 4061r4073; 432 4
10
_4;J~
MAITHRI~URTHI (1999 [ = Sh. 37710-38015; 42620-4299]). All these passages
accompamed by a German translation. It seems that very recently the SRAv AKA-
:
·:v~ an ·d ration YONEZAWA's edition is the most accurate. However, YONEZAWA
e
cons1 bviously ·only cited some of PANDEY,s readmgs,· alth ough they are b ase d on a
~r~:ent textual witness and are 'at _times ev~n su~r~or to t~ose adopted by
6
~f
BHOMI UH: '?ROU~ (2008, 2009) has started to systematically re-edit the third YONEZAWA. 125 Three English translat10ns of this bhunv are availabIe. ~?PPdEbN-
chapter.. It 1s fmally ~mporta~t to n?te that S~KLA (1973) has omitted one folio 1
BORG's (1974:126-129) rendering has for good reasons been s~vere y cnticize Y
of Sanskrit text belongmg to this sect10n from his edition. It has to be inserted after JONG (1976b:323). WAYMAN's (1997:193-196) translat10n can hardly be
Sh: 4323. KI~URA (1992) represe?ts the. editio princeps of the missing folio_ 117 OE "dered better. 126 YONEZAWA's (1998:19-25) rendering is certainly much more
MORI (1986) 1s a Japanese translat10n of the beginning of the third yogasthana 118 cons1 . . . ct· 121
reliable, although even his English text 1s at times mis1ea mg.
Roughly one half of SHUKLA's text of the last and fourth yogasthana ha.s al- 11

r~ady been replaced by excellent new editions: 119 DELEANU (2006) has edited the
I

f1rst ?f ~he two sec~ions ~f this chapter (_ Sh. 437-4706) 120 and translated it into
The text presented by WAYMAN in this publication is, except for some very slight
122 I'
Enghsh, parts of this sect10n are also available in the earlier editions CHOI (2001
changes, obviously merely a reproduction of his own earlier edition WAYMAN (1960:376-
[ = Sh. 43~4-44512; 447i-4481; 4491.10]) and SAKUMA (1990 [ = Sh. 449 14-455:i]) both
accompamed by German translations. 121 SCHMITHAUSEN (1982a) has ed.it;d th 375).123 YONEZAWA was, however, in contrast to WAYMAN able to use the new facs1m1
· ·1e
last pages of the second section ( = Sh. 50610-511 6). e ii
edition of the Sravakabhumi . . . .
124 Unfortunately, I did not have access to PANDEY (2009). Judgmg from its title, this

article might be a new edition or translation of this text. .

125 To give some examples: 1) The fifth and last subsection of the Pr~tyeka~uddha-

114 The e d'itions

. ,
bhumi deals with the behavior of the pratyekabuddhas when they. lea~e their he~1tage to
of the Study Group seem to exhibit at times a certain reluctance to beg for alms and the like. According to Y C?NEZAWA,_ th~s behavior 1s_~led cantr~. The
apply th.e rules o! t~xtual criticism so rigorously that all obvious corruptions of the word occurs twice in the Sanskrit text: once m the begmn~ng o~ the bhum~ and once .m !he
man~scnpt are e~umnated. Therefore, the text of the strictly critical partial editions beginning of the subsection dealing with this term. Both times 1to~rs with.the suffix ta]J
mentioned above 1s sometimes superior as compared to the two books mentioned above and both times it has only been gained by WAYMAN's emendations, wh1c~ ~ave been
(see PsELEANU, 2006:71 n. 60 for an example). adopted by YoNEZAWA. In .the SrBh MS, the readings are carata_tal;l an~ viharata]J (~he
1
CHOI translates, strictly speaking, these passages as they appear in the Xianyang Jim. latter one has probably been erroneously inserte~, be~ause the 1mmediatelr pre~edmg
See ~ror (2001 :50) for a description of his exact procedure. . subsection is designated with this term). PANDEY gives m ?oth cases. the ~eadmg carata]J,
. Moreover, th_ere are several publications in which text-critical notes regarding parts and at least in the first occurrence this is definitely the readmg tr~nsm1tted ~n the YoBh MS.
of this chapter are mcluded. ~ee especially SCHMITHAUSEN (1982b). - A pupil of David carata]J is certainly the correct variant. vihara and cara as a prur. of techm~al terms occur
SHUL~ (Boaz AMICHAY) 1s at present also preparing a critical edition of the third also in other places of the YoBh. 2) Section I, line 1: read tat trilaJqa1:7a1]1 mstead of tatra
!ogastkana and hopes to include the whole edition already in his Ph.D. thesis on which he trilak$l1I;Ia1J1. 3) Sec~ion V, line 4: read pravisanti i?stead of pravisatJ. - The colopho? of
IS W~{fmg (e-mail _communication by Boaz AMICHAY, dated 27th November 2007). this bhumi has a different wording in both manuscripts. In this ca~e, Yo~ZAWA ment1_?ns_
KIMURA giv~s the text without any critical apparatus, translation etc. He has PANDEY's reading in a note. However, the colophon as .it.appears 1~ the_Sr~h MS (sa°!apta
announced that he mtends to publish a more sophisticated edition sometime in the future ca pratyekabuddhabhumih) is certainly of very late ongm: To begm with, 1t has obVIously \I
(Kr~URA, ;992:166). It is interesting to note that the Sravakabhumi MS contains two been added by a second hand. Moreover, such a wording with ca is in the YoBh n?rmally
copies of this text passage. ' used when a colophon follows on another OI:}e marking ~e en~ of the last. subsection of a
~18 The title_ of this art~cle suggests that this was meant to be the beginning of a series of given section, as, e.g., seen at the end of the Sravakabhum1. ObVIously, a scnbe felt the need
part~al ~ranslat1~ns of this yogasthana, but I was unable to find any further pertinent to add the missing colophon and simply followed the pattern he found at the end of the
pubhcat1ons by htm.
immediately preceding bhumi · .
126 To give just a few examples: 1) W~~·~ ~end~ri~rfo~ go_tra (which can be
119 Fl . D
_on? ELEANU has expressed his intention to publish the rest of the fourth
Y_Ogasth~na m the years t?_come (DELEANU, 2002:69; DELEANU, 2006:647 n. 1). - For the translated as "spiritual disposition" or the like) 1s birthnght w~ch .1s, to say the least,
time be1~g, many text-cn~1calnotes regarding the hitherto not newly edited parts. of this idiosyncratic. 2) WAYMAN translates prag evabhisa1]1bodhat a~ ~avmg prevmusly bee~
yogast~ana can be found m SCHMITHAUSEN (1982b); Moreover, VONROSPATT (1995:219- manifestly awakened." However, this does not make good sense m view of the fact that this
248) cit.es and eme?ds many passages corresponding to Sh. 475-489 in the notes to his paragraph is dealing with the natural dispositio1! of the _pratyekabuddha. Vl_e ha!e to
trans~attc;m of a section from the Xianyang Jun (Tl602.548c18-549b21 ) which is partly based understand the expression as preposition prak with ablative,. and translat~ this as even
on this SrBh passage. . before awakening" (cp. Tibetan: mngon par byang chub pa 1 _snga rol nyid n~s, als~ cp.
°
· . 12 Full-fled~ed critical editions of the corresponding passages in the Tibet and
Chinese translations accompany DELEANU's diplomatic and critical Sanskrit texts
121 Compare n. 115. .
~ Chinese (T1579.477c7] " ... previously, when he had not yet attamed that awakem~g ·;,· [%
-*itt~t8l.tff!ffif]). 3) WAYMAN translates kalpasata1]1 buddhotpadam aragayatJ as For a
· , .,

524 Martin DELHEY
128
2.1.9.1 Regarding the BoBh (05538, D4037), it should be noted that m ,
.
t extua1.~1tnesses are ~va1·1 abl12~ 1or
.c •
this - ore
~hapter than for any other part of the YoBh
In add1t10n to the Tibetan a1;1d Ch~nese transla!ions of t~e entire YoBh (se~
§1.1), there are two much earlier Chmese rendenngs of this bhiimi as a who]
namely the Pusa dichfjing (~j!,i:ttft:r~ff~; T1581 / by Dharmak~ema 130 and the Pu:.',
shanjie Jing (~J!i~tlt*~; T1582, T1583) 13 by Gul).avarman 132 (431 CE). i1~
thousand eons took pleasure in becoming a buddha." I cannot judge whether it is stylisti-
cally better in the English language to render the present verb form of the Sanskrit text . .
past tense. The subject of this English sentence has obviously erroneously been omitte~s
which might merely be a misprint. Instead of "thousand", however, one has of course t~
translate "hundred." But most important of all, it makes in the context of YoBh dogmatics
no sense _that a pe~son who has the natural disposition to become a pratyekabuddha takes
pleasure m becommg a buddha. buddhotpada refers here as usual in Buddhist literature to
the birth_ of buddha~. This enables the person destined to become a pratyekabuddba (in
one of his future existences) to make progress on the way to salvation in their presence.
finally, arafayati ~as 11here, of course, the ~ell known Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit meaning
to get, attam, acqmre and does not mean 'to take pleasure." As a matter of fact, iiragayati
~an, to the best of my knowledge, never take the intransitive meaning "to take pleasure." It
1s true that anigayati can have the related meaning "to propritiate, gratify, please", but this
alternative hardly makes sense in the present context. -
127
• Examples: 1) prag evabhisal!]bodhat is rendered by him as "[From] the previous
enlightenment ... " (seen. 126). 2) aragayati is seemingly understood in a similar way as in
WAYMAN's.translation (see~- 126), bu~ see YONEZAWA's note (YONEZAWA, 1998:21 n. 1)
where he gives the correct mterpretat10n of the whole sentence. 3) ;I:he relative clauses
beginning with yena which are put after the main clause in section no. I rather have the
function to give the consequence (cp. also Tibetan . . . tel des na . . . and Chinese
[T.ll219.477cs] EE.[1:c~~) than the reason ~see Yoi:rnzAWA's rendering "because,. .. ").
. _The ~oBh contams three parts which receive the name yogasthana and are again
subd1v1ded mto chapters (pafala). The last chapter, the Anukramapafala (on which see
below), which is added in some textual sources after the third yogasthana is ·sometimes
coun~ed as a fourth yogasthana. In the following pages, I adopt this division for purely
practical purposes and use Roman numerals for the four parts and Arabic numerals for the
chapters.
129
It may be noted in passing that the Bodhisattvabhzimi section of the Tibetan YoB/J
translation has rece~tly been separately published in Beijing. See WANGCHUK (2007:380
n.12) for more details and for the evaluation of this edition as having "no historical and
philological value."
130
Many scholars date this translation to 418 CE (e.g., DEMIEVILLE, 1957:110;
DELEANU, 2006:183). Note, however, that recently CHEN (2004) has dealt at length with
t~e pr~blem of when _D~arm~~ema produced his translations. After a thorough-going
d1scuss10n of the confl1ctmg evidence of the Chinese sources, he arrives at the conclusion
that l?iharmak~ema's translation activity should rather be placed between 422 and 431 CE.
Both texts are not only often referred to by the same name but do, as a matter of fact,
represe?-t t_he same tr~nslation (SUGAWARA, 1990:319 n.7). However, Tl582 only c~n-tains
the begmnmg of the Silapafala, while the text beginning from BoBh0 1054 = BoBhJ;--152
has been extracted from Tl582 and has been transmitted as a separate text (Tl583; see
18
SCHMITHAUSEN, 2007a:435 n. 36; cp. also SUGAWARA, 1990:319 n.7). Cp. also Hobogirin,
fasc. 2, p. 145 on the latter text. See DELEANU (2006:231 n. 196) for a further reference on
the relation between the two texts.
132
The Chinese sources for Gu.Q.avarman's biography have been dealt with at length in
STACHE-ROSEN (1973). - WOGIHARA's second transcript was often very d1ff1cult to decipher. Other scholars, esp.
133
DEM!EVILLE (1957:110). Gu.Q.avarman's rendering is of rather poor quality (ibid.).
Therefore, its helpfulness for lower textual criticism of the Sanskrit text is very limited.
I'
I I
The Yogacarabhiimi Corpus 525
r a partial BoBh commentary by Gul).aprabha (Byang chub sems dpa'i sa'i
:Mo~eoveQ,5545 D4044)i 34 and a complete one by *Sagaramegha or *Samudra-
1ure1 pa, ' d ,. ,. ,._ .1..- d
0
· h
meg a £ ( Nal 'bvor
r
snvodpa
rr
'i sa las byang chub sems.
rpa._1
BS· E
sa 1 mam par us11a pa;
55 48, D404 7) are, preserved in Tibetan translat~on. __ ._- ven more sources are
Q ·1 ble 1 .c0 r the Silanatala (see below). The mam sources for the BoBh are,
ava1 a ' r · - · d
the four Sanskrit codices of the whole bhum1 alrea y mentmne a ove
· d b
however, . . d f l t
(No.3-6 in §1.2), which have come down to us m varymg egrees o comp e e-
136 -
nessThere are three complete editions of the Sanskrit text. On HADANO (1975),
Ii
see below (n. 161). WOGIHARA's (1930-1936) editio princep~137 is based on the
very old Cambridge MS and the very recent Kyoto MS. DUTT s (1966) new BoBh
Dharmak~ema's translation is mu~h ~e!ter, t~ou~h it certainlr. cann~t c~mpare to
Xuanzang's exact and literal rendenng (1b1d.). Still, 1t should be utilized, smce .1t predates
h latter translation by more than two centuries; therefore, it has t?e potential to offer
!o~e clues regarding higher textual criticism. The same holds possibly good for G~na-
an's rendering which exhibits major differences as compared to all other vers10ns.
varm
Most notably, this rendering has siitra format; accordmg · ly, 1t· has an m
· t ro duct·10? an d
clusion to the text that are typical for this literary genre and cannot be found m the
c~:er versions. The introduction has been translated into French in PYTHON (_197~:141-
~53). It is in my opinion very likely that this peculiarity of Gu.Q.av~r?-1an's version, 1s the
result of a secondary change; this was seemingly already the opmion of D~M~~VIL~E
(1957:110). However, SUEKI (1980) has cited many instances ~f other pecuhanties (m
particular, missing items and text portions) in GuQ.avarman's version from all ov~r the text
of the BoBh and suggested that his translation might represent the oldest versi?n of the
BoBh. DELEANU (2006:230, n. 191), also refers to_ Su~KI's _study; however, if I have
understood him correctly, he is somewhat more cautious m this regard and suggests that
the matter should be investigated in more detail.
134
On this commentary, see also below (n. 153)- . * _
135
See DELEANU (2006:248f.) for more details on these commentaries. On Sagara-
megha's commentary, see also below (§2.1.9.1). . .
136
It should be noted that at least until World War II there seemmgly was a fifth man1;1--
script of the BoBh, which had been brought to Japan. See UI (1961:~If). Cp. Buddh1~t
11
Text Information 5, p. 1, where a letter written by ~ra YUYAMA is cited: . : . In_ h~~
'Introductory Remarks' [... ] Ui mentions the so-called Kimura MS destroyed by air raids .
Cp. also SUGAWARA (1990:326f.) and TAKAHASHI (2005:10 n. 33): There seems to be n?
reason to doubt that the Kimura MS has indeed been destroyed durmg th~ war. Ho~ever, if
I have understood the above-mentioned Japanese sources correctly, this manuscnpt was
only a Devanagari transcription of ye! an~ther .f!oB_h MS. KIMURA seems to have .trans-
cribed the latter MS into Devanagan while bemg m Calcutta. SUGAWARA (1990.326f.)
probably refers to the· latter MS when he states th~t _i~ is unclear w~ether the "Calcutta MS"
is still extant. Therefore, there seems to be a possibility that there 1s yet ano~her B_oBh MS
in Calcutta, and it would certainly be interesting to investigate this matter a httle bit further.
137
Strictly speaking, it is the first edition of the whole text. Two ch~pters, n~mely, the
Viharapafala (II.4) and the Bhiimipatala (III.3) ha? already been ed!ted earlier 01!- the
basis of WOGIHARA's second transcript of the Cambndge MS and the Tibetan and Chme~e
translations in RAHDER (1926b: appendix, 1-28). The edition in RAHDER (1926a: ap~endix,
1-28) is identical (YUYAMA, 1996:266f., n. 9). Acc~r~ing to RAlf?ER (1926b: appendix, 28),
Louis DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN (e.g., in DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN, 1928, where he quotes
passages from the Tattvarthapa{ala [ = BoBhw ~~zz-4813 and 48zt5<h]), also made use of
this transcript quite often before WOGIHARA's edition became available.
 526 Martin DELHEY
edition is mainly based on the fairly complete and worthwhile138 Patna MS 139
Thanks to the different manuscript basis, DUTT was able to fill the gaps that
remained in WOGIHARA's Sanskrit text, since both the MSS available to WOGI-
HARA were incomplete, but DUTT's edition is of rather mediocre quality. 140 This is
also the reason why WOGIHARA's editio princeps, which had been produced with
more care and philological acumen, is still widely used. Quite a lot of other partial
new editions have been produced during recent decades. Many of these publica-
tions made, among others, use of the fourth BoBh manuscript, the National
Archives MS (No. 5 in §1.2), which was not yet available in the. times of WOGI-
HARA and.DUTT. Itis important to no~e that recently TAKAHASIIl (~005a:10f., cp.
76) has pomted out that the Kyoto MS 1s a mere apograph of the Nat10rtal Archives
MS, since it uses symbols denoting lost aicyaras whenever in the latter manuscript
some text is lost due to damage of the manuscript. In the long run, the Kyoto MS
can possibly be disregarded in critical editions of the BoBh. 141 As regards the
relationship between the remaining manuscripts, it should be noted that the Patna
MS and the National Archives MS often agree in their readings, while the
Cambridge MS has different variants (TAKAHASHI 2005a:ll). · character of the complete English translation of the same chapter published by
There seem to be no complete translations of this bhiimi into a modern - or, at
any rate, into a Western - language. 142 UI (1961:1-312), however, provides a
Japanese translation of numerous selected passages from all over the text. The
same publication by UI (1961) also contains a Sanskrit-Chinese index of the
138 DEJONG (1987:164) asserts that the readings of this MS are often superior to those
found in the Cambridge MS and the Kyoto MS.
139 See WANGCHUK (2007:364) for further details regarding the materials utilized by
DUTT. 140 .
See DE JONG (1987:164f.). Cp. also WANGCHUK's (2007:364f.) observations regar-
ding the Cittotpiidapafalaand SUGAWARA (1990: 327).
141 However, it might be too early to eliminate the Kyoto MS as a textual witness. To
begin with, it is very well possible that more ak_saras or even folios of the National Archives
MS were preserved earlier when the Kyoto MS was written. And even the possibility that
the scribe of the Kyoto MS consulted a second manuscript in parts which have not been
scrutinized up till now cannot be excluded, although this is quite unlikely. In the colophon,
the scribe of the Kyoto MS only mentions one manuscript as basis of his own copy.
I !1
· 142 An English translation of the entire BoBh has recently been declared to be in
preparation in the preface to a translation of the Mahiiyiinasiitriilaipkiira (THURMAN et al.,
2004:viii-ix). The BoBh is already sometimes referred to in the notes to the Mahiiyana-
siitriilaipkara translation, but unfortunately more than once in such a way that the meaning
of the Sanskrit text is seriously distorted, although the respective passages referred to are
perfectly intelligible and unambiguous (see, e.g., THURMAN et al., 2004:270 n. 68;· ibid.:303
n. 32). Hopefully, the BoBh translation will, if it appears some time in the future, exhibit a
better understanding of the language and teachings of this part of the YoBh than these
references. In his Ph.D. thesis, which is entirely devoted to the BoBh, MULLENS (1994:31
and 286 n. 68) probably refers to ( an earlier incarnation of) the same draft translatio\i when
he states that he has in most chapters used an incomplete rendering of the BoBh handed
over to him by Prof. THURMAN "as primary source" (!) for his (relatively numerous)
citations from this text. MULLENS' translations of the original Sanskrit text are very 'often
inaccurate; at times they even go completely astray; cp. e.g. MULLENS' (1994:81) rendering
of the third condition or motive for the generation of the resolve to become a buddha
(cittotpiida) with WANGCHUK'S (2007:80) perfectly correct translation. MULLENS' Ph.D.
thesis is certainly interesting and has its merits; it is a pity that it suffers from basic
methodological and philological flaws.
-- The Yogacarabhiimi Corpus
···-·--·---
fJh.143 The annotated summary of the BoBh by BENDALL & DE LA VALLEE ,
:~ussIN (1905, 1906, 1911) is still useful. It covers, however only the chapters I.1-8
527
of the text.
z.t-.9.2 The very beginning of the first chapter of the text (I.1) has only been
nsmitted in the Patna MS; therefore, it is not contained in WOGIHARA's edition.
1:ter .Dutt's first edition of this passage, ROTH (1975-1976) published a new
144
Sl·on (== BoBho li-23) and translated this short section. The Cittotpadapafala
ver
(I.2) has been critically edited m W~G~HUK 2007 . T e irst three ch apters o f
. . . . ( ) 145 h fi
the BoBh have been translated m SOMA (1986b = I.1-2; 1987 == I.3). The
Tattvarthapafala (I.4) has been critically edited in TAKAHASHI (2005a:83-117). If I
am not mistaken, TAKAHASHI's BoBh edition is the only one that is based on all
four BoBh MSS. The chapter has been translated into modern Japanese in SOMA
(1986a) and TAKAHASHI (2005.a:151-179). A partial, _yet very fine transl~tion for a
wider audience (preceded by mtroductory explanat10ns) of the Tattvarthapafala
has been published by FRAUWALLNER (1969:264-279). The unsatisfactory
WILLIS (1979:67-175) has already been described elsewhere. 146 YAITA (2010) has
published a translation of the Prabhavapafala (I.5) which is also accompanied by a
new critical edition. A new edition (accompanied by a German translation) of the
Bodhip_atala (I.7) is contained in an unpublished M.A. thesis by N~KAM~;1lA
(2004). 14'7 Regarding the Balagotrapafala (I.8), LEUMANN's (1931) partial edition
143 Cp. also SILK (2001:162f.) on this index and see alsothe discussion of indices of the
YoBh in §2.0 above. · · ·
144 ROTH's edition contains quite a few substantial improvements. However, it is not
completely free from (minor) mistakes: folio lb1: prati§fii might very well be the MS
reading; it should, however, have been corrected to prati~thii; lb 1f.: read tatriidhiira/;1 ( =
MS); lb6: read bodhipa}cyye§U dharmme§U ( = MS) instead of bodhipa/cyye§u; 2a1: read
samiisraye 'pi ( = MS) ins tad of samasraye; 2a5: read yatha gotram instead of yatha-gotram.
One might also discuss the division into paragraphs and the punctuation in- a couple of
places. The English translation is at times helpful, but cannot be considered to be a
definitive one. The late Dr. ROTH was an admirable and versatile indologist, but certainly
no ex,gert in Y ogacara Buddhism. i
1 5 The editions of the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts in the appendices are not I
I
accompanied by an English translation. However, significant parts of the chapter have been '
translated at the appropriate parts of WANGCHUK's study on the bodhicitta in the main
part of his book. A complete annotated translation of the chapter is contained in his M.A;
thesis (WANGCHUK, 2002:27-70). .
146 DE JONG (1987:166) states that it "abo~nds in elementary errors," thereby summa~
rizing the findings of his own detailed review of WILLIS' book (DE JONG, 1985). - There
seems to be an apparently partial reprint of her translation in KOLLER (1991:308-330).
147 Ayako NAKAMURA is at present working on a Ph.D. thesis on the nature of
Enlightenment ( bodhi) in the early Y ogacara School wherein, among .others, a revised
version of this edition will be included.
I'
I

528 Martin DEUIEY
of the Sanskrit text must - for completeness' sake - also be listed here. 148 Th
Danapafala (I.9) has been critically edited and translated in YAITA (2008). 149 e
. 2.1.~.3 The fairly long Silapafala (I.1~) has arguably been the most popular and
u~fluenhal part. of the BoBh m East Asian Buddhism and perhaps also in Indo-
Tibet~n Buddhism. Accordingly, there are quite a few additional sources available
for this chapter, which became one of the most important classical sources for
Mahayana ethics. ,.
To begin with, in addition to the translations by Xuanzang (T1579), Dharma-
~ema (Tl581), and GmJavarman (T1582) already mentioned above (§1.1 and
§2.1.9.1 ), there are five Chinese texts that are counted as translations of this
chapter: 150 The PrisaJie Jiem6 wen (~~mmM>e; T1499), two texts entitled Pusj
Jieben (~Rm*; T1500, T1501 ), the Youp6se wiiJie weiyiJing (f§~~1iJ1·x&Qfj
*~; T1503) and, finally, the Prisa shanJie Jing (~wf.~m*~; T1583). The reason
why ~e have su~h a wealth of ,_short Chinese texts dealing with this chapter is
certainly a practical one,: The Silapafala serves as a manual for the Bodhisattva
precepts and the ~o-called Bodhisattva ordination. As a matter of fact, .most of the
ment10ned texts simply seem to be extracts from the three translations that contain
the whole BoBh. Tl583, for which Gul).avarman is given as the translator, has
already been dealt with above. 151 T1499 ( = T1579.514b 14-515c28 ) and Tl501 ( ==
T1579.5l,5a1~-22; 1 T1579.51_5b2i-521a1 6),_ are (as it seems, slightly modified) extracts
f~om Xua~ang s translat10~ of the ~ilapafala. T1500 ( = Tl581.913b-917a) agrees
hterally with Dharmak~ema s translation of the entire BoBh. The translation Tl 503
is ascribed to GmJ,avarman, but this ascription has been contested (see LUNG-LIEN,
1~72:241). Only the first half of this text contains passages corresponding to the
S11apafala (Tl503.1116c-1119b = T1579.515b-521a). It is true that these short texts
certainly a~e interesti~g in themselves and have been very important for the history
o~ East Asian Bu?dhism. Yet, at least those texts that agree more or less literally
with the three Chmese translations of the entire BoBh are of very limited value for
lower textual c~iticism of the Sanskrit text with which we are mainly concerned in
the present article. It would nevertheless be interesting to know whether really all
of the above texts have been secondarily created on Chinese soil as has been
suggested above or whether at least one or two of them are based on Indian models
of s~ch brief ~a~uals. 152 At an~ rate, it should be noted that DUTT (1931) has
published an edition of a Sanskrit manuscript that forms a Bodhisattvapratimok~a-
148 I
. h
t gives t e same text as WOGIHARA (1930-1936:95i-110 13)'. LEUMANN simply
presents the text more clearly by adding paragraph numbers, different punctuatio~ marks,
and the like.
149
YAITAhas placed his text-critical notes below his Japanese translation rather than
belo~ the Sanskrit text. This is a quite unusual and inconvenient way of arrangement.
Luckily, YAITA has at least cross-referenced his translation with the pages and lines of his
Sanskrit text. YAITA's edition is based on the Tibetan and Xuanzang's Chinese transla~on,
the two previous editions by WOGIHARA and DUTT, the Cambridge MS, the Patna MS,
and the Kyoto MS.
150 F I ·-.c . .
or genera 11uormat1on m Western languages on these texts, see LUNG-LIEN (1972)
and Hobogirin, fasc. 2, pp.142-146.
151
See especially n. 131. . . 160
152
The East Asian secondary literature on these texts and other important Chinese
sources for the Bodhisattva precepts is extraordinarily rich. I frankly confess that I feel at
present unable to give an overview of this research. . see EMMERICK (1968:ix; 1990; and 1992:39-41).
I
I,
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus 529
·tra. A high percentage of the first part (DUTT, 1931: 269-277) of this text agrees
~fmost literally with passages in th~ Silapafala (BoBkw 152-155 = BoB~n 105-106).
/ 1
' i
There are also two commentanes that are exclusively devoted to this chapter of I 1
I I
the BoBh preserved in Tibetan translation, namely the Bjrang chub semsdpa'i tshul
khrims kyi le'u bshadpa by Gul)aprabha (05546, D4045)153:and the more extensive I I
eyangchub sems dpa'i tshul khrims kyile'u'irgya cher 'grel pa by Jinaputra (05547, I i
D4046), which seems to be a sub-commentary based on Gul).aprabha's earlier text
(TATZ, 1986:29; DELEANU, 2006:249). It shoul~ be noted that _the ~ertin~nt
section in *Sagaramegha's BoBh commentary is more or less 1denticaL with
Jinaputra's text. 154 Candragomin's Bodhisattvasaipvaraviipsika (preserved in
Tibetan: 05582, D4081 ), 155 a versified ~ummary of the Bodhisattva ordination and
precepts, 156 and its commentaries by Santara~ita (05583, D4082}1 57 and Bodhi-
bhadra (05584, D4083}1 58 are also based on t~is chapter of the BoBh (see SUGA-
WARA, 1990:320 n. 8, and TATZ, 1986:29f.). Santarak~ita's commentary has even
been characterized as being "virtually a copy of the passages of the Bbh [TATZ's
abbreviation for BoBh] that are summarized by Candragomin" (TATZ, 1986:29).159
Finally, it is also interesting to note that there is a paraphrasis of the greater
part of this chapter in a Khotanese book that was for the first time edited by LEU-
MANN (1933-1936) and that is nowadays usually called the Book of Zambasta. 160
This text, which obviously enjoyed a great popularity in Khotan (EMMERICK,
1992:40), should perhaps not be dated before the ?1h century (ibid.). I I
1
153
1 ,I
The BoBh commentary by the same author mentioned above covers only the text of I
I ,
I
the Gotrapafala through the /Danapafala (SUGAWARA, 1990:320 n.8). The latter section
immediately precedes the Silapafala. Therefore, the two works might form one set . I
I
(DELEANU, 2006:248).
154
See TATZ (1986:29) and SUGAWARA (1990:320 n. 8 with reference to FUJITA). -For
I
some more information on these commentaries, cp. DELEANU (2006:248f.). 1, i
I
155
KANO (2009a:983; 2009b:383) has recently noted that the first two verses are
preserved in a fragmentary Sanskrit manuscript. See ibid. for the wording of these verses. -
I !
Critical editions of Candragomin's text are contained in TATZ (1978:545-549) and FuJITA
(2002:210-207). English translations are included in TATZ (1978:265-268), TATZ (1983, '
I:I
together with a Tibetan commentary) and TATZ (1985). · .
156
For the present purposes, it is not necessary to deal with the thorny issue of
Candragomin's identity, dates, and authentic works. See HAHN (1999:xx:xix-liii) and, for
mani further references to the debate on Candragomin, also VERHAGEN (1994:185).
57
A Sanskrit fragment of this commentary has been found in Tibet (see LINDTNER,
1991:651, Cat. Beijing no. 10; and, especially, KANO, 2009a:983 and KANO, 2009b:383; for a 11 I
facsimile edition of the extant folio, see ibid.:399). Critical editions of the Tibetan text are
contained in TATZ (1978:550-602, see ibid.:268-440 for a richly annotated translation) and
FuJITA (2002:206-164). .
158 I,
For a critical edition of this commentary, see FUJITA (2002:163-84).
159
A Sanskrit fragment of this commentary has been found in Tibet (see LINDTNER,
1991:651, Cat. Beijing no. 10; and, especially, KANO, 2009a:983 and KANO, 2009b:383; for a J
facsimile edition of the extant folio, see ibid.:399).
The paraphrase and its German translation can be found on pp. 144-164 of
LEUMANN's posthumously published book. For a new edition accompanied by an English
translation, see EMMERICK (1968:164-185). For further literature on the Book ofZambasta,
 ',,. '"""'111111111

I
530
Martin DELHEY
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus
I? rec~nt deca~~1s, a whole series of partial editions of the BoR
2.1.9.4 Much less material is available for the next chapters. MARKERT-
531
\
publifh~ m Jap~n. In these publications, the Sanskrit and Tibetan tr}] ~as been
as a .t ree Chmese BoBh translations texts are very convenient! ex s as Well BRAHAM (2005) has edited and translated the ~antipafala (I.11) within the
syno:e:1cally sentence by sentence. One of these books is devoted y pr~s.ented framework of her M.A. thesis. The Dhyanapafala (1.13) has been translated into
the Sffapafala (HADANo et al 1993) Th S kr. . to an edition of French by DEMIEVILLE (1957). The Sanskrit fragment SHTIII 964 (No.7 in §1.2J
three of the fi .., . e an~ it text of this chapter is·based o contains text from the beginning of the Piijasevapramapapafala (1.16). 1 8
.
Chmese o~r manuscnpts, on both prev10us editions on the Tib · t n
translations and on oth d · ' e an and MAfTIIRIMURTHI (1999:305-316) has edited and translated ,the second half of this
edition are obvious 162 One can heorwseecon aryt ma~enals. The great merits of this
. . ' ver, en ertam some methodol . I d
chapter (BoBhD 166i-17011 =BoBhw 24115-2496). LAMOTTE (1976:1857-1859) has
:~,~~:nf~?ehdecision to give the Cambridge MS a privileged status i:,~cea Sa~~b~s translated the greater part of the short but important section on dharaJJl(BoBho
. .. is as, among other problems, resulted in leavin . . , nt 1855-18610 = BoBhw 2721z-2747) found in the Bodhipalcyyapafala (I.17). FURU-
and idiosyncrasies in the text 16 More ·t . g many scribal mistakes sAKA (2007) and ISODA & FURUSAKA (1995) are synoptical editions of the last
d· · over, 1 was certamly not a very d ·d
isregard !_!le National Archives MS in favor of the Kyoto MS.164 goo i ea to chapter of the first yogasthana g:.18) and of the second to fourth yogasthanas of
. The SDapafala has been translated into English by TATZ (198 6- 47_89)16s the BoBh (II-IV), respectively. 1 The old partial editions (II.4, III.3) by Johannes
mto modem Japanese by FuJITA (1989· 1990 . 1991 ) 166 L · . and RAHDER have already been mentioned above (n. 137). HARADA (2010) has started
!1:;jofs:~::~;;,:::~Ws of nearly the ~ntir; chapt~r an~u=r~1!!t!9:r1:s1!: to translate the Viharapa.tala (II.4). The Japanese title of this publication contains
the information that the Sanskrit text is given as well. Three very short passages
from the third yogasthana (III.3 and III.6) have been edited and translated in
SAKUMA (1990:149-152). Translations of the Upapattipafala and the Parigraha-
161 pafala (III.1-2; FURUSAKA, 1985:93-99) are available. NASU (2010) has just begun
HADANo et al. (1993), !SODA et al (1995) FuR .
HADANo (1975). It seems to be a reli . · ' . _DSAKA (~007). - I have not seen to publish a translation of the section on the Ten Powers of a Buddha ( dasa
edition of the whole BoBh, which c£rcu1::1~aryfyn?t of1crnlly published version. of the new tathagatabalani) in the Prafi${hapafala (III.6). The Anukramapafala (IV) has been
TAKAHAsHI (2005a:6, n. 19), and SUGA~A: If a ~w copies. C:P·_SILK (2001:157, n. 30), rendered into modern Japanese (FURUSAKA, 1996:118-123) as well. The last-
publication, it becomes clear that this p r .( 990.~~7_) for this item. From the latter mentioned chapter is missing in some of the textual sources, namely in the two old
described below for the edition of the Sila;:::J:i°'(.~ry e ttlon ,was al~ea~y very similar as Chinese BoBh translations and in all MSS except the Cambridge MS. It has been
of HADANo 1975 is, however, somewhat differen:KAHASHI s desc~1ption of the contents argued that this chapter represents a secondary addition to the BoBh (DUTT,
;
I
I

Suaii;ARA also states that it constitutes an "almost p!~:/~~i~iu:1;:s~ ~y SUGAWARA). 1966:3 and 6-7; FURUSAKA, 1996). 170 .
t shou1d also be noted that variant r d · . ·
but also for the other versions Moreo e~hmgs are given _not only for the Sanskrit text
commentary (on which see §2191 and t~er, e correspondmg parts of *Sagaramegha's 11
II I

pages. However, not only in te~s of the eqprest;t p;ra;~aph above! are edited on facing (BoBh0 95 6.8 = BoBhw 1379.13 ). However, he obviously did not recognize that his trans-
of quality, this edition seems to be extra-ordi~:;il1 o dutI ized materials but also in terms lation only contains eight of these nine kinds. 2) Later in his rendering (SPARHAM,
163 V f . y goo .
ery o ten m these cases, the "Classical San kr. " . . . . 2009:407), we read "... and .[in the presence ofJ the single member of the highest sangha
thereby creating the impression that th d. d s It .readmg is given m the notes, who constitutes [the necessary quorum] ... " This is obviously his translation of Sanskrit
Sanskrit." But the langua e of the YoB e rea mg a opted m t~e text is "Buddhist Hybrid eka1J1sam uttarasaiigaIJJ k_rtva (!) in BoBh0 10513 = BoBhw 1535.6, a well known phrase
less rJ;brid than !he edito;s seem to ass:~:nt::~~.~tthe Bodh1sattvabhum1; is certainly far which means "having put the upper robe over one shoulder."
i I '

168
!he National Archives MS has been checked b .. The fragment has been identified by Noritoshi ARAMAKI ( see WALDSCHMIDT et al.,
correctmns because of its similarity with the K oto MS ( ~ has not been ~~1hzed for 1966ff., vol. V; 1985:271). The two pages A and B of the fragmentary folio must obviously
remarks on the relationship of these two d" Y b ANO et al., 1993:xu). See the be read in reverse order and seem to correspond to BoBh0 15923 -161 1 = BoBhw 232z-233 16;
h . co ices a ave (§2 1 9 1) Th d" .
t. e way qmte expensive; I therefore doubt that th ·11 . . . : • - ese ~ itions are by in WALDSCHMIDT et al. (1966ff., ibid.), however, the reference is to BoBh0 15924-16015 .
hbraries. ey WI gam wide currency m the Western 169 For general information on these two books, see the remarks on the synoptical
165 A d"
ccor mg to DE JONG'S detailed review (1989) h · . . Silapafala edition above. As regards !SODA & FURUSAKA (1995), it should be noted that it
TATZ in general understands the text correct! al h' t e tr~nslat10n .1s very useful, since is at present not available to me. I have, however, seen this edition some years ago during a
suffers from many minor blemishes I complet 1y, t ou_gt his rendenng regrettably also stay in Japan. In FuRUSAKA (2007), the tendency to leave omnipresent scribal mistakes like I' I
. I I
166 It should be noted that Kokan FunT: y ag;ee wit DE JONG's balanced judgment. the omission of a visarga or anusvara in the text is perhaps even stronger than in the :I I
published many more contributions rel f dunng_ roughly the !ast three decades has Silapafala edition. Moreover, in this particular edition there seem to be very many places I I
Indo-Tibetan tradition than have been ~ng/o t~e ;17apafala and its later adaptations in where other clearly secondary readings have been given preference to the correct one, e.g., I

with the Japanese tradition of writin on:~ ~ne ere: Rece~tly, he has (in accordance sentence no. 47 j.iena for BoBhw 2889 }.ianena, no. 50 °prayogofor BoBhw 28823 °prayoga~ II 1,
senior scholar) also submitted a Ph D gth . ohc!oral ?1ssertat1on when one is already a no. 59 °prasal!]yukta for BoBhw 2899-10 °pratisal!]yukta, no. 96 sarvasadharme$U for BoBhw
167 R . ti S · · es1s on t 1s topic (FUJITA 200l)
ecen Y, PARHAM (2009) h t l ' . 294 1 sarve$U dharme$U (the textual sources mentioned by FURUSAKA in his note can also
The translation has been produced a;o ran~ ated s1;11all parts of the chapter into English. be interpreted as pointing to an original reading sarvadharme$u).
rather than for academic specialists in I:d~ana~ra;d~~~~e and _for ui:ide_r~aduate students 170 It is also interesting to note that *Sagaramegha's commentary simply cites the whole
this contribution is seriously flawed T . .u 1st studies. Still, it is deplorable that chapter without commenting on it. The Tibetan translation of the BoBh does contain this
SPARHAM (2009:405) translates the e~um~r!;~nJ~;~i:od:::~!e~~~ ~f51~~~n~it:~~t chapter; however, immediately before it commences, the BoBk is - in both Q and D -
stated to have been completed (rdzogs so). Both these facts make it likelythat the chapter

532
_______ ...........__
·- ..-········---·······-·-··-··-·.-····- ........
2.1.10 The Sanskrit text of the Sopadhika Bhumih ( YoBh MS 154b -156 )
th N/ dh:,_-B - · · 2 a1 and
e 1n1rupa 1~a Vi~1!1j}J ( YoBh MS 156a1-156b) is only preserved in the YoBh
MS. A very fme ed1t10n has been published (SCHMITHAUSEN, 1991). 172
B. The Four Sa.ipgrahani Sections
2..2.0 The ViniicayasaipgrahaJJi ("Collection °of Clarifications;" Q5539 D401S)
const~tutes the ~econd par~ .of the YoBh. It represents the result of an at~empt-·to
co~pile all available ~dd1t10nal materi~ls that are more or less related to the
sub3ect-matter treated m the correspondmg sections of the Basic Section into
volume 173 Th £ ·t · h · one
. . ere ore, 1. 1s so!Ilew a~ m!sl~ading to designate this part as a
commentary on the Basic ~e~!1on, as 1t still 1s often done in secondary' literature.
M~re than 90%. of the Vm1scayasaipgraha1Ji are only available in Tibetan and
Chmese translat10ns (but see n~w n. ~4). ?nly a few sections or passages of this
part of the YoBh are already available m critical editions and translations.
2.2.1.1 The firs_t c~apter of the ViniicayasaipgrahaJJi deals with the first two of
the se~enteen bhum1s .. Rou?flY the first. half (Q5539.zi.lai-60b7 = T1579.579a-
601a) 1~ a,lso ~rese1:'ed, ma 6 :century Chmese translation by Paramartha, namel
the Jued1ngz~ng Ju~ .(:;:R:JE]lNii; T158~). DI (19~0: 543-707) has provided a ve;
useful syn?,?hcal ~~~hon of th~ 1;,Yo C:hmese vers10ns. This chapter starts with the
so-called . alayav1J1!ana Tr~atJse, which has received quite a lot of attention in
s~hol~rsh1p. The .f1rst port10n of this treatise is preserved in Sanskrit, since it is
cited m the Abhidharmasamuccayabhaf:Va (ASBh 11 16-13 20· = Q5539. · 2b -4 -
Tl579 579 ) :r.,. · .z1. 2 a4 -
. · a14-C:2 · HAKAMA~A (1978) has critically edited this citation together
with relevant Tibetan and Chmese texts. In a subsequent publication (HAKAMAy A
1979), t:ie same scholar has prepared a synoptical critical edition of the Tibetad
and Chmese texts of the othef7Rarts oft?~ alayavi].iana Treatise (Q5539.zi.4as-
10b6 - Tl579.5~9c23-582a12). Both editions are accompanied by annotated
Japanese translations. SCHMITHAUSEN has discussed this section at length (see
SCHMITHAUSE~, 1987b:671f.). GRIFFITHS (1986:129-138) has translated ~nd
a~notated the flr~t portion mentioned above; he has also given· the Sanskrit text
with some very shght emendations derived from HAKAMAYA's (1978) edition.11s
WAL?~ON (2~03:178-189) has recently published an English translation of the
I !1
remaimng portions of the treatise. 176
is a commentarial ~ppendix ~nd t~at the transmitters of the text were well aware of this
character. The v~rs10n contamed m *Sagaramegha's commentary represents by the wa
the ~~{l1e trans~at10n as t!1~t one contained in the Tibetan BoBh. ' · . y,
The fohos contammg these bhiimjs are partly broken at the margins Th £
small parts of the text are lost in the Sanskrit original. . ere ore,
7 passage already mentioned above (Q5539.zi.168a1-169as = T1579.642a6-b19). 1s
~ A very smalr section had been edited and translated in SAKUMA (1990:153-154).
Earlf~r on, SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b) had cited and discussed various passages from the MS.
See SCHMITHAUSEN (1969a:813-816); cp. also SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b·l 7-37 esp
18f.~.7fs regards the structure of this pa~t of the YoBh, compare the remarks in §0.4. '
S~all parts have also been edited and translated in SAKUMA (1990:155-161 =
Q5539.z1.9a3f. = Tl579.581b22f. = T1584.1021a2sr; and Q5539 zi 9a8-10a3 = T1579 581c
= T1584.1021b
175 8-24). · · · · 3.22
176 See SAKUMA (1996:7-8) for some further.corrections of the Sanskrit text. · Kazunobu MATSUDA (1988:19), who discovered this fragment, has stated his
See s.cHMITHA~SE~ (1987b:300 n. 226) for some more details regarding this treatise
and the pertment pubhcattons (up to 1986).
...
.....
Martin DELHEY
,,,
The Yogacarabhumj Corpus 533
-----2~2.1.2 Regarding the other portions of this first _chapter of the
0 - scayasamgrahani, it should be noted that the long Sansknt fragment men-
. Jfll d abov~ (no. 8.in §1.2) belongs to these parts(= Q5539.zi.31as-59b2 = T1579.
t1one . 1n ·b 1 · f
SS9bi 9-600c10). It has. not been pubhsh~d yet. The T1 etan trans at10n o yet
another portion of this chapter (Q5539.z1.65a3-~8?1 = T1~79.602a9-604b9) dea!mg
with spiritual defilements (kle~a) has been cnhcally edited and rendered mto
German by AHN (2003:88-95 and 215-230, respectively). KRITZE;1l (1999:225-281)
discusses at length two other sections of this chapter, which concern the
·ttaviprayuktafJ salpskaraiJ (Q5539.zi.2lb1-29b1 = T1579.585c9-588C1J; and 05539.
c:
Zl.
76a5-78a3 = T1579.607a 23 -608a6) and cites (with text-critical remarks) many short
. . f rom t h"1s chaper
t I
assages contained therein. Another, rather tmy section
fQ5539.zi.30a5-30b7 = T15~~.589a9-b 2) can be found in SAKUMA (1990:161-165,
edition and German translation).
I
'
2.2.2 Regarding the second chapter of the ViniscayasalpgrahaJJJ, the critical
edition (AHN, 2003:96-155) and annotated German tran~lation (ibid.:231-372) of
two further sections on spiritual defilements (Q5539.z1.112bz-137b1 = T.1579.
62la26-630a5) is especially noteworthy. 178 A very short passage fr?m another part of
this chapter (Q5539.zi.152a4_6 = T1579.635c6-11) can be found m SAKUMA (1990:
171-173). .
Towards the end of this chapter (Q5539.zi.158a4-173as = T1579.638a19-644a6) I
the royal ethical code is dealt with. The greater part of this section (Q5539.zi.158~4-
1.
168a1 = T1579.638a19-642a5 ; Q5539.zi.169as-l 73as = T15~9.64.,2b20,-64~a~) has ,m
China also been transmitted as an independent text, the Wangfa zheng/J lun.(3:.1:t;;
JEflglf/f; T1615), which is said to be a translation by Xuanzang. As a matter of ~act, ,[
both Chinese versions agree literally with each other, apart from some mmor
variants (ZIMMERMANN, 2006:230 n. 52) - at least if one disregards !he ~ac~ th~t
one portion in the middle (Q5539.zi.168ai-169a5 • T157.9.642a6-b1~) 1s m1ss1?g m
T1615. JAN (1984) has summarized the whole sect10n as 1t appears m the Chmese
YoBh and translated parts thereof; on the same occasion, he ·pointed out its
importance as an authoritative Buddhist text o~ kingship. .Furthe:more, JAN
(1984:222-223) suggests that the independent text simply ~ame mto ~emg, beca~se
Xuanzang during the year 649 CE made an extract from his own earlier translat10n
of the YoBh in order to influence the new Chinese emperor.
There are, however, some interesting further problems involved in this section
of the YoBh that are quite typical for the heterogeneous character of the work as a
whole. JAN (1984:229-230) has already noted that the section _under co~side~at~on
also contains elements "which are not directly related to the ideal of kmgsh1p. It
seems, however, - after an admittedly cursory examination - that they rather have
no connection with such a topic at all. This might also be the reason why th_e
missing in the separate treatise T1615. It is dealing with different kinds of suffenn~
or unsatisfactoriness ( dufJkha). However, the next section of the YoBh (Q5539.z1.
· 169a5-173a5 = T1579.642b 20-644a6)~ which does appear in T1615 as well - also
contains quite a lot of shorter passages that seem to be completely unrelated to the
177
intention to publish it. A few passages are cited in MATSUDA (1988), VON ROSPATT (1995,
see his index Jocorums.v. ViniscayasaipgrahaIJi), and KRITZER (2005:5, 187, 189). ·
178
Two small portions of this section are already contained in SAKUMA (1990:165-171).
 534 Martin DELHEY
~ubject-matter. Only the first section (Q5539.zi.158a4-168a1 = Tl579.638a 19.:642a
1s a neatly arranged tract on kingship. It consists in a quotation of a dialo 5)
between the Bll;ddha and a certain king. gue
There i~ yet ~other Chinese text that corresponds partly to the YoBh sectio
~!1-der co~s1derati~n, n~mel~Ath~ F6 wei y6~tian wang shu6 (wang fazheng fun)
png _[1~~~:r:J..,3:.~(£$~a$)*~; T524], which has been transmitted as a sutra
an11s said to be ~ translation by the famous Tantric Budd~ist ~aster Amoghavajra
(~ century). YUKI (~96~:65) has stated t.hat there likewise only are minor
differences be~een this sutra and Tl615. It 1s true that the similarities are great
not only regardmg the contents but also the Chinese wording. The agreement is'
h?wever, clearly not as strong as between the YoBh and T1615. Moreover, a majo;
difference between T1615 and Amoghavajra's text consists in the fact that the latt
only contains the_ first s~c~ion menti~ned above (Q5539.zi.158~-168a1 = Tl57~~
638a19-642as). This restnction results ma much more satisfactory text in terms f
coherence. The last ~ines of the text have, by the way, no correspondence in tie
parallel texts. de~t wtth ~bove. ~hese additions are, interestingly enough, Tantric
m nature. This sutr_a and its relat10n to the YoBh section dealt with here and to the
text T1615 has, as 1t seems, for a long time not received as much attention in th
s~condary literatur~ as it .dese~es. Recently, however, MAEDA (2007) has deal~
with all t~ese matenals. Hts article contains, among others, a partial critical edition
of the Tibetan text of this YoBh section accompanied by a Japanese translation
and a comparison with the pertinent Chinese sources. 179
2.~.3 ~he *Samahitabhzimivin1scaya has seemingly not received very much
attent10n till now. A synoptical edition and annotated German translation of the
*Asam~hitabhumivin1scaya is available (DELHEY, 2006:136-140 and 144-150
respectively). . '
2.2.4 No editions ?r tra~slations o~ large amounts of text regarding the next
chapters up to and mcludmg the *Sravakabhiimiviniscaya are known to me.
However: some very short passages from the *Bhavanamayibhumiviniscaya
(Q5539.zi.236b~-237~1 = T1579.669a8;21 ; and Q5539.zi.237a4_5 = T1579.669a29 -b3)
as well as two tmy pieces from !he *Sravakabhiimiviniscaya (Q5539.zi.2421Js-243a5
- T1579.671b14-!1; and Q5539.z1.255a1-255b2 = T1579.676b9.16) have been edited
and translated m SAK~M: (19~:173-182). The Viniscayasa1pgraha1Ji section on
the Pratyekabudd_habhum_1_ consists merely of the brief remark by the compiler that
he was unable to fmd add1t10nal materials on this topic.
. .~.2.5.0 T~e ~ituation is quite different as regards th~ *Bodhisattvabhumi-
V1n1sc_aya, whic~ 1s the longest ~hapter of the Viniscayasa1pgraha1Ji Obviously, the
comptler has. tned to ~rr~nge his. mater~als in accordance with the chapter division
of the Bodh1sattvabhum1. Sometimes (hke in the case of the Tattvarthapatala see
below!, though not. very often, he even states that he has not found any fu;ther
matenals on a certam pa/ala, thereby marking the transition to another subsection.
W~G?IUK (~007:263-266) has translated and edited a short section from the
begmnmg of this chapter (Q5539.zi.300ar300b8).
179
Si~c.e this publi~ation came to my attention only very recently, I had no opportunity
to study it many detail. Moreover, another short article on this topic by the same author
(MAEDA, 2005) has not been accessible to me.
I.
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus 535
I
11
2.2.5.1 The subchapter *Tattvarthapafalaviniscaya has because of its relevance I·
for understanding the dogmatics and philosophy of early Yogacara Buddhism
I
I
arouSed the ·interest of many scholars. KRAMER (2005) has . devoted a hwhole. I
·
nograph to the first part of this subchapter, namely the .sect10n on t e five
rn~egories of reality ( vastu) (Q5539.zi.302b1-'i.19b6 = !1579.695~26-703a2s),
~a luding a critical edition of the Tibetan text on the basis of all five textual
:~nesses and an annotated German translation. 180 WILLIS (1976:186-257) has
edited and translated selected passages of the second part of t~e
*Tattvarthapafalaviniscaya. Her edition, however, is hardly more than a transcrip-
tion of the Peking block-print; emendations·ha~e only.v_ery ra~e!y be~~ suggested;
TAKAfIASHI's recent monograph (2005a) contams a critical edition (ibid.:119-149)
and Japanese translation (ibid.:181-212) of selected passages from both parts of
this subchapter.
2.2.5.2 SAKUMA (1990:190-201) has edited and translated a section on the
nature of the awakening of a buddha (mahabodhi; Q5539.'i.3036-31bs = T1579.
707a5-b23). Another, relatively long section (Q5539.'i.40ai-43as = T1579. 710cw-
712a17) is cited completely, though in a pieceme~l fashion, in one of Tson~ ~a pa's
works. See TATZ (1986:132-136) for a translat10n of the passage conta1mng the
quotation. : i
I'
2.2.5.3 Later in the *Bodhisattvabhiimiviniscaya, nearly the entire Sa1pdhi-
nirmocanasiitra181 is cited, only interrupted by an introductory sentence at the
beginning of each chapter (Q5539.'i.47br108bs = T_1579.713ezs-736c12). T~e single i'
folio fragment of the Vi111scayasa1pgraha1Ji ment10ned above (no. 9a m § 1.2)
belongs to this part of the chapter (Q5539.'i.87br92a3 = T1579.728c16-730b21 -
Samdh VIIl.39-IX.6). 182 The fragment has been published in facsimile and the
pa;sage belonging t.o Sa1pdh IX has been edited (in transcription a!1d as a critical
edition) and translated into Japanese (MATSUDA, 1995). A very tiny pa~ of the
citation in the YoBh (Q5539.'i.100b8-101~ = T1579.733c19.24) has been edited and
translated in SAKUMA (1990:201-203). .
Many more materials and modern publications are available. It is true that they
usually refer mainly or exclusively to the Sa1pdh transmitted as an independent
work. However, it goes without saying that they are relevant for the study of the
citation in the YoBh as well. Therefore, some bibliographical notes are certainly
useful. It should, however, be noted that no claim is made here to give an exhaus-
tive account of relevant materials. 183 Quite a few Sanskrit fragments of the siitra in
180
Asmall section was already contained in SAKUMA (1990:183-190).
181
Only the introduction (LAMOTTE, 1935:31-34) and the concluding sentence of the
siitra (ibid.:165-166) are missing from this citation.
182
MATSUDA (1995:62 n. 11); location of the passage in the Peking bKa' 'gyur:
Q774.(Iiu).42as-46a1 (MATSUDA & STEINKELLNER, 1991:141).
183
For some older pertinent Japanese publications which will not be mentioned here,
see YAMADA (1959:198). See also POWERS (1991) and the mon?g~aphs b~ the sam~ au!hor
mentioned below for further references, but note that the b1bhograph1cal details given
there are at times unreliable. Regarding lIAKAMAYA'S pertinent. publications, see SUEKI
(2008:38 [§B185]). Compare also MATSUDA's contribution in the present volume for more
details on the textual witnesses of the Samdh.
 J,
/'
536 Martin DELHEY
the form of Central Asian manuscripts and citations are known. 184 There is ,
Tibetan translation of the siltra contained in the bka' 'gyur (Q774, D106). 185 La~g~
fragments of another, earlier rendering have been unearthed in Dunhuang.
HAl<AMAYA (1984, 1986, 1987a, 1987b) has undertaken a comBarative study of the
two translations and edited them synoptically on facing pages. 86 There are several
(partial and complete) Chinese translations of the siitra tT675-T679), including a
complete translation produced by Xuanzang (T676). 1 7 LAMOTTE (1935) has
edited the Tibetan translation of this siitra as contained in the bKat 'gyur and
translated it into French. NOZAWA (1957) has inserted the text of SaI!Jdh VIII at
the. appropriate places of his critical edition of a commentary on this,chapter (for
which see below). YOSHIMURA (1959) is a hand-written synoptical edition of the
Tibetan text of Saf!Jdh YIU and the corresponding portion in Xuaniang's Chinese
translation. Both versions contain some text-critical notes. POWERS (1995) gives
the Tibetan text of the entire siitra; it is, however, merely reproduced from the
Derge block print (see ibid.:XXI). 188 LAMOTTE's edition is based on only one
te~ual witness ?f the Tibetan translation of the siitra; 189 his (relatively few)
variants are denved from the commentaries and Chinese versions. As is well
known, nowadays we have - in contrast to LAMOTTE - access to many different
textual witnesses of the Tibetan bKa' 'gyur. Moreover, LAMOTTE did not take the
Tibetan ( or Chinese) text contained in the YoBh into account, either. 19°Further-
more, it must be noted that according to recent research (POWERS, 1993b; KA TO,
2006) the later Tibetan translation.contained in the different bKa' 'gyur editions is
184
, Central Asian Fragments: SHT III 923, SHT III 981. Noteworthy fragments in the
form of citations can be found in the Trilpiikabhii$ya (LEVI, 1925:3325 -345 = new edition by
BUESCHER, 2007:*331r344 [from Saipdh VJ); moreover,' one verse (TUCCI, 1971:1 [from
Salpdh III]) and one sentence (TUCCI, 1971:22 [from Sa1J1.dh VII.15]) are found in
Bhavanakrama III; further, another sentence (from Salpdh VIII.7) occurs in the
J.ianainmitranibandhavali (see SCHMITHAUSEN, 2005:14 n. 13). ,
185
For a comprehensive listing of other textual witnesses for this Tibetan translation
consult the online database Resources for Kanjur Studies (URL: http://www.istb.uriivie.ac'.
at/ka~ur/). ,
18
These articles seem to have been reprinted in HAKAMAYA (2008).
187 F . ,e • h
or more miormahon on t ese texts, see, e.g., LAMOTTE (1935:9-11) and Yuki
(1962:19-22). . translation which he characterized as "forthcoming" and "completed" (POWERS, 1993b:203,
188
POWERS (ibid.) also states that his translation is based on this block print, since the
J:?e:ge edition "is highly esteemed by Tibetan scholars." Immediately before, POWERS
(1b1d.:XX) states that "[i]n my studies, I have consulted ten different Tibetan editions[ ... ]."
It is true that the volume is obviously meant to be a popular edition for a rather wide public.
Nevertheless, I wonder whether one does such an important and difficult text any favor
when one deliberately decides to disregard nine textual witnesses in editing and transla-
ting it. Cp. also n.192.
189
. There can be no do~bt that LAMOTTE's edition is based on the Narthang block print
(as 1t has also been stated m IiAKAMAYA, 1984:2 n. 6), although LAMOTTE does not expli-
citly refer to his source text in this way. Strangely, in his review of LAMOTTE's book, WARE
(1937:124) gives a list of variant readings which according to him are derived from the
Narthang edition. I have not investigated this matter any further.
190
LAMOTTE was, however, seemingly aware of the fact that the Salpdh is extensively
quoted in the YoBh, since he cites a long passage from an earlier publication by
?BERMILLER, wherein this information is given (LAMOTTE 1935:16). - LAMOTTE's edition
1s, by the way, also accompanied by extensive reconstructions into Sanskrit. It is on)y
natural that nowadays many of these Sanskrit equivalents can be corrected.
)
The Yogacarabhiimi Corpus 537
,_.,- ·;,· -~I;
0
···--·······-...........,-..
diff'~rent from the older Tibetan translation from Diinhuang ( on which
no bove) but has itself been transmitted through two clearly distinguishabl,e
see a . , h th
Sions. The differences between the two vers10ns are so great t at ey
recen , F' 11 h dl
mingly may even be labeled as two separate translations. 1na y, one can ar y
see tate the importance of text-critical problems and the attempt to reconstruct
o;e~~st Sanskrit wording for the philosophical interpretation of this siitra ( as an
~~stration of this point, the reader ma! be referred to SCHMITI:~USEN,. ;984).
Therefore, it is certainly good news that 1n Japan work on a new critical ed1t10n of
the Saf!Jdh on a very broad textual basis .is in progres~ (see KATO,, 2006:~4). 191
Recently, three complete English translations of the sutra have been pu,bhs,he~.
POWERS (1995) translated the Tibetan text;. KEENAN (~000) rendered Xuanzang_s
Chinese text into English. Another English translat10n by, CLEARY (19~5) 1s
seemingly also based on Xuanza~g's version. All three ~o~ogr ~hs are obv10usly
1
ther written for a general audience than for the specialists. The same holds
;:ue for a recent French translation of the Tibetan version (CORNU,.2005). ~
excellent partial German translation ( Saf!Jdh VI and parts of Saf!Jdh VII) w!th
introductory explanations is available in FRAUWALLNER (1969:279-295), which
likewise was written for a wider educated audience. HAKAMA:A (1994:75-225)
provides a Japanese translation of Saf!Jdh VI and VII, accompanied by ve~ ~xten-
9
sive comments. NOZAWA (1957) has translated Sa1pdh VIII into Japanese. .
It is a matter of debate how many of the Smµdh commentaries pres~rved 1n
Tibetan originated in India. Regarding a very short commentary ascribed to
Asanga (Q5481, D3981), its Indian origin has, to the best of ?1~ knowle?ge, not
been questioned. This does, however, not hold true for the ascnpt10n of this.text to
Asanga. 194 LAMOTTE (1935) has transliterated and translated parts of this text;
POWERS (1992a) has rendered it into English. STEINKELLNER (1989:2~1-233)
argued that Jnanagarbha's commentary (Q5535, D4033) on Sa17!dh VIII (1.~., the
Maitreyaparivarta, Tib. Byams pa'i Je'u) h~s proba?ly been ~ntten b~ _a Tibetan
· (who has variably been referred to under his Sansknt monastic name Jnanagarbha
as well as under the Tibetan names Ye shes snying po and Shes rab snying po). 195
191 POWERS (1993a:27 n. 59) has earlier announced a critical edition of the Tibetan
cp. also 222 n.36) but seemingly this work has no~ ~een publi.shed till now.
192 POWERS' translation has been very cntlcally reVIewed by TILLEMANS (1997).
TILLEMANS points out that POWERS' translation tends to be unr~liable in ma~y places. One
of the reasons for these shortcomings is the insufficient use of important pnmary sources
and earlier modern translations. , ,
193 Regarding translations into Japanese, see also the reference to HAKAMAYA's book
in n. 183. , kh
194 See WAYMAN (1961:34f.),, who mainly refers to a statement by Tsong a pa.
However, more recently, POWERS (1992a:13-22) has dealt with this proble~ at lengt? and
comes to the conclusion that there is no cogent reason to reject the authorship of Asanga.
195 If I understand POWERS (1998:3-9; very similarly already in POWERS, .1992a:56-?3)
correctly he does not think that the evidence provided by STEINKELLNER 1s conclusive,
although' it seems that he also does not want to exclude the possibility that STEINKELLNER's
hypothesis is right. At any rate, the only counter-evidence which PoWERS se~ms to a~duce
(at least in the passages of his books specified above; c?mpare th~ end of this note) 1s the
fact that dGe Jugs masters have identified the author with the Indian Madhyamalrn master
\ Jiianagarbha. In my opinion, the arguments put fo~a!d by STE!NKELLNER ?re
considerably stronger than this rather late traditional ascnptmn. Regardmg the questmn
 538 Martin DELHEY
-·- ........... -·······--·-·····
The text has b~en edited by NOZAWA (1957) and POWERS (1998); both scholars
have also provided translations of this commentary (NOZAWA 1957· POWERS
1992~ and_ 1998). 196 A very extensive Sa!pdh commentary (05517, D4016)
contamed m the bstan 'gyur was - as is well known - written by the Korea
W?~cheuk _(llliffeU Yuance, 613-696 CE) and translated into Tibetan from th~
ongmal Chinese by 'Gos Chos grub (a.k.a. Facheng i:t,FtZ, ca. 755-849)(see, e.g.,
S~E~NKELLNER, 1989:233'-235; POWERS, 1992b), and is therefore not -df Indian
ongm. ~he 'Phags pa dgongs pa nges par 'grel pa'imdo'irnam par bshadpa (05845
D4358) is quite obviously a Tibetan composition. 197 NOZAWA (1957) .has translated'
the portion which deals with Sa!pdh VIII into Japanese. . ,
2.2.5.4 For two passages from the later sections of the *Bodhisattvabhiimi-
vinisc_aya, ~ee WANGCHUK (2007:140-142 = 05539.'i.127b3-129b2) and. - again a
very tmy piece - SAKUMA (1990:203-204 = 05539.'i.134b8-135a1 = T1579.746c14_18 ).
These three passages belong to a long section (05539.'i.115a1-136b7 = T1579.
738~2s-7~7b2s~ t~at seems tobe inspired by the Kasyapaparivarta. At any rate, the
section 1s defm1tely very closely related to a commentary on that mahayanasutra
ascribed to Sthiramati (05510, D4009; T1523). 198 · sets of synonyms (paiyaya) presented in such a manner that the individual words
2.2.6 The last chapter of the ViniscayasmpgrahaJJI contains additional material
on the last two items of the set of 17 bhiimis and deals with nirvana. SCHMIT-
HAU~EN (1969b) has published a critical edition of the Tibetan text together with a
heavily annotated German translation and analysis of this chapter. In the edition
not only all four textual witnesses for the Tibetan rendering known at that time bu;
also the secondary Mongolian translation have been collated, and in the translation
not only Xuanzang's Chinese rendering but also an East Asian commentary
(T1828) have been taken into account.
whether the 1id~as p~t fo~~rd in this.work are reconcilable with a Madhyamaka viewpoint,
see PO~RS d1scuss10n (1b1d.) and his references to earlier contributions by other scholars
who, _unhke POWERS, de~y this poss~bility. Else~here, POWERS (1992a:5 n.1) leaves the
question whether the Indian master Jnanagarbha 1s the real author of the work completely
undecided, instead claiming that the style and syntax of the commentary "clearly mark it as
an Indian text." He does, however, not give any examples to illustrate his point.
196
POWER~' ~econd tra~slation contains obviously only very minor changes . as
compared to his f1rst one. This even holds good for his notes. - POWERS (1998) has been
very harshly criticized in the review by WEDEMEYER (2003) to which the reader may be
referred, although the present author does not subscribe to every point of criticism
adduced there. ·
197p d" . f h .
or a 1scuss10n o t e quest10n of who exactly the author· of this Tibetan text was,
see STEINKELLNER (1989:237-241). STEINKELLNER comes to the conclusion that probably
~he ~i?etan_ translat?r Klu ~gyal mtshan rather than Byang chub rdzu 'phrul (who can.be
1den;J[1ed with the king Khn srong·lde btsan) authored this work.
. ~ee PoT!ER (2003:526-532) and, more importantly, SILK'S (2009) article on this
fascmatmg subJect. The latter contribution contains two useful tables regarding the
correspondences between the two texts, a summary and discussion of Japanese scholarship
on this topic, and many further references.
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus 539
2.3 The *VivaraIJaSalpgrahapi or (somewhat more likely) *Vyakhya(na)salp-
grahapi199 (05543, D4042) is a short manual of exegetical hermeneutics and can
therefore be regarded as an early forerunner of Vasubandhu's Vyakhyayukti
(05562, D4061, critical edition by LEE, 2001). According to MUKAI (1996:578), a
glance at the table of contents of this part of the YoBh strongly suggests that
vasubandhu was acquainted with this text when he wrote his own manual. While I
the Vyakhyayukti has become quite popular in Buddhological research during the I
last decade, this part of the YoBh has seemingly not yet received very much atten-
tion. It has, however, been recognized that a close comparison of the two works is
.1
desirable (HORIUCHI, 2008:1130 n.3). No Sanskrit fragments of this part of the
YoBh are known to be extant. For a survey of the structure and contents of this
chapter with references to the Tibetan block print edition of Peking, to the Taisho
edition of the Chinese translation, and to the parallel chapter in the Xiiinyang Jun,
see MUKAI (1996:575-573).
2.4 MUKAI's publication (1996: 572-569) also contains a synopsis of the
ParyayasalpgrahaJJi. The PaiyayasalpgrahaJJi (05542, D4041) deals with canonical
are differentiated from one another by assigning a distinct meaning to each. The
single folio Sanskrit fragment of this part of the YoBh 200 ( = 05542.47b7-49b7 =
T1579.768c 20-769~) amounts roughly to 5-10% of the whole text of this section.
The folio has already been edited diplomatically and critically by MATSUDA (1994).
2.5 The Vastusalpgrahapi consists - at least according to the Chinese version -
of a scholastic and systematic treatment of each of the three baskets of the
Buddhist canon. There seem to be no manuscript or manuscript fragment of this
part of the YoBh.
The first section (05540 = D4039 = T1579.772b-868b) deals with the Basket
of Sermons (siitrapifaka) and can be regarded as a kind of systematic commentary
on the *Smpyuktagama. One passage of this part of the VastusalpgrahaJJi ( 05540.
285a3-287b6 = T1579.827c3-828c12) has also been incorporated into the Savitarka-
dibhiimi of the Basic Section (Bh. 1981r203s) and can therefore be regarded as the
only passage of the Vastusalpgrahapi that has been preserved in Sanskrit. 201 A con-
cordance of the Peking, Derge, and Taisho editions and of the siltras of. the
Sa!pyuktagama, on which this first part of the VastusalpgrahaJJi comments, can be
found in MUKAI (1985:27-41).
199
The Tibetan title is Rnam par bshad pa bsdu ba. The original Sanskrit title is not
preserved (SCHMITHAUSEN, 1969b:18). MUKAI (1996:579-578) has given several reasons
why *Vyakhya(na)saipgrahapi seems to be the more probable reconstruction. See ibid.:
569 n. 1 forfurther references.
200
See §1.2, no. 9b.
201
See, e.g., KRITZER (1999:157). KRITZER also discusses the difficult question of the
\ direction in which the borrowing of the text passage took place (ibid.:158f.).
540 Martin DELHEY
The second section of the Chinese VastusaipgrahaIJi (T1579.868b-878a 24 ) has
the vinaya as its subject-matter. In the transmitted Tibetan translation, this section
forms a separate part of the YoBh, which is called *VinayasaipgrahaIJi (Q5541 ::::
D4040). There can hardly be any doubt that this is a secondary development (see,
e.g., DELEANU, 2006:46f.). Another, more substantial difference between the two
translations consists in the fact that the Tibetan *VinayasaipgrahaIJicontains a
treatment of the topic in verses (Q5541.la1-5a8 ) that is followed by a more detailed
exposition of the same content in prose. The verses are missing in the correspon-
ding section of the Chinese VastusaipgrahaIJi (KRITZER, 2005:XVIf. ). Finally,
there are also deviations at the end of the prose section: The.definitions contained
in Tl579.877c2_17 are in the Tibetan rendering (Q5541.26br27a2) only represented
by a short general remark. T1579.S77c 18-878a24 is obviously missing completely in
the Tibetan translation (see KRITZER, 2005:XVI).
The same complexity applies to the entire third part of the Vastusalpgraha1JJ~
which deals with matrka202 (T1579.878a25-88lc2). MUKAI (1985:4-8) has discussed
this textual problem at length. He has pointed out that the absence of the third part
in the Tibetan translation is inconsistent from·a structural point of view, since there
are at least two passages in the YoBh - one of them being the beginning of the
VastusaipgrahaIJi itself - which clearly suggest that this text should contain all
three parts. KRITZER (1999:157 n. 412) suggests that the third part is a later
addition to the VastusaipgrahaIJL However, what he probably intends with this
statement is that it was added later during the compilation process of the YoBh
rather than after the final redaction.
Partial critical editions of the Vastusaipgrah31Ji seem to be extremely rare.
SAKUMA (1990:204-208) contains the edition and translation of two short passages
from its first part (Q5540.22la2_s = T1579.802a5_12; and Q5540.312b2•5 = Tl579.
839azs-b4).
Concluding Remarks
3.1 Far more than 80% of the extant Sanskrit text of the YoBh is already avai-
lable in edited form. 203 If one, however, considers that most manuscripts had
already been discovered by the late 1930s and that the · YoBh is one of the
historically most important treatises of Indian Buddhism, this is certainly not a very
good quota. The most urgent task in YoBh studies is to prepare editions: bf the
remaining sections. · eliminating such early corruptions in the process of the tramsmission of the Tibetan text.
Regarding those parts of the text that already are available in one or more
editions, the situation is more complex. It has, hopefully, become clear that they
vary widely in quality. Some editions are only based on a minimal amount of
textual sources and are, above that, very unreliable regarding the readings of the
MS on which they rely. Some of these especially poor editions have already been
replaced by better ones. But much "".,Ork still remains to be done. This especially
holds true for those sections of the SrBh that are still only available in SHUKIA's
version and for parts of the Paramarthagatha and its commentary. A new edition
202
The Mulasarvastivadin, and consequently also the authors of the YoBh, used the
term matrka (originally designating the exegetical lists that formed the basis for the
Abhidharma) rather than the designation Abhidharma(pitaka) in the threefold classifi-
cation of the Buddhist teaching (see SCHMITHAUSEN, 1970:96). · ·
203
In this estimate, I disregard the news on additional manuscript leaves of ,he
Viniicayasai!]grahaIJlwhich are communicated inn. 44.
The Yogacarabhumi Corpus 541
-- --- - ......-·-·----··--·--·-·--·-···--···--·--·-···..----·--··---- ····------·----- ·······------·····----··· ..................--··
----- -- --- - - - ··--·····--·-··-··-·-·-..--, ... ..
of more sections of the first ftve bhiimis would certainly also be very useful.
Regarding the passages of the SrBh MS that hav~ counterparts in the YoBh MS
and which have been edited by members of the SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP
merely on the basis of the first-mentioned codex, it is certainly desirable that
variant readings from the latter MS are communicated and emendations are
suggested. It makes a huge difference whe_ther one -gses one fairly .old San~krit
manuscript or two of them, the more so smce the SrBh MS contams relatively
many mistakes.
Regarding the parts that are only preserved in Tibetan and Chinese; we also
need far more critical editions, especially of the Tibetan text. The editions
·available so far cover only a small percentage of the whole texts. For faster results,
editions based on only two Tibetan textual witnesses - each representing one of the
two lines of canonical transmission of this translation -, and on the Chinese
translation seem acceptable. 204 Synoptical editions of the Tibetan and Chinese text
would, of course, also be very helpful. They facilitate the task of making conjec-
tures regarding the lost Sanskrit original even when one of the translations is faulty
or based on a faulty Sanskrit manuscript. 205
3.2 Regarding translations into modern languages, the state of the field is
certainly worse than in the case of Sanskrit editions. There are only a few good
renderings available and most of them only cover small amounts of text. The
situation becomes far worse, if one is not able or willing to study the translations
into German and modern Japanese. At any rate, we need far more annotated
translations on strict scholarly principles in order to solve, or at least to discuss, the
204
For a survey of the Tibetan textual witnesses, cp. n. 30. - One might, of course,
argue that it is for methodological reasons necessary to collate all five textual witnesses.
However, if one is mainly interested in the ancient Indian original of the YoBh, it is
certainly more important to consult the Chinese translation than t() collate all Tibetan
textual witnesses in trying to come as close as possible to the wording and meaning of the
lost Sanskrit text. As. a matter of fact, all Tibetan textual witnesses share a significant
common stock of corruptions. In view of the history of bstan 'gyur transmission, this fact
can hardly be considered surprising. The Chinese text can be helpful in detecting and
This method can, of course, only prove fruitful when one is aware of all the possible
methodological pitfalls. In editing the Tibetan text, one must carefully resist the temptation
to correct the text when it is equally possible that the Tibetan translators relied on a faulty
Sanskrit text or did not understand the Indian original properly. There are often cases
where it is very difficult to say which of the three possibilities is the right one. Moreover, in
passages where the Chinese text itself is suspicious of being corrupt, it might be very
difficult or simply impossible to draw safe conclusions from it for the constitution of the
Tibetan text. Finally, the Chinese translation can only be helpful in recovering the Tibetan
urtext when one assumes that the text transmission of the Tibetan translation has not been
contaminated by Xuanzang's version. I see, however, no indications for such an
influence. - It is possible that Dunhuang manuscripts of the Tibetan translation can solve
some of these problems in much easier ways. I have not yet checked such fragments in any
detail. However, it does not seem that the fragments which are already known to exist,
cover, taken together, a significant part of the text of the YoBh. For references to pertinent
publications, see n. 30. ·
205 In this connection, projects like the Yogacarabhtlmi database (see n. 72) are espe-
cially interesting.
542 Martin DELHEY
The Yogiiciirabhumi Corpus 543
many problems regarding the syntax, meaning, and textual history of the respect·
passages. 1ve Abbreviations and Sigla
ASBh Nathmal TATIA, ed.: Abhidharmasamuccaya-Bhaffam, Tibetan Sanskrit
Works Series 17, Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1976.
3.~ It sho~ld ~~ stressed once again that we are dealing here with one of the the YoBh text contained in BHATTACHARYA, 1957.
most mfluentrnl sastras in Bud. dhist history, a text that induced Xuan·z' h Bh.
argu bl t · · · ang, t e BoBh Bodhisattvabhiimi ·
. a Y mos ~mment p1lgnm in world history, to make the long and dange DUTT's (1966) edition of the BoBh. ·
Jou~ney to India. Much progress in creating basic research tools has been ~~~; BoBho
WOGIHARA's (1930-1936) edition of the BoBh.
BoBhw
dunng rece?t decades. Nevertheless, huge gaps are remaining in this regard. Th Cat. Beijing Sen WANG's catalog of the 259 Sanskrit manuscripts once kept in the
YoBh certamly deserves to fill them. e Palace of Culture of the Nationalities in Beijing (reproduced in HU-VON
HINOBER, 2006:297-334).
D Derge block-print of the Tibetan Canon. Text numbers according to: A
Complete Catalogue of the Tibetan Buddhist Canons (Bka.lJ-l;zgyur and
Bstan-l;zgyur), edited by Hakuju UI et al., Sendai: Tohoku Imperial Uni-
versity, 1934.
G the Ganden manuscript bsTan 'gyur (a.k.a. the "Golden Tanjur"). Text
numbers according to: Shin'ichiro MIYAKE, "Comparative Table of the
Golden Manuscript Tenjur in dGa'-ldan Monastery with the Peking Edi-
tion of Tenjur" in ( Otani Daigaku) Shinshii S6g6 Kenyuj6 Kenkyii Kiyo
<•*tt-@ditf~pfrtitf~*c.~)(Annual Memoirs of the Otani University
Shin Buddhist Comprehensive Research Institute) 17 (n.d.[2000 accor-
ding to SUEKI, 2008: §D.054]), pp. 1-65. 'I
HA.KAMAYA, Noriaki HAKAMAYA's bibliographical notes on Y ogacara texts in the be- 11

notes ginnings of the volumes of the following publication: Deruge ban chibetto
daiz6ky6: ronsho bu, yuishild bu ( T Iv If It&1- ~ ''/ l' ::kiU!: iifi!iffrt$, Ol
iillg~)(sde dge Tibetan Tripifaka Bstan 'gyur-preserved at the Faculty
of Letters, University of Tokyo: Sems-tsam section), 16 vols., ed. by Ji-
kido TAKASAKI (~!lffiJ@Hi), Zuiho YAMAGUCHI (Ll!D:£/MJI\.), and Nori-
aki HAKAMAYA (N~JMiB-H), Tokyo: Sekai Seiten Kanko Kyokai, 1979-

Hobogirin
1981.
yt;. W~ ** ( H6b6girin: Dictionaire encyclopedique du Bouddhisme
d'apres Jes sources chinoises et japonaises), ed. by Sylvain LEVI et al., To-
kyo: Maison Franco-Japonaise, 1929-ff.
!BK Indogaku Bukky6gaku Kenkyii (EPil~1.LJ{~titf~)(Joumal of Indian
and Buddhist Studies).
NGMPP Nepalese-German Manuscript Preservation Project. Title list: Prelimi-
nazy List of Manuscripts, Blockprints and Historical Documents Micro-
filmed by the.NGMPP. Part I (excluding Tibetan Material and Historical
Documents). CD-ROM. Version 1.0. University of Hamburg, Asia-
Africa Institute, Department of Indian and Tibetan Studies, 2003. Cp.
I
now also the online title list (accessible from the URL: http://www.uni-
I
.hamburg.de/ngmcp/indexe.html), which already contains catalog entries 1

· for many MSS.

Q the Peking· block-print of the Tibetan Canon as reproduced in The
Tibetan Tripifaka (Peldng Edition), edited by Daisetz T. SUZUKI, Tokyo,
Kyoto: Tibetan Tripi!£lka Research Institute, 1955-1958. Text numbers i '
according to the accompanying Catalogue & Index(1961 ).
Saipdh Sa1J1dhinirmocanasiitra. References to this text are given according to I, I

chapter and paragraph numbers in LAMOTTE's (1935) edition. ·

Sh.
• 1 '

SHUKLA 1973.
SHT the Sanskrit manuscript fragments from the German Turfan collection as
cataloged in WALDSCHMIDT (1965ff.).
SWTF Sanskrit- W6rterbuch der buddhistischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden
und der kanonischen Literatur der Sarvastiviida-Schule, ed. by Heinz

' i i

544 Martin DELHEY
BECHERT et al., Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994ff. [Single
fascicles of vol. 1 had already appeared before 1994.]
T T~sh6 Shinsk~ -!?aizokyo (j(IEffif~}slffiU~)( The T_ripitaka in Chinese),
~d!ted by JunJiro TAKAKUSl! (r%;fffiJII.W-:XN~) and Kaikyo WATANABE Olli'.
31WAf!), 85 vols., Tokyo: Taisho Issaikyo Kankokai, 1924-1932.
TSN Taisho Daigaku Sago Bukky6 Kenkyiisho Nenp6 (j(IEj($**ir1~f!zuH
~pfrif.ffl)(Annual of the Institute for Comprehensive Studies of Bud-
dhism, .Taisho University).
Xianyang Jun Xianyang shengjiao fun (mm~f:Zii; T1602)
YoBh Yogacarabhumi
ZT Zhonghua Canon (Tibetan bstan 'gyur). Zhonggu6 zangxue yanjiu
zhon~n. ''DazangjI~g" duikan ju (q:r.OO~$iiffJ'(:tp,[i, t*=~ti} :£1~JJ
m1 )(Tnpitaka Collation Bureau of Chma Tibetology Centre), Zh6nghua
dazangjin& danzhu er ( duikan ben)(Zangwen)(tp~j(~ti f.t~tr<
( :x,Jltr;:t) ( ~X)[The Great Canon of China, Tanjur, (collated edi-
tion)(in Tibetan language)], Beijing: Zhonggu6 zangxue chubanshe (tp
OOit~teJIBtfft±.), 1994ff. . bsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
.. , Bibliography
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books, and articles are given in original characters and in English translation. If I hav:
found English _titles in th~ respective publications themselves, I cite them in parentheses.
My own Engilsh translations are enclosed in brackets. Only journal and book titles are
accompanied by a romanized transcription of the original Japanese title.
AHN, Sungdoo (2003): Die Lehre van den kleias in der Yogaciirabhumi, Alt- und Neu-
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AYMORE, Fernando Amado (1995): Die zehn Arten von gutem und bosem Karma nach
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BANDURS~,.Frank (!994): "Ubersicht uber die Gottinger Sammlungendervon RAHULA
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BAREAU, Andr_e (1962): Review of WAYMAN 1961 in Journal Asiatique250.l, pp. 149-152.
BENDALL, ~ecil (1883): f:atalogu_e of the Buddhist Sanskrit Manuscripts in the University
Library, Cambridge: lV!th Introductory Notices and Illustrations of the Palaeo-
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BENDALL, Cecil & Loms DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN (1905): "Bodhisattva-Bhiimi: A Textbook
of the Y ogacaraSchool, an English Summary with Notes and Illustrative Extracts
from Other Buddhistic Works" in Le Museon 6, pp. 38-52.
- - ~ ; - - ~ ~ - - - : : : - : - - - - ~ - - - - - - (1906): "Bodhisattva-Bhiimi: A Text-
book of the Yogacara School, an English Summary with Notes and Illustrative Ex-
tracts from Other Buddhistic Works" in Le Museon 7, pp. 213-230.
- - - - - - - - - : : : - : - - - - - , - - - - - - - - (1911 ): "Bodhisattva-Bhiimi: Sommaire
et notes" in Le Museon 12, pp. 155-191.
BHATTACHA~Y~, _Vidhushekhara (1946~: "Atmavad:1 as in the Yogacarabhiimi of Acarya
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dras: The Adyar Library, pp. 27-37. '
'\
The Yogiiciirabhumi Corpus 545
-
---s.-:::a_n_s-;k-n77
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't-;:;Ti;;-:e--'Xt:-;:O~om='J)=-=a:-:re:=-3d with the Tibetan Version, part l, Calcutta: The Univer-
sity of Calcutta. [Further parts have never been published.] ·
BHJKKHU, Huimin, et ~l. (2002): ."A Study o!1 _Creat!o°: and Applicati~~ of Electronic
Chinese Buddhist Text: With the Yogacarabhum1 as a Case Study m IBK50.2, pp.
(1)-(5) [=1036-1032]. . . •. .
Buddhist Text Information, nos. 1-78, edited by Richard A. GARD, New York: Institute for
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BUESCHER, Hartmut (2007): Sthiramati's TriJ!l[ika':_iffiaptif:h~wa: Critical f!ditions l!f the
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schaften, Philos.-hist. Klasse, Sitzungsberichte, 768. Band, Beitrage zur Kultur-
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CHAN, Ngan Che (2007): A Study of Yogaciira Theory of the Ten Causes, Ph.D. thesis,
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- - - - - - A - - . (2002): li~~f;Z~~5 I: .~~ifiJ,J~ ~[ler Index zum H_sien-
yang sheng-ch1ao Jun: Skt.-Tlb.-Chm. & Chm.-Skt. -T1b.), Seoul: Hanguk Jeon-
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- - - - - - (1963): Review of WAYMAN 1961 and BHATTACHARYA 1957, in Inda-
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- - - - . - - - (20~9): Samiihita BhumiiJ: Das Kapitel iiber die meditative Versenkun
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pp. 300-319.] ' . ' '
- - - - . - ·__ (1958): R:view~fBHATTACHARYA 1957, in T'oungpao 46, pp. 411-416.
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- - - - - - - - (19~6)_: BC:dhisattvabhumiiJ: Being the XVth Section of Asaiigapada s
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skrit-Worterbuch der buddh1stischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden Beiheft 2
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The Premise of Vastu in the Manobhiimi
Koichi TAKAHASHI
T~e ter1:11 vastu ~pp~~rs frequently in the Yogacarabhiimi and in some' contexts
this n?tlo~ has s1gn1fl~ant meaning not only philosophically but also religiously.
Especially m the Bodh1sattvabhiimi, one of the oldest strata of the Yogacarabhumi
vastu even represents 'Suchness' ( tathata), i.e., the highest reality. Vasta is, how~
ever, a perplexing term when it is attempted to be understood within the whole
range of the A:indOnly System ( vij.iaptimiitrata), i.e., Yogacara idealism, since the
general meanmg of vastu is 'substance' or 'entity'.
~ !s wel~ k~own, early Yog~cara thou.ght as preserved in some portions of the
Yogacarabhu1111 may be cons1d,ered ndt to deal with philosophical idealism
(SCHMITHAUSEN, 2005:9-10). 1 It _has, ~h~refore, been an issue how the Mind Only
System devel~ped from the non-1deahshc thought of the early Yogacara tradition.
To _an~wer this questi?~, the premise of the notion vastu in the entire Yogacara-
'!hum~ should be clanfled and the meaning of vastu in each context needs to be
mv~st1gat~d. As a p~eparative investigation, this short essay will focus on the vastu
not10n as_ 1t ?ccurs m a. state~ent concerning 'false view' (mithyad,r~ti) within the
Manobhu1111 of the Basic Sect10n ( Maull Bhumi) of the Yogacarabhiimi
Vastu in_~e M_an_obhu!Di:Existence not denied by False Views
I~ t~~ Yogacarabkum1, the f1rst reference to the term vastu with philosoRhical
s1gn1f1cance occurs m the following sentence of the Manobhiimi: . 1
How doe~ [the mi1!-d (mflnas) observe ( upanidhyati) the objective
support (alambana)J ma smtably determined [way] (yogavihitatafJ)?
r;JAs it does not false establish [something] unreal due to the four delu-
sions, namely due to the delusion that something non-eternal is eternal
du~ to the delusion that something which is unease is ease due to the de~
lu~mn that so!llething impure is pure, and due to the delu~ion that some-
thmg selfless IS self,
[2-1]. and fuf1:her, as it does not falsely deny [something] existing in the
way It. re~ly 1s (yathasadbhiita) due to a false view, namely due to the
~alse view m the fof1:11 of [the statement that] there is no gift, etc., [2-2] [or
m other ~?rds,] as It ~orrectly obse!"es [orJ perceives a thing ( vastu) by
the cogn1flon concernmg the establishment of dharmas, or as it correctly
1 [2-2] dharmasthitijiianenaa vapunar yathabhiitaip vastu prek~ate parijanati/ suviiuddhena
• Yoga~~ra thought has traditionally been understood as advocating the epistemo-
logical ~os1tion ~at the ~n~, or consciousness, does not - at least not directly - perceive
or cogmze anythmg ou!s1de itself but ~ather cognizes only its own images of objects, and,
more~ver, a~ rropoundmg the ontological position that there exist no entities, especially no
mat~n~l entities, apart ~rom consciousness. There is, however, no doubt that in some early
Yogacara works (especially the Yogacarabhiimi but also other texts like the Abhidharma-
samuccaya) the above-mentioned views are not found at all or at best only sporadically.
a
The Premise of Vastu 565
----- comprehends the dharmas by the completely purified extraordinazy cog-
nition, so [t~e mind observes the objective support] in a suitably deter-
mined [way].
In summary, this statement says the mind, which neither false establishes unreal
existence nor falsely denies real existence, observes an object suitably. In other
words, the suitable mind is free from false imputation (samaropa) of unreal things
and false denial (apavada) of real things. In the statement of the apavada, the
passage mentions the word vastu, which is to be correctly perceived by "the
cognition concerning the establishment of dharmas" ( dharmasthitJ].iana).
The dharmasthitij.iana can be regarded as the cognition through which one
recognizes phenomena ( dharmas) in accordance with how they are established in
the view of conventional expressions, because in this statement the dharmasthiti-
j.iiina is equaled with extraordinary cognition ( =lokottaraj.iana). Further, in the
Savitarkadibhiim1: the dh4rmasthitij.iiina is contrasted with tattvaj.iana, 'cognition
of the truth'. In a passage dealing with dependent origination (pratityasamutpada),
the Savitarkiidibhiimi explains dharmasthitij.iana and dharmasthiti as follows:
.
How [should dependent ongination be recognized] by the cognition con-
cerning the establishment of phenomena ( dharmasthitijffana)? It should
be recognized as the Buddha instructed and revealed. . . . The nature of
phenomena ( dharmata) is what is proven [to be true] since beginningless
time. The establishment of phenomena ( dharmasthiti) is a determination,
through, words and syllables of logic, of how [dependent origination] is
proven.3 · I I
. '
Dharmasthitij.iana is, therefore, here translated with "cognition. concerning the
establishment of dharmas." In some contexts, however, the term dharmasthiti is a
synonym of dharmadhatu (SCHMITHAUSEN, 1969: n.116).
When the above passage froin Manobhiimi is analyzed in detail, sentence [2]
can be divided into two parts:" the first half [2-1] shows the exclusion of false denial
(apaviida) triggered by a false view (mithyad[$/J), while the second half [2-2]
suggests two concrete ways of perceiving existence correctly, viz. cognition con-
cerning the establishment of dharmas ( dharmasthitij.iana) and completely purified
extraordinary cognition ( suvisuddhalokottaraj.iiina).
In sentence [2-1 ], the Manobhiimi adds a brief indication of the contents of
,,
false view, saying "there is no gift, etc." (nasti dattam iti iid1). A full explanation of
false view is first introduced in the Savitarkiidibhiimi, which covers bhumis III-V of
2 Yogacarabhiimi(BHATTACHARYA, 1957:131-12; Q5536.8a3_6; D4035.7az_5; T1579.280c
19_25 )(the paragraph numbers are my insertions):
kathaip yogavihitatalJI
[1] yathasadbhiitaip na samaropayati caturvipazyasaifJ/ anitye nityam iti vipazyasena/
dufJkhe sukham iti vipazyasena/aiucau iuciti vipazyasena/anatmany atmeti vipazyasena/
[2-1] napi sadbhiitam ~-favadate mithyadr~tya nasti dattam ityadyakaraya mithyadr~tya/ 11
va punar Jokottarepa jffanena dharman yathabhiitam abhisambudhyate </> evaip
yogavihitataiJII ·
a) dharmasthitJjiianena em.: dharmasthitijiiane BHATTACHARYA; cf. the Tibetan Translation
chos gnas pa 'i shes pas.
3 Yogacarabhiimi (BHATTACHARYA, 1957:2295_11 ): kathaip dhamasthitijffanena/yatha
bhagavata prajiiaptalJ prakaiitas tatha jiiataryalJI ...ya, 'nadikalaprasiddhata sa dharmata/
yathaprasiddhasya yukteiJpadaryajffanair ryavasthapana dharmasthitil;,I
 The Premise of Vastu 567
566 Koichi TAKAHASHI
·----·--···--·--·-····-· . . .. ··············-·······-··········- ... ················--·--······-·····..·--·········-·········..-· ···········-·-·..····-··-..---········-······· ···•·····•·· ········-·--···· ·-··
I I

the Maull Bhiimi_The Savi~arkadibhllmi reveals that this brief expression actually The underline~ phrases are attested _in several Agam~s, i.e., authoritative scriptu-
comes from a sutra teaching about a person upholding false views, and the res.s The first Agama-parallel occurs m the Madhyamagama: ·
Savitarkadibhiimi expounds the canonical statement as follows:
Three expressions ·[pertain to] false views: som~one with false vi~ws
There _is the explanatory statement that "there is verily [someone] with ( *mithyadr$frika, suoj~an diandao pfr~lffi~U), havmg t3tI~h a [!alse] v~e~
false ~ews:" The [p~ra~e] "havi~g sue~ a [false] view" (evaipd[$.fri/;1) [in ( *evaipd!~!ri, ru!hi jian PD~J!),. havm~ s~ch a doct~me_k,evaipvad1,
the sutra] 1s ~ clanf1~atton of his own mtellectual receptivity and desire nishi shu6 tzD~~). There 1spo g~t ( *nastJ dat~am, u:zi sh1 "'::OW.), ih~re_
f~r the meanmg he mtends to speak. The [phrase] "having such a doc- is no offering ( *nasti~fam, wu zha1 ~Jif ), there 1s no 11:1cantat10n ( pa_stJ_
trme" ( evaipviidi) is a clarification of other [people's] comprehension of hutam?, wuyou zhoushu6). There is neither good nor 1~l conduct ( nasfl
the meaning he intends to speak. sucaritam duicaritam, wu shim eye ~~H~~). There 1s no maturmg of
Due to a false denial of making offerings with the three types of pur- results of deeds well done or ill done ( *nasti suk_rtadu~akarmaJJalp
pos~,. [n~mely] for the purpose of [acquiring] wealth, for the purpose of phaJavipaka, wu shan e ye bao 1!~f~~~¥~). ~h~re is not thi.,s ~or~d, V

punf1cati~m, [and] for the purpose of worshipping a divinity, [the holder there is not a world beyond ( *nasty ayaip Joko nastJ paraloka, wu c1 sh1 bl
~f false _v1~ws] says, "there is no gift, there is no offering, there is no obla- shi~Jltt!tfBlt!t). There is not a father, there is not a mother ( *niistimatii
tion (nasfl dattarp niisfi$.lalp nasti hutam)." The word 'oblation' should be nasti pita, wu fu wu mu ~:X:~£3:).6 In the world, there are no Arh~ts
understoo~ as .the intention to worship the [fire-]god Agni [by making ( *na santi Joke arhan!aiJ, shi wu fhenrfn i;tt~~A.), ~ho ~re.rros.eedn?-g ·
burnt offermgs]. rightly ( *samyakpratJpannaiJ, wangzh1 shanchu shanfa shallXJang f:t~:g
Du~ to_a fals~ denial of_t~e OJ?posite of wholesome actions (kuiaJa) ~~~~rt:i]), and who proclaim this world a~d ~he, w?rl~ b~yon? ( 7e
along with its antidote cons1stmg m moral conduct [and] meditation as ima.i ca Jokaippara..i ca Jokarp ...pravedayanfl, c1sh1 blsh1... z1 zuozheng
well as [a fals~ denial] ofJits] o~posi~e consisting of generosity, [the hol- 1ftt!t1Elt!t... El f'F~), having realised them _by their own super-~ow~edge
der of false VIews] says, there 1s neither good conduct nor ill conduct ( *svayam abhij.iaya satyakrtva, zizhi zljue El 9ill El fl), f~rmg nght~y
(nasti sucaritarp duicaritam)." Due to a false denial of the result of these ( *samyaggataiJ, chengjiu you ~JM;Wf). S_uch [fal~eJ concept10ns ~r~ said
thr~e types _of wholesome actions, [which are] the antidotes, along with to result in suffering, whether engaged m beneftcJal or unbenef1c1al ac-
their opposites, [the holder of false views] says, "there is no maturing of tions or [due to] experiencing an unpleasant result.
results of deeds well done or ill done (nasti sukrtaduskrtakarmanam
phalavipakaiJ)." · · · · · Another Agama-parallel occurs in the Saipyuktagama:
Due to a false denial of the condition of the basis for evolution
CP:avrttyadhi~fhana), [i.e., the consciousness of the sentient being to be Not rejecting false views ( *mithyad.qtriffa?_, ..kushe9 xiejian ~:f1§=:$J!),
remca!nated], [the holder of false views] says, "there is not this world, havin~ such a [false]_vie~ (*evapd!$.~, rush1pan_ tlDAE~), ~a~m~ such a
there 1s ~ot a ~orl~ beyond (n~styavam Joko nasti paraJokah)." Due to a doctrme ( *evaipvad1, rush1 shuo tzD~~). There 1s no gift ( nas(1 da~tam,
false demal ?fits (1.e., the sentient being to be reincarnated) condition of wzi shi ~:OW.), there is no reward, there i~ no. fortun~. T?e~~ 1s ,n~1ther
menstrual discharge (phaJa) as well as a false denial of 1its condition of. good nor ill conduct ( *nasti sucaritaip duscantam, wu shanxmg e_xmg ~
~emen (bija), [the holder of false views] says, "there is not a mother, there ~f=:f~fi). There is no maturJng of res~t~ of de~ds ~e}! d<;me ~r ~11 done
1s not a father (nasti mata nasti pita)." Due to a .false denial of the ( *nastJ sulqtadu~krtakarmaJJal!] phaJavip~a, wu shan eye guobao*~~
evolved sentient bei.ng, [th~ hold~r ?f false views] says, "there is no spon- \ .g~*ffi). There is not this world, there 1s not a world beyond ( ~asty
taneously-born sentient ?emg (nasfl sattva upapiidukalJ)." ·· ayam Joko nasti paraloka, wzi cl shi wzi ta shi ~l[tt!t~fiftt!t). There 1s no
Due to a fal.se demal or
devolution, the antidote of evolution, [the
holder of false VIews] says, m the world, there are no Arhats (na santi
father or mother ( *nasti mata nasti pita, wzi fu mu ~:X:£3:). There is no.,
I

[spontaneously-]born sentient being ( *nasti sattva upapadukal;i?, wu

Joke arhantaiJ)," and so on. 21 zhongsheng sheng ~1R±±), In the world, there are no mundane(?)
Arhats ( *na santi Joke arhantaiJ, shijian wzi shi aJu6han t!tF1=1~~t!t~m
1,, ¥~), who are faring rightly ( *samyaggataiJ, dengqu ~i®), pro~eedm.g
rightly ( *samyakpratipannaiJ, dengxiang ~ft:i]), and who proclaim this
world and the world beyond, having realised them by thelf own super-
4
Yogiiciirabhumi (BHATTACHARYA, 1957:178-179; Q5536.103b6-104as, D4035.90arb1,
T~579.~~6c13-2s)_: JJ?ith;:adr_~frikalJ khaJu bhavatity uddeiapada.rp/ evamdrstrir ity atmano 5 For a later Abhidharmic parallel, see the Abhidharmakoiabhaffa (PRADHAN, 1967:
VJ~ak~1tarthak~an_tJ1:1c1?ar!d4!anam etat/ evamvaditi pare~aip vi'vak$ifarthagraha1Japari- 247 20_21 ): tad yatha ''nasti dattaip nastiJfalp nasti hutaip nasti sucaritaip nasti duicaritam ity
d1pan~m- ~!at( u1~dhabh1pr~yasya danasyapavadad bhogabhiprayasya iuddhyabhiprayasya evamadi yavan na santi Joke 'rhanta" iti/. English translation by PRUDEN (1988:1990:657):
de~atapu1abh1prayasya nastJ.dattam n~stistam naftihutam ity aha/ hutam agnidevatapuja- "As it is said in the Sutra, "There is no gift, no sacrifice, no oblation, no good action, no bad
b~1p!ayas.ra draJfal7.!'a1PI savipakJapratJpak~asya siJamayasya bhavanamayasya kuiaJasyapa-
action ... there are no Arhats in the world."" Cf. HoNJO (1984:68).
vad~d danam.ayavipak$asy~ ca/ nasti sucaritam duicaritam ity aha/ tasya trividhasya 6 In the Chinese text. the father is mentioned first and the mother second, whereas the
s~vipak~pr~tJpakJasya kusalasya phaJasyapavadaif> nasti sukrtaduskrtakarmanam phaJa- order is reversed in the dorresponding Sanskrit passage attested in YBh as quoted above in
~paka 1ty aha/ prav{ftyadhi~fhanapratyayapavadan nasty avam Joko nasti paraJoka ity fn. 4. The phrase "There is no spontaneously-born sentient being" (nasti sattva upapadukal;i)
aha/ t~tphaJapratJ:_aY_apa~ad_at tadbijapratyayapavadac ca nasti mata nasti pitety aha/
prav{lhfuru~apavada1: 1!a!fl sattva upapaduka ity aha/prav{ftipratipak~ikanivrttyapavadan is not attested in the present Agama-passage.
7 Madhyamagama (tp~'2i" Zhong Allan, T26.437c27-438a1): =a3f~Ji. r,~J!Mfll. tzo

tzo~~- ~:aw.~Jif~~}1fi~. ~~~~~~~~!~· ~tt!!t!t- ~:X:ffif~~!~

na santJ Joke arhanta 1tJ vistarenaha/
kusalasya phalasyapavadan· em.: manuscript illegible: kuialasyapavadan BHATTACHARYA. Cf.
a~ ~!!-
A.11:¥~~~*~rt:u, Jltt!tfBlt!t, El~DEIJlEl1'F~~gtWf. AEa~/is:rr1&1'F-~::f ~ .,., ~*
the Ttbet~n Translation QD, dge ba rnam pa gsum po mi mthun pa 'i 'phyogs dang!gnyen par bcas pa
de dag gyi 'bras bu. la skurpa btab pa 'iphyir/. Cf. also T fj~~f~llt:::::.ffl~(fgmpfrYEJPJrf~*itz· ~~Ef~.

568 Koichi TAKAHASHI
············-·········
k~o~led~e ( *ye ima.i ca Joka1J1p1ra.i ca {okalp ...prave~ayanti, cishi tashi
z1z~1 zu<;~hent lf:ct!t{-!Qt!t § %[1'fAI)_, havmg ended their own rebirth ( wo
~engYJ,11fl iJG~ 8~), estabhshed m pure practice ( fanxing yi Ji 1-tf=r8
J.L), having accomplish~d what is to be accomplished ( suozuo yi zuo ,P;~{'f=
BfF), for whom there 1s no further existence, knowing the way things are
(zizhi bushou houyou § ~O::f§'tf&l=f). 8
Furth~r scriptural parallels are -~o~nd i~ the Pali Nikayas, starting with a passage in
the Saleyyakasutta of the Ma1Jh1manikaya explaining false view from among th
ten negative courses of action ( akusalakammapatha): e When, one day, I had thus asked Ajita of the garment of hair, he said:
And he i~ ofwron~ view, of perverted o~tlook, thinking, 'There is no (re-
~ult of) ~ft, tht:re 1s. no (result of) offenng, no (result of) sacrifice; there
1s no frmt or npemng of deeds well done or ill done· there is not this
world, there is not a world beyond; there is not a mother, there is not a
father, there are no spontaneously uprising beings; there are not in the
world recluses ~nd b_rahmans who are faring rightly, proceeding rightly,
and who proclaim this world and the world beyond having realised them
by their own super-knowledge'. 9 ' earthy in him returns and relapses to the earth, the fluid to the water, the
Also, in the Sandakasutta of the Majjhimanikaya, a similar but more .extensive
passage turns up within an explanation of the fourfold unchaste life ( cattaro
abrahmacariyavasa):
~s to this, Sandaka, some teacher speaks thus and is of this view: 'There
1s no (result of) gift, no (result of) sacrifice; there is no fruit or ripening of
deeds well done or ill done; there is not this world there is not a world ·
berond; there is not (benef!t .from serving) mother ~r father; there are no
bemgs of spontaneous upnsmg; there are not in the world recluses and
br~hmans who are faring rightly, ~roceed~g rightly, and who proclaim ·
this world and a world beyond, having realised them by their own super-
knowledge. This man is derived from the four great elements so that .
when he pas~es a:way, the earthy part of his body returns and relapses t~
earth,.the flmd part to water, th~ hot part to heat, the windy part to wind,
and his sense-organs pass over mto the ehter. Four men with a bier as
the fifth,_ go along t~ng th~ corpse; as far as. the cemetery they make
known his ~h~racte~1st1cs. His bones become pigeon-grey. Offerings end
as ~shes. It 1s 1mbectles who speak of giving. It is vain, lying, empty talk on
the1r part who profess to say: There is. Fools and wise alike are annihi- ·
lated and destroyed at the breaking up of the body; after dying they are
not.' 10
8
Saipyuktagama (*ft:13iIT"'a' Za ahan, T99.271c11•14): ::f~$J!
4H£'iW.4HE+i=i 1HE~,,.-oo,,.- :fi!E~OO~ EEi m .
~o~s .-no~@~ ·
11:!Et{;:;
' .t=.7D, ;i. .t=i:ilu ""/JIB
~"''F!>lm/l'IB, "" 1:::/(T,Q.,1T, "" ~ '..Q.'*~'F!>l, ~JJttf:t~{iQtf:t, ~5<:£3:, ~*~~, t!tFa~~t!tllliJ~
1~~,ig~~JJtttt{·tli~ El ~01m, iJG~ 8~, 1-tfrB:U:, pfr{'FB{'F, § ~D~§'tf&l=f.
. _English transla!10~ b~ HORNER (1954:345-346). Majjhimanikaya 1.28712_18 : miccha-
ditfh1 kho par:_a hotJ v1pantadassono: natthi dinnalp natthi yztf:halJl natthi hutalp, natthi
s~at_adukk~fa!1'!1P kafl!manalp phalalp vipako, natthi ayatp Joko natthi paro Joko, natthi
ma~a nat~h1 p1~a n~tth1 satta opapatika natthi Joke samaIJabrahmaJJa sammaggata samma-
paflpanna ye 1man ca ~ok_alJl P_aI~.i ca Jokatp sayalp abhi.i.ia sacchikatva pavedentfti The
same passage occurs ~1thm a s1m~l~r context_ in t~e Ja1!ussoJJivagga of the Aiiguttaranikaya
V.26520.2~- All quotations from Pali sources m this article are from the editions of the Pali
Text Society.
10
English translation by Ho~R (1957:193-194). Majjhimanikaya 1.5153_9 : idha san-
daka ~kaCCO Sattha ~Valpvadf hoti eVaipdzf!hi: natfhi dinnalp natthi yi{.fhalp natthi hutam,
natth1 sukafadukkafanalp kammanalp phalalp vipako, natthi ayalp Joko natthi para Joko,
The Premise of Vastu 569
····-·--·--·--
It should be noted that this passage opens with the expression that some teacher
"speaks thus" ( eva~vad~) and "is of_ this view:' ( e~a!p~it.th!), co~espond~ng to the
above-cited express10ns 'someone with false views (m1thyadr~frika), "having such a I 1
[false] view" ( eva!pd[$fr1"/J), and /'having such a doctrine" ( eva!pvadi).
Finally, a parallel sutta-passage occurs in the Sama1p;aphalasutta of the
Dighanikaya, where ~he~~ views are ascri?ed1fo the ~on-B1;1ddhist teacher 'Ajita of
the Hair-Garment' (AJit~ Kesakambalm ), who 1s believed to have been a
contemporary of Buddha Sakyamuni:
"There is no such thing, 0 king, as alms or sacrifice or offering. There is
neither fruit nor result of good or evil deeds. There is no such thing as
this world or the next. There is neither father nor mother, nor beings
springing into life without them. There are in the. world no recluses or
Brahmans who have reached the. highest point, who walk perfectly, and
who having understood and realised, by themselves alone, both this world
and the next, make their wisdom known to others.
A human being is built up of the four elements. When he dies the
heat to the fire, the windy to the air, and his faculties pass into space. The
four bearers, on the bier as a fifth, take his dead body away; till they reach
the burning-ground men utter forth eulogies, but there his bones are
bleached, and his offerings end in ashes. It is a doctrine of fools, this talk
of gifts. It is an empty lie, mere idle talk, when men say there is profit
therein. Fools and wise alike, on the dissolution of the body, are cut off,
annihilated, and after deaththeyare not. 12
natthi mata natthi pita, natthi satta opapatika, natthi Joke samaJJabrahmaIJa sammaggata
sammapafipanna ye ima.i ca lokalp para.i ca Jokalp sayalp abhi.i.ia sacchikatva pavedenti Ii
I
Catummahabhutiko ayalp puriso, yada kalalp karoti pafhavi pafhavikayalp anupeti
anupagacchati, apo apokayalp anupeti anupagacchati, tejo tejokayalp anupeti
anupagacchati, vayo vayokayalp anupeti anupagacchati, akasalp indriyani sankamanti, 11.
asandipa.icama purisa matalp adaya gacchanti, yav' a/ahana padanipa.i.iayanti, kapotakani I
afthini bhavanti Bhassantiihutiyo, dattupa.i.iattalp yad idalp danalp. Tesalp tucchalp musa
vilapo ye keci atthikavadalp vadanti Bale ca paJJ<fite ca kayassa bheda ucchij/anti vinassanti
na hontiparam maraIJa ti
11 See BASHAM (1951:15).
12 English translation by RHYS DAVIDS & CARPENTER (1899:73-74). Dighanikaya
1.55 15•20: Evalp vutte bhante Ajito Kesa-kambali malp etad avoca: natthi maharaja dinnalp
natthi yit.tham natthi hutaip natthi sukafadukkafanalp kammanalp pahallp vipako natthi
ayalp Joko natthi para loko natthi mata natthi pita natthi satta opapatika natthi Joke
samaJJabrahmaIJa sammaggata sammapafippanna ye ima.i ca Jokalp para.i ca lokalp sayalp
abhi.i.ia sacchikatva pavedenti. Catummahabhutiko ayalp puriso, yada kalalp karoti
pafhavi pafhavikayalp anupeti anupagacchatJ: apo apokayalp anupeti anupagacchatJ: tejo
tejokayalp anupeti anupagacchati, vayo vayokayalp anupeti anupagacchati, akasalp
indriyani salpkamanti Asandipa.icama purisa matalp adaya gacchanti, yava a/ahana padani
pa.i.iapenti, kapotakani atfhini bhavanti, bhassantahutiyo. Dattupa.i.iattalp yad idaip
danalJl, tesalp tucchalp musa vilapo ye keci atthikavadalp vadantI: Bale ca paIJ4ite ca
kayassa bheda ucchijjanti vinassanti, na honti param maral}a ti
 570
Koichi TAKAHASHI
..........................- ...... ··············•········· ···········--···--········
To summarize these false views, the Savitarkadibhumi says:
With regard to that, in summary, the content is [as follows]: a false denial
of cause, a false denial of result, a false denial of action and a false denial
of existing things ( sadvastu) are clarified. l3 ' .
In other_ words, the Savitarkadibhiimi summarizes the intention of the Siltra
passage m the form of four types of 'false denial' (apavada), namely a denial of
cause_ (hetu-apavad~), a de~ia! of re_sult (phala-apavada), a denial of action (krjya-
apavada),and a demal of existmgthmgs (sadvastu-apavada). · which the Yogacarabhiimi employs to summanze :he contents ~f _thehsutra. -~ 1s
Hence, just like the passage quoted from the Manobhiimi spoke of the correct
cognition of a thing ( vastu) by the cognition concerning the establishment of
dharmas ( dharmasthitij.iana), similarly the present siiira-exegesis frbm the
Savitark~dib~r11!1i ~pe_aks of.a false ~enial ?f 'existing things' (sadvastu). Although
the Santarkadibhum1 does not clanfy which part of the sutra statement would
corresp~~d to the denial ~f existing things (sadvastu-apavada), its commentary in
the Vin1scayasalflgraha1JJ, 1.e., the *Savitarkadibhiimi-viniscaya, makes explicit the
cor~espondences between the statements of the sutra and the four types of false
demal. Concerning the denial of existing things, it says:
The statements from "there is not a mother, there is not a father there is
no spontaneously-born sentient being" ( *nasti mata nastipita ntisti sattva
upapadu_ka~) until "th~re are no ~hats in the world who have put an end
to neg~tlve mfluen~e (*n(l san~ Joke arhantaiJ icylpasravaiJ) should be
recogmzed as refutmg existmg thmgs ( *sadvastu, yodpa 'i dngos po). 14
According to the *Savitarkadibhumi-viniscaya, the type of false denial known as
false denial of existing things thus refers to a denial of the process of samsaric
rebirth and the possibility of liberation from that, and the overall sense the;efore
seems to be that things ( vastu) which are generally known to exist ( sad) in the
mundane world s~ould not be denied. 15 If this interpretation is applied to the
passage ~n false views from the Savitarkadibhum1; the word vastu as the object of
false demal may also be regarded as a fact or a thing existing in the mundane world.
If the same interpretation is employed to the occurrence of the term in the above-
cit~d i:aragraph [2-2] from the Manobhiimi concerning the correct cognition of the
?bJect1ve support, vastu ~oul<:J here as well be understood as a fact or thing existing
~n th~ i:nundane wo~ld, given that Manobhiimi refers to vastu as the object of the
co~m~10n concernmg to the establishment of dharmas" ( dharmasthitij.iana),
which m the same paragraph is contrasted with "extraordinary cognition" (Jokotta-
raj.iana).
1
Yogacarabhumi (BHATTACHARYA, 1957:17911 •12): tatrayEl.J!l samasarthafJ/ hetv-
~ !1:t~='=t~.W.. JiNJ=ifrlffi. "~rltttt~fittttt•1t~1§'[ff", ~t~~~ffr!ffi, ~~ ~pfrlffi. "~x
apaifdaiJ phalapavadaiJ kriyapavadaiJ sadvastvapavadas ca paridipitalJII
05539.113a6-b, D4038.108ab. Especially, Q5539.113b34, D4038.108b7: pha med do/
Ima med do//sems can brdzus te skye ba med do zhes ba ba nas Jigs rten na dgra bcom pa
zag pa zad pa med do zhes bya ba ni/yod pa 'i dngos po Jig par byed pa yin par rig par
byao#
.
15
~hi~ interpretation of the sutra in the *Savitarkad1bhumi-V1~1scaya is, however, not
fixed w1thm all Yogacara thought. For instance, the Abhidharmasamuccayabhawa (TATIA,
1976:66-12~ understa~ds the J?hrase "there is not a mother" (nasti mata) and so forth as
representmg the demal of action (kriyapavada). . .. , ./ suovduan
\
The Premise of Vastu
5'71
I
'False View' in the·Sutras and the Development
G1ven
of Its Interpretation in the Abhidharma Tradition
th·e formulaic expression "ther.e is no gift" (nasti dattam) and so forth found
£ h v: - - bL - ·
i
in the different siitra passa~es quoted above! it was natur~1· . or t e L Ofa~ara ~1um_1
1
te such statements m order to explam the concept of false view ( m1thya-
tdo qtu)oHowever none of the siitras mentions in this context the four types of false
TS1 • ' • d · . h"
d~~ial (apavada) - namely the denial of cause, ~esult, action, an existm~ t mgs-:
h efore not necessarily the case that the false views presente m t ese su. ~s
:h~~ld be understood as having any particular association with the false demals
(apavada). . .. .. v: - - b·,. - ·
In fact the Sarvastivada Abh1dharma trad1t10n predatmg the L ogacara 11um1
· ·nally 1·'nterpreted these formulaic .phrases in a slightly different way. Thus, the
ong1 · ,.c • t th ,
Jiiiinaprasthiina instead related the sutra statements to t~e 1-our super~or ru s
(catvary aryasatyiin1), at le~st as attested in8 ~~e o!der.~~n~ese trans~atl~n.?f t2;
Jiianaprasthanamade by Sanghadeva (ffl"1fJnm~ Sengq1et1po) and Zhu Foman (_
{~~) in the fourth cen~ury CE:
[The sutra] says that there is the vi~w that "there is no gift, no fo~ne,.no
'e2Pression' (?)." 16 This false view [is] overcome by the truth of ongmat1on
( ~~ xidi). [The suira says,] ':The!e is no maturing of result of df:eds_.!~11
done or ill done." This false V1ew [1sl overcome by the truth of pam ( Cl~
kiidi). [The sutra says,] "Therej~not this world,}he~e is not _a wo!ld be-
yond; there is not a father, ther~ ~s nC?t a moJ.,!ier. J'~s false vie"!' [1s] also I.
overcome by the truth, of ongmatmn (~~ xid1). [T.he _sutra says,] I
"There are no Arhats seeking for Dharm~ ip. the, wo[ld. This !alse view
[is] overcome by the truth of th~ way (~~. cjaod1). [The sutra says,]
"There is no perfect Dharma." Th1sfalse view (is] ?Vercome _by t~e truth
of cessation(~~ 11ndi). [The sutra says,] "There 1s no'one m this world I I
or the world beyond who have obtained a benefi<~ial state, ~elf:~no~ledge,
with direct experience, who have completed then:_ WJnde!m~. rfhis false
view is likewise overcome by the truth of the way (rJ!J.~ daod1 ).
16 'Expression' or 'statement' (W; shu6) is probably a corruption for 'incantation' (IR,IDt
zhoushu6) as seen in the sutra passage from Madhyamagama, fn. 6 above. See also the
phrase 'award, announcement' (ffi bao) in the Sal!]yuktagamapa!sage, fn. 8 abov~ =
17 Apftan bajiandu Jun (~ffe.ltJ\~~it, T1543.91~a): pfr~} Itt~~nfM~,,~. !ft
!~~~~- ~*~fr*f~: 11tt~~=a=~m. ~~t!tt&t!t~x~~J~~~~ffiift.
1!Wttt~ffy~~~. !ltt~~i§l~ffiift. ~~y;!, !ltt~~fllJW~~- M-~1"r~-, ttt~ttt, El~
{'f:tlff\tit~,!l:tt~~i§!ITTfflfrig. ~or C:OI?-P_ari~on~ cf: ~uanzang ~· Chmese. translat10n of th~
J.ianaprasthana (~ffi~l!!Js!~mfit Apidam~_!'azh1 jun) made m 657 CE, ;1544;!02~11-~- I
~1§° "!lt~~n{Mal~~~-ffrnJifrEM-YYff~-r", !lt~lzslt~~, ~~pfrffi. fflEl7t1-r~!~;
I I
~£3:", !1:t~lzsl$~, ~~pfrffi. ~~ "Ll:t~tttrs,-~ffi~", Ll:t~~t~~' ~Pfr~. ~IE
~", Ll:t~~t~.w., ~~~J=ifrlffi. "•IErr!ltttt1itttttf!~~f~1t~o El mht11=m~ JEf:t:~~~~
jtf=fB=rI.ffif'l::Blff~t&lftm'.lf~D", !lt~i§l!~~' ~i§Ipfr~. ·~n_?;li~h translatt?n: _ I:;:
said [in the siitra] that there exists "the view that there 1s no gift ( nastJ dattam, M_: sf:iyu , ."
.I
I
. I,
:affiW), no offering ( *nasti~fam, wu aiyao -~~' lit. 'no delight'), no ~blatto?- ( *nast! hu(am,
wu cfsi~ffrnlifr8). There is neither good conduct nor ill cond~ct ( *nastJ_sucantal'fl_ d~scantam,
wu miaoxing exing.Y!:?1T~1T)." This false view of ?enymg causes 1s to ~e ebmma!ed by
seeing [the second truth of] the origination [of suffering] ( *samudaya-darsana-prahatavya,
panp S,f*FZ.~) • [The sutrasays]
'. 7D~mim1 , ·"There is no [maturing
• _ of],. results
., ,. of deedswell
, ,. v
done or ill done ( *nasti suk_rtadu~krtakamiapal!] phala[v1paka1J]; .wu miaoxing e xing guo
 The Premise of Vastu 573
572 Koichi TAKAHASHI
Th's definition could be called the Sarvastivada 'proto-definition', because the later
According t~ this interpretati~n: tht: denial of giving, etc., is to be overcome by
compre~endmg the truth of or~gm~tion ( *samudayasatya), while the denial of th~ Ch:nese translation of the same text by Xuanzang (Z*) reveals a more developed
m~tura;10n of the result of action 1s to be defeated by understanding the truth of ·form of the definition in the same passage:,
pam ( ~ulJkhasatya). The siitras themselves do not pretend to interpret the false view is the receptivity, inclinations, opinions, observations, and (/or)
overco~mg of these false views in terms of the realization of the four superior views [which have] ari~en in those who fal~ely deny. cause,}alsely deny re-
truths, smce none. o~ the sutras develops its narrative along the sequence of these: sult, fahtely deny action, and refute existmg thmgs ( sadvastu, 'It* ,
~ruths. Howe~er! 1t 1s. appreciable that the formulaic phrases of the siitras may be shishi).
~nterpreted w1thm this framework of the four superior truths, because the phrases
imply a causal relation between action and result of action, which not only pertains xuanzang's translation contains two additional elements, since ~e~~al of actio~ a~d
to the mundane world but also to the highest truth. At least, it is possible to refutation of existing things have been added to the proto-defimt10n occurrmg m
understand the siitras as implying the undeniability of action and its result. 18
It could be supposed that it was such an interpretation of the sutra that influ-
enced the Sarvastivada tradition in its formulation of the definition of false view i!ff*1), translated by An Shijie (:&:~r's:!), which is re~arded as a prot~type fo~ th~ first
The relatively old Chinese translation of the Prakaranapada (*$51-pP]Es~iL~ chapter of the PrakaraJJapada. It contams a cor!espond~ng passage, but its meanmg 1s not
Z,hon_gs~1'fen apitan Jun, T1541 ), translated by Gm;iabh~dra (>J<J~iJJB~ Qiful!~ clear ( T1557.lc 999c13_14): !~!~~{al~. ~~;f~~ii::zis:,Hi. _
batuoluo, 394-468 CE} and Bodhiyasas (~~lf~~ Putiyeshe) in mid-fifth century 20 Apidam6 pfnlei zu Jun (lfrilf6~~6"r:r~.@.ii, T1542.693b20-21): !BJ!%", ~lzi;J, ~~.
preserves the fallowing definition of false view: ' ~~{'Fffl, ~t.l'lf*, EB!It~/2,~~fi~. The same enu1:1efati~n- is fo~n~ ~n an°,ther
section of the PrakaraJJapada (T1542.700c4-6)· Further, cf. Sapoduozon¥ ~sh1 lun (~~~
What is .fals~ view? It is said that desires, inclinations, and views, [which ffenlili) translated by Facheng (1:!~)(T1556.996c13_15): :K{BJ!BJ!. a;~!zi;J~&J.:J{tffi,
have] ansen m those who deny cause and result, are called false views. 1 tf~Z.$, fEl.[.::J~\zg. ?d~rl-fflaRJ.:JpfrjiJtti;~BJ!. Translation: "What is false view? It is
the receptivity, inclinations, opinions, observations, and views of those who falsely deny
Bli1- m) •" Th"1s f a1se view cause and effect along with action, refute existing things ( *sadvastu, you zhi shi ffZJJ),
18EfrrJ>::r
"''~Y 1T,D,1~;;,is: . of denymg . results 1s. to be overcome by seeing [the first
and falsely consider other things to be causes." Also cf. the *Abhidharmadhiitukayapiida-
~ruth o~ pam ( ~dufJkha-darsai:a-prahatavya, jian kii suoduan Je,"f!j pfrffi). [The siitra says,]
§astra (Apidam6 jieshenzulun !friIW.~~j'j!.~.@.~) translated by Xuanzang, which con-
:her,e 1s /no! th1~ world, there 1s not a world beyond ( *nasty ayalp loko nastiparalokafJ, wu tains virtually the same passage as his above-cited translation of PrakaraJJapada (T1540:
c1 sh1 wu ta_ sh1 ~I.ttifr~1lli~); t~ere/ is no spontaneously-born sentient being ( *niisti
sattva upapaduk~fJ, wu huasheng youqmg ~ft~f§'[ff)." This [false view] is either to be 615bs-1): !~Ji:KfilJ. g;~E&I. ~~. ~~ftffi~t~'Jf$, EB!l:t~/2,~~WJi~i;!~Ji.
Translation: "What is false view? It is the receptivity, inclinations, opinions, observations,
overco1:1e by see~?g [the.second truth of] origination or by seeing [the first truth of] pain.
and views [which have] arisen in those who falsely deny cause, false deny.result, false deny
[T~e s~f_!a s~ys~~ T~ere 1s n?t a mother: there is n~t a father ( *n.asH mata nasti pita, w6 fu
mu ~X.~~). !his false ~1e_w o~ denymg causes 1s to be overcome by seeing [the sycond
action and refute existing things ( *sadvastu, 'It* shishi)." The expression y6ucf (EB!It,
*tatas: *tasmiit,. or *yasmiit) in either passage is not easy to understand in the present
truth_ of] ongmation. T~e~. !t 1s s~.1.~ [in t!1e sii:r~J: "In the world, there are no Arhats ( *na context. The same phrase cited in the Mahavibha,Ja does not have any equivalent for y6ucf
santI. Joke arhant~IJ, c1 pan sh1pan wu aludhan lftJe, t!tFs~~!wJ~i:f)." This false view
and appears to place "receptivity, inclinations, opinions, observations, and views" (zhii ren
den~mg the path IS.~? be, over:_co0;e b~ seeing [the fourth truth of] the path ( *marga-
dar:an~prahatavya, pan dao suoduan Je,~pfrffi). [The siitra says,] "There is no one who is
Je zhi hui jian ~ ?2,~~IB!) as the synonyms of fals 7view at the end of tµe se~tence .. The
same pattern is seen in the Abhidharmasamuccya, which clearly presents these five notions,
farmg.nghtly ( *na ~ant~ .. samyaggatafJ, wu zhengzhi~TI:.¥)." This false view denying the
namely 'receptivity' (kJanti, ren 2 ), 'inclinations' (ruci, yum: = le ~), 'opinions' (mati, Jue
cess~t10n [of s~fferm~J_1s to.?e o:7er~ome,by seeing [t_he third truth of] cessation ( *nirodha-
d!rsana-p:ah~tavya, pa1! m1e suo~uan.Jl1~?frffi). [Fmally, the siitra says,] "There is no one
1f: = zhi ~), 'observations' (prekJa, hui ID, and 'views' ( dr.J{i, jian Ji) as synonyms of false
view; see the Abhidharmasamuccaya (GoKHALE 1947:1631_33): mithyadrJfiiJ katama/ hetuip
( na S~ntJ, ~~)Who IS proceedmg rightly (samyakpratipannafJ, zhengxing TI:,.f"J) and who
vapavadatalJ phalaip va kriyiiip va sad va vastu nasayatafJ mithya va vikalpayato ya kf~nti
P:ocl?11:1s t~1s wor~d ~d a world beyond.,.,~e ima1! ca Jok~Ip paraii ca Jokaip ...pravedayanti,
rucir matifJ prek,Ja dllfifJ/. Translation: "What is false view? [It is] the rec~ptIVIty,
c1 sh1 ta sh1 ... zuozheng J.tti!tfllit!t ... ft,tra..), havmg realized them by his own superknow-
ff
ledge ( *svayam ~bhijiiay~ satyak{tva, yu xianfa zhi zJ t6ngda f P~JJ!f!JO § ~:ii), having
inclination, opinion, observation, or view which falsely deny cause, result, or action, do
away with or falsely conceptualize things that exist (sad... vastu)." Likewise, the
reached .perfection,. havmg ended ~1s own rebirth, established in pure practice, having
Savitarkavitarkabhiimi defines false view as the afflicted cognition of those who falsely
accomphs~ed wha~, 1s t~ be acc~mplishe~, for whom ~here is no further existence, knowing
the way thmgs are. This false view denymg the path 1s to be overcome by seeing [the truth deny cause, etc. (B/HATTACHARY~; 1957:16~17 _19): mithya~f${i1J katama/ asatpu_ru,J~s~vam_
agamyasaddhannasravaJJam ayomsomanaskaraip hetuip vapavadatafJ phalaip va kriyaIJl va
of] the path ( *miirga-darsana-prahatavya, jian dao su6duan Jligpfr!ir).
8 sadbhavaip vastu nasayato ya nirdhiiritaiva kliJfii prajiia//. Translation: "What is false view?
~ Similar!y, the. Pali commentaries on the Dighanikaya and the Majjhimanikaya both
It is the afflicted cognition upheld in [those who] falsely deny the cause, the result, or the
exphc~te the mtentlon of the formulaic phrases as implying the non-existence of any result
action, who do away with existing things (sadbhiivam) [or] entities (vastu), ?ecau~e of the
of act10n; see Sumaligalavilasini (PTS edition, vol.2, 165) and Papaiicasiidani (PTS edition
vol.2, 332). ' depending on a wrong person, listening to a wrong doctrine, or engagi~g m an mco.rr~ct
19 comprehension." Accordingly, the false view can be explained as s~me mcorrect opi:uon
T154.l.~27c21-22_: .~fiIT!~Jl. ITTn~lzi;J!lt 1.f~·f&:,mm:,m?J,IBJe,, ~~!~Jl. The text belonging to someone who denies real causes and so forth. Accordmgly, th~ W?rd_ c1 (!It,
repeats a_ s1m1lar defn~1t1;;on.,., later on, where it inc!udes the denigration of actions (T1541.
'this, he') in the PrakaraJJapada is probably meant to render a prono~n md1catmg the
635b11-1z). ::z:;:{aJ!~Je,. ffl~JF~iz;l~, NJ=ifrll!ft, ~t~m?J~~- Translation: "What is false
person who falsely denies cause and so on. Consequently, the character you(EB) appears to
vie~? It is sa~d [to beJ the acceptance ofopinions in those who deny cause and result and
demgrate act10ns that are to be cultivated." .Cf. also Apidam6 Wiifiixfng;Ing (lfriIW.~!®1i represent the ablative case-ending.

574 Koichi TAKAHASHI
the translation by Gm.:i.abhadra and Bodhiyasas. This seems to indicate a gradual
development in the definition of false view.
In this regard, the Mahavibha$a, being a commentary on the J.ianaprasthiina,
provides more information, because it cites the PrakaraIJapada's definition of false
view in a discussion of the eternity of niivaIJa and argues that according to
PrakaraJJapada's definition it could be considered a false view to see niivana as
transient. According to Xuanzang's Chinese translation of the Mahavibha$ii., ~ome
Buddhists were of the opinion that the PrakaraJJapada had already intended the
relationship between the four types of denial, including the refutation of existing
things, and the negation of the four superior truths: · .
Question: Is there a false view [that J can make the calm nirniIJa seem
transient or not?
Response: If so, what is the fault?
Question: If there is [such a false view], how can the statement of ,the
PrakaraIJapada be understood? It declares as follows: What is false
view? It is the receptivity, inclinations, opinions, observations, and (/or)
views [which have arisen in those who] falsely deny cause, falsely deny
result, falsely deny action, and refute existing things. If there is no
[false view], how can the statement here (in the Mahavibhafa) be un"'
derstood? [It] declares as follows: The idea that something [actually]
permanent is [falsely] considered to be transient is included in false
view [and] should be overcome by seeing cessation.
Answer: It should be said that there is such a false view.
Question: How can the statement of the Prakar81Japada then be under-
stood?
Answer: It says that the expressions of false view are inexhaustible. This
implies that there [actually can] be [many] other expressions of afflic-
tion, since it (i.e., the PrakaraIJapada) [also] does not mention these.
Some say that this [false view is] included in its (i.e., the Prakar81Japada's) ·
statement, saying that those who falsely deny cause [thereby] deny the
truth of origin; those who falsely deny result [thereby] deny the truth of
pain; those 'Vho falsely deny action [thereby] deny the truth of the way; J
and those who refute existing things [thereby) deny the truth of cessa- ·
tion.
Others say that those who falsely deny cause, those who falsely deny re-
sult, and those who falsely deny action respectively deny the three -
truths, while those who refute existing thing falsely deny just the truth
of cessation. 21
Xuanzang's translation of the Mahavibha~ thus quotes the definition of false view
from the PrakaraIJapada that includes all four denials, which is also how -the
definition appears in Xuanzang's later Chinese translation of PrakaraIJapada
quoted above. Nevertheless, this may simply reflect a later textual stage of the
Vibhii.$a compendia, because the older Chinese Vibhafa translation called
*Abhidharmavibhafasastra ([m}_m~J!f!~~mfg Apfdam6 p6su6 lun, T1546) produ-
ced by Buddhavarman (ifW~i!* Futu6bam6) and .Daotai (m~) in 437-439 CE
only quotes some form of the proto-definition of false view just mentioning the
The Premise of Vastu 575
f nd action similar to how the proto-definition appears in the
denial ~ cdausel_a Chin.es~ translation of PrakaraIJapada by Gm;iabhadra and
bove-c1te ear ier . - - .,_ .
aBodh'1yas'as. The
. *Abhidharmavibha$llsastra says. .
Question: Is there a false view that can cause meditative ins!ght to be-
~~:re inactive? Otherwise, how can the statement of the. Pra~araIJa
ture (b6qieiu6na jlng ~fnamw~~) be und~rstoo~ when 1t ~ays,
"What is the affliction of false view? It 1s the demal [saymg] there 1s no
. , "?22
cause, there 1s no action .
h uld here be noted that the refutation of existing thin~s is not .i~cluded .in this
It s do in of the definition of false view, which thus provides add1t10n~l ev1den~e
~en e~st;ating that the refutation of existing things ( *sadvastu) was n~t included 1~
emo liest version of the definition of false view in the PrakaraIJapada. ~ence, it
th: e:: concluded that the refutation of existing things ha~ n~t !~:
:tr the definition at the stage when the *AbhidharmaVJbha$asastra, bemg the
been t~serted
forerunner of the Mahavibhii.$a, was composed. .
Given the necessity of considering so many ~iffer~n! textual layers of the. same
t t as attested by their various Chinese translatmns, 1t 1s no easy task to clar~fy the
e:c,:ess whereby the false denial of. existing ~h.ings became ,an ,e1e,ment m !he
~efinition of false view in the Sarvast1vada trad1t10n. Even Xuanzan~ s translat~on
f the Mahavibhasa contains a passage that seems to be based on an mt~rpretahon
~f false view that does not include the denial ':f e~st~ng thin~s .. A !e~ lmes_ before
the above-cited discussion about niivaIJa, Xuanzang s Mahavi_bha$ll me~t10ns a?
interpretation which says that false view signifies the _refut~t10n of a thmg. T~s
inte retation' is, however, rejected by the Sarvastivadms w1!h the argument t at
the ~futation of an [existing] thing does not belong. to false vie'!' but r~therdbelo~g
to false reification, where something momentary mcorrectly 1s cons1dere to e
eternal:
Some say that the refutation of existing thi~gs (~sadvastu, shishi Jr$) is
· 1 ded in the term false view. However, smce 1t r~ther belongs to false
me u , -r..¥r*) . . t fal 23
reification ( *samaropa, zengyi J..i§:1II:t , 1t 1s no se VIew.
This assage, which does not appear in the earlier Chinese Vibh~$a transl~t~on
(Tl5f6 28c) seems to suggest that the interpretation that the refutation of exis~mg
things i.s a f~lse view had at this stage not yet been .recognized to be the authonzed
opit~:etheless, there is a passage in the Mahavibha$a tha~ preserves .an embzoh
nic ar ument about 'things' or 'phenomena' ( *vastu, to/Jft wutl), according tow . c
*vast! is considered the substance of what may be called cans~, resul~ a~d :ct~o~,
and wherein the *vastu is denied whenever any of the superior trut s ts eme .
This passage states as follows:
Denial of the truth of pain ( *duiJkhasatyf) inv'?lves ~~;;forms ofa~~n~~~
denial of the phenomenon ( *vastu-apavada, b8!1g wup lffi~ft),;;¢; EE~)
nial of the meaning of result ( *phalartha-apavada, bang guo y1 w'I7!'::: •
22 T1546 28c · Fo~El. minm~. t~E'Akmm'f=r::f. B~~"l&l:f;/Jtltl!M-fil''.:rdiJJw, .tzo~f:
_ ' t1• ;;.:ft=:i.';'ffif:i+l1!IEfk: s ~$~{£. It is not known why this quotation 0
13:f6Jl~~f£.fre.. ~El, ii-ai'in,"'~'"" h 7E. ·1 · th earlier translation of
the definition does not mention the demal of resu t as seen. m _e. .
Prakaranapada. Perhaps the denial'!!.,cause wa~ taken as also llllplymg the demal of result.
23 Ti545.39b _ : ~~. ~-$~ -11.JBJi~. 1EtlJM~~c¥{, ~r!B~-
45
'I
 The Premise of Vastu 577
576 Koichi TAKAHASHI

Denial of the truth of origination ( *samudayasatya) involves two forms of -- d d the obJ. ects of mundane cognition, i.e., a type of existence in accor-
regar e · as h nti·ona·1 norms This forms a contrast to t h e Sarvast1va
- . -d"ms '
denial: denial of the phenomenon and denial of the meaning of cause dance wit conve · . b · ~ h ~
( *hetvartha-apavada, bang yin yi m,lz;J~). Denial of the truth of cessa- . . h t · tm· g things (sadvastu) signify the sub.stanttal as1s .tor t e .tour
tion ( *nirodhasatya) only involves denial of the phenomenon, [but] not opm1on t a exis .. d d h S - . -d
· th It thus seems that the Yogacara trad1t10n a opte t e arvastlva a
denial of the meaning of result. Some, [however,] say that it also involves superior tru s. . . h" h S - t· -d
· ·· f f 1 · vi·ew which had been developed wit m t e arvas 1va a
denial of the meaning of result. Denial of the truth of the way def1mt1on o a se ' .: . . h fal .
( *margasatya) only involves denial of the phenonmenon, [but] not denial adition to interpret the formulaic phrases of the sutras deal_mg wit se_ vie~.
of the meaning of cause. [Yet,] some say that it also involves denial of the ~ theless it is probably no coincidence that the formulat10n of false view m
meaning of the cause, while others say it involves denial of both cause 1
er~er yo ac~ra .thought arose simultaneously with th~ developm~nt of t~e
and result. Again, others say that denial of the truth of the wa~ only in5 ;a Y_ tivida understanding of false view, because the not10n of vastu, mcluded m
volves denial of action ( *kriya-apaviida, bang zuoyong m,{t,,E§). <I a;v;:rvastivada definition of. false view, is indeed one of th~ ke~ terms of
This passage seems to indicate that the Sarvastivadins considered. things or ~o acara thought. This fact indicates the complexity of t~e relat10nsh1p between
phenomena ( *vastu) to be substantially existent as the signified meanings ( *artha) thegSarvastivada and the Yogacara, which was not necessanly a one-way exchange.
behind the conceptual notions of the terms 'result', 'cause', and 'action'. The earlier
version of the text, i.e., the *Abhidhannavibha~asastra, makes the same statement,
although in simpler form:
Denail of the truth of pain involves two forms of denial: denial of the Bibliography . ..
phenomenon ( *vastu-apavada, bang wutl m,tmmn and denial of result BASHAM, A.L. (1951): History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, A Vanished Indian Re/Jg1on,
( *phala-apavada, bang guo §JJ:~). Similarly, denial of origination in-
volves denial of the phenomenon and denial of cause ( *hetu-apaviida, London: Luzac. - . . · ,,. Ab·,.·drr.. a
y h"f · (*J±J§t:X:)(1984): A Table of Agama-OtatJons 1ll tue '111 11arm -
bang yin ~lz;I). Denial of cessation involves denial of the phenomenon
HONJO, k~Ja ~~:~he Abhidharmakoiopiiyika ( ll' f~%~Pfrf~\3il.JB"~~ dl ), part l, Kyoto:
but not denial of result. Denial of the path involves denial of the phe-
nomenon but not denial of cause. There are though some who say it also Koseisha. . f As " in
involves denial of cause. 25 vv (1947): "Fragments from the Abh1dharmasamuccaya o aiµga
GoKHALiou~ai of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic So~1etyvol. ~!,.PP· 13_-3~.
In this manner, the Sarvastivada tradition showed a tendency to relate denial of the HORNER, I. B. (1954): The Collection of the Middle length Saymgs (Ma;/h1ma-~ikaya), vol.
four superior truths to the mistaken refutation of substantially existing things I: The First Fifty Discourses, Pali Text Society Translation Senes no. 29,
( *vastu), even if denial of existing things ( vastu-apavada) might not yet have been reprint 1976, London: The Pali Text Society. . .. . . _
included in the PrakaraJJapada's definition of false view. It is thereby evident how (1957): The Collection of the Middle length Saymgs (Ma;j~1ma-N~kaya), vol.
the denial of existing things gradually but surely became integrated into the ----1-1: The Middle Fifty Discourses, Pali Text Society Translation Senes no. 30,
Sarvastivada exegesis of false view based on the premise that real entities ( ~stu) reprint 1975, London: The Pali Text Society. . .
exist and that a false view therefore is a view that denies the existence of something PRADHAN, P. (1967): Abhidharm-Koshabhaffa of Vasub~ndhu, Tibetan. Sanskrit _Works
real. Series vol. viii, Patna: KP. Jayaswal Research Institute. . /
Returning now to the Yogacarabhiimi passage on false view quoted at the PRUDEN, Leo M. (tr.)(1988-1990): A.bhidharmaJ:?iabhiiffanJ by Lows de La Vallee
beginning of this article, it is evident that the formulation found in the Savitarkadi- Poussin, vols. 1-4, Berkeley: Asian Humamt1es Press. . _ .
RHYS DAVIDS, T. W. & J, Estlin CARPENTER (1890): The Digha Nikaya, vol. 1, reprmt
bhiimi not only shared its scriptural basis with the Sarvastivada Abhidharma
tradition by relying on the same siitra, but also utilized the Sarvastivada's final 1975 London: The Pali Text Society. / _
S ITHAUS~N Lambert (1969): Der NirvaJJa-Abschnitt in 1er Vinisc~yasa[!lgrahal)J d~r
interpretation of false view as involving denial of cause, result, action, and existing CHM Yogac§rabhumilJ, Vienna: Osterreichische ~adem1e der W1ssenschaften, Ph1-
things, in the way these interpretations had been integrated into in the Sarvasti- losophische-Historische Klasse, Sitzungsbencht~.' 264, Band_ 2. Abhandlung,
vada tradition in order to construe the implications of this canonical passage. Veroffentlichungen der Komission fur Sprachen Sud- und Ostas1~ns Hef! 8. .
1
It is, moreover, evident that the Savitarkadibhiimi's explication of false view, (2005): On the Problem of the External Work! in the Cheng_ we1 shih un~
based on Sarvastivada exegesis, forms the premise· for understanding the terms ---S-t-udia Philologica Buddhica, Occasional Paper Senes XIII, Tokyo. The Intema
'false view' and 'thing' ( vastu) in the Manobhiimi's conception of how the intellect tional Institute for Buddhist Studies. h
correctly observes its objective support. However, it is notable that in the TATIA, Nathmal (1976): Abhidhannasamuccaya-bhii~ya, Patna: KP. Jayaswal Researc
Yogacarabhiimi the four types of denial are not associated with the four superior Institute.
truths, and - unlike in the Sarvastivada School - existing things ( sadvastu) are

p0int of explaini~g. dif~erent ways that ~onsciou~ne~s leaves ~he body upon death.
.Along with prov1dmg important doctrinal elucidation, Asanga also affords· us a
unique window into the Buddhist medical theories of his day. Medicine was
considered one of the five "sciences" (paiicavidya') that all monks were (theoreti-
A Note on Medicine and Psychosomatic Relations
in the First Two Bhumis of the YogacarabhOmi
Dan LUSTHAUS
What is the relation between the physical and mental world for Asanga ? 1 Th f
?f the sev7nte_en bhiimis of the Yog§ciirabhiimi is the pa.icavijiiiinakiiyab:ii:;,1;
the expenential context for the body's five senses." Sensation has both phys· i definition of insanity ( unmada) differs from both of them, though it bears some
and_ m~~tal components, ".'hi~h" Asailga distinguishes with some care. The seC:,':d
bh~m1_ 1s c~lled _manobhum1, the mental experiential context." The Yogaca.ra-
bhum1 begms w~th_ an analysis of ~e~~ation, and then moves into increasin 1
r:fined an~ sophISticat?d n:iental act1vtt1es whiCh one engages and develops.alo~y
t e Buddhist path. Asanga 1s aware that a transition from the physical world to th!
~ental _world, or perhaps better stated, from experience focused on senso
~pressmns to a f"':us ?n mental_ activitie~ (eventually ascending through a variei
~ 1~~:~lectua~)med1t~t1ve, analytic, behav10ral, and cognitive practices through the
f~ 1st pat , reqmres a cohe~ent segue, i.e., an account of how body and mind
a e~t. each ot_her. To accomplish that Asanga turns primarily to the medical
~rad1t1_on _of his day, .a tradition devoted both conceptually and empirically to
~nvestigatmg the relation between mind and body including how they ma c 11
mfluenc~ ea.c~ other. _This _is analogous to a Buddhist writer today tumfu ar:~h~
latest s~1ent1flc and b1olog1cal studies, such as brain studies or the psych!lo of
perception, to ~ormulate an up-to-date contemporary account of Buddh' rY'
To flesh_th1s ?ut, I will first illustrate how perception, that is, cogn~~:~ of the
perc~ptual .!~t:_ld, 1s handled by Asanga in the first bhiim1: The prominent role that
the alayaVJJ-!1-~na (warehouse consciousness )2 already plays there will be indicated
A s_ he trans1t10ns to the mental sphere in the second bhumi he asks
as wh t · t · . . . _ , sueh quest·10ns·
h a ~ause_s m oxicat10n, msamty, sleepiness; what shortens life; how does death
apP.':t · It will be clear t~at these sorts of topics are raised precisely because they
p;ov1 e ~xamples of physical causes that have mental consequences. The relation
o consc10usness to the body becomes one of this bhiimi's main themes, even to the
use the name ~saiiga_ as a metonymy for the authorial voice of the Yo acara-
_ 1 I_ will
bhum1 as a whole. The philolog1cal tools and instincts with which many current s~holars
lik:
~ve ~pp~oach~d th~ text .h~ve encour~ged them to search for multiple contributions rather
s~ngl e;u~ .ors:ip. While not denymg that certain redactional and other additions were ·
t Yme u e m t e text at ~n earl~ stage (especially in the last couple of fascicles) I tend
o see mo ref cho?ceptual consistency m the text than some of my colleagues an issue beyond
the ~cope o t 1s paper. ' Buddhayasas and (Zhu) F6nian '*{*~' ca. 408 CE), Sarvastivadavinaya (+imW Shisong
but I Thef; m~~e co~on Engli~h rendering of alayavijiiana is "storehouse consciousness "
th t pre erf wa~ ouse co?sc1ousn~ss" since 'storehouse' overemphasizes its function. ~s
e s ~rer o see s, a repository, while a warehouse is a place where items come in from
e1sew ere, are sto~ed for a~hile, ~nd then, when conditions warrant, those thin s are sent
back out. The stonng and d1spatchmg of seeds is one of the iiJayavijiiana's main ~nctions.
,I
A Note on Medicine 579 I
I ,
- - ~ - - - - · · ··-------- ii I
'1i i
i
I I
I ,
I'
cally) supposed to study.3 The medical details he gives are similar but not identical
I
to what one finds in, the Carakasmphita, the oldest extant Indian medical text.
Because of the complexity of the subject and the rich and suggestive dimen-
sions Asati.ga brings into play, there will not be space to fully explore and unravel
all the details and implications. This leaves open many future avenues of research,
as well as foregoing numerous features that could be given more detailed discus-
sion and elucidation. For instance, from where did Asanga obtain his medical
knowledge? As mentioned, he is drawing on a tradition similar to but not identical
with what one finds in non-Buddhist Indian medical literature; there are strong
affinities with the Carakasmphita, less with Susrutasalphita. For example, his
similarity. What were Buddhists studying (and practicing) of the medical sciences
at that time? The trido~ ('three humors') theory, a staple of ayurvedic medicine
and already discussed in the Pali literature,4 is also used by Asanga (though I will
not discuss that portion of the Manobhiimi here). Just as the Buddhists developed
their own parallel grammatical traditions to the PaQini-Pataftjali tradition (e.g.,
Candra's VyakaraJJavrtti), 5 Asati.ga's discussion suggests the Buddhists developed a I'
parallel and distinct medical tradition, most traces of which now seem to be lost or
overlooked.
Similarly, Asati.ga's terminology absorbs centuries of Buddhist doctrinal devel-
opments; at the same time, he often brings innovative uses to such terms or
accompanies them with new terms or meanings; and his own formulations acquired
3 The five sciences (paiicavidya, .li~ wu ming) are: 1) grammar, linguistics, and
literary arts (sabdavidya, v~ shengming); 2) fine arts and mathematics (silpakarma-
sthanavidya, IJ:"51:lfl g6ngqiaomfng); 3) medicine ( cikitsavidya, U:15~ yifangmfng); 4)
logic and epistemology (hetuvidya, [zg~ yinming); and 5) ethical, psychological, and
intellectual cultivation (adhyatmavidya, pg~ neimfng).
4 Places in the Pali canon where medical issues are raised include the Vinaja,
specifically Mahavagga VI and Cullavagga; some Jatakas; and the Milindapaiiha, though
the two Chinese counterparts to the Milindapaiiha do not include the medical discussions;
since the Chinese versions are believed to represent earlier versions of the text than the Pali
recension, this would suggest that the medical sections were later additions. See GUANG 'I
XING (2008, vol. 1, esp. pp. 334ff.). On the trido$a theory in Buddhism, see ScHARFE
!I
(1999). For a discussion of the state of medical knowledge in the Pali texts, particularly the
anatomical discussions in the commentarial works attributed to Buddhaghosa, see HALDAR
(1977). See also ZYSK (1991), and MITRA (1985). Corresponding medical discussions in
Chinese Vinaya translations include the Jiem6 (mm, "Karma", T1433 translated by
Dharmasatya in 254 CE), Mahisasakavinaya (511::9~ff~fDD .li:5tW Mfshasaibu hexi
wiifenlr:1, T1421 translated by Buddhajiva and Zhu Daosheng, '*~~' ca. 423 CE),
Mahasailghikavinaya (*§iilffi'~W M6hesengqi Jli, T1425 translated by Buddhabhadraand
Faxian $:!i in 416 CE), Dharmaguputavinaya (IZ9:5tW Sifen Jr:1, T1428 translated by
Jr:1, T1435 translated by Pul)yatara and KumarajiVa during early 5th c.), and
Samantapasadika (~Je.WffB~1Y Shimjianlr:1 pip6sha, T1462 translated by Sailghabhadra
in488 CE).
5 Cf. BELVALKAR (1976) and DASH (1986).

580 Dan LUSTHAUS
-- - ----- - ---- - - - - ---- - - ~ ~ - -- . "'_......- ...----------------··--··-------· ____.,
fu~h~r devel~pments by subsequent Buddhist thinkers, such as Vasubandh~ and
D1gnaga. Sortt?g that out for all the passage~ and issues dis~ussed below.isbeyond
the scope of this paper, though especially salient examples will be pointed out.
The Bhiimi of the Five Senses
A~anga _begins the first bhiifl!i by asking what this bhiimi is, to which he responds
with a fivefold set of categories. The second bhiimi will begin in virtually the same
way.
What is the bhiimi of the body's five senses (lit. 'five consciousnesses of
t~e body') and what relates to them? This refers to the five bodily senses'
(1) self-natl_:lre (svab1av~), (ii) _their ?!!Si~ (asraya), (iii) their perceptual- .
s~pports (alambana~ , (iv) th~rr aux1hane~ (sahiiya), and (v) their activi-
ties (karma). That, m bnef, is the bhiim1 of the body's five senses and
what relates to them. 7 .
The bhiimi, i.e, the "ground" of this experiential realm, consists of the senses
th~mselvt:_s (svabhava), what ~erves as their basis, what they take as perceptual
~bJects. (alamban~)., _what assists them or acts as their auxiliaries (sahaya), and
fmally m what act1v1tles and functions they engage. · tandem at the same moment. Samanatara occurs in a temporal sequence, one
Now Asailga begins to parse this:
What are ~he body's five senses? Eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness,
nose-consc10usness, tongue-consciousness, and bodily-consciousness.8 · nuous mental stream, producing cogmt10ns of a s1m1lar type will take up what the
6
Some Buddhi~t terms d~ not per~it translation without distorting or losing basic
facets ~; the _me~m~g, and alam_bana is one such term. Sometimes translated "object
s~pport - which 1s either a meanmgless or loaded English term - the actual status of an
iilam~ana as a component of a cognitive or perceptual act was a matter of debate
especiallY_ ~e~een Yogacara and rival Buddhists. Generally an alambana was understood
to be the m~tlal mental appropriation of a cognitive object, whether it be physical or mental.
Its ontological sta~us was d:bated, though Yogacara texts like the Cheng weishilim
(Tl5~5.40c1s-21) ~ssign ~o pnmary properties to any alambana: it must play a causative
role m _a per:ept10n (Pfrs~ su_6tu6~ an~ it Il!ust be cognitive (pfr)'.f, su61ti). This parallels the
~o stipulat!o~s that Dignaga, m_ ~s AJar:ibanapan7cya, defines as requisite for any
alambana,.VIz. it must cause a cogmt10n and 1t must convey its own image to the cognizor.
How, precisely, the me~tal processes subsequently processed the iilambana into cognitive
awareness w?s furth~r disp~ted between Buddhists and others. Since there is no simple way
~o conv:y this t~rm m English (terms like "object" or "perceptual object" give a misleading
impress10n), I will leave it untranslated henceforth.
7
For these passages, I first give the Sanskrit (from BHATTACHARYA 1957) followed
by Xuanzang's C~inese translation (T1579). For BHATTACHARYA, I give ;he paie number
followe~ by. the lme number on the page, so 534 would be p. 5, lines 3 and 4. The English
transla!1on is ~y o~~--BIL:T~ACHAR\A (1957:41_3): pafcavijnanakiiyasamprayukta bhiimi/J
kata_ma I panca VlJnanakayaiJ svabhavatas te~iilp ciisrayafJ te,J;Iip calambanam tesam ca
sahayafJ te~iilp ca, karma sam~sata!! paiicavijiianakiiyasamprayukta bhiimilJ · / I ·Ti579.
~9a22-24: ~,1oJ1:i]IJtt§J!!:f:t!! a~li~:§t§'f'i 1Bt?fr1R 1ElPfr~ fBlWJ1f 1El1t~ tzo
0 O O 0
:xE~~.li~~t§ff!:l:tg
8 0
_ -~~T!ACHARY~ (1957:44): paiicavijniinakayalJ katame I calcyurvijiianam srotra-
gha1JaJihvakayamanoV1J.ianaJP / I T1579.279a24_25 : {i:5]~,,g .e E.~ a.Erz o i:;i:;~RB§'.ll!"R"~ o
-~E~~~ 0 =s'f'1'.:U,w
A Note on Medicine 581
______________
Each of the five consciousnesses, vi~. the s~nses, is named· ~fte~ the physica~ org~n
rves as its basis, as Asailga will explam shortly. He will give an analysis, with
h t e
taS . . hhf·t 0
further analytic subdivisions, of each of _the five _senses, co~menc1~g wit t _e irs ·
on the list, the eye-consciousness, applymg the five cat~gones he hsted prev10usly,
starting with 'self-nature':
What is the self-nature of eye-consciousness? Based on the eye, one dis-
cerns (prativij.iapti) visible forms (nlpa).
What is the basis of ey~-consciousness? ~1) Its simutt~n~ousl~ coexistent
basis (sahabhii-iisraya) 1s the eye. (2) Mmd (manas) 1s its umnterrupted
causal sequence (samanantara) basis. (3) Its seed basis (bijiisra;:a) is the
alayavij.iana classified as (3a) !he possessor o_f al~ ~eeds (c~nsciousness]
(sarvabijaka), (3b) the appropnator of the basis (asrayopadatr), and (3c)
maturing ( vipaka) [of karma). 10
Note the alayavij.iana has already made its appearance here, as one of three bases
for visual consciousness, the other two· being the physical eye ~ c~~uiJ) and a
sequential antecedent m~ntal flow (sa:17an~ntara). The phrase. s1multan~ous~y
coexistent" (sahabhii) indicates somethmg simultaneous, somethmg occurring m
moment becoming the cause of the next,, which will b~ of a si~ilar type. Sa~~~hii
and samanantara thus indicate synchronic and d1achromc causal acttv1t1es,
respectively. The physical eye occurs. s_imultaneo~sl1, acting ~s a basis. A conti-
\. eye encounters. And this will be colored by and subs~quently influence. other
experiences, metaphorically analogous. to "se.eds'''. (bija). '!'he. synchromc_ and
diachronic causal activities are mechamcal. It 1s with the third base - the alaya-
vij.iana that accumulates seeds and brings. them. t~ ~aturity - ~hat the ~armic
dimension with its ethical and developmental weight, ·.1s brought mto the picture.
All three ;ct as bases (asraya). They do not reduce to each other; each contributes
to the perception. Restated simply: An act of visual percept.~~~ involves (1) a
physical eye, (2) a continuous mental stream, and (3) the alayavljnana.
9 The text says manalJ ( = manas), but more typi:ally .it is the manovij.iiina .that
participates in sensory perception, some Yogacaras even msistmg ~hat manas ~as no drrect
access to the sense-impressions. There is, however, a strong doctnnal connect10n between
manas and the "uninterrupted causal sequence" (samanantara),. since,. unlike _the
manmjinana which acts sporadically, manas functions perpetually w~thout mterrupt10n.
Viewed in terms of how manovij.iiina and manas are subsequently defmed, the us.e o~ the
term manalJ (mano-, manas, etc.) in the first and second bhiimi. pose some comphca~10ns.
When and how the Y ogacara tradition created a seventh consc10usness. out of· the. srxth -:
and the places in their texts that display some ambivalence orlack of clanty concernmg this
distinction-deserves additional study. .
10 BHATTACHARYA (1957:45 _7): cak§urvij.iiinalp katamat / ya cak$urasraya nlpapratJ-
vij.iaptilJ / / cak$urvij.iiinasya asrayalJ katamalJ / .cak§uiJ sahabhOr iisr~!'!P I ma!!~? sam-
anantara asrayalJ / sarvabijakam asrayopiidiit[vipak~salpg[hitam alayav1Jn<;!aJ!l bJ,LasrayaiJ /.
T1579.279a 25 _28 : :E:16J§N~§t1 ° g~{&glT'BU@. {ElPfr1R~ 1~~ft<, e~~N ° ~~Fa~1R
0 0
O 0
g~~ o ~r1R~lWllt-W~-f- ¥Ji~pfr{R ~~pfrfflf~fflJm~_: a. ~a~ubandhu,
0 O
. Trimsikii 2: Vipiiko mananaca vij.iaptirvi~ayasya ca I tatralayiikhya vljn~nam v1pakafJ sarva-
bi/akam. "(Karmic) maturation, mentalizing, and discerning s:nse-obJects; among these,
i:ilc!Xi~ .I-JP rJ I r:inA,l..'<i:i~A-i:i~ maturation is the alayavij.iiina which [brings] all seeds [to matunty]." . i
I I
I
 582
Dan LUSTHAUS
A Note on Medicine 583
Among !h~se, bri~fly, there are ~o types of bases: those with--.-·--..
f~rnI (rup1) and those without phsyical form (am '.l) Thee e is physical -- pleasure, and erroneous mental proliferation (prapa.ica) that have been
with physical form, the others are those without p[ysi~al forni. 11 the one [acquired] since beginningless time. 16

~o!b~~~=!~o;;ing tthat 1~a~ga, ~allowing a Buddhist tradition found primarily Asa:tiga then proceeds to discuss the perceptual objects (alambana) for the eye-
. I era ure, ·1stingu1shes between, on the one hand th ·. . consciousness, initially distinguished into three types: color and appearance ( vaI7Ja,
physical flesh and blood sense organs like the eye d , e evident l'!@xiiins~), shape (saipsthana, H;,fu xfngs~), and evident [m~wements] (vifiiaptJ;
0 th er h an d, a ranf1ed,
.. , , ear, nose an so on and O th
'pure' sensorial material - n1 a :d · ' · ' n_ e
with serving as th_e actual "material" basis that gives ~irer:iath: ~e:~~ch ~o~::1~ted
*@ biiiose ). 17 Applying these t~ree ca!egones, ~e says vaI7Ja 1s the ~ppearance of
visible, colored forms (nlpan1bha) m the visual perceptual field ( calcyur-
nesses (eye-consc10usness, ear-consciousness etc ) 12 The "purity" f ·thry us- vijiianagocara), saips~hana is aggregating riipa (riipapracaya, 'fufl~.!e .iijf) into
their serise-obiects ( d . . ' ·· o e senses and
th J as _oppo~e to contammated mental overlays that distort wh distinct shapes (pancchedakara) such as long and short, and VJJnaptJ 1s the
e. shenseds_enlclounter) IS an Important and Constant theme in Asaiiga's works oat appearance of movement based on something appearing at one time and place,
wh1c ra 1ca y opposes Yog- - t . , ne disappearing and then something else appearing elsewhere. 18 ·
ideologies. The senses and the~~~:·e~sg;~s~1cu;: "~ven platonic anti-se_n~e-"'.orld After some further analysis, Asaiiga explains· that the auxiliaries (sahaya) that
karmic problems. Gold is not evil; c~rtain tho~ght; a~~~!~:~f;h~~:.~ptail mtrmsic assist the eye-consciousness are focused attention (manaskara), sensory contact
(sparsa), hedonic tone . ( vedana), associative-thinking (saipfiia), and volition
What isthe eye? Being composed of the Fou G ,,
( cetana"). 19 In other words, these mental qualities either together or separately may
~~;:es::t~~ in(v;:Jble (an!dda)rsanah~ [bu~] phys~cal~;:~;~~:~(~;J~~~;x:J \
. .
consciousness.
rpaprasa a ' w ich IS the condition for the eye- ,..
16 BHATTACHARYA (1957:49-12): cak~u.lJ katamat I catva.ri maha.bhiita.ny upa.da.ya
. What is the mental (manas)? It is the cognition [whi h . J . cak~urvij.ia.nasalpnisrayo nlpaprasa.do 'nidarsanal;z sapratighal;z I I manalJ katamat I yac
d1ately ~ter a visual cognition ( vijfiana) has passed awa Y4 anses 1mme-
caksurvij.ia.nasya anantara.titalp vij.ia.na}!l I I sarvabijaka}!l viJfia.na.rµ katamat I piirvaka}!l
fro!~~e1s the_ all-seeds co;11scio1;1sness? It is the consciJ~sness that arises prapa.icaratihetum upa.da.ya yal;z sarvabijako vipa.ko nirv,rttal;z II, T1579.279a29-b3: §Jtimfl9
tendencie~o(~~,s~~7a:r~;r ( vipa~a)~pffall the se~ds.because of habitual
''
. :*ffiPfr~ §J~Pfr1~~@. ~J!1fW gB;HJ~~ra~~*~
0 0 O 0
-tJJ:f.ir~ 0
~~~~
, ;m s XllllXJ o appropnat10n, attachment to
~*~~~~o~~m~om±-tJJ:f.ir~~~o
17
11 B . . Along with colors, varJJa here includes light and shadow, clouds, smoke, fog, etc.
HATTACHARYA (1957:4g_9): tad etad abh1samas dh - / · · "Shape" includes long and short, round and square, high and low, etc. Vij.iapti is defined as
tz;;~b1;';;~ ~,~
c} •

#~i c~,:~~ :;~:i:~i / tadanyo 'riipi //. T1579,i?~a:

0 2:
"grasping ( a.da.na) and letting go, curling up or expanding, walking, standing, sitting, lying
down." BHATTACHARYA (1957:417_18): vij.iaptil;z katama / tadyatha. a.dana}!l nik~epaJJa}!l
12 a
What exactly riipaprasa.da 'entails is com I" t d . , , ·. samiiijita}!l stha.nalp ni$adya asayya.bhikramo 'tikrama ity evam a.dil;z //. Tl579.279b7_8: ~fg
ho~t _of :r~~slators go~ng back at least as far as a!~~~;dr;(f ::~o;ii
an . me u mg Paramartha (fl. mid-6th century) us· d ~is ., .. , ,~~.a. . n ury
!u:U,~~g·c;o~owi~Ea) ~ ~;Jf)Z~ft±H$ :fr{::t~W- tio~~tg Also, BHATTACHARYA (1957:57): vij.iaptilJ
0 0 0 O

karma kriya ce~feha. panspanda itiparya.ya.J;z / I. T1579.279b14-15: ~fg~ Bm~mm*"

render it into Chinese ~ and
prasada found in cert;in Sarva . -
m~mea II ' . 1e . I png se or {A'{'F~ qingft'ng se to
n pure, c ean, c ear." Based on discussions of riipa-
0

ffljJ~5JU "Related ideas (parya.ya.J;z) to vijnapti include action (karma), activity (kriya.),
O

"transparent" "pelluc"d" th stivadaftexts,_ so~e scholars have gravitated toward "clear" gesture/movement (ce~fa.), effort/activity (Iha), and movement (parispanda)." Note that
, 1 as e sense o prasada 1mpli t d h N b ' typically in Asailga's usage pa.rya.ya does not exactly mean "synonym" (in the sense that one
vada literature prefer "sensitive," "sensitivity " hi hl ~ahe. er~. ota _ly ~chola~ of Thera- word can adequately and fully substitute for another), but rather means related and
than one of its alleged qualities. Riipaprasad~ is ; ig tmg _rupaprasada ~ funct10? ~ather overlapping categories or things. Generally, he provides lists of 'related things' to clarify the
deference to the Chinese renderings I ·11 t 1type. of r~fa, or sensonal matenahty. In definition of something. For instance, to collapse karma and kriya would make Buddhist
using the word "pure" in the sense or'" w~. rans ~te it as pure matter," or "pure riipa,"
karma theory chaotic instead of ethical.
than "essential" or "basic" since it. dp~1f1~d, r(efmed; fully cleansed, or distilled," rather 18 The above paraphrases the following: BHATTACHARYA (1957:5 3_5): vij.iaptil;z katama.
· ' 18 a envative upadaya or bhautik ) f th £ ·
material elements ( catur-maha.bhiita IZY*f); , d, '.h V ) a o e our pnmary I tasyaiva pracitasya riipasya utpannaniruddhasya vairodhikena ka.raJJena janmadese ca
13 He does state later in the bhiimi . s1 a z o~f : earth, water, fire, and wind. ·.
anutpattis tadanyadese ca nirantare siintare va. sannilq~fe viprak{~fe va tasminn eva va. dese
such visible forms can be "good coio! ~e!:~~nce ~o ~~lor ~~d ~ppearance" ( van;,a), that avilqtotpattir vij.iaptir ity ucyate 11. T1579.279b9-13: ~'@!~ ~m.ePlf:tfft~'@!±~~f§.
0 0

BHATTACHARYA (1957·5 )· ' . co ors• or neither one or the other"·

_ • • 10.11 • punas tad eva suvamnam va. d - - ' 1±1~~~m-$t~,;!~fim±ff~:W,;! ~~ra~~i'fra~ ~~~~~5JU~ ~,ep~lf:t
0 0 0

tarasthayi va van;,JJanibha}!l //. T1579.279b11-19: x.HiJitc@.fjftfurvar~;1'1~a tadubhll_[an- bi~:W± ~~~{g In order to move more quickly through the text, I have opted to
0 O

l'i'@! E1~~1l'@. {i;J'@.l'lfJl The Maha -

0
0 O ·· _fj; ~;;ftJfll'@. ~~ 0
use careful paraphrases which convey the full meaning but avoid the awkward phraseology
are introduced by the mind ~f the per . . ya~a pos~t1.0~ ~ould be that these qualities employed by the original texts; a more exacting translation that preserves the .awkward
Asanga himself will· make this point e;;;:t:c~~y ~~a~~r~~~ice!~ :et~~j~: tb~~s~lves. verbal flows would require additional unpacking and rephrasing to be.·· understandable.
be1.ow. 'l.lUm1, see Watching the process of unpacking may be philologically interesting, but it can distract
. 14 On the momentary time delay betwee . . attention from the philosophical import, which is the greater concern in the present essay.
registering of that as a erce tion - . n a mo~ent of sens~t10n and the. mental
The Sanskrit and Chinese texts are provided for those wishing to judge the semantic exac-
embfsaced by the Yogac~ra -fee Cox(1~~~). advocated m some abh1dharma literature and titude of the paraphrases for themselves. That said, I employ paraphrasing sparingly; and
T_he phrase "because of habitual tendencies" . provide full translation for most passages.
translation and not by the Sanskrit text. IS only attested by the Chinese 19 These five are the five 'always operating' ( sarvatraga) mental associates ( caittas ),
which correspond to the five skandhas, substituting manaskara for VJjfiana, cetana. for sa.rµ-
 ,.
A Note on Medicine 585 I

I
'1

584 Dan LUSTHAUS

i I

bec?me invo~ved in a particular visual perception. Each of these five auxiliaries mental attention (man~skiirai does not focus: then the. appearing visible form I

denves from its own type of mental seed. (nlpa) will not be "perceived". He then adds this observat10n:
F~na!lr, before m?ving on to the remaining four senses, Asaiiga gives a concise II
When an eye-consciousness arises, there are three stages in the mental }
but s1gmf17ant overview of t_he eye-consciousness' "activities" (kanna). (1) It can apprehension of an. object { triJJi cittany upal_abhyante, il} Eli~ san xin I ,
only perc~1ve the sensory objects proper to it (svavi_sayiilambanavijiiapti); e.g., the kede) which oc~ur ~n se~encr the ~~dde_? m~tance. of ~wareness [~f an I II
e~e-consc10usness ~annot see sounds, just as the ear cannot hear colors. (2) It object] (aupamp~tik8; ¥,ffl~l.J' shwer X!n), mvestlg~tm~ [the_,o?Je~tl
<J!_arye~aka, ;ey.)]<1L_;, xunqw xm), and reachmg a determmation (msc1ta, #( I
discerns _only_ pa~_t!cul~rs (svalak~aJJav_iiiiapti) .. (3) It only discerns the'.present I
)E{,, jued]ng xin). . .
( vartamanakalavi1nap!I ). ~~~ It only discerns su~gle moments ( ekak.saIJavijiiaptJ} The first [stage] is the eye-consciousness. The other two ['?ccurl m I I

(5) O~l! once th_e manovi1nana operates, accordmg to whether the manovijiiana is
b.enefic~~! _or d_efiled, wil! ~ sub~equent karmic aspect come into play. A functioning
mano_VJ!nana 1s ~ reqms1~e, sm~e whether a visual consciousness is karn;iically
ben~f1c1al. or defil~d (kuiaJ_a-kl1~fa), and what sort of karmic consequences are
the manovij.iana. It is after the determination [stage] that there ts defile-
ment or purity. Only subsequent to this [does it m~e sense to t~~ of] a
sequential stream of eye:consci~u.sness operatm~ as benef1c1al or
unbeneficial. (These karmic qualities] do not anse from [the eye-
consciousness'] own discriminative power. . I
I

e?taile~, 1s ~omethmg contnbuted by the manoVJjiiiina.20 That is to say, the karmic

j

When the manovij.iana does not stray to other ob)ects, the ~o con- I
dimen~1on 1s added to the perceptual act by a mental supplement to the basic sciousnesses, viz. the manovij.iana and ~he eye-co1:1s~1ousness, ·will ope- I

sensation. (6) These visual activities lead to the pursuit of desirable and' unde- rate in a continuous causal sequence as either beneficial or defiled.
23
!

sirable consequences. 21
!~at each sense o~ly operates. in its own do~ain, i.e., vision amongst ibles,VIf
aud1t10n amongst audibles, etc., 1s a long-standmg Buddhist doctrinal position.
~hat the proper ~bject of a sensation is a svala~aJJa will be given added dimen-
s10n~ _later by J?•gnaga and Dharmakirti and the subsequent epistemological
tradition (hetuvidyii). That sensation only discerns the present moment will also
acquire additional consequences in the hetuvidya treatment.
. Th~ fift_h item emphasizes one of Asaiiga's key points: viz. that the karmic
d1mens1on 1s a supplement ad~ed to a sensation as it becomes a perception, a
s~pplement t_hat operates habitually. Manovijiiiina's role in perception is not
. simply to register or take mental note of what a sense is sensing (though it does
th~t as well, on a momentary time delay, as Asailga indicated previously). Its role is
to mfuse perception with karmic implications. ·
Becau_se ~u~dhism is ~oncerne_d with eliminating karmic problems, the subse-
quent bhum1s will turn the1r attent10n to mental issues and how to deal with them
since that is where the problem of saf!]siira originates and where it needs to b~
engaged and resolved. · cak$urvij.ianotpado bhavati / / yatas ca cak~~r aparibh~nnarp bha~~ti/ rilpam ab~~~agatmp
Manobhii.mi: Mentalizing the Physical
The same is true for the other senses as well.
The transition to the mental has thus begun, and the reason that this transition is
important has just been provided. .
The second bhiimi opens with the same kind of question that began the first
bhum1:
What is the mental bhumi? .
This is also known to have five relational associates, which are self-nature,
basis, perceptual object, auxiliaries, and activities.
What is its self-nature? It is citta, manas, and vijiiana.
What is citta? It is the alayavij.iana, which includes the basis of all seeds,
24
what attaches to that basis, the appropriator, and (karmic) maturing....
22 Paraphrasing BHATTACHARYA (1957:9 10•13): tatra cak$u.lJ par(bhinnmp. bhavati /
rilpam anabhasagatarp bhavati / na ca taj Jo manaskara!J pratyupasth1to bhavatI / na tasya
bhavati / taj jas ca manaskara!J pratyupasth1to bhavatI / tatas taJ JO sya cak~uJVJJnanasyot-
pado bhavati //. T1579.280a1s-21: w:tzB~T-!.l @JJltE~ #t1:f'F~ ::g:~.IEffl
±J~ffi&,T-f~± ~§NT-~ @JJl1::E~u tm±f'F~ IEW:EJ=lffl Pfr±~N~_
0 O
O

0
0

O
0

0
O
~!
1T1'fi":f
Asaflga's discussion of the first bhumi, after detailing the other four senses returns 0

to the eye_-co~sciousness to draw some additional implications and con~lusions.

± See Zhizhou's (~ fflJ) explanation in Cheng weishilim yanmi (~!Jl~aiaMif~, fourth
o

These begm his segue to the next bhumi ;He points out that a perception requires
th~ee comp?nents: a properly functioning sense-organ, mental attention, and an
object that 1s presently appearing. If the eye is not functioning properly, or one's
~kara, and ~parsa for riipa. These substitutions have a long history in Abdhidharma
fascicle, T1833.907c1-6)· . ·
23 (1957:10 2_7): tatra cak$umjnana utpanne triIJi cittany upalabhyante
BHATTACHARYA
yatha kramam aupanipatikarp parye$akarp niscitarp ca / tatra ca adymp calcyumj.ianam eva
/ dve manovij.iane / tatra niscitac cittat pararp sarpkleso vyavadanmp ca dra~favyarp ( tatas
tan naiffandikarp / cak$urvijiianam api kusalakusalarp pravarttate / 1;a tu svavikalpa-
vasena / tavac ca dvayor manovij.ianacalcyurvij.ianayo!J kusalatvarp va kl1$fatvarp yavat tan
mano nanyatra vik$ipya te / / yatha cak$urvij.ia.na utpanna evarp yava~ kayavij1a.na2;. ve<!_ita-
vyam //. T1579.280a22-27: W*El3§N~± _1()EJ1~ tzo;!t*ffi a;.$ffl L'_ .ey.)](il_;,
0 0
0 0 O 1

literature pnor to Yogacara, and are found even in the Pali suttas. The substitutions signal
#(f iC" :rJJ~JNffi =1±~ffi iR:5EiCA& 11~~~ 1Lt1&n~,i1.mffi ~T-~
O
0 0
O
that the focus should be on how each skandha is experiencing its cognitions rather than as 0 O ,

rmt.l?lT-ru§:15t5JU.tJ n:¥rtt'.ffi':T-~~t§! *~fflmffi¥' m:~=~ 0

~~~~;t§*I
®"
0 0
O
a conceptualized abstraction. . ' • •0

20A
··-- _ parap_hrase ~f B~~TAC~YA (1957:61_2): punar dvabhyam akarabhyarp mano- tzom:~~ n:¥~~ b!~1Gffl
0 0 0 O

I have omitted a well-known controversial passage, to av01d the detailed digression

• • • •

w
~~*"
24

~-*
VIJnananuytti!JJ.!~ialak/J~fa1!uvrttis ca karmasamutthananuvrttis ca /. T1579.279b25_26 :
0 g~~,~~- 0 ~~~., O O

· 21 Parap~rasing BHATTACHARYA (1957:6 2): punar i~fam~faphalaparigrahah.

that would be required to resolve it, and then justify that resolution. The Chinese. and
Sanskrit text diverge here (I believe the Chinese provides the earlier reading). The Chmese
*
279b25-21: Y... wfE§I&ff:iFff 0
•
Tl579.
presentation of manas as '11:ff=f'.ffi': hengxfng y], "perpetually operating manas" (like the
 A Note on Medicine
587
586
:h~! is
arasrayo mana ) is the basis of manas' s d
plained, is the ail-seeds alayavijiiana.2s
Dan LUSTHAUS

the bahsis~ The basis. for the uninterrupted manas (saman~---·

h. h -
ee s, w ic , as previously ex-
-·--
Quite strikingly, unlike the previous bhiimi, here in the mental bhiimi what is not
being taken as an alambana is the aggregate of physical matter (riipaskandha). The
mental activities here are still not taking the consciousness aggregate ( vijiiana-
skandha) itself as a cognitive object, as an alambana. Reflection by the mind on the
Com~aring the mental basis here in the manobhumi with h . . . . mind will require .additional bhiimis. But in this bhumi the mental faculties of
consc10usnesses in the previous bhtlmi, it may be noticed tha/sin!'e~:fn o~ sensory manas and manovijiiana do not have direct access to riipa, to physical objects. That
d_ropped. The eye-consciousness had three bases: (1) the physical e e wti been ~ is the job of the senses, not the mental faculty. It views sense-objects only indirectly,
simultaneous, synchronic basis (sahabhu-asraya) (2) . y ' . c was a as sense-spheres ( ayatana). Xuanzang adds the word "inner", i.e., the six inner
mental sequence basis (samanantara-a.sra 'fl ' an unmte~rupte~.,-~iachronic sense-spheres (/\179~ Jiu nei chu) to emphasize that the mental sphere operates at
provided a seed basis ( bija-a.sraya) The se~~ a:~~hir3d) 1'tthe alayaV1J11_ana which a remove from the physical world. The senses feed it objects, which it then
in fact 1 · · · ems are retamed here
' we are present y g1vmg account of the second - but th . 1 .- processes in its own way, in its own sphere. It is not simply that manas and
namely the physic I . e simu taneous basis manovijnana acquire whatever knowledge of physical things they obtain only as
. . a .sense-organ, no longer figures in the calculation Th . '
~':; ~~. ~;~hti~:~~~·;:~th:'.s:!~~!ps::~~-basis, the continuo~s m:!1:: mediated through the sense - that, after all, is not only standard Abhidharma fare
but common sense as well. Rather, it is that riipa and the nlpaskandha ceases to
abo!~~:::n~~~ ~ot disappeared en_tirely from consideration. Asariga rt¥xt asks
:i
provide cognitive supports ( alambana), so that attention and analysis turn
um1 s perceptual object ( alambana). exclusively to the .mental sphere, even when pondering how physical events and
causes produce cognitive repercussions. This is the critical Y ogacara move that has
What is it~ alamban_a? It takes all phenomena ( sarvadhann ) . - . been mistaken for idealism ever since. Tellingly, the only exception is a peculiar
t:fy/1'/~~n[a: ft~ ~~.:'t!.t~:· i.e., it only acc:,,:1~~:t;::
1 is type of riipa which Asanga still includes among this bhiimi's cognitive objects,
namely "invisible and non-resistant physical things" ( anidarsanam apratigharp ca
hedonic tone (vedana) associative-thiJki~he :ggr~~!ltes (skandha). of
;~t:1%'!~~jih~~-[condijJ.<>ne/; ~!;K,1:t~~o~~,:.~~; ruparp), since something invisible and intangible could only be known mentally,
28
1
well as everything deri;ed fro: ~~~~; se~~~~f\ spheres (faq-ayatana); as, not by any of the physical senses.
Having hopefully adequately illustrated that Asanga has cautiously and deli-
berately distinguished the physical, the sensate, and the mental, that he is carefully
moving from the realm of the five senses to the realm of the· sixth ( and seventh)
alayavijiiana but unlike the first six consciousne h. h . sense, and that he has been providing reasons why he is doing so all along the way,
operating), not by being a stable and fixed sses w ic are sporadic and not constantly
we now tum to our main subject, his use of medical ideas to effect a rational
to. re-arise from the uninterrupted ces:~~~:nt( :1Ji~h_!!' by P~:Petu~~ly ~ausing itself
"" ~ ,ul- WUJ~ "!111e !1; ,anantara-
n1ruddha1J1) of itself and the six s oradic bodil transition from the sense realm to the mental realm, while maintaining the causal
faJJJJam api vijiianakayanam) is st!'ndard y - ~ co~sc10usnesse~ (/\~~ JJushi shen; yat relation between them.
The Sanskrit interpolates an allusion ogacara ar~, and a mce middle way approach.
fourfold characterization (klistam ca
lak~JJaii caturbhih kleiaih s~"mprayukt.
:i:'fl)
manas ~s k/Jff89!an_as (defiled manas), with its
yan n1tyam avidyatma-draP.ty-asmimana-t{$JJa- Body, Mind, Medicine, and Causes
( atmamoha), view.of selfh.ood (atmadrsd cmore_ comm~nlr rendered delusion about self Asanga's discussion continues until he has described the fifth category, the mental
Since - if the Sanskrit text available t~ X); o?ce1t (as°!1mana), and self-love (atmatffJJB). activities (karma) in this bhiimiwhich include (1) the ability to discern its own and
characterization of klistamanas - .there :mz~nt co~a~ed this very familiar and standard other's29 cognitive objects (svaparaVJ'$ayalambanavijiiapti), which is the firsttype of
omit it, I conclude it w~~ absent from his textou e a so utely no reason for Xuanzang to activity; (2) discerning particular and general characteristics (svalak~aJJa
30
and
~B . . 1
siimiinyalak~aJJa); (3) the ability to discern past, future, and present; ( 4) discer-
HATTACHARYA (1957·11 )' bh- n .k. - _.
ry,a I svabhavata asravata ala~b1;a~a17i:~~a u;:1~· .k. atama / sap1 pa.ic~bhir iikarair dr$fa-
citta1J1 mano vi/.iana'm I/ clttam kat~mat ryra a. armat~~ ca I svabk~vaiJ katamaiJ I yac
asrayabhavani_sfham ~padat{vip.ikasamgrhi/a!:/~1:ai;::J::f:igatam as~cp1abhavopagatam 1ElPfr~::t! ~-w
apratigha1p ca nlpa1p $at;Jayatana!J1 sarvabijani ca //. T1579.280b11c13:
0

samanantarasrayo manah I b_._,. · h _ ry,; 7.1 • II ·~: asrayaiJ katamalJ / ~P.D~JiJrJJ! ~:::f~~Pfr~ ~P§tflfrU~~ ~JM!i!'J'§ 7\179~:&~tiJ;fm-J-
0
0
0
0

T1579.280b _ : BITTt1i]~~.f§;:ilia~a=- f.!:!::.1:;,ad ,!V:..

4 11
i& ftlrfr~i!& Wlfl.JJ{fi&
0 0
I sarvab1Ja~am alayavijiianalJl. 28 Generally avijiiaptinlpa (a physical karmic residual of a physical action with hidden
:z:1~w,
~ ~G1J\~~~ff!!n, a'~ '~i& fiflJr{R intent or concealed agent) is the main (or only) item that fits this category, but that is not
o~ti§
0 " '"'' 0 0 0

something Asanga discusses in the Yogacarabhiimi, though he does mention the distinction
{~Jr.ti Pfrlffi({R~j"{RJl)'[:15t~~ 1'1 ° o!i]/~~~ ~,g~-tiJf_lj-?Jrlffi 1

r~i~g O

<?U!tr~~w.\
~~JJ!131!7
O fi£:1rif ~§~::~:fTg~t~!~
i"m1~~'\
between vijiiapti and avij.iapti karma on occasion, e.g., in passing at T1579.60la3:5, in the

ftriffl::=~~ 1i:~:!l~:0'1J!;1:J:~ :~JftUt!ra1t>1!,,;,:1¥Ai~?;=

~ 0
0

~uAJt-Wf.i-J-imJffllID
~,,_,jnjJ'.l,\. o~,u,, I/EE',_ J ·11-\. 0 EiFJ;<. 0
54th fascicle.
29 The Sanskrit reads: svaparavi$fJyalambanavijiiapti, "discerning its own and others'
cognitive objects," while Xuanzang omits the word "others"': f:ig7JjUg\;!:Jlpfr~ ming Jiaobie
zi jlngsuo yuan, "able to discern its own cognitive object." The "others" here are the five
26 X , , thoughtfully adds the qualifier "inne 11 -'--mt-set ( ·• '· ,
uanzang sense-consciousnesses whose cognitive objects can be taken up by the mental faculty.
sense-spheres." The Sanskrit just says sad-a t "rh, /~,,~Bl& Im ne1 chu) "the six inner
27 BHATTACHARYA (1957·11 : .:J. ryra analJl, t e six sense spheres." 30 Note that while above Asanga pointed out that sensory perception takes place only in
• 12-14). a ambanam katamat I s. dh ;;1 the present moment with a presently displayed object, mental cognitions can roam across II
kevalalJl tu vedanaskandbafJ sa1J1}.iaskandhah• s~skaras.k.
. •
d',. ai;va }rma ai~°!ban,,alJl
/111 uo S81J1SK[fa!J1 canidarsanam
I
I
I I
 588
Dan LUSTHAUS
A Note on Medicine 589
ning a moment (k$81,1a) as well as (5) temporal sequences (prabandha), and so on.
Once such activities are set in motion, they give rise to a continuous mind-body --·-----·- ·----~--d~e to . rior acti~ities, an imbalance or_ disorien_t~tion of
causal flow ( vijnanakayanaip taddhetun~syandasamutthapana, 3Z.f1g~~' ~.iIBZj be brou~t ffo~ . l or e!otional trauma (uttrasabhayataya), the stnking ?,fa
lfrE~~). . one's d~atus, P ~SIC~ _ ) 34 or erturbation by spirits( bhiltasamaveiataya)."
To briefly contrast this with his description of the five senses: (1) Each of the vital pon~t (mannab~1{h:;:tinues~hrough the list, identifying physical and psycho-
five senses is restricted to cognizing only its own domain (vision sees visibles, In tins way, Asang . ( taxation due to feeling secure, tired out from ha~d
logical causes for sl::me~~J:rs, etc.), awakening (loU:d noise, sleep has ru~ its
audition hears audibles, etc.), but the mental sense cognizes not only its own type
of cognitive object (i.e., mental objects), but it also cognizes the cognitive objects of ff
work, magI)c ~I~eadedness (a disease of vata or pitti, being struck [ID the head],
course, etc. ' ~ · tc ) and so on.
the other consciousnesses as well, so that the manas can cognize the sights, sounds, loss of blood, diarrhea, overex~rti~n, e o~ks through this series of psychosomatic
smells, etc., encountered by the other senses. (2) The five senses only cognize As Asanga then ~ystematica. y w theo and other Indian medical theories,
particulars (svalalcyBJ.la), while mental cognition apprehends both sva1ak$B1,1a and l·tems he also delves mto the trido$a ry nded I·n the body even as he
samanyalak~apa, i.e., general concepts. (3) The five senses only perceive present ' · ct· th t mental states are grou '
moments, while mental cognition can range across past, present and future with its repeatedly remI~ mg ~s£ as increasingly to bear on mental issues. In this manner iI
brings our attention an ocu . . Im of the physical senses to various mental
ability to conjure up what is not currently present. (4) While the five seqses are i

t: :
I
he transitions from the cogntive r:~eir own dynamics. In the interest of space, I
limited to single moments, the mental faculty can cognize sequences, conhective
activities and sp~eres ~at o'J.,.anobhiimi further since the principle -viz. _the
will not deta1.l this section o t ~
temporal linkages, a byproduct of its ability to envision the past and the future.
- should be clear. Rather, in conclusion,
Asailga points out there is another way that one might think about the activities psychosomatic nature of ~o~sc~usne~s of death understood as a physical and
in the cognitive domain of the manas (manodhatu). Based on conceptualizing
I will skip ahead ~o Asanga s _Iscr!s~~~sciousness departing from the body. That
distinctions ( vikalpa), a variety of activities can be differentiated. Asailga gives a
. mental process 1:11t1matelydre;1:11t~~! Indian medical tradition. It also shows a strong
list: (1) intoxication (madyati, M zui), (2) insanity (unmadyatJ; ff kuang), (3)
- - bhumi and the Samdhinirmocanasutra.
sleep (svapitJ; ~ meng), (4) waking up (pratibudhyati, jt Jue), (5) lightheaded-
discuss10n remains_
affinity between thisgrou~
sect10nef
o inv:
I ogacara .
ness (murcham apadyate, F,c~ men), (6) recovery from lightheadedness (murchaya
vyuttJ~thati, ~ xfng), (7) giving rise to bodily and linguistic karma (kayavakkarma The Smpdhinirmocanasutra and D:a:h _ .
pravartayati, gg~Jlli:!§t~§ft~ neng faqf shenye yuye ), (8) detaching from desire
( vairagyaip karoti, f1§1Mt~~ neng Ifyu), (9) backsliding from having detached from according to the Manobhl1mi of t~e .Yoga~:!!s~uddhist
desire ( vairagyat parihiyate, 1MttiX~ If yu tui), (10) cutting off beneficial roots When the 5_aipdhinirm?canasl1tra ~ntr~du~~s- t~:~~~:h ~;~:~~~:g consciousness,"
(kusalamulani samucchinatti, ffi~fN duan shangen), (11) progressively develo- discourse, Its appellah~n ohf chm~e IS as a:cc~rdin~ to the Samdhinirmocana,
particularly since the eight consc10usnes ' . ..
ping beneficial roots (kuialamulani pratisandadhati, iffl~fN xushangen), (12)
death and life ( cyavata utpadyate, :.sJb;.s~ ruo sfruo sheng).
This is a fascinating list that might appear to be a random collection of things,
but it is not. Those familiar with the early Indian medical literature will recognize a
. f y- bh t ee WUJASTYK (2003:244-251), "On
number of these terms from the major role they play in that literature. For each of (1976.I:287ff.). For a rec~nt trans:~on th t a;nsl:t~~: of Bhelasamhitii 6.8, on mada and
these, Asanga will ask "what is it?" by which he means "what causes that?" His Insanity" For the Sansknt text an ng is r . W (1977) .
explanations are primarily medical.
1
_ '
unmada see (Skt) pp.202- , n)g·•ii
203 (E ) . 254-255, m EISS · _
body is basically composed ofdo~a, dhatu and
33 P.V. SHARMA (1993:5 and 8 ·.. uman know about them ... Dhatus are those which
"What causes intoxication (mada)? It could be based on a weak or failing
nature, or not being used to drink, drinking something too strong, drinking mala and as such a stud~nt of med1cm;:u~re seven-rasa (chyle ), rakta (blood), ma:qisa
31 maintain as well as nounsh the bod~. y ma··a (marrow) and sukra (semen) ... One
excessive amounts," etc. In other words, physical activities, such as consuming (muscle), medas (fatty tissue), asth1 (bone), J1 . this way they constantly undergo
physical substances, result in altered mental states. Unmada, 11insanity," received a dhatu nourishes the other successive t o~e ande/~nning of Indian medicine, are found
great deal of attention in Indian medical literature. 32 "What causes insanity? It can transformation ... " The three do~as), aT~ ape un -t ppitta and kapha· generally associated
already in the Pali texts (see not~ 4 . T~y are va ;~ the body· many' illnesses result from
time, i.e, the mental faculty fabricates objects that are not present, for instance, by memory
with air, fire and water, respe~ttvely. h :y
imbalances of the do~s, and diseases t ~ mtg.
P~r;'~riginate oth;rwise will affect them. Mala
t t
or anticipatory visualization. Similarly, sensation only cognizes svalak~apa, while mental . d f d . cludmg unne feces swea ' e c.
cognition cognizes both svalak_sapa and samanyalak~81Ja. are excretions from d.1geste. oo , m (1981) Wu1lsTYK (2003:236-244, "Lethal Points
31 34 On Marman, vital pomts, see Ro~u _ , s WUJASTYK, 2003:241): "The
BHATTACHARYA (1957:1311- 18): katha1J1 madyati / prak,rtyfi. durbalasariratayii on the Body"), and FED?~O~A (19?0). Vagb~~fi:/:~~:~:n~ on the skull, going up and
anabhyastamadyapiinataya atitlk~pamadyapiinataya amatramadyapanatayii //. Tl579.280c sutures (slmanta) [specific vital po~nts] are t rt' J adness [unmada], or destruction of
2s-29: :rdiiJM ~;e=rft(J1:.'f1:&~t& ~=F~NXt& ~~lkNXt& ~~;.NXt& W!~M
O
0
across. Pierced in them, a person dies from ve igo, m ·.
IL
0
0
0 0

32
the mind." -d ti;· iirvakarmaksepataya dhatuvai-
The Carakasa1J1hitii devotes an entire chapter to unmada, as does Vagbhata's 35BHATTACHARYA (1957:1319-20): katham unma ~a_ p - ~ t ,v:.; ·11 T1579 280Cz9-
-bh · h -tataya bhutasamavesa a.,.a · ·
~amyataya uttra!:!hayatay:_,:im[~~~/f~~IL ~EElt't:f!j~;t: o ~EBtTMl*WI ~EB
~fanga Hrdayam, and also the Bhelasa1J1hitii. For the text and a translation of the unmiida -
chapter in the Carakasa1J1hita, see P.V.' SHARMA (1981.I:88ff.); and R.K. SHARMA 2s1a3: :z:dnJff n~EB:$tJi~?'l':1 !,X;i:::t=lfrEl1r- s
O O
. O

Jl?lt?JT~ fffi~mifE
O O
~I

590
Dan LUSTHAUS
A Note on Medicine 591
-
i

"grasps". and holds on to a body. In other words, it is - - -------· ·-·----·

the consciousness that What are these nine? These are:

appropnates a body ~nd which leaves the body on death. 36
The key passage m the Smpdhinirmocanasiitra states: 1) eating improper amounts ( amatriibhoji bhavati)
2) eating improper foods ( apathyabhoji) ·-
Fr?m the first, the seeds in the mind and consciousness [of sentient 3) eating before having digested the previous meal (apariIJatabhoji),
bemgsJ mature, ~n!old, aggregate, increase, and enlarge based on two 4) undigested ama that one is unable to expel ( am8J!l na addharati) 39
pF~~.Zi~:pprc;~ffi~ (ll al?propr~ation of the physical sense-faculties 5) fully digested food that one retains (pakvaip dharayati)
{:& V _)1ya, o 'l"l-'C youse zhugen) and the sense-bases ( *asraya pff 6) not being near a doctor or herbs [when ill] ( bhaipafyaip na
tl~~i:ghoyi h i~d 1(2) dap(p;opria!ion of images and words conceptualized pratJ~evate)
a 1 ua tze vasana, 1ffi ~ xiq] ) linguistic expressions and 7)not knowing what is harmful or beneficial for yourself
erroneous mental proliferations ( *prarp8 iica 114!-.t,~A XJ'J.' ,\ B · · th . ( satmyasiitmy8J!1 na }finite)
Form Realm d d ·h ' ~ 0 111I un,. emgs m e
th F 1 arel en owe wit these two appropriations but beings in 8-9) overindulgence in unchaste ( abrahmacari) activities at im-
e o.rm ess r~a ~ are not endowed with these two. ' proper times and in improper amounts ( akiilaciiri bhavati ·
~ _V1~al~ma!i,, this con_sci_ousness is also called *adiinaVIjiiana (Jfa115'8'.t1~ abrahmaciiri bhavati).
11~ atuona sh1, appropnatmg consciousness'). Wh ? Becau h' ··\
sc10usne~s attaches itself to (* anu$aligika? !ffi~ sJJ'm ,, ) ~e l~ ts con- ., These are called untimely deaths.
body. It IS also called alayavijiiana (Rfil~Hrl~ al.,. ,, .1..l! ' an he mgs to a. What is "dying with a wholesome mind"? When you are about to die,
sciousn ') Wh ? B . l'µJ'f'~"lPoll\, a1ye s111, ware ouse con-
. ess .· . Y. ecause 1t holds onto ( *anugraha, :ffli§t sheshou\ a you recollect previous times when you practiced wholesome dharmas,
~ody m which It conceals and secures itself ( *yoga.ksema, 'JxfrL - "·)' I and this may lead to other memories. From these causes and conditions
IS also called *citta (it, xln 'mind') Why? Because th' rr. a1!we1 . t [i.e., the good actions one remembers], at this time confidence (faith) and
accumulates ( * · "· ~,ttr L.i'\ · · 1s consciousness
· "bl ClllOcJ, 1'~:::>f<: Jljl J and amplifies ( *upacinoti a~ zfzhana\ other wholesome dharmas appear in the mind. At that time; should a
VIs1 es, sounds, smells, tastes, tactiles, etc.37 ' cJ coarse thought occur, or a subtle thought, the beneficial mind will neu-
tralize them, and one will abide only in a karmically neutral mind. Why?
:~~~~ti~~!~ir ado, here is the Manobhiimi passage concerning death, "without At the time of death, one becomes even unable to remember· habitual
wholesome (thoughts), so they no longer can produce further memories.
What is "dying with an unwholesome mind"? When one is about to
What is de~th (dying) (cyavate)? Due to [reaching] the limit of our die, one recollects habits ( vasana) of previous unwholesome things [one
:hmountyptof h£fe[sdp~n, [you] subsequently arrive at death. Again theri are has done], and this may lead to other memories. At that time, greed, de-
ree es o ymg]: , lusion, and other such unwholesome dharmas appear in the mind, inclu-
ding the appearance of coarse and subtle thoughts [and so forth], as was
·1) due to having exhausted one's lifespan· explained previously about the wholesome mind.
2) due to ~xhausting previous karma; ' Moreover, when a wholesome mind dies, death is blissful. When one
3) due to mescapable imbalances. is about to die, no extreme pain oppresses the body. When an unwhole-
some mind dies, death is painful and vexatious. When one is about to die,
Moreover, you should know that there are timel and untim I d
and the~e is dyini wi~h a wholesome mind (kusakcitta), or a:
som~~m~ (~salac1tta), or a_karmically neutral mind (avyakrtacitta).
in::~r:~ serious pain oppresses the body. Again when a wholesome mind dies, it
does not see confusing forms. When an unwholesome mind dies, one sees
confusing forms.
at ts eath due to haVIng exhausted one's lifespan"? Th t · ·d · What is "dying with a karmically neutral mind"? This refers [either]
1 to someone whose actions [have been both] wholesome and unwhole-
:e:~:. ~ti~i\:ir:de:r~~~;:e~t~~e completion of the SUma o o~;;
0

l some [so that they neutralize each other] or to someone who does not act.
,'Yhat ~s death due to exhausting previous karma"? That · h When about to die such a person is unable to remember [one or the other
one s mhented [karma] runs out. · 1s w en type] so there are no other [subsequent] memories. At that time,. the
What is dea~h because of an. inescapable imbalance? As thew Id death of the "neither a wholesome mind nor an unwholesome mind" is
H onored One said: · or neither a blissful nor a painful and vexatious death.
Furthermore, when a person (pudgala) who has acted in a whole-
"There _are nine causes and conditions for which you die even though some or unwholesome way is about to die, he may spontaneously remem-
not havmg exhausted your [full] lifespan." ber the wholesome or unwholesome [dharmas] that he previously -culti-
vated, and that may lead to further memories. At that time, his mind will
tend to register those of his repeated habits that were .most dominant.
The rest are entirely forgotten.
If he has repeatedly cultivated equanimity, then at the time [of dyihg],
his initial memory [of this] may engender additional memories. Only
these [good roots] are not cut off, and they will not give rise to a different
type of mind.

39 Ama is a major ayurvedic topic. It is food that is being digested. Medical texts offer
elaborate explanations of how - when the digestive. process does not work properly - all
sorts of illnesses ensue.

592 Dan LUSTHAUS
There are those whose death is caused by two types of prominent
forces ( adhipatikrtva), namely the prominent force of attachment to
pleasure and erroneous mental proliferation (prapaiica), and the promi-
nent force of pure and impure karmic causes (subhasubhakarmahetu).
Once one has already exhausted the fruits of prior karma, if one
should act unwholesomely, he will at the time [of dying] experience the
undesirable fruit obtained from the unwholesome activities he did previ-
ously - like in a dream seeing innumerable types of forms of monstrous
mutations (anekavik[ta). The Bhagavan explained the basis of such im-
ages, saying:
"If you previously engaged in bad, unwholesome activities, then once
[your karma] has reached maturity, when you die it will be like the
shadows [descending] on the mountain peaks at the end of the day, [at
first only] the cliffs are covered, then everywhere is covered, and
[finally everything is] utterly covered [with darkness]."
You should know just so does a person (pudgala) journey from light into
darkness. If previous unwholesome karmic fruit is exhausted, and one
cultivates wholesome ways, contrary to the previous example, you should
know that this is like a person journeying from darkness to light.
The difference between these two is that when [a wholesome mind]
is about to die, it is like in a dream seeing innumerable types of forms of
non-monstrous mutations and that one can expect a corresponding
[wholesome] birth.
If you are, like the earlier example, one who performs unwholesome
actions, then because you see these images of monstrous mutations,
sweat will flow, your hair will stand on edge, your hands and feet will
thrash uncontrollably, you will lose control of your bowels and bladder,
you will flail wildly at the empty air, your eyes will roll upwards and you
will froth at the mouth. Then you will have a birth corresponding to these
monsters.
· For one who has performed [only] mediocre unwholesome karma, at
the time of dying, images of monstrous mutations may or may not occur.
When sentient beings are about to die, but before they have fallen
into a coma, the self-love which they have cultivated for a long time ap-
pears. Because of its power, one says [with alarm], "I will cease to exist!"
This causes love for one's body; from this one creates the recompense of
a new life. At the moment of the passing of the previous fruit to the com-
ing of the future fruit, self-love again. reappears. At [this transition
point ... ], if by repeatedly investigating and searching, by the power of
wisdom one can control and not be attached [to the self and the bodyJ,
just as a strong warrior is able to control and suppress a frail weakling in a
wrestling match. You should know that the principle of the Middle Way
is like this. Should the fruit not return, at this time, self-love does not re-
appear.
Further, the dissolution of limbs and joints occurs in all the realms in
which sentient beings are born, except in the heavens and hells ....
He who dies a pure and liberated death is called one who tamed
death ( dantamaraJJam). He who dies an impure and unliberated death, is
called not having tamed death ( adantamaraJJal!J).
Further, when one who has performed bad karma is about to die, his
consciousness withdraws from the upper portion [of the body]. A cold
sensation begins in the upper portion and gradually withdraws [down-
ward] until reaching the heart. When those who have performed whole-
some karma [are dying], their consciousness withdraws from the lower
part [of the body]. A cold sensation begins in the lower portion and gra-
dually withdraws [upward] until reaching the heart. You should know
that it is only from the heart that consciousness subsequently withdraws
A Note on Medicine 593
[from the body], which is followed by a cold sensation pervading [the en-
tire body.] I I
e vi~iscayasaipgrahani passage c?~menting on thi~ l~st P~:~graph - on~ that I I
Th 1 reminds us of the Saip.dh1n1rmocanasutra's adanavynana explanat10n -
strong
derivesYa proof for the existence
. of the a-1.ayavi1nana
·· - - on 1·ts·b as1s:
·
Why is it that without the alayavij.iana, the way conscio.usness [operates]
at the time of dying w~mld be illogic~!? [The w~y consc10usness operates 'I
I I
at the time of dying 1s that] sometimes consciousness gradually leaves
from the upper body, and a sensation of cold gradually arises [where con-
sciousness has vacated]. At other times, it starts from the lower half of the
body. But this [withdrawal of heat] does not. h~ppen when_ the llf-.~1!_0-
vijiiana is inactive. Therefore, we know that 1t 1s ~nly t~~- ~ayaVIJna1!a
that appropriates and upholds a body. When the [alayav.gnana] frees it- .1,
self [from part of the body], a cold sensation can be apprehended in t~ose
body parts [being vacated]. The bodily [senses] are_unaware [at that.!~~e,
so they are not what is perceiving the ~old sensation]. T_he m~1?_o_VIJnan_a
does not function like that. Therefore, If there were no alayav.gnana, this
[feeling of cold] would be unreasonable.40
If the argument about turning cold seems odd, rem.ember that f~r some B?ddhists,
including the Y ogacara, three things are declared mseparable: life, consc10u~n~ss,
and heat (jivitendriya, U$1Ja, vijiiana; °R
ming, ~ re, ~ shf). Wherever there 1s hfe,
there must be consciousness and heat. .
Conclusion
That Asariga paid more attention to the body, physicality, and the s~nses than
some of his interpreters should be evident. He never abandons ?r repudiates thes_e
ideas, and nothing in the remainder of the Yogacarabhum1 suggests that his
thinking on these matters changed in any significant way.
He would agree with what the Pali Bahiyasutta ( Udana 1.10) quotes the
Buddha as saying:
ditthe ditthamattam bhavissati, sute sutamatta.qi bhavissati, mute i
mutamatta.Ip bhaVJ~sati, viii.iate vi.i.iatamatf8IJ1 bhavissati... esevanto
dukkhassa. I
I.
In the seen, there is only the seen; in the heard, th~re is only th~ heard;· in I
the sensed, there is only the sensed; in the cogmzed, there 1s only the I
cognized.... Exactly this is the end of suffering.
40
fBJi!ct:sffitJnJ*jlflHI in*!~~~ ff!~:£1 ° ~;!~8U!B~Q)Gf;t..t.Jl
T1579.579c11-22 : O
-5t ~ir~/iiUtMViffi~ :ex;f;t~ Jl-5t ?F1Bl~~~Iey~$$ t&~DOl~ruJffllfl3~~g¥Jt
O 0 O 0
t~Jl llt=E~M R~M'Jltr~~-aJ1l Jl~Jt~ fil~T-ffl ~i&=E~rulffllf~~~
O O O 0 O
!!!~:El O -;z;r::i& .., / - • -
41This claim is found in several sources, such as the Sa/Jstambasutra (T:::z!s:~Yuil"= Liao
ben shengsi Jing, T708.816a 16_18), and Harivarman's *Satyasiddhi (~Jrilfa Cheng_shi fun),
which states (T1646.345b8_9: rfn~~llt-i:t~~if§M), "Life, heat, ~nd con~c1ousne~s,
these three dharmas are never separated from each other." The same IS also discussed m
the Yogacarabhumi at T1579.830c6-16·
 I .

I .
I
594 Dan LUSTHAUS I
A Note on Medicine 595 I !

:~rt~
I
42
This is the root of vij.iaptimatra ( cf. the word vi.i.iatamattam in the Pali ex
above), a te~m. that occurs only three times in the Yogaca;abhum1/ 3 but Bibliography i

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i
Huimin Bhik~u.

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_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1999-2001): Susruta-sarphita, with English translation of text and
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42
. ViJ.iaptiina~ra literally means "nothing more than what is made known [to you] 11 w
m 1gl_}} rephrase this: cognitive narcissism. · e
Tl579.595c11 ; 724a6; and 726c25 •

Parallel Passages between the Manobhumi
and the *Yogacarabhumi of Satµghar~a
Nobuyoshi YAMABE
Introduction
Paul DEMIEVILLE (1954:395), in his important work on the early yogacara tradi-
tion, pointed out that the magnum opus of the Yogacara School, the Yogacara-
bhiimi ( YBh ), was preceded by two early meditation manuals that were also called
*Yogiiciirabhilmi, namely the *Yogacarabhumi of Saip.gharak~a (Xiuxfngdao di
jlng n~f-rf~Jfgff~, T606.182a-230c, YBhS) and the *Yogacarabhumi of Buddha-
sena (Dam6du6lu6 chan Jlng ~~~~ffrfi'Iff~, T618.300c-325c, YBh.13). 1 In his
paper, DEMIEVILLE (1954:343-347) also noted the existence of a partial Chinese
translation of the YBhS by An- Shigao (~i!tr,§'J, dates uncertain, second century)
entitled Dao diJing ~tili*~ (T607.230c-236b, DDJ).
Noritoshi ARAMAKI also takes note of An Shigao as a person "who transmitted
many texts .of yogiicara2 meditators" (1971:16). Specifically, he believes that not
only the DDJ but also the Anban shouyi Jing (~~~~ff~, T602), a very famous
meditation text translated by An Shigao, was exce~pted from the rBhS. Further,
ARAMAKI (1983:1) compares the )'BhS with the Sravakabhumi (SrBh), which, in
his opinion, was the oldest portion of the YBh, and believes that the YBhS was a
precursor to the SrBh;
Florin DELEANU (1992:48-50, 56-57) argues that the Anbiin shouyljing and
other meditation manuals translated by An Shigao were originally composed by
yogiiciira practitioners affiliated with the Sarvastivada tradition in Kashmir around
3 of the few places in the Maull Bhumi w_h~re the term ala[a~n_an_a arpears,~ ~d
100 CE. In the introduction to his more recent, extensive study of the SrBh, he
gives an overview of the formation of early Yogacara texts. There, DELEANU
(2006.I:158) states: "Though not a direct textual prototype of the Sravakabhumi,
Saip.gharak~a's *Yogiicarabhumi (Xiuxing dao di jing) may be regarded as one of
its distant 'forefathers'." ·
_ Following the lead of these scholars, in a ·paper4 presented at a symposium on
An Shlgao in 1996, I discussed four texts whose translation can relatively safely be
1
On this title, see also YAMABE (2009:65). · An Shiga.o's translations by both HAY_:'\SHI"':A and ZURCHE~. ~URCHE~ ~oes not ?1-ent1on
2 T150B as an authentic translation by An Sh1gao, but a very srrmlar text 1s mcluded m T150,
The word yogacara is used widely in Buddhist texts as a common noun meaning
"meditator." See Jonathan A. SILK (2000). In this paper, I use the form yogacara (without
capitalization) as a common noun. The form Yogacara (with capitalization) is used as the
name of the Buddhist philosophical school.
3 Concerning the canonical sources of the YBh, significant research has b~en done_,
See also DELEANU (1997). On the manuscript of the Anban shouyi jing recently
discovered at Kong6-ji Temple (~~ll~), see DELEANU (2003).
4 Kenkyujo Shomonji Kenkyukai (1998, 2007) also identifies many sour~es of_ the SrBh m
A shorter and earlier version is available as YAMABE (1997). Note that in spite of the
publication/presentation date, YAMABE (1997) was prepared before YAMABE (1996). The
present article is partly based on YAMABE (1996).
Parallel Passages 597
·---;;:·but;d ~-~-An Shigao,5 namely, the Piifayi jing (tf1!~ff~, T98), the Jiiiheng
~- n (-+r f:1±~«< T150B), the Yinchfru jing (~t~ A}~, T1694), and the DDJ, in
J1ng J vi'.?;!rJ'.:I'.., d h h' f P h'
compa
.
fioure,
rison with the YBh. By doing so, I suggeste t at t 1s · amous art rnn
who came to China c. 148 and translated Buddh'1st texts mto
. ~ the
Ch'mese .tor
. d' . d. . h 1
fi;st time in history, might have been close to the me 1tat1ve tra 1tion t at ater
formed the Yogacara school. .·
After the presentation/publication of YAMABE (1996) and (1997), Stefano
ZACCHETTI (2002) established that the Yinchfru Jlng closely corresp~nds_ to the
sixth chapter of a post-canonical Pali text, the Pefakopadesa. Cons1dermg the
nt argument by Karen KATSUMOTO (2006) that some doctrinal elements of
rece · . 1 · h a ·-
the Bodhisattvabhilmi are also found in another Pab text, name y m t e a~1ya-
·t.·o 1r"'tthakatha the parallelism of the Yinchfru jing and the Pefakopadesa might
pl a.Au ' . • ~ ,I./ ' ·-
~t e~tirely rule out some (indirect) Yogacara connect10n of th~ 11nc111ru png.
~evertheless, in the face of ZACCHETTI's findings, the Yinchfru Jing needs to be
studied primarily in comparison with this Pali text. . .
In the aforementioned conference paper (YAMABE, 1996), I pomted out t_?at
the DDJ, YBhS, and the Manobhiimi (MBh) wer~ partly ~ased ?n the Garbhava-
krantisiitra ( GAS) in describing the process of remcarnation. Smee. then, Robert
KRITZER has worked extensively on this siitra, 6 and some of his results are
included .in this very volume. While preparing the present paper, I ~ave_ greatly
benefited from his detailed comparison of the various versions of this sutra and
relevant Abhidharma/Yogacara texts.
In the present paper, I would like to fo~~s on the DJ?J a~d _the !7BhS and
compare them closely with the Manobhiim1 m the MauiI Bhum1 section of _the
YBh. As we have seen, scholars have noted the YBhS (and the DDJ) as a possible
precursor to the YBh, if not a direct one. Nevertheless, not m~ch effort seems t~
have been made to compare the YBhS!DDJ with the YBh m concrete terms.
Even when such an attempt has been made (as in ARAMAKI, 1983!, the focus has
been on the SrBh. Very little attention appears to have been paid ~o the other
portions of the YBh in this context. In this situation, extensive parallehs~ be~een
the DDJ/YBhS and the MBh is not insignificant. Since the relevant port10n 1s one
since this portion also seems to be the ongm of one of the Pu~ac~rya theor!e~ m
the AKBh (see below), the doctrinal significance of this port10n 1s not neghg1ble
either.
5
As is well known one of the difficulties in studying An Shigao is that many of the texts
attributed to him in l~ter catalogs cannot be deemed his authentic translations. For t~e
identification of his authentic translations, see Tomojir6 HAYASHIYA (1937:1?) and Enk
ZURCHER (1991:297-298). The four texts discussed i~_YAMABE (~996) are considered to.be
which ZURCHER considers authentic; therefore, it would be reasonable to assume that
TlSOB is also to be included in ZURCHER's list.
6
See KRITZER (1998a; 1998b; 2000a; 2000b; 2004; 2006-2007) ..
7
most notably by Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (1970, 1987b). TAISHO DAIGAKU S6go ~uk~o
canonical texts. As far as I am aware, not much comparable research 1s available on the
relationship between the YBh and the YBhS or DDJ.
8
See SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:127-132).
 598
Nobuyoshi YAMABE
. ~or issue~ relevant to the GAS itself, the reader is referred to KRITZER's ub
hcat10ns. This paper focuses on the textual background of the lBh Th p -
textual comparison, I suggest that the YBhS (and the DDJ) may well hc;1.v/~~!~
among the sources of the YBh, not only of the SrBh, but also of the MBh. \
DDJ, YBhS, and the MBh
I shall here concentrate on the Chapter on the Arising and Perishing of th F'
A??r~gates ( Wuzhf~g chengbai zhang..liffl!PGJ&~ in the DDJ and Wuyin :he~;
bai pin li~~J&oo 1~ t~e YBhS). This chapter discusses in detail the process of
death ~nd rebirth? which 1s very important for our purpose because we can observe
extensive parall~hsm between this chapter and the Manobhumi section of the YBh
!he d1scuss10n of the ~roces~ of birth is not a rare topic in Buddhist texts. 9 I~
part1cula;, th~ proc~ss o_f ~irth d1sc?ssed in the context of 'mindfulness directed to
the body (k_ayagata satJ) ·~ the Vlmuttimagga (Jietuo dao Jun M,JM:i][gn'fj-, Tl648.
433a-434a) 1s noteworthy. It seems very likely that the author of the Vimutt"-
magga re~erred t? some version of the GAS. Thus, as in the GAS itself, the proce:<.;
of death 1s not discussed: The explanation in the V,muttimagga only concerns the
development of a fetus m the womb. Accordingly, I believe that the agreements
between the_ DDJ and the YBhS on the one hand, and the YBh on the other, are
more
. extensive
. than those between the V,muttJmauuaeo·
and the Lou.
voz. Let·
us conf.irm
th1s pomt more carefully below.
In the table in the appendix, I have shown the relevant portions of the DDJ. th
YBhS, and the YBh, together with their apparent source the GarbhavakrantJ;Ot e
( G-':15), and re~evant Abhi~harma texts, as well as the Vimuttimagga. The GAS::
available to us m the followmg versions: 11
1·Baotai .fin¥ (lIPlffit*I), T317.886a-890c, translated by Dharmaraksa (Zhu
Fahu ,,.,,.1!~, 230?-316). 12 · list· of internal worms, the Baotai Jing (T317.889ez3_25, no. 96 in the table)
ii. ~he G1S incorporated in the Vinaya-1<$.udrakavastu of the Mulasarvasti-
vad~ y1~ay~ (~SY):. :iji:1-g's (ffi~, 635-713) Chinese version, Genben
shuoJ1q_1e youbu P_Jna1ye zashi (fN::zls:~-f;J]lWg~_m*IITT~$), T1451.253a-
260a; Tibetan version, Q1035.119b8-145b6 13
iii. Fo we~· Anan ~hu~ ~~~~ai hui (1~ffllwJJtt~mffit~) of the MaharatnakOta
(J?~.
Colle~tio1:1 1?ao11_J.1ng_ *1rffi*I), T310(13).322a-326b, translated by
Bo?hI~~· (Putil~uzhi rt'fffrE:sl, ?-527). 14
1v. Ru taizang hw (Affr:1M~) of the Maharatnakuta Collection T310(14)
326b-336c, translated by Yijing. 15 • ' • GAS. This point will be discussed again below.
Here, the last-mentioned text is apparently extracted from YiJ.ing's MSV ' d
these tw . ·ct . I ( ' an so
o versions are 1 entica apart from minor variants). Accordingly, we need
9 See Bussho kaisetsu daijiten ({~IH!JM~::kl$~), s.v. "Butsu i Anan setsu shotai e"
• See, for_ e~a°:p~e, t_he/ A;ta~ataph~sm}khay~sutta (MN 1.265-66, No.38), the *Abhi-
dharma-Mahavibha~a. (Apidamc: da p1posha Jun i!PJ!'B~m::k!'B~t!~mf/f, AMV, T1545.
356~tf. ), and t~e Abhidharmakosabha,wa (PRADHAN 2nd ed., l 18zzff. ).
11 I owe th1~ reference to Florin DELEANU. See also DELEANU (1997:48 n. 38).
12
Concemmg GAS, see also BHATTACHARYA (1957:27 n. 8).
Chu sanzangjijf (lfi-~~c~, CS.I), T2145.8b . ' worms (T607.234c29ff.), but the YBhSmentions the names of all the worms (T606.188a28ff.).
:: Kaiyuan shijiao Ju (mJ7eff~iJ, KShL), T215J~568a4_5 .
15
KShL, T2154.570b17- 20•
KShL, T2154.567a23_24 •
Parallel Passages
-- __ ......
___ , . .....----·-·-·······.........
599
not treat this last text as an independent recension. Further, there are Tibetan
versions of the two stltras·-in. the Maharatnalal.ta Collection (0760(13-14]), but they
are considered to be translations from the Chinese versions, 16 so we need not
consider them here either. The F6 wei Anan shuo chutai hui needs to be examined,
but due to the limitation in space, among the versions ofthe GAS I have included
in the table only the BaotaiJing (which was translated by the same Dharmarak~a
who translated the YBhS) and the Tibetan and Chinese versions of the MSV. Asis
strongly suggested by the Vimuttimagga, there must have been other versions of
the GAS as well, but they are not available as independent texts.
This table clearly demonstrates that the YBhS/ DDJ and the YBh discuss the
same topics in largely the same order. They also appear to rely upon very similar
wording.
In addition, there is naturally strong agreement between the YBhS and the
DDJ throughout. Although some substantial differences exist between the YBhS
and the DDJ, 17 they are ess~ntially the same text as far as the relevant chapter is
concerned. In what follows, I treat these two texts as a text complex ( YBhS-DDJ).
As already mentioned, the YBh .is based on the GAS. This relationship is
clearly evidenced by the express reference to the stltra in the YBh (276-7, no. 85 in
the table below) and because of the close similarity between the YBh and the GAS
in both wording and contents. Although my investigation of the Tibetan version of
the sOtra is not thorough, if one were to compare the underlined parts of the
Tibetan text with the corresponding parts of the YBh, their very close relationship
would become clear. Since this Tibetan version of the GAS is incorporated in the
MSV, this particular version of the GAS must be a Mulasarvastivada recension. As
usual, the YBh seems to be close to the Mii.lasarvastivada canon. 18
On the other hand, the YBhS is clearly linked to the Baotai Jing, Dharma-
raksa's Chinese version of the GAS. This point is particularly clear because, in the
simply refers to the YBhS (T606.188a28ff.) instead of giving the names of all
worms. 19 Moreover, the names of the first five worms that the Baotaijingdoes list
agree perfectly with the first five in the YBhS. Therefore, there can be no doubt
that the YBhS and the Baotai Jing were closely related and that the translator
Dharmarak~a was aware of their close connection. One problem is that the
descriptions of the process of the growth of an embryo in the YBhS are fairly
different from those in the Baotaijing. Perhaps, while drawing upon the GAS, the
YBhS was trying to form its own tradition that was somewhat distinct from the
The BaotiiiJing and the Mii.lasarvastivada version of the GAS agree fairly well
throughout. Therefore, it is not unreasonable to assume that the Baotai Jing was
' I
'
16
({~!t~~-~ija@", 9:255d); "Butsu i Nanda hotsu shukke nyutai kycY' ({~]%ft~B~l:B~
;\§a*i, .9:259b). There are, however, some differences between these Tibetan versions and
the Chinese texts on which they were based; see KRITZER (2006-2007:142-144) .. i I
17
For example, the DDJdoes not mention the names of the doctors enumerated in the I
YBhS(T606.185a-b); further, the DDJ gives only the numbers and locations of the internal
\1,
18
See SCHMITHAUSEN (1970; 1987b).
19
This fact was already noticed by LIN. Li-kouang (1949:110-111 n. 3). See SILK (1994:
350-351 n. 2).
I I.
 Parallel Passages 601
600 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

also close to the Sarvastivada tradition. 20 Meanwhile, as we have already seen, the YBhS-DDJ and the. YBh were perhaps based on a version slightly different
YBhS and the DDJ represent essentially the same textual tradition. Since the The th current texts of the GAS. In any case, it is clear that the YBhS-DDJ and I I

from e
former was clearly linked to the Baotaijing, it is likely that the DDJ was also close e YBh are closely related. . . . I

to the Sarvastivada tradition. After all these observations, the extensive .agree- th Probably all the texts_ listed in the table (except for the V?mutt1magga) be- 11

ments between the YBhS-DDJ and the YBh might seem to be only a matter of lonue d tO the "Sarvastivada" tradition in a very broad sense of this term. The close
• ct·
course, since all of these texts drew upon the GAS. However, we should note that • l:? ·t· s between the YBhS-DDJ and the YBh seem to m icate, however, t h at
··
s1m11an ie . . .f. Th.
their common dependence on the GAS does not explain everything. Both the "v.0 ,uacarabhiimis" were tied to one another m a. more specI IC way. IS may
these that 1 1 o· . · · h
vogacara meditators were formmg their own, somew at istmct circ d. · · Ie
YBhS-DDJ and the YBh provide a continuous description of the process of death mean J' • d .
and birth, while the GAS only describes the process of birth beginning with within the general Sarvastiva a commumty. . .
conception. Accordingly, the YBhS-DDJ and the YBh share a significant number I believe that a comparison between the YBh and the !BhS-DDJ IS also _Im-
of elements that are not found in the GAS. Some of the individual elements not rt nt for the investigation of the YBh itself for the followmg two reasons. First,
contained in the GAS are also found in Agama/Nikaya sources and Sarvastivada bo r:ferring to the YBhS-DDJ, we can properly understand. the original context of I i
Abhidharma texts, but none of the texts that I am aware of is as closely parallel to t?e discussion ofrebirth·for yogacarameditators. The .YBh IS a w~ll-developed !ex! I'
full of Abhidharmic details. When we ·look at the highly· techmcal Manobhum1, I
the YBh as the YBhS-DDJ is. Thus, there seems to have been specific ties between
the YBhS-DDJ and the YBh. . h contains the discussion of rebirth in question, one may well w:onder how all
whlC • I t .f I I

I would like to establish this connection in clearer terms by adding a few more those rather cumbersome descriptions were relevant to meditator~. n. contra~ , I
observations. First, the three groups of texts ( GAS, YBhS-DDJ, and YBh) all state we look at the YBhS-DDJ, we can easily see that the process of rebirth IS described
that male and female fetuses rest on different sides of the mother 1s wornb. 21 · detail to teach meditators about the temporary nature o th eir f · extstence
· an d
However, in all the available versions of the GAS, this matter is mentioned in the %us not to be attached to themselves. The purport is thus quit~ clear. .
paragraph on the twenty-seventh week of the pregnancy (no. 73 in the table), while Generally speaking, in the Maull Bhumi of the YBh, se~t10ns that seem q~It~
I
the YBhS-DDJ discusses this matter after describing the whole process of technical, such as the Paiicavijiianakayasaipprayuktfbhilm1 and !he_ Ma1:7ob~um1, I

pr~gnanc~ (n.o. 90 in the table). The YBh sides with the YBhS-DDJon this point. precede sections ?n m~ditation proper: such as the .srav8!<abhum1. L1kewis~, 1n the I

This may md1cate that the YBh took over the reorganization of the text introduced
by the YBhS-DDJ.
Secondly, the YBh quotes from the" Garbhavakrantisiltra" as follows (no. 85 in
the table):
F.urther, the fetus is complete with all the limbs and minor limbs in thirty-
e1ght_weeks. After four additional days, it is born, as is said by the Blessed
One m the Garbhavakrantrisutra: "Further, the [fetus] is complete in nine
months or more."2
,
This passage does not seem to be attested in any versions of the GAS in spite of
the express reference to this siltra, 23 but the YBhS-DDJ has a comparable line in
the exactly corresponding portion. To quote from the DDJ:
[When] thirty-eight weeks, namely nine months minus four days 24 [have
elapsed from the moment of conception], all the bones and joints become
complete. 25
Yinchfru jing, discussion of ontological categories, viz., skandha, dhatu, and
ayatana, precedes the discussion of meditative_ methods yer se. We ~ho_uld furth~r
consider that in Asvagho~a's Saundarananda, the suffermg of smpsara IS shown m
detail in the eleventh chapter, Svargapavada, "Blaming the Heavenly Realm,"
before its exposition on the methods of practice, which begins in the twelfth 2
chapter, Pratyavamarsa, "Contemplation." As I have ~is~us~e? els~where, ~ the
practices explained in the Saundarananda have many similarities with the S:Bh,
and the Saundarananda probably reflects the practices of yogacaras at the time. I
i
Thus it seems to have been a tradition for yogaciira meditators first to observe the
natu;e of existence in samsiira as a preparatory step for meditation. Their purpose
must have been to realize that there is nothing. permanent and reliable in our
existence. The YBh seems to have belonged to this type of tradition, and in this
manner it should be viewed as a descendent of the YBhS-DDJ.
Secondly, by comparing the YBh with the YBhS-DDJ, we can .reach a better
understanding of the innovations in the YBh with respect to the earher texts. When
looking at the table in the appendix, we may observe that t~e YBh leaves out
philosophically less significant details and adds more theoreti~al e!ements. For I .

I
20
example, the YBh omits the descriptions of each stage of the th~rty-e~ght weeks of I

Both the Miilasarvastivada GAS and the Baotai jlng presuppose the doctrine of
pregnancy, though the YBh is clearly aware of the theory of th1rty-e1ght weeks as
intermediate existence ( antarabhava). This concept was admitted by the Sarvastivada and Ii 11·•

several other schools but not by all the Buddhist schools; see BAREAU (1955:283).
we have seen. 27 In the case.of the list of worms in the body, the YBh does not even I

. 21 The Vimuttimagga is silent on this point. mention worms at all. Instead, the YBh includes more technical discussions, of
22 YBh, BHATTACHARYA ed., 27 _ : sa punar garbho ~fatdipsadbhilJ* saptahaiiJ sar-
57 topics such as the synonyms of antarabhava (BHATTACHARYA ed., 209.-13),
vaflgapratvailgopeto bhavati I tataiJ paraip caturahe!Jf!. jayate / yathoktaip Bhagavatli alayavijiiana (ibid., 245, etc.), bija (ibid., 25 1..273), and interactions among sentient
Garbha~akranti_sutre sa P,un,alJ saippilIIJo bhavati navabhir masailJ pare1,1a va panar iti /
*manuscnpt readmg: astatnmsata.
23 - •• '
· Cf. MA (Tl.769b25-26),
24 If we assume that one month consists of 30 days (according to the standard Indian 25 T607.234c4_5: -:=: ±J\-t; E3 ~M_~Wffi[9 E3 rgfrl~ :A.@ . · I
calendrical system), 9 months equal 270 days. On the other hand, 38 weeks mean 266 days. 26 y AMABE FUJITANI & HARADA (2002), and y AMABE (2003}; I i

So, 38 weeks equal 9 months minus 4 days. 27 See BHAiTACHARYA ed., 275, no. 85 in the table and the quotation above.
 602 Nobuyoshi YAMABE
beings (ibid., 296-11). Compare, for example, the following two passages, one from
the DDJ and the other from the YBh (nos. [41]-[46] in the table):
Immediately, the father and the mother release "essence."28 The gan-
dharva29 at that time gives rise to a perverted thought, thinking that they
are _his "esse~ce," a~d he ~ecomes pleased. ~hen he becomes pleased,
the mtermedrnte bemg penshes and [a new bemg] arises at the [combined]
.semen and blood. The consciousness rests in the [combined] "essence." ...
Instantly, these five aggregates attain two faculties, the tactile sense-
faculty and the mental faculty. 30 .
When. the passion. of the ~roused fat_her and mother reaches the [mostJ
~ehem~~t- stage, [mally th~ck semen 1s released .... Into this merges the
alavav1mana,. which contams all seeds, which is comprised in [the cate-
gory ?f karmic] maturation, and whi.ch maintains the body. 31 How, then,
~oes i~ merge? !hat intermedia~e being. which has perverted cognition of
its ob1ects, penshes together with the lump of semen and blood which
~as become cream-like. The moment [the lump of semen and blo~d] per-
ishes, due to the capacity of the consciousness that contains all seeds an-
other but similar lump of semen and blood, mixed with the gross' ele-
ments of sense fac~lties in a subtle state, arises.... These gross elements
of the sense-faculties of the embryo (kalala) arise with the tactile sense-
faculty alone. 32
These passages are very similar in wording, but it is noticeable that the "conscious-
ness" in the DDJ is replaced by the Yogacara-specific a1ayavijfiiina in the YBh.
The YBh thus seems to be a philosophically oriented corpus based on the earlier
meditative tradition of the yogacaras. In many passages of the YBh, the compilers
must have put "new wine into old wineskins," and the above provides a concrete
example of this process.
Finally, let us observe one more significant point in the relevant section of the
MBh. As noted by Noriaki HAKAMAYA ([1986]2001:506-518), in the AKBh, there
are eleven theories attributed to piirvacaryas, 'earlier teachers', and HAKAMAy A
28
The original is, as quoted in n. 30, ££1:HPffi!rfflffl. Here the character j'ing ffl
("essence," "semen") seems to refer to both semen and egg. Hereafter I translate thi~
character as "essence," unless it is paired with another character xue IfIJ., "blood" (in this
context virtually equivalent to "egg").
29
Gandharva has often been interpreted as "smell-eater" in traditional texts.
qnJ, T607.234a14_:20: X:£JHPBsrfflffi · t$~¥U~~J~~f!tffl · NP-aJ~*~ · B ~
30
~~l&rJtYEQ~:t±Mwl~ · .m&:t±fflt:f:1 ... · ~~1iJ_i~ · f!Pffi!rf~mt.NJtt.N{A'.N ·
_ ~SCH~HT~USEN (1987a:131) ~u~pects that the.words vipakasaipg[hitam asrayopada~r
alaya ~re mt~s1ve and that ~he ongmal text' was simply yatra tat sarvabijakalp vij.ianaip
Sa1J1m_urcchatJ. If we follow this suggestion, the translation should be: "Into this merges the
consciousness that contains all seeds." In that case, the expression becomes even closer to
thosrz in the DDJand the YBhS. See also MATSUMOTO (2004:367ff. ).
., YBh, 241-n: tatra saipraktayor matapitros tivravasthagate rage sarvapascad ghanaip
su_~aJP mucvate_ I . . . ( yatra tat sarvabijakalp vipakasaipgfhitam asrayopadatr alava-
~1m~nal!! sammurcchatJ ~ kathalp punalJ saipmilrcchati </> tena saipjatasareJJa sukra-
S01J1tap11J¢ena saha tadvipazyasta/ambano < '>ntarabhavo nirudhvate, tannirodhasama-
kala117 .~a tasyaiva sarvabijasya vij.ianasya samarthyat tadanyasuk~mendnyamahabhzlta-
rryatJm1sro <_'>nyas tatsabhagalJ sukrasom·tapiJJifo jayate sendriyalJ / ... tani ca tasya
kalalasy_endnvamahabhutani kavendriveJJaiva sahotpadyante /. (Partly corrected according
to SCHMITHAUSEN, 1987a:127).
Parallel Passages 603
33
Ced four of these theories to Yogacara texts. Since the publication of
tra f h · he cons1·ctera-
HAJ(AMAYA's study, piirviiciirya has become one o t e key terms mt
has
. · f the close relationship between the AKBh and Yogacara. 34 One of the
u~n ~ -ry.a passages from the AKBh not traced by HAKAMAYA is as follows (no.
purvaca
21 in the table):
One who attains the spontaneous mode of bir~h [does so] out of lon~ing
for the place [of birth]. How can there be longmg for the place [of birth]
in the hells? .. £
( 1) This is because [an intermediate ~eing] has p~rvert~d cogmt10ns, or
he sees himself as troubled by cold wmds and falhng ram, a~d then sees
fire burning in the [hot] hells, so he runs there out of lo~ging for h~at.
· Further seeing himself as troubled by the heat of hot wmds, sunshme,
and fire: and he then sees the cold in the [cold] hells, and runs [there] out
of longing for the cold. .
(2) Earlier teachers (pilrvacazya~ say: "A bem~ who has. done an act t~at
will cause him to be born there [i.e., ma hell] ma certam state sees him-
self and [other] beings in the same situation and runs [there]."35
On this passage, Yasomitra in his Sphufiirthii Abhidharmakosavyakhya (AKVy)
comments as follows:
"Cold in the [cold] hells" refers to when somebody is born in cold hel~s.
"In a certain state" means being a sheep-butcher and so forth. In a certam
state he has previously done an act that will bring about retribution. t~ere
[in the hell] and [so] he.sees similar beings [in the.same state] as if ma
dream and ;uns to the hell. "Earlier teachers" mean Y ogacaras, such as
the Noble Asanga. 36 ·
I believe that this piirvacarya passage from the AKBh ( and accordingly the one
from the AKVy) is based on the following portion of the MBh :37 ·
33 For one of them HAKAMAYA refers to SCHMITHAUSEN (1979:4), and for another to
MATSUDA (1985:750). Two theories not traced by HAKAMAYA in his original paper have
since been traced to Yogacara texts, one by MIYASHITA (1988:54-55) and the other (the
one discussed here) by myself (YAMABE, 1999:208-209). Another has been traced to the
*Tattvasiddhi ( Chengshf Jun ~'.ft!i, T1646.290a19-b4) by ~aso HARADA (2003:69).
Generally on this topic, cf. also the article by Changhwan PARK m the present volume.
34 Seethe articles listed by HAKAMAYA (2001:518). _. _ . __
35 PRADHAN 2,11ct ed., 127 _ : upapadukaip tu yoniip pratipadyamanalJ sthanabhi!a~at (
15 20
katham narakesu sthanabh11asalJ / (1) vipazyastabuddhitvat Isa hi sitavatavar.,sabh1~eka1r_
atma;aip badhyamanaip pasy~ti narake~u cagniiµ dipyamanam I tatra u~JJ~bhila~ad dhavatJ
/ punas taptavatatapagnisaiptlipair atmanaip badh,ramanam a_nupasyan ~aH!a-!!1 ca narake~u
sitabhila~ad dhavati / (2) yadavasthas tadupapatt1saipvartamvaip k_armaka1"$1t tadavastham
atmanam tams ca sattvan pasvan dhavatiti PiirvacArya.lJ I (emphasis added). I have emen-
ded the text ~t several points. For the details, see YAMABE (1999: nn. 3-6). ·
36 WOGIHARA ed., 281 _ : saitya[!1 ca narake~ iti sitanarakopapattikal~/y;~davast~a
25 28
iti I aurabhrikadyavasthalJ / yathabhiltena tadvedyaip krtaip prak ~arma tadrsan sattvan
svapna iva prek~ya narake sa dhavati/ Pl1rvacArya.lJ Yogacara azyAsaipgaprabhrtayalJ /. I
have emended the text at several points. For the details, see Y AMABE (1999: nn. 11-17).
37 I have discussed this and the following points in YAMABE (1999, in Japanese). As I
mentioned there (op.cit.:207, n.19), it was Akira MUKAI who first traced_ the pilrvacazya
passage in question to the MBh (MUKAI, 1990), which I_was not aw~re oft1ll l~ter. I found
the relationship between the AKBh and the MBh on this matter while preparing Y AMABE
(1996), independently from MUKAI. When I learned about MUKAI (1990) as I was
 605
Parallel Passages
604 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE
. fu e he runs into the hell. This is actually much closer to the
If, then, an evil-doer, such as a sheep-butcher, chicken-butcher, or pig-
butcher, belonging to one of the groups of 2eople who do not observe
Je
fear and seeking a in ~he AKBh than to the one quoted as the theory of the
first theory quote f the ll -'Dh Apparently while based on the former
precepts, has done and accumulated evil acts38 leading to a hell, then he - - r the passage rom 1nv. . ' l 1 b d
will see these sorts of beings, acts, sheep, and so forth, in the place where purvacarya o - - th m ilers of the YBh were not comp ete y oun
he will be born as if in a dream. Because he is attached to his former prac- traditions of yogacar~s, e ~o ~ations Here again the compilers of the YBh
tice, he runs there. The intermediate being perishes blocked by the hereby but made their own mno . .. '
matter of the place of birth, and the existence of his [new] life arises .... t t have put new wine into old wmeskins.
seem o .
There he is born spontaneously with all six sense-bases. 39
Conclusion
Here, the similarities between the AKVy and the MBh are particularly conspi- of these discussions of the process of reincarnation must have been
cuous. As is indicated by his own statement that "earlier teachers" mean Yogacaras, Many elements B ddh" t At least concerning the process of the
it is probable that Yasomitra was referring to the YBh when he commented on this common knowledge amon~he u mu;: ~~ve been based on the GAS (though not
portion of the AKBh. In the case of the AKBh itself also, the meaning of the very development of the fetu~, ) ~ if we take these points into consideration, the
concise expression of the AKBh becomes clearer if we refer to the MBh. Therefore, necessarily_ the ~ame vers1~~he ~hS-DDJ and the MBh seems undeniable. _It_ is
Vasubandhu himself probably had this portion of the MBh in mind when he close ~elat10nsh1phbez;~ relied heavily on the preceding traditions of yogacara
referred to the prlrvacaryas here. very hkely that t e h b shown the compilers of the YBh were not
For the purpose of the present paper, what is significant here is that this MBh meditators. Nevertheless, as a~ een . . , Th had some freedom to innovate,
passage can be traced further back to the YBhS-DDJ, as shown in the table. The 'complet~ly bou~d ~ t:~~Ftr~~:t:i!::i~!:~~:y se;,m to have created new theories.
YBhSsays: ~~?:r~~~~~as(e[19~6]2001:516) once remarked that among the ol~er an~ mo~e
~···n . . --
general trad1t10ns of yogaca~as, som
e masters who tried to systematize their yogic
lled purvacarya. I share this impres-
A being who has done many evil acts sees in his intermediate existence
that a great fire arises and surrounds him, as if a wild fire burned up trees experiences in more theoretical ways were ca h ·1 of the YBh i.e., the
and grasses. [He further sees] dust raining over his body. He sees crows .on because this seems to have be.en what t e comp1 ers ,
and eagles. [He also sees] evil people and the Hke, all of whom have long ;ri~ary referent of the expression purvacarya, were trying to do. .
nails, teeth, and ugly. faces. They wear wretched clothes, and fires burn
above their heads. Each of them holds weapons, and [the sinner] is
beaten, pierced by spears, and cut by swords. Thus his mind becomes ter- "·
rified. Seeking help, he sees a forest in the distance. He runs there, and at
that time he loses the five aggregates of his intermediate existence and
enters the hell of the forest of swords. Such are the visions of the spirit of
somebody who falls into a hell. 40 ·

Since this occurs within a long parallel passage, the correspondence between the
YBhS-DDJ and the MBh is quite certain here. It should be noted, however, that
what the YBhSstates is that the sinner sees terrifying scenes and, propellt:dby th.at
•
preparing Y AMABE (1999), I first thought of refraining from publishing my result in respect
for his priority. However, when I contacted him on this matter, he expressed that he had no
plan to publish his result and that he had no objection to me publishing my findings. Thus, I
proceeded to publish Y AMABE (1999). Here I would like to restate that concerning the
relationship between the AKBh and the MBh on this matter, the priority lies with MUKAI
(1990).
38 Ka . · .·k·11·
T1118, 1.e~, . Is.
1 mg amma
39
YBh, BHATTACHARYA ed., 2015 -216 : sacet punas teniikusalakarmakiiriJJaurabhrika-
bhiltena···va kokkufikabhiltena va saukarikabhiltena very, anyatamanyatamasminn· aslJJ!l-
varikanikaye vyavasthitena narakaslJJ!lvartanivalp papakam akusallJJ!l karma krtalp bhavaryr
upacitalp sa tathabhiitan eva sattvalp§ tatha karm;iJJy upapatryrayatane paivati tarps
corabhradin svapnavat Isa pilrviibhyiisiibhiraryra tatraiviinudhiivati I tasmilpi copapatti-
sthiinanlpe pratihatasya vyiivartate so 'ntariibhava upapattibhavai ca nirvartate tasya I ... I
sa tatropapiidukalJ paripilIJJa~a<fayatanai ca jiiyate /. For textual remarks, see Y AMABE
(1999: nn. 22-23).
40
~*1<.m111~Jt~ . ~tzomrx~m1fi* ,
T606.186b11.11= rrr&s~-1::f±tp 1.t. r:p , Jffl
mJt~·~~w•~Az•·maw~@§ft~-~~~-~~x~-~~~ttA
?JrWn, :3ffU7Jfilr 1)'f'lfl'dl · ~31<$(~Ji~ittM, tt.ilJ!IBZffl~NP*:tp1.e1i~:· A
1

7J~UW'~zg:i · !~!Jts~~t$~E11t ·
 Appendix*

* In the following table, except for the Abhidharma texts and the Vimuttimagga, in principle I quote the passages in their original order in the text.
When corresponding elements are found but not in the same order, I refer to the number of the relevant row. A dash(-) indicates that there is no
corresponding element. Underlines indicate some noteworthy elements to be compared. However, when quoted passages are very short, I omit
underlines. Many of the references to the Abhidharma texts I owe to Robert KRITZER's articles (see footnotes). Due to time constraints, I have not
made systematic efforts to edit the texts, but for some of the cases where the reading of the Tibetan GAS is questionable in Q, Professor KRITZER has
kindly checked the readings of the editions that are not accessible to me. For all the Sanskrit and Tibetan entries of this table, a first draft of the ~-
English translation was prepared by the editor of this volume, Dr. Ulrich Timme KRAGH. Many of the footnotes to the Sanskrit and Tibetan portions
of this table were also suggested by him. As I have since made various changes to his draft to maintain some degree of consistency with my own
translation of the other passages quoted in this paper, the final responsibility is mine. Nevertheless, the table should really be considered a joint work
between Professor KRAGH and myself. Even with these efforts of precious assistances from my colleagues, the table must still be treated as a tentative
approach to the relevant texts.

607
Parallel Passages

-
-~-----·~----- -~--~-- - - - -~-------- -------

DDJ YBhS YBh

Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- BHATTACHARYA ed.
GASMSV- T607 T606 ~-------------
GAS texts mal!f:!a T1648 --
_ Yiilng, T1451 T317 kathaip cyavate/(1 51)
MSV-Tib, Q1035 f=rm=lf ~~ {~fj~=lf~
- ~ali~~~ "How does one pa: saway
[1] - - - li~tbA~ [i.e., die]?" 1
!& · (232a22. z~-
23) (183c4)
"Practitio- "Practitio-
ners should ners should
know the know the
exiting, transforma-
entering, tions of the
arising, and five
perishing of aggregates in
the five their arising
aggregates." and
oerishimr."
WtzDAllTi~ fiiJ~~~li kathamm ~
yathapihaiJ 'O
[2] - ti*tiffi~~ - ~:(£0SfD ~~!&·W •h
- - ~. fflmffi I, 1W!lma ::EtzDAfirf~ yathak$ipta
%·~-~?& paripilIJ.WlJ ,ayitvi
JE~¥~;f~. [mffelq:tiW1& *::IZfffc. ,--
.). "sf'~, cyavate/saJ •nab
(AMV, *~rm~· $?&~A ' [9Ef[9 kalacyutil yate//
T1545.103b3_4) 2 (232a23_z4)
"For mM1&ffi (1510-11)
"Next, the ~ · (183c4_ "How[doe: pass away]
Praj.iapti example, due to the ,__ stion of
[when] one's 6) lifesp@? F - -mple,
states: There "How should
are four types life is about cause the
one know - someone d
of deaths. The tobe predestine re lifespan
exhausted, the arising
first is death

1
For a full translation, based primarily on Xuimzimg's Chinese text of Yogiiciirabhumj, of the entire P.assage quoted partially here under items 1-
13, see the contribution by Dan LUSTHAUS in the present volume, who refers to this as "the MaI10bhOmi passage concerning death."
2 See also DE LA VALLim POUSSIN ([1923]1980:217-18), and BAREAU (1955:151).
3 The text reads kfapayitva, which is obviously a misprint.
4 Concerning kalacyuti and akalacyut1: see also n. 6 below.
 608
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS GASMSV- ·---- ~·-~~-~~-------=-~

Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti-
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yifi.n2, T1451 T317 DDJ YBhS YBh
texts •. magg_a Tl648 T607
-· T606
1. BHATTACHARYA ed.
due to the and[wh en]
exhaustion of and has elapsed. This is called a
one's perishing of timely death."
lifespan and breathir gis
not of the five
about tc aggregates?
property." stop, fm r For example,
hundrec: and when one's
four dis< ases life is about
arise one to end, due
after to the
another. imminent
exhaustion
of the
lifespan, in
one's body
four
hundred and
four diseases
come one
- aft et
[3] another."
- - - ~11~~~~ - (See [191 ) (See [190])
<IV,' kathaip J2llIJ.Yak~~.l2MI
(AMV, yathapihaikatya
Tl545.103b5_6) 5 upakarapavaikalyena
"The second is cyavate,11(15 12 )
death due to "How [does one pass awayJ
the exhaustion due to the exhaustion of
of proeer!}'.: but merit? For example,
not of lifespan." someQne dies due to the
I_ack of the necessities for J
.. - life." .
·---'--~---~------- ··--· .

5
The third alternative is the combination of the first and the second.

Parallel Passages 609

--
YBhS -· - IYBh- - . . --
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ
MSV-Tib, Q1035 -
Yijlng, T1451 T317 texts maggaTl648 T607 - T@L ___ BHATTACHARYA ed_.~~-,
[4] - - IZ91FWilMl~ - :t=mmHJfl3 11~l.i5'E~ kathaiµ vi§am;JparihiiratalJI
- Jtjp~;ffflM( ... IBI1:iJ11g1r ~1:iJfil • yathoktaiµ Bhagavatii/nava
1Hl:tn1&a-;wrnt m. c23~_ (184b 7_8) hetavo nava pratyaya
m--{H*
........... ~-,,, 10) "Though alcyipayu~ kalalaiyaya iti
6
~·rm~~*l "If there is there can be I ... saiva punar !lka.la-
. J E · 1'F pain of occasional .fYl!_tir ity myate/(1513_17)
'miff disease, and untimely "How [does one pass away]
l.iJEM({'F:~ if there is an death, [as far due to not t!YOiding_ adverse
~. (AMV, untimely as one's conditions? As was said by
T1545.103b9_13) disease, one lifespan has the Blessed One: 'There .
"The fourth is can still live not been are nine causes and nine
death not due on." exhausted, conditions for the death of
to the one's someone whose lifespan
exhaustion of (See disease] can has not run out.' This is
lifespan or of [190][189]) be cured." called il~.mature death."
property....
Later, though
one's property (See [189])
or lifespan is
not exhausted,
encountering
bad conditions
one dies an
untimely death.
To show that
there are
untimely
deaths, the
~-- author of the

6 The
list of the nine cau~es of premature death given here is very similar to the one found in the Jiiiheng Jing (fLffi*~' Tl50), translated into
Chinese by An Shlgao. It is curious that this sutra, not included in the Agama/Nikaya collections, was known to both An Shigao and the compilers of
the YBh (YAMABE, 1997:803-810). See also a similar list in the AMV(T1545.771b1_4).
610 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

----- - ·-. ------~- --

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yiiing, T1451 T317 texts mal!J!B T1648 T607 T606
e----~
BHATTAC HARYAed.
r-=--~-----~

treatise says as
follows." ···- . -~--- ----··-

[5] - [Al Je.Ji\ta~ :§.r tp 7J Ji\ (See [14])

- - - m, -%m::ff
J]Ji\ '-%mi
::ff~. ffffijfff .
(233a2s) (185c1)
"[The "A sword-
doctor] like wind
observes that arises in [the
a wind called patient's}
'sword-like body and
wind' arises separates the
in [the bones and
patient] and joints."
separates his
joints."
·----~
[6] - Bffl~~ :§.ri'%,bc *fgim:
---µ~' J\)\
(See (16])
- - - $:. ~:§.r~ p)T~~IL\~
~:(£-~B ffiJ~0Utl*ll
~tzo* ~ :(£ · fHil[tzD
lifr · #1L\ *~mgmv
tpJIJl~~ ft .... fflfey
~tJ\& · Wtzo fEz:,,,\J{iL\m.l
tft~~~ ffip)T~[Zg*
em . ~IL\~ ~1%~ffi:. 111\\

~{B~tJ\& tJ\&1fn!ilt:(£ '

~. (233b10.. tzotftW:~ · I
13) Ilt.A1L\tfl~ I
"The light of ~~fN ·
spirit and .so (185c18 -86a2)
forth are "The body is
already cool and the

6\ l
Parallel Passages

-- ---
-· -~-~--~
Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma BHATTACHARYA ed.
GAS. mal!11.a T1648 T607 T606 --------
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yiiing, T1451 T317 texts
gone conscious-
only ness 1s
bod) s as irrevocably
arer der. lost. There is
The __ tis still heat
alre,--old under the
like heart and
and ve the spirit
elerr are remains.
alre: [The body] is
aba1 ed. straight like
Intl art a log and
only nt cannot
rem [of move ....
min ays. The four
Just a elements
rem around the
ligh n heart
exti hed become all
lam ly a decrepit.
fain nd Although a
rerr in feeble life
the t. force still
remains, it is
just like a
lamp about
tobe
extinguished.
In his heart,
there are
tactile and
mental
faculties."
 ""

612 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

-- --·-------
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ }'j YBh
>--·
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijing, 11451 1317 texts maeea 11648 1607 --- 16 BHATTACHARYA ed.
[7] - - - - ~7~,A.:$:pfr Jct ?¥~?fr katham kusalacittas
rr~rfflli1::~ ~ _~~p¥ cyavate/yathapihaikatyo
A,.
,G,'!J!~ . #~. m._
m·.riyamaJJ,_a..IJ iirval?_IJ.r.a-
(233b 13 ) ' ffig
fil,~ stan kusaladhµman
"He recalls i "BJ{'!=~ smarati/pareJJa vapunaiJ
and sees in ,c.., @m . sma.ryate/(161.2)
his mind the (1 2-4) katham a]r.u_s4Jacittas
good 2 bad.. "[( ern- cyavate/yathapihaikatyo
§inful, and ini e good mriyamiiJJaiJ svayam eva
virtuous an d he Jllirv4l?!Jx.i¥&Ulkusa/a:
[things] that ha nein dharman s.wn@usml}mJj/
he has hi! time, parair va sma.ryate/(161.s)
formerly hii nd "How does someone of
done. re1 _ his good mind passaway? For
foJ __! example, one who is dying
UI] unate~ recall§...Qy)limselhhe goJ)d
fOI ____.ate, acts he ha~__.,practiced
aUSQiC,.-IOUS, earlier, or he is reminded
and [thereof] by someone else."
inaus1 icious "How does someone o(~vil
{acts]. What mind pass away? For
hecm lddo example, one who is dying
in this and recalltl?Yjlimselfth~ evil
next Iife is all acts h~practiced
knowr by his ~arlier, or he is reminded
mind.' ____J!here~by~SOl!!e<m~ else."
[8] - - - 4-t!t~~ff tatra kusalacitto
- /.-~~-=,,
U,,, ~. l~i~® mriyaini'jab-

7
Judging from nian (~) in Dharmarak~a's version ( YBhS), the original of shi (~) was probably smr-, thus corresponding to the Yogacarabhiimi
8
Emendation: BHATTACHARYA's text has piiIVan dharman, but Tib. dge ba'i chos sngon kun tu bstan pa (05536.9b2), Ch. JcBvfiJT~~i::t
(28ab 15 •16). Cf. also the parallel expression ptlivabhyastiin akusaladharmiin in the immediately foIIowing passage (167_s) quoted below.

613
Parallel Passages

---~------
-~--------·______ ,
____ - ---------- ----
Vimutti- DDJ YBhS~ -- \ YBh
GASMSV- BaotaiJing Abhidharma
GAS !!1-~a T1648 T607__ . _ 1606 _ _B~TTACHARYA eel_._. -----1
Yijlng, 1145~ 1317 texts ---------- -------
MSV-Tib, Q1035 __ ,---"--·--
(233bn. 14) (l86a4) sukhamaraJJena mriyate/
"If he -has "The (16 11)
P.!I!fticed complexion "Of these [two kinds of
good acts in of a person people], the one who is
this life, he who gas dying with E go9d mind
feels happy nr.acticed dies a peaceful death."
in his mind." good is
----- m>:aceful."
~ ----- -------
-- --------~ ---·-···- ---+-----------
-···--·-· ~~l!PB:;y ;~~tf'ryj:liffl_ j1kusalacitto mriyamalJO
[9] - ffi!r • (233b 14) ~::f 1 • dufJkhamaraJJena mriyate/
- -
"If [he has (186a5) (1612.n)
practi_~J!} "The "The one who is dying with
evil [acts], complexion £1,Jl~_yil wind dies a painful
he feels of a person death."
shameful." who has
practiced
evil is
--· unhappy."
---
----~------ -f, l=I $ . , : -
~o:xc~rr *ff~~~ kusE:1laciJJflSJ:.i punar
[10] Si! 7F5£.W,. mriyamiil}a-sy_avyiikyla!p
- - - ~/.:... 1'±,'ts,l,\C :W~B~~fi~
,c.,fr.
~?I as *~'f!k• ~m
~3i;:;c.i, ~;Cl, nlpadarsanaip bhavati/
j~·!m~1f'!'~ ~i~§lR!l akusafacittaSJ!11 tu
ltftM~m YJ!__cl_ku!a!p_riipadarsana!p
~m~~•· bhavati/(l614-1s)
~f1t~~nl )£~~~· "Moreover, the scenes
~M-~~- is6a11-gJ
witnessed by_someone
BYDfriHT /--.1!~1.4 dying with agood mind are
=ff-~~ 1'f·==-~ . fl not disturbing, but the
frlffi . ii~r ~o~~
~ffit)Y:t;~ scenes witnessed by
1=r::ff~~r · someone [dying] ~ith an
. ~pa:;y:g:~:g ~t ~-*1 evil mind are disturbing."
~EJsl:S. ~.· iCilfl:g:
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ , ____ ,_..k _ _ _ _, _
f1t~J:7(?JJ\ -
li\mft5EJ: --1------------- ------
--- -
·-------------
614 Nobuyoshi YAMABE
--·- --· ~- ·- -~-------~-

----- ~----
a 4S GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vim uh DDJ YBhS YBh
M SV-Tib, Ql035 Yijlng, T1451 T317 texts
-·
· m!!M_l!_ 16 ~8 T607 BHATTA CHARYAed.
c---•a--··---•-•-
- - - - --------- ·---
------ . -T606
tf~. }( · (l86a1s-
(233b19-22) 19)
"Thus a "When a
person who person who
has former- has forll!_~rjy
~actis;ed practiced
evil and evil is about
followed evil to die, he is
practice in terrified at
mind has the
remorse and distressful
regret. He is stran~
agonized and §cenes and
unhappily seriously
blames blames
himself [in himself. 'I no
the following doubt come
way]: 'I now to unfavor-
no doubt fall able realms'."
into "Those who
unfavorable have
realms'. If practiced
the person is g__ood are of
somebody three groups:
who has those who
acted have
properly, he controlled
has made their body,
three types speech, and
of good acts mind and
and has practiced
observed various
-- some vows. virtues in

615
Parallel Passages

- ~----- - -· -1-YBh~·- -- . -- ---

Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS
GAS GASMSV- T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
Yliing, T1451 T317 texts magga T1648 T607 ---+--- - --- ~·-
MSV-Tib, Q1035
The one who purity with
has practi- teachings
ced best has and
done many properties.
good [acts]. When he is
He at that about to die,
time is over- his mind
come with cherishes
joy in mind delight. 'I
and glad- will
dens himself. definitely
'I now ascend to
ascend to heavenly
heaven and realms'."
also to
favorable
realms'."

(See [21]) (See [21]) tatradhimatrakusalakarinas

[11] - - - tadvikrtanimitiadarsanai-
-
prasvedas ca jiiyate/
romakupebhyo romiiiicas
ca bhavati/ ... (1712.13)
Among [the evil doers],
someone who has done
m_qst heinous acts perspires
and his body hair stands up
from his pores by seeing
___ , _those disa&!"eeable_images."
 616
Nobuyoshi YAMABE
- --~~ --- -----~ -

r--
-.
GAS GASMSV- Baota1jlng Abhidharma -- ~ -----------1--==--------- - = - - - - - - - ---------,
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijin_g, T1451
Vimutti- DDJ YBh~ YBh
T317 texts lllaJ!J!a T1648 T607 -
T606
[12] BHATTACHARYA ·ed.
~~-~--~- -
----~"-~
- - - (See [221) 9
- (Se~ [22 ]) I sacet punar macl_h_xakarl
bhavati tasya kecid vikiira
bhavantikecin na bhavanti/
na paripurpal;z sarve/1( 1716-
11)
"If, then, it is someone who
has done a middling [type
of evil acts], [he sees] some
disagreeable [images] but
not others, [namely] he
[13] - -~-~~
-+®esp-9ili~ aJl Qf th~.'~
- - - - -- sarvasyaca
- mriyamaJJasya ...
dlrghakalabhyasta
atmasnehah samudacarati/
(181.2) .
"Yet, for everybody who is
dying, the self-attachment
that has been held for a
[14] ------------ --- --•~)<:>!!g_ti~~~mes actjv~~'
- - - (See [51)
- (See [51) tatra marmacchedo
narakagatilpclevagatilp ca
sthapayitva tadanye~"u
. sarvajanmayatane~u
bhavati/(1810.11)
"Now, except for those in
the hellish and heavenly .'
realms, for beings in all
other places of rebirth
-- there occurs i!.gp.J![a!!Q!L
- - - - ~__
9
Text sa cet, but Tib. gal te, Ch. ruo {;fi).

Parallel Passages f,\7

r----"-- - - - - - - -- -- - - [
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng Abhidharma Vimutti-
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yiiin_g, T1451 ::~TAC~RYA ed.
~
T317 - - - · texts maJ!J!a T1648 ~f:f - -- lr:o:s- -I
---1- - ----- - -- -- - - ~
pf ti!~ joints" (or perhaps
"failure of a vital organ",
1----------~- --- - - - - - - - - - -----··----- - - - - - ,-·---- ---- ------ - - -·-- - lll_B_!lllaccheda}. - - -
[15] - - - - suddhanalp punar
muktanam maranam
dantamaraJJam zicyate/
asuddhanam amuktanam
adanta-marapmp//(l814.1s)
"Moreover, the death of
those who are pure [and]
liberated is called a tamed
death, [whereas the death]
of those who are impure
[and] unliberated [is called]
i-------~·----------- --·
an
- - - - - ~ ---untamed
--- ------death."
-------- -------1
[16] - - - ii :±
~ 2,c..,Mlt~=t;(:E - (See [61) (See [61) tatas cyutikald0 'kusala-
)]tjl~ . karmakarinam tavad
~Atf:t~~tE _urdhvabh.il!ad vijiianam
j],pj~. asraya1,n muiicati/
~7(__t~~tt urdhvabhagd 1casya12
ffi~ · (AMV, fitibhavlJ!jl tat 13 punas
T1545 .359b9.11) tavan muiicatiyavad
"The dhrdayapradesa.m/1
consciousness sulqtakaripalp punar
of a person who adhobhavad vifiianam
is born in ------~ ASilffJll!l muii~ti/

10
Text, cutikale.
11
Text, urdhva. . _ _
12 Text, vasya. Cf. the expression casya in the following parallel sentence.
13
Text, sa, but this must refer to VJJ.ianam.
 618
Nobuyoshi y AMABE
----~.......

GAS GASMSV-
MSV-Tib, Ql035 Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti.:. DDJ
--------~----=--
Yijing, Tl451 T317 texts YBhS
maf[£a Tl648 T607
YBh
~
T606 BHATTA CHARYAed.
unfavorable ~------- ~-~--·--~-- ---
realms perishes adhobhii,gascasya
at his legs. The sitibhav;. ti tavaqyc[vad
consciousness sfhrdan 'f;Jde/am /(1816-19)
of a person who "Thereu on, at the time of
is born among death, fc those who have
human beings done evi acts, the
perishes at his consciot ness first leaves
navel. The the bod) t9m_the~__ppµ
consciousness ru!-rt 1 anc he upper part of
of a person who the body urns cold. The
is born up in consciou ness eventually
the heavenly lea-ves f1 m the heart area.
[realms] Forthos1 who have done
perishes at his good act: on the other
head." hand, the consciousness
leaves th body from the
lowerpa1 and the lower
part turn: fold. [The
consciom essJ eventually
[leaves fo m Jj_h~heart
[17] ~."
- - --r--------~----·~- ----~~----=--=
- - fPff#Jtffl~ JirtlUI~~ f!!!1!1rabh, V§sva tadde-
.,m,;11:. ~ saniranta" 'Sya
0
~.
~i.~~
(233b26-27)
~r:t
~
T
lfl r:t

=-c186a30-
pradurbh, vobhavati/
tulyakalai rrodhotpada-
"Imme- yogenaJE&g_1]1J2I4!1:.
b1) tanamonr.. 'iiip-'!~(191-2)
diately his "The tactile "The-i.mei edjate
tactile sense- sense-faculty existence c merges just next \
faculty and and con- to this pla< , in a manner
conscious- sciousness where the easing [of this
ness perish, perish and
and the lifeland tti arising [of the
fthe intermedia e existenceJ__ _

Parallel Passages 619

GAS GASMSV- Baotai;ing Abhidharma Viinutti- DDJ YBhS I YBh

MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijing, T1451 T317 texts II1agga T1648 T607 ~
~-- -------- - -
----- - T606 -------~- - BHATTACHARYAed. ------ -----·

aggregates of deceased occur at the same time, just

the interme- person] · like lthe simultaneou_fil
diate immediately loweri11g and rising of the
existence receives the two ends of a balance
adse, just intermedja- scale."
like a te existence,
balance scale just like a
of which one balance scale
end rises and that rises
the other and lowers
end lowers." accolding to
the weight."
[18] - (See [29]) - ~j~(t1fip - tfff:ff$1~ ;!tf'Fffi=fff± sa ca visuddhasya divrasya
.@_t ffiJ ,mg tf1i~' ~ W$lt•HI ca~ll§Q gocaribhavati/(19s-
(See [29]) j~ .... ~~$ /.-:ff"a
1J H'l1tj:l
1~,c,, /.-H'l1:lrfr=
11' ,c., - :±.'*F 6) tasya ca divracak~ur iva
~JE---r9J ff~:ff~~ $lt. ltfE~ cak~ur na vyahanyate yavad
_t . . .. "Bifm tj:l !llHi · - ~IJNI'.JJ!z. up_ap_attvar_atanat/ ...
w~~f91f'.r · (233cs-1) ~(l86b7_ duskrtakarmakarinam
(AMV, "One who s) adhas ca~ur visudhyate/
Tl545.362a 17_ has practiced "One who avaiimu!{has ca gacchati/
23) good attains has practiced iirdhvaJP devagaminaJJ]/
"The interme- superior five virtues stays manuffagaminaJP punas
diate beings aggregates in in a good PLf~l/(199-203) "It (i.e.,
destined for the the interme- intermediate the intermediate existence)
hells go there diate exi- existence. is a sensory object of divine
with their stence. One One who has eyes, which are exceedingly
heads down who has practiced clear." "His eyes, which are
and feet up .... practiced evil stays in a like dh1Q.~ eyes, reach the
The interme- evil attains bad interme- 2lace of hisjfuturel!eJ:,irth
diate beings inferior diate exi- without being obstruc-
destined for the aggregates in stence. Only ted .... For those who have
heavenly the one who has done bad acts, the lower
realms go with intermediate awakened part of theirl~~s _become -
r

J
620 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

" · - - - - a---~c~~·•• . ~-=---~---- - ~ ~ - - . - ~ - ~

GAS GASMSV- BaotaiJing Abhidharm a Vimutii- IDDJ YBhS I YBh

MSV-Tib, QlO35 Yiii.ng, T1451 T317 texts magga T1648 T607 T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
their heads !!Q existence._ I ~yes can see clear, and they walk with
and feet- These are them." their faces turned down.
down .... ~ 'he perceived by For those going to a godly
intermedi: te divine S!yes." existence, [their faces are]
beings des ned !ll?Ffil'dS, whHe for those
for other going to the human exi-
realms all gQ stence, [they face] §traigh t
sideways." ahead." ·
-

----- - - - - - - - - - - - f - - - - - - - - - - 1 - ·--
[19] - - # .~~ tp 11::ff~f:± 1£ tp .Lt.:ff~ sa punar antarabhava.{1 ~#~
~ ~~ ~a~f:t-t; tt-~a~Jj;z_ {ijhal!l ti$/haty asaty
:g, B· B · (233c-; -tB· upapattipratyayalabhe/sati
~ }iB5E*-s s) (l86b9.10) puna.{1 pratyayalabhe
1:. "The "Onere- 'niyamaiJIalabhe punas
rtio intermediate mairis in the cyutvii puna.{1 saptahal!l
~
• ~,ti existence intermediate ti$/hati[IJyavat sap_ta
:g, B· lasts in some existence §.EJJ?.tifhani ti~:thaty upapatti-
fEt ~::f:Z. cases for one sometimes pratyayam alabhamiinaiJI
{1 AMV, day and in for one day tata urdhriam avaiyam \
Tl 8-11) other cases and at the upapattipratyayalp labhate/
"T able for one longest for (204-6)
--~----------

14
Text,jiiyante.

621
Parallel Passages

-------- o ~ - - - ~ - - -
---~~ YBh
Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng T606 BHATTACHARYA
- -
-----
ed.----- ~ -

Yliln_g, T1451 T317 texts m!Jgga T1~48_+ T607___ --

MSV-Tib, Q1035 oneweek." "On one hand, when a
Ksemadatta week."
condition for reincarnation
says: 'The is not obtained, the
intermediate intermediate existence lasts
existence lasti for one week. On the other
at the longest hand, when a condition for
for seven reincarnation is obtained,
weeks, becam [the duration of the
by the forty- intermediate existence] is
ninth day one undetermined. When not
definitely obtained, [the intermediate
moves on to, being] dies again, and then
new existenct lasts for [another] week. [A
The venerabl being] who does not obtain
Vasumitra sa a condition for reincarna-
'The interme tion lasts for seven weeks at
diate existem the longest. After that, he
lasts at the will definitely obtain a
longest for Q condition for reincarna-
week, becam tion."
its body is
feeble and
cannot last
long'."

saptiihal!l
tisthatiti
Bhadanta-
VasumitrafJ,
yaditavata
siimagril!l n.
Jabhate tatr. va
punaf'7!1_tv
jayatd /saf "---='~----· ---
'------------------------- -- L.-----~-~-----
 \
622 Nobuyoshi YAMABE
---··-···-·· -- - ···-----------------··--·--- ·--·--··--------·-·······--·------·····--------··- ---------·--- ------··-------------·-----· ----··---- --

------~ ---~~-
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijlng, T1451 T317 texts maeea Tl 648 1'607 T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
-------~~-~~
~
saptahanlty '
apare/(AKBh,
1269_10)
"The venerable
Vasumitra says:
'[The being of -
the interme-
diate existence]
lasts for one
week. If by then
[the necessary
conditions for
reincarnation]
are not
provided [for
him], he dies
and is then ·
born again in
the same place'.
Others say:
'Seven weeks'."
[20] tasya punaiJ paryaya
-
- - - - - - antarabhava ity apy
ucyate ... gandharva ity apy
15
ucyate .. ./(209_10)
"Then, concerning its
variant appelations, it is
called the 'intermediate
existence' ( antarabhava) as
well as ... ]!andharva."

15
Text has no apy. Tib. kyang, Ch. huo (~).

623
Parallel Passages
- ~-~- ------------ -----
---------
--~ - ~ - -·-
-

DDJ YBhS
~-\~------~·
YBh
Baotaijlng Abhidharma Vimutti- T606 -~ _ BHATTACHARYA ed. ----------1
GAS GASMSV- magg_aTl 648 I T607
Yiiinj!;, T1451 T317 texts
MSV-Tib, Q1035 sacetpunas
JD"~
/.-:s:aa '
yadavasthas - tenakusalakarmakiirinaura
[21] - - tadupa- ,,.v ...!k ~ '
bhi1ka- - ·-
- ~ . ~~~ .W,::k)(~\11
pattisaipvarta- bhiitena vii
niYJJ.Ip
a=fJ~~i• ~JtJit .... kokkutikabhiitena va
karmakarslt ~~lt ... · kru&Z • saukarikabhiitena ve(V
tadavastham f]l!qJ~~~ ~~~qJ
atmanam tams pfrffl~ · !!P Jtli~ 7'.7J anyatamanyatamasminn
asaipvarikanikaye
16 ca saitviin a~~~~Je, iuww.~z.
~ JJ~W~ qJ ~ m:1:13J~ vyavasthitena garaka-
pasvan qJ. ~~~ ltt$Yi~ saipy__artanijf!_ip papakam
dhavatiti karma krtam
Purvacarya/J 17I :i'tl!J~li~~ JJt · (l86b11- akusalam
bhavaty upacitaip sa .
~. 11)
(AKBh, 12719- tath;lbhiltiin eva sattvaips
(233c10-14) "A beiQg
20) "The worst who has tatha karmiipy upapatty-
"Earlier doer stays done many: ayatane msxati ta1ps
teachers spontane- evil acts sees corabhradln svapnavat/sa
(piirvacarya) piirvabhyasabhiratyii ·
ously by a in his
say: 'A being great fire, intermediate tatraivany_~(20is-
who has done 2h)
and some existence
an act that will hundreds of that a great "If, then, an ~Yil:fil>er, such
cause him to be as a sheep-butcher,
thousands of fire arises
born there [i.e., chicken-butcher; or pig-
in a hell] in a crows, and
hawks, and surrounds butcher, belonging to one
certain state of the groups of people
harriers him ... He
sees himself gather... runs there, who do not observe
and [other] Then the and at that precepts, hA.S done and
8
beings in the intermediate time loses accumulated evil acts1
same situation leadip.__gJQ. <!__hell; then he
being the five
and runs erishes, and a re _ates of wjll ~ee th_ese ~ort~f
ftherel'."

16 Text tadavasthatmanam tiis. See also fn. 35.

17 See the discussion in the main body of this paper.
18 Karma, i.e., killing animals.

~- --~
 624 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

---~---·- - ·--- - - - - - - - ~ - - - - ----------=......, ~-

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharina Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh

MSV-Tib, Ql035 Yiiimz. T1451 T317 texts ma22a T1648 T607 BHATT.
T606 ----- -·--~~ CHARYAed.

~~t)J~::JJi!& he is born in his interme- !?.eings, cts, sheep, and so

0 the place he diate existe- forth, iI the place where he
M-MfiU,L\1:
#~i$*1fey~J! is destined nee and will be l orn as if in a
0 for. Soon he enters the dream. Because he is
tm~ filUIHJ
ffi!PJjrf{f i!&~U sees trees hell of the attache to his former
M'tp§:. 0 ••• ~ with leaves forest of practict he n111s then,. "
~a~~ttt.J of swords. swords. Such
O
ttl. 'titlt'.~~ This is how are the
O the five visions of the
'..tJUiEt f>Elft
flg~~~ tJ O aggregates spirit of
~nt&1:.~m belonging to somebody
tp 0 hell arise who falls
(·*Tattvasiddhi- and how he into a hell."
sastra, enters a
Chen.ff.Shi Jun sinful
n\G'.l'.mfa, [state]."
T1646.325b6-t6) .
"Due to igno-
ranee, sentient
beings give rise
to a perverted
thought. When
they are about
to die, they see
the hells from
afar and think
that they are
flower ponds.
Due to their
attachment,
they are born
there ..: . Due --

to the ·-------··

625
Parallel Passages

.. .- - -
--- ~
-- ---·- -
r•
· - · - - - ---~~----
Abhidharma Vimutti- · DDJ YBhS YBh
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing \_ BHATTACHARYA ed.
T607 T606 ~-
T317 -
Yiiine:, T1451 texts -· maggaT1648 -·--·--
MSV-Tib, Q1035
ignorance
. attached to
. oneself,
arrogance and
other defile-
ments arise,
owing to which
acts are
accumulated.
Due to these
acts one is born
in various
realms." ·-·--+-
Jj1J\~ , I (Cf. [12])
[22] - - - - Ill~ Im I I ±Eb.~
~
x.Mffi* ri¥i;t=t:§3' .
~- (l86b22)
(233c1s) "One who
"All who has done
have insignificant
m:.acticed evil sees fire,
evil see smoke,and
violent dust
smoke, dust, I surround
fire, win< himself."
and rain
come ani
accompa ny
..
them." ·--"~----·----·-·--r----...-~~-------- --- - ---··
.___..
tf~ ... ffi lf1:_ ... ffi lyatha naraka evalJl naraka-
[23] - - - ,m ... J:. 7( ... _,l ... t7.Jflj sad,rse~u R!.ete~fjtpado
,A._I]:_:_ E::.:},j@: · __ .dra~VJ!afigalag_aJJcfadi$v{.
------~--- -· --
 626 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ

MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yiiin2, Tl451 T317 texts mal.!l.!a Tl648 T607 -~-f_!_~S --1 ir:TTACHARJAed.
(233c18 - (l86b25-C1s) anye~u punas !_1rx_aff12rete~11
234a2) "[One is born manu~E~ll kamavacare~u
"[One is in the realms nipiivacare~u ca
born] arr ong of] _dev@1k~~jjpapadyamana
animals, animals, ... . .. (2111-13)
hungry hungry "As [one who is born] in a
ghosts, .. ghosts, ... hell, likewise one who is
deities, . the "Thirty- born amm1g the h__Rngry
and hum an Three" g_hosts with their con-
beings." deities [on strained throats and so
Mt. forth, who resemble [those]
Sumeru], ... in the hells, should be
and human viewed in a similar manner.
beings." Also, someone who is
being born among other
[types of beings, such as]
animals or hµn~~osts_,
humJms, or among the
grouP.s of9~_ities belonging
to the realm of desire or
the realm of form
------+----~--- - ... "
[24] ma'imngal E{5J§t§:.A ..A3!JHij§:.
du Jug pa dang!mi
tlD~*I~. A - - tatra trayaJJalJl sthananalJl
a§atf=t. '.3Z:lffll.§a £J:1*~~EE~ sammukhibhaviin matuh
Jug par 'gyur baJi /ta (253a24) fey • ${~3:Jt{±JW .
bu zhe na/(l20<i6) "How does kuk~au garbhasyavakrantir
(886a11) (AMV, .
"How is there entry one obtain a bhavati/(2l11-1s)
"When one Tl545.356c26-
or non-entrv into the rnewl life "Then, due to the presence
encounters 271)19 _ ___,_
1 _o_f_tll.r~condjtio!!§,~he _

19
The same quotation appears in T27.363a 28 -b 2 again, where the order is the same as in the MSV.

Parallel Passages 627

-- ~.' ---- . -~~ ~-- ---------- ---·-- -

- -----
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yljing, T1451 T317 texts magga T1648 T607 T606 BHATTACHARYA
-------
ed. --
mother's womb?" and enter one's "As is stated in embryo (garbha) enters the
the womb of mother the siitra, 20 mother's womb"
the mother?" and three
reaches conditions
thewomb. 11 must be
.,
present [for a
.. ' being] to enter
".' the .mother's
womb."
[25] (See [27]). (See [27]). 21 (1) mata kalya bhavati
- -~£J:!1t~ - - -
~~ · (AMV, rtumfill/(2l 1s)
Tl545.356c27. (1) "The mother is healthy
2s) and in he:~:Jertile period
"First: the (lit. 'having her period')."
mother's body
is in the

20
Yato ca kho bhikkhave matapitaro ca sannipatitii honti, mata ca utuni hoti, gandhabbo ca paccupa!fhito hotJ; evaJP tiJJJJaf!l sannipata
gabbhassiivakkanti hoti (Mahiita!Jhiisalikhayasutta, MN 1.2663_6 [No.38]). Translation: "Monks, the mother and father meet, the mother is at her
fertile period, and the gandharva is present. Because these three conditions meet, the gandharva enters [the womb]." Further: trayiipiiip sthananiilJl
saI!Jmukhibhaviit matulJ kuk~u garbhasyavakrantir bhavati I mata kalya 'pi bhavati rtumati ca I miitiipitarau raktau bhavataf;J SaJPnipatitau ca I
gandharvai ca pratyupasthito bhavatiti l(Aivaliiyanasiitra quoted in the AKBh, PRADHAN ed., 12lz3•25 ; see HONJO, 1984:33; 1990: 1-4). Translation:
"Because three conditions are present, the embryo enters the mother's womb, [namely] the mother is healthy and is in her fertile period, the mother
and father are having intercourse, and the gandharva is present." Further: api tu trayaJJaf!J sthaniinarµ 'salpmukhibhaviit putrii jiiyante duhitaras ca I
katame~arµ trayiipiilJl I miitiipitarau raktau bhavatal;i salpnipatitau miitii casya kalya bhavati rtumati ca *gandharvas ca pratyupasthito bhavati* I
(Divyavadiina, COWELL & NEIL ed., 440 10_13; .text, gandharvapratyupasthitii bhavati, but I follow HIRAOKA [2002: 158]). Translation: "However,
because three conditions are present, sons and daughters are born. What three? The mother and father are having intercourse, the [child's] mother is
healthy and in her fertile period, and the gandharva is present." See also M-4, T26.666a9.12 and 769b 23.25 ; Assaliiyanasutta, MN, II.1571_3 (No.93);
Dharmaskandha, DIETZ ed:, 343.8 ( = Fayun .zu Jim i!Wi.Ji!.~, T1537.507es. 11 ). I owe the last four references to Kazuyo KODA (MrEB-t!t) of Kyoto
University.
21 See KRITZER (1998b:ll).
628 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh

MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijlng, T1451 T317 texts maeeaT1648 T607 T606 -~.
BHATTACHARYA ed.
.... .
--·-----· ~·----.----~ --

condition fit
[for concep-
tion] at that
time.''
[26] (1) pha ma 1. 9:£3:~it./ =~9:FJ5t~ 9:-&J$~ 9:HJ:~-ffij (2) matapitarau raktau
chags bargyur cing .,,,,., .,~ c:E-~. •
±t.~~~
- fD~ · (AMV, -- -@" • (234a3) ::f:9c~r~ bhavatalJ sannipatitau/
phrad ba dang! (253a24) T1545.356c28) "The father (211s-221)
(120a 6) 1. "The "Second: The and mother
*~·
(l86C1s-19) (2) "The mother and father
(1) "The father and father and father and also come "The father are having intercourse (lit.
mother are having mother are mother together.'' and mother 'passionately lying down
intercourse 'meet Qf both aroused exchange love come together')."
in passion')." and make and come together,
love." together." and the
'essence' is
not lost.
Then the
child will
reach [them ]
and be
conceived."
-
[27] (2) ma yang 2. ;t=tffl: !ffi:1' (See [25]) (See [25))
rung bargyur cingl t3 :Jmfcy:¥ . - - -
zla mtshan dang ldan (253a 25)
pa dang!(120a6-7) 2. "The
(2) "The mother is wombofthe
also suitable and in mother is
her fertile period (lit. pure and her
'havin£ her monthly monthly __,__ ___---------~--------~

22 The Tibetan phrasing here resembles the phrasing of the Sanskrit passage of ManobhOmi quoted here, which in Tibetan (Q5536.12a 8;
D4035. l la4_5) likewise reads pha (dang}ma chags par gyur cing phradpa dang.

62()
Parallel Passages

--- ~:~-------·-···--·- --~-· DDJ

YBhS I YBh-- -
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng Abhidharma Vimutti- T606 \ BHATTACHARYAed.
T607
MSV-Tib, Ql035 Yljl!lg, T145.1 T317 texts
~l magga Tt648 -----+---·- -- _·· _\ - ~ - - · - -- -

period'). period has

come.''
I- I ~ff~~IE -~-- (3) gandhaJVas ca
[28] (3) dri za 3. $WlfJ! pratyupasthito bhavati/
yang nye bar gnas par ~rj · (253azs) fJ!1:Errl . - (221)
gyur cing Jug bar 3. "The (AMV, (3) "And the gandhaiva is
'clod na ste/(120a1) aggregates in Tl545 .356c2s)
present."
(3) "The gandhaJVa is the "Third: the
also present and intermediate gandhaiva is
wants to enter." existence are present right
present." [in front of the
motherl-''
(See [18]) (See [18]) (See [18])
[29] _ ~3'(tj:J~ijJi _ sa hi karma-
Iha 'i mig can Jta bur {f[A].r. · A prabhava-
'gyur ro//(120b 2) ~~M~~M
C,
cak~uµ
"[He] is like someone
having divine eyes." .
~~,i
rm* .
ql~!i!J.i@@. sudurastho 'pi
I_... · svam
lftfrD::Rl!lU! upapattideia~
1!~11 · prck~ate/
(253b3_6) (AKBh,
3
"If the 12621 )2
intermediate "For with his
being [is eyes produced
des.tined to by the force of
be born his [former]
among] acts, he (i.e.,
deities, he the interme-
goes with his diate being)
head !!12· If beholds his
________ _Jjthe -~ ______ [future] birth-~__,___ __
-=--- - ---- - -· -----~~--
23 See KRITZER (1998b:1030).
 630 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

-.------------ ----,--~---
GAS
IMSV-Tib, GASMSV- Biiotiiijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
Q1035
IYijin , T1451 T317 texts ma aT1648
IT607 T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
------~-
intermediate place even if
being is very far away."
destined to
be born]
among
human ·
beings,
animals, or
hungry
ghosts, he
goes
sideways. If
[the
intermediate
being is
destined to
be born]
among hell
beings, he
goes with his
head
down ...
As if with
divine eyes,
[the
intermediate
beings} see
their [future]
birth places
from afar."
[30] :zdi:TJT-A · f!!J~-©T- _ _ _ - _ /sacet tatra trividho 'ntariiyo
(253b13) st§t; · - na bhavatiyonido~akrto
"How does (886a 13 ) bijadosakrtah

Parallel Passages 631

GAS GASMSV- Biiotiiijing Abhidharma !;!;;!1f16481 ?for . . Jf!:s· YBh

MSV-Tib1 Q1035 Yijing, T1451 T317 texts BHATTACHARYA ed.
[the "Why does kannado~krtas ca/(221-2)
gandharva] the mother "(continuing from passage
not enter not [24] above) if the three
[the conceive types of obstacles are not
womb]?" an present there, [namely an
embryo?" obstacle] created by a fault
in the womb (yam),
created by a fault in the
seeds ( blja), or created by a
_ _ _ _ _ _ _f_ault in the rro~_!llerl ~c_!s.'~
[31] gal te pha ~~:x:-a (See [36]) (See [36]) (See (33])
las khu ba bvung la/
E:X:~~~
-©ffi " mim~
JSl. 1v'
ma las ma bvung na 1-:;J-~ '.A. IL\ ' lz;;J~
yang de'i tshe re shig ffi "! • £ -@j-@- ' -a
mngal du Jug par mi ,,, " ~T- ~{~~IL\
'gyl]r rollgal te ma A i:t • ~~ff
las 24 bvung la pha las ;s-BJT-~:X: flf:J* ~o
, ma bvung na yang ~·~:X:E if~M·
de i" tshe re shig ~-©~·£ -©~fifr~
mngal du Jug par mi 1il'~~T-
'gyur rollgal te ma ~gt;.
las kyang ma bvungl (253b13-16) w~
pha las kyangma "If the father 1)JtxJt~
bvung na yang de 'i releases -aT-r:£
tshe re shig milgal du 'essence' but ii~-©
Jug par mi 'gyur roll the mother il~:X:T-
ma dag par 'gyur ba does not ~~. -
la pha ma dagpar release (886a13_16)
gyur pa dang/pha 'essence', if "There the
dagpar gyur la ma the mother father and ----~---- --- --- - - -
------------
24Q la.
 632 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

.. 7_,_. ··-~--- ---·-· --- ·--..-- - - - - - - - - --- --------~

~ ~i-Tib, Q:035_-____ .t1:::~ ::~;aiJ~~!~ma ~=~1648JJ~! _J{:s ____J f!TTACHARYA ed. -------<
ma dag2ar gyur ba releases mother get
dang/ ... (120b8- 'essence' but aroused,
121a2) - the father and the
"If th~ fluid emerges does not condi-
from the father, but release tions meet.
does not emer~ 'essence' or The
from the mother, neither of mother is
then at that time [the th_em good-
embryo] will not releases , hearted
enter the womb. If ['essence'], and
[the fluid] emerges [the attracted
from the mother but gandharva] to
does_not emerge does not happiness.
from the father, then enter the The spirit
at that time [the womb. comes to
embryo] will not If the [the
enter the womb. If mother is mother].
[the fluids] ~merge jmpure but The
neither from the the father is mother
mother nor from the pure, if the releases
father, then at that father is ~essence'
time [the embryo] impure but [but the
will not enter the the mother is father
womb. [If] the pure, or if does not
mother is pure but both of them release
the father is impu~ are impure, 'essence'],
or if the father is [the mother] or the
pure and the mother does no_t get father
is i!n_V-ure ... 11 pregnant." releases
{'essence']
but the
mother
does not

()33
Parallel Passages

-- --- - -----~ ____ - - - ~

-- ---

Biiotiiijing Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ

_\ YBhS
\- YBh
GAS GASMSV- T606~ ~HATTACHARYAed.
Yiiing, T1451 T317 texts maJZf.!8 T1648 _T_§Ol__
_M_SV-Tib, Q1035 -

release
~ssenqj.
Or the
father is
pure but
the mother
1s impure.
Or the
mother is
pure but
the father
is impure." -- ---
- --
(See [36]) (See [36]) tatra katame vonido~4/J/
[32] de'i tshe BtiJ:~~ ~@:ffifey - sacedyonir va(Qpastabdha
ma 'i mngal rlung gyis Mw.D ,f. ~p)T§tjt bhavatipjJJgpastabdha va
bgags par gyurpEi; ~~ffeJ~ roJT-~ [ *kaphopastabdha va] 26
'am/mkhris pas ~, ~ffilll §~ · tlD~ tilamadhya vii
bgags pa 'am/ bad ~§~*Ei ,-~ §t~·~ [ *vava11J_adhya va] 27
kan gyis bgags pa ~~:E~, ~ ~m~· sakatamukhi va
'am/khrag gyis bgags ~mi~,~ ~B-~§lli: sankhamukhi vii saliligii
pa 'am/ tshil gyis ~yy,f~ savalika sado~ii saka~yety
bgags pa 'am/ ·
II® ·}i-~~ ffl , ~l=f evaipbhagiyii yonido~a
mtshams shas gang r~tio.,to · Y~' ~tlD veditavyiifJ/ (222-s)
ba 'am/ sman gyis ~tptlD~fN ~ • ~tlD "In this regard, what are
bsgyur ba 'am/ dbus ~t · ~tioi ='=tp the faults in the womb? If
nas 'dra ba 'am/giog ~tl!J ~'··· the wombis affected by
ma 'irked pa 'dra ba
a·Ettlzt... (886a16-18) wil!Q, affected by Qile, [or
'am/rnga mo's kha (253b16-19) "Or [if] the affected by phlegm], or if
/ta bu 'am/ sgo shing "If the mother's sesame [or bwl~] seeds
'ba 'ti kha 'bus ba (?) entrance of womb is are jp.side, or if its_912ering
/ta bu 'am/ sgo gshol the mother's ultimate[ly {is likela cart (sakata) 8 or
organ is defective], ------~---
mda '/ta bu 'am I §SQ --
 634 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

-- ------ ------··---~-----------
GAS GASMSV- BiiotiiiJing- Abhidharma Vimu1 DDJ
MSV-Tib, Q1035 YBhS YBh
Yiiing, T1451 T317 texts ma ; 48 j-1'&Q7
- T606 ------· BHATTACHARYA ed.
---~-;,----- --------
~hing_rta lta bu affected byJ! she does
'am/ ... (121a2_3) wind disease, not a conch, or if it exhibits
"At that time, if th jaundice, some symptoms, or is
conceive crooked, spoilt, or
mother's womb is phlegm, or if an embryo.
obstructed by win'"", the womb is astringent (ka~iiya"), 29 then
Thus, if such cases should be
or obstructed by _b ~. blocked by the womb
or obstructed by blood, or if known as the faults in the
is womb."
phlegm, or [the womb is ultimate[ly
obstructed by blo affected by] defective]
or obstructed by '
swollen or is
grease, or its cavity [s flesh, chilled, or
filled with flesh, o t medicine she when there
is altered by has taken, is noise
medicine, or its g~rli;y-belly nearby, the
center resembles disease, or 'essence' is
b<rrley seed, or ant-waist destroyed.
resembles an ant's disease. Or Or if it is
waist, or is like th the vaginal filled, or if
mouth of a camel r orifice is like it is like a
is like an open Va the mouth of medicine,
tree, or its openin s a camel, or or if the
like a plow beam, its center is center is
its opening is like like a tree like a
cart ... "25 ---- with many _rmt
f . ... "
-----··-- -
- -------------- ----- - ----
25
For another translation of this passage in a longer quotation, see the article by KRITZER in the present volume.
26
As noted by KRITZER in the present volume (his fn. 46), the Tibetan and Chinese attest this phrase, which is absent in BHATTACHARYA's
Sanskrit edition.
27
28
As shown by KRITZER (his fn. 47 in the present volume), this phrase is supported by the Tibetan (nas) and Chinese(~ mai).
Chinese, lf[ che, and Tibetan, shing rta, both mean "a cart". _ _
29
The three terms "crooked, spoilt, or astringent" (Skt. vaiika, do~a, ka~iiya; Chin. FftJ qii, ~ hui, ~ zhu6; Tib. yo ba, skyon, ska] ba) are - as
shown by the Abhidharma-passages identified by CHITANI (2006) - respectively associated with negative attitudes of dishonesty ( -~fa_thya, {ij wei),

Parallel Passages 635

r-------------- ---- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . --·- ---· ----- -- ~ -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -----·- --- ~ -- - - -- --- ------- ~ . - - - - - - - - ----- -

GAS _ GASMSV- BaotaiJing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh

roots, a plow ·
head, or a .
curved shaft
of a cart .... "
1-----------------1 -- --- --------jr-----------

[33] (See [31]) (See [31]) (See [31]) (See [36]) (See [36]) bija_dofJfJ kataine/ sacet
pitur asucir mucvate na
matuh/matur va mucvate
na piiulJI tadubhayor va na
[llJ!_cy~matur va pytiko
bhavatipitur va tadubayor
ve(Y evalJlbhagiyii bijado~a
veditavyaiJ//(226-s)
"What are the faults in the
seeds? If the father - --
releases Jhi~] impuri_ty (i.e.,
semen)3 but the mother
Q.Q~~_not [release her
impurity (i.e., egg)], or the
mother releases [her
impurity] but the father
does not, or !l~ither of
them releases [their
impurities], or the
mother['s seed] is gone
bad, or the father['s seed],
or [the seeds of] both; then
~----------
such cases should be

hatred ( *dve~a, ~ hui), and desire ( *raga, @: yu ). The three physical imbalances seem to be linked to their mental counterparts through the
respective three humors of wind ( vata), bile (pitta), and phlegm (kapha), although I have not located a medical text attesting such linkage.
30 Xuanzang's Chinese translation (T1579.282c5) translates the Sanskrit word asuci, "impurity," literally as buJing (~~), whereas the Tibetan
translation (Q5536.12b 4; D4035.lla7) translates it as "fluid" (khu ba).
 636
Nobuyoshi YAMABE
/

GAS -. ~-~ -~~- -------,

GASMSV- Biiotii1jing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ
MSV -Tib, Q1035 Yiiing, T1451 T317
YBhS YBh
texts maf!f!a Tl648 T607 T606 BHATTACHARYA
---~-~ ed.
- --~-~ - ~-~----·

-- known as the faults in the

seeds."
-----
[34] (See [35]) (See [35]) (See [35])
- - - karmado,JJ.{1 katame/sacen
miitrii vii pitrii va
pptr_asarpvartap.[y;ppJ(arma
na lqtarp bhavary- upacitarp
ubhiibhyiii.n valpunas tena
vii sattvena
maf_.iJl__l(rsamyar(!JlJiJJlm
karma na Jq-tarp bhavary-
upacitarp/(229_11)
"What are the faults in the
IfuJ!!}erJacts? If an act
leaQing t.Q_Qtod~cing a
child has not been done
and accumulated by the
mother, or by the father, or
by both, or, again, if an act
leadingJQ ~Jin,g <! mother
and_a father has not been
done and accumulated by
that sentient being [who is
[35] phadangma ,-----~~-- tope~bomL. "___ .. ~
}?JG!x:ffi:-· ffe!.
ix:e_EE. a@g~wa~ · ;,s ,,. "flf'rio
dagdb.ang_chebar tpief~~ - w1.:r:rJJ!~t:£ X ".f,e... :tE
,~ Fm tiibhyiirp va miitapitrbhyiim
gragJla drizadbang ~r:pffJt o_*t~
~, R ;< f~x:mll:t'
_t, r %o.'
±ti1J\1C {J!fl't] an_yiidJ'iaputr_asamvarta:
chung bar
1argrag_s
grag. na !x:-ff}:JJ?~ ~ · (234a3) (186c19) nivarplfarma krtarp
yang de 'j tshe re shig ~Dlltiffl?Jt
:w:1:x:e ~f~).JJ§. ~ "The merits "The bhavary- upacitarp/ tena vii
mngal ru Jugparmi ~~g-&. f~5<.DJ:tii*~ one has meritorio us sattvenanyadrsamatii-
3 ~ r rol,I' dri za
ef§t II , rri'a~ffi practiced thoughts. f pitrsamvartan.IJ,:.im karma
ti!x:HJ&q:i ~- :.ff~ }J-& . ~ before from the~ren s .krtam bhavatr,
~ a ............. _ _ _ _
upacita1p/.
~ - - -
---".,!_----- ----·-------- --··.

31
The text has ming, which is a single variant in Q; an others (CDLNS) read mi

Parallel Passages 637

GAS GASMSV- Biiotiiijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ

------i·--· --- -l ~- ---
YBhS YBh
-- -
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Y111ng, T1451 T317 texts maggaTl64~8 }'607 _ T606 B.f!AT:rACHARYA ed.
dbang_ che bar g_rags 1§11'!~# (886a26-21) x:er m* which [a are equal." mahe._siikftX£sarpvartaniyam
la pha dang ma dag •. , tf*~ "The ~nf~A~ · gandharva] amEhesiik_hJ!E_sarpvartaniya
dbang chung bar 1£~1FT-m parents (AMV, to be born as rp very- evarpbhiigiyiilJ
grags na yang de i' . are noble T1545.363c27_ a man arises /(armada~@ veditavyiilJ/
tshe re shig mngal du (253b23-26) but the 29) are also (2211-13)
Jug par mi 'gyur rol,I' "The parents approach- "The Praj.iapti equal." "... or if ~}!act has been
gal te thams cad are noble but ing spirit is states: 'If the done and accumulated by
dbang chung bar the lowly, or parents' the parents le_ading to
grags la I pha ma dag intermediate the meritorious p_roducinga different kind
gyis kyang bu rnyed being is approach- acts are of child, or an act leading
ear 'gyur ba i' las ma lowly, or the ing spirit is superior, but if to gettil}g_9ifferent kinds of
byasshing ma bsags intermediate noble but the child's parents, [such as] leading
par gyur! dri zas being is the meritorious to getting [parents]
.kyang12..ha mar gyur noble but the parents acts are QQ§Sessing great R_ower _and
ba 'i las ma byas shing parents are are lowly. inferior, [the _i.!Utl!ori_!y or leading to
ma bsags par gyur/. .. lowly. In For these child] cannot getting [parents] :wi!hout
(12la5_6) these cases reasons enter the great power and author!!y,
"If the parents posses also [the the fault of womb. If the has been done and
great power and embryo] mismatch parents' accumulated by that
authority, but the cannot be arises." meritorious sentient being [who is to be
gandharva possesses conceived. If acts are reborn], then such cases
small power and the parents inferior, but if should be known as faults
authority, then at and the the child's in tl;le [formerLa.cts."
that time [the intermediate meritorious
gandharva] will not being are acts are
enter the womb. If both noble, superior, [the
the gandharva but if their child] cannot
possesses great karma do enter the
power and authority not match, womb. If the
but the parents [the embryo] parents' and
_I>~S~_Q~ cannot be the child's -..J-... -..-!.- -----· ·-------
--------- ~---------
·-·-·-------~------ - -,-------------·----···
32 Text~, but I follow the variant given in the footnote to the Taisho canon.
 638 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS
- ----- GASMSV- Baota1jing Abhidharma
-u- Vimutti-
I] . DDJ
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yi"in , T1451 T317 texts _____ m~T1648 T607 i6~Zs _________1[%: TTACHARYA ed.
and authority, then conceived meritorious
at that time [the either." acts are equal,
gandharva] will not only then can
enter the womb. If all [the child]
[involved] possess enter the
small power and womb'."
authority, but the
parents have neither
performed and
accumulated an act
leading to getting a
child nor has the
gandharva per-
formed and
accumulated an act
leading to getting
[such] parents, ... "
----+-------!~--- ----
(36] 'di na pha :;silif , ffiUru~~ _ [A]fr~X:£JI.!3Z a~~ · Jtfil (See [25]-[35])
dan__- ,gll!a chagspar p BUJ! ~$::f~D ffi · }j§E'J.::f Mi®~PfrE[
CXJ.IJ cmg 'dus pa ~*it$- • ~ ~$ · ~ ~ , KEiC~ i!i · 1[./t~~
dang/ma yang rung tzo..t~~~ ~[A]ff ' ~ ' #::f~ Jslfffi~t~
sh
. ing zla mtshan ~J!t • >(-BJ fJjlfJ~ 2f.F::f!~ifff.--:-:- ~ · J=!U~*
_dangldanpargyur/ &rl§J§~ ©$~~ ~~~ff' $XffiJ::f:lj[
dri za yangnve bar ~11 AID 'i'ff!~ #::f~ ' # t~ · ~~*
gnas shing Jug 'dod JJff • (253b2s- r · 3Kt$ ::f ~ , ~# ~mf=E~.
par 'gyur/pha dang c1) ff!~X:HJ "• #::f r · ::f~~
ma las kyang khu ba "If the womb rnHi ~ ~ , #::f ll , vt~N
byunglpha dang ma of the r · $ • #f ff · Jl~~iE
d~yanggyur/ mother is (886a 28 -b1) ~ , * 3 it::f)l:?W
de 'i tshe ma 'i mngal ~ . if the "If there is • #::f 15 · NPf~--
·- ---- ------~ · - ·--
33
I am not sure how to construe *· I tentatively read 3f(:U.

Parallel Passages 639

GAS G1SMSV- I Baotaijing I Abhidharma · 1 !:;t¢164~ fg{ ~~-1 r:~S --~-r ~~TTACHAR~A ed. - -
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yim , T145_!_ T317 texts - --1 · 1--- T - - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - ~ -- - -

rlung gyis bgags par intermedi- · are no ~tiz

ma gyur/ ... I pha ate being is problems
dang ma dag dbang present and or ffi:f1ffvt
che b_ar grags na dri sees the mis- ffi.%11}. rp
za yang dbang che intercourse, matches as :f5i#::f
bargrags/pha dang and if there stated ~,#:f
ma dag dbang chung is no fault as above, if ~-:f~
bar grags na/ dri za stated above, [the ~~-~
yang dbang chung and if the parents · W1Jvff
bar grags/ ... (12lb1. parents and and the • (l86C19-
the child child] have 7a1)
s) he timings
"In this case, the have [done] similar
parents have similar acts, intentions fthe
intercourse, the only then and habits, rents]
mother is suitable does [the and are atch. The
and at her fertile intermediate equally ombofthe
period, the being] enter noble or other is
gandharva is present the mother's lowly, and en and is
and wants to enter, womb." if the ot
the fluids emerge conditions structed.
from the parents, from he
both parents are previous erishes
pure, and at that lives light in
time the mother's [match], md and
womb is not blocked then the sno
bywind ... , the approach- eked
gandharva possesses ing spirit ought.
great power and will meet Her mind]
authority just as the the soft and
parents possess great parents t
J2QW~I and _authorl!y, and rverted.
or the gandharva become he has no
ossesses small their sease and

---- ---·· --------

r-=--=-=-- . - - . -
 ;'"<'~"',~1'-'?'-'

640
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS
_¥t[Y_-Ti~2g19Js $.~~;~;1~ lifi~a1}1~gr ~~idh~ffia t!=~ 6:8 __f~- -- -J ~:s YBh
BHATTACHARYA
--
---
ed.
-----~~-
--·-- -
power and authority child." I I I mixed with I is fit for
just as the parents
J>_oss<;ss . sml:l.lLpower urine." pregnancy.
_cing_ctuthQ{iJy ... " She is not
arrogant and
has no
perverse
behavior.
She follows
the True
Dharmaand
does not
accept filth.
She gives up
any kind of
fault. The
'essence' is
[not] impure
or not
polluted. It is
moderate,
not hard, not
putrid, and it
is not red or
black. It is
not mixed
with wind,
cold, or
various
poisons, and
is separate
_______ . frotn urine."

Parallel Passages Ml 1

··-·- -··---, .Jffc--·-~·-1-- - --~ . ---- ~

GAS ~1SMSV- I Biiotiiijfng I Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 --. . Y11mg, T1451 T317 - - - texts-
maggaT1648 T607~-·--- . T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
[37] dri zas sems tzo~rp~ti'X 1J~~ff t$ ::s~rp~i~A t$BJ1f~ · ff!3K± ~f~ sacet stri bhavitukiimo
gnyis po pho 'i sems 5tijiTB; , 5'c :@tf;W=,G\ Hitffi'fn~f.B:,I]~ t$~1!~± t$~~ ' {,\ bhavatipuru§e saipriigaiJ
sam/mo'i sems las m.-:.l.itwfiU J5Jr~~ ;&~).(,!]~ .. .:1'I W.: · 1P~ § § ~-r=:1 ' ii saipviisecchot-padyate/
sems gang yang rung Z1L\ · ~fi:iJ ~ , tzo~ £z::cp~~J-..ijiT ~{~~~- ~~T ' :f sacet purU§Q bhavitukiimo
ba zhig nye bar bzhag 1%= · ~~ Z*J{U:f ffi'¥ • ~).(,!]~ A · lJ.)\.fj! ~~RA~{~ bhavati tasya striyiiip
--L_-
~
na ma 'imngal du Jug ~~ , ~a filii :ft~ ~am~ ~).(#a · ii~ · sW.: saipragalJ
par 'gyur ro;/(12lb 6) ~~:fj~).(~ A/Mt · (AMV, B~~:g:t~ :W-.® · ,l]H~ saipviisecchotpadyate/ tatas
"When the '[if · :;s~R (886b1_3) T1545.363b20 _ ~± · 'ii!P ~{,\ · ~ts1t tatsamipaip ca gacchati/
gandharva has ~ , :fj~).(~ "At that 2s) ~~W:1i1W ~T · ~'t~ §t[{viis ca stzyapagamanec-
formed either [type ~~a~ time, if the "If the AIA~~ · ~~z::fj~:t( chotpadyate p_uru§!J.S~ ca
of perverted] thought 'fiit · (253c 2_ spirit intermediate (234a 10. 13) A · HJ.~gf~ puru§iipagamanecchii/(23 6_
from among the two 3) cherishes being is piale, "The spirit ft · 1~13F~ 9)
[states of] thoughts, "Thus, when two when it is about already rests rW.:rbJ:tz: "If [the being to be reborn]
namely a male [type the different to enter the in the A · (187a1_ desires to become female,
of perverted] thought intermediate [types of] womb, it 'essence' The 4) passion driving to
or a female [type of being is thoughts, develops thought of "The spirit of intercourse arises toward
perverted] thought, it about to they do attachment to the spirit the one who the man. If [it] desires to
will enter the enter the not match, the mother and develops is going to be become male, passion
mother's womb." womb, it first and it hatred to the desire. If born driving to intercourse
gives rise to cannot father ... If it is [the spirit] is approaches. arises in it for the woman.
two types of enter the female, when it male, instead It thinks: 'If Thereupon, it approaches
perverted womb." is about to [of the this man them, and for those [beings
thoughts. enter the father, it [i.e., father] who would become]
What are the Cf. ~ift~ womb, it imagines is not having femal~ the wish to push
two? If [the btiji:it?f : develops that] itself intercourse away the woman arises,
intermediate 5'cffl=fi attachment to enjoying [the with the whereas for those [who
being] is JJHIUZ the father and intercourse woman [i.e., would become] !}lale~ the
male,it ,G\ ... ~~ hatred to the with the mother], I wish to push away the man
__ develops ______ ~~ ... ~ mother."---~
mother1, _ . want to have . farises]."_

34
The portion, "miitari/striyii straipo raga utpadyate," is missing in PRADHAN's edition. It is here supplemented based on the AKVy, WoGIHARA
ed., 2802s-26·
35
See KRITZER (1998b:1030).
642 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

------- -- ----

GAS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q103J _ __ ,
··_ii:g~l~5~_:::;~ng f~~~i~~~r~a :i;;!~~~~ f~_____ r~~~~ - ._
- I_ BHATTACHARYA ed.
attachment ~:t(~... tatriisya accompanied intercourse
to the (T310[13]. miitapitros tiilp by the [with her]'. It
mother and 322b 10•12) vipratipattilp gandharva. develops
hatred to the "[The d.~fva J2JJ.f!1Sa/J The anger, hates
father. If intermedi- sata!J paw.nsno gandharva the man, and
[the ate being] raga utpadyate then hates adores the
intermediate first gives miitari/§_tr_iJ!i the father woman.
being] is rise to two straiJJo ra_g/ and loves the With the
female, it types of utpadyate 4 mother. anger and
develops perverted pitari/ Once it loves adoration, it
attachment thoughts... vipaiyayat [the mother], pushes away
to the father If it is pratighaiJI the hatred the man and
and hatred !1Jale ... If evaf!l pafhyate will be approaches
to the it is Prajiiaptau enhanced. the woman."
mother." fel!].ale... "gandhar-vasya This male
tasmin samaye [spirit] will
dvayos cittayor wish to enjoy
anyatariinyata- itself solely
racittam with the g,an-
sammukhi- dharva."
bhiitam
bhava"ty
anunayasahaga
tamva
pratighasahaga
t8lp veti"/
(AKBh, 12621.
35
24 )
"After it (i.e.,
the gandharva)
sees the - - - ·-------~-

36
The meaning of this passage is not entirely clear. I suspect that there is some confusion in the Chinese translation of the text.

643
Parallel Passages

GAS Baotaijing Abhid-ha;ma ~mu-ttJ-·-- -IDD-IJ - - - \-Y-Bh_S_ -

r-G-!,4-SMSV-i I --1· YBh-
MSV-Tib,
~ - -- ,---·-· Yijing,
Q1035 - - . - I
- - -T1451
-
... - , T317 I
-- -.-- ·- l texts . \ ~aggaTl648 \ 1'607 \ T606 C - •
BHATTACHARYA ed.
- - - - ~ - · ~ - - - - - - - - - - _ __ _ _ .

parents'
intercourse
there, [if] it is
male, a male
desire arises for
the mother,
[whereas if] it is
female, a
female desire
arises for the
father. The
opposite [is
felt] for the
other [parent].
So it is stated in
the Praj.iapti
'At that time,
the gandharva
faces one of the
two possible
[states of]
mind, one
associated with
affection or
one associated
. with hostility'." ---: ~
tadutpadiic ca puru~am eva
[38]
~~Plf1~1:j vii kevalalp pasyati striyai_ll
,'G,~B -p
~-fxBll vwsa cayathayatha ta1p
desam upafli~ate tathii
f=r~ · tathasya tadanye~am
(234a13.14)
"Already aliganiilp darsanam
resting on -----· _avahiyate/xon1_dqrsa[l.ilp vii
 644
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

----

GAS I GASMSV- ·1 - ----- --

Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSY-Tib, Q1035 ____ Yljlng'. T1451 ¥~~mi }Ing· 1 ~i~<lharma -r----------r-- --~-
_magg_c!_'!'_!_6jt __!~Q? ---- _T606 BHA_!_TA~HARY~ e__g_.__
the eajr_ance puru~endriyadarianaJ!l vii
Qf th~_womb, kevalaf!l pratyupasthifaJ!l
in its mind it bhavati/ ... (239_11)
pushes away "And due to the arising of
the man and this [passion], [the
[thinks]: 'I gandharva] sees exclusively
have already the man or the woman, and
engaged in the more [it] comes into
intercourse contact with that part [of
(lit. the body], the more the
'courtesy') sight of the other parts [of
[with the the body] are abandoned;
mother, there only remains the
accompanied si_ght of the va_gina or the
by]the male organ. II -

gandh__arva '.~
[39] yang dag pa rmm~;ffl11 4~ffl~
ma yin pa 'i 'du shes (See [93]) (See [93]) sacet flfpflPUJJXQ bhavati
i~~f1[;\ ' ~ ~U13!t.-
bcu po 'di Jta ste/ dro "H?'A;f,§ , ---l- nicefu kule~u pratya-
?{-p . . D, /\... ~ . :ff7j(
ba 'i 'du shes dang I )st' -jcfij' jayate tasya cyutikale
-,;:z;I~~ _:f§ '
~m1I~~ praveiakale ca kolahJJla-
nyi ma 'i ... rlu.qg JX.-;z:::s:/J'!nJD" :::Rm'·#
gi ... char gyi ... rdzi fabdo nadavanattahanadi-
char gyi ... grang !M**I praveiai ca nimitta1.n
~· 1'1=*.tis,, ***~ ~~flt.
ba 'i ... yul ngan ~, 151*1~ pradurbhavati//(2314-1s)
flt11t ;:e:A "If this is [a being] having
gyi ... rlung mar ;t; . :}(!.iilf[
gyi ... char drag gi ... l'". ~A little merit, it is reborn into
skye bo phalpo che
1tm~1m~ an inferior family (kula),
~ZJD, . -.r;: ~t!K~¥
kll_co_:_dQn ba 'i 'du 1PJI.%T · and at the time of its death
shes de cf!J.ngde dag I (1) f.J<~ A :JR,t·~ and of entrance [into the
3:rR,i~ _. _ ------·-----~-1
~9mb l a vi~ion manifests of

37
Text, gzig. CD read gzeg, but LNS read 'dzeg, which I have adopted.
38 The text has a daprja here. --

Parallel Passages 645

- -- - - -
----~
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing [ Abhidharma lvimutti-- -\ DDJ --YBhS YBh
T317 texts _ J
magga T 1648 T607
-MSV-Tib, Q1035 --~ Yljlng, T1451 \- -T606 \_ BHATTACHARYA ed.
--- -

thob par 'gyur roll ... ~· ti. ~_1E [hearing] an uproar and of
yang dag pa ma yin (2) flt~~ ""~
ri=iJ JI\'\
• 1!l:E entering into ~_thicke_t of
pa 'i 'du shes gzhan ,fl ' ij~f~ . reeds or a dense
---~ forest.
-
bcu nang du skye ba (3)flt~- (886b3_7)
~:_·:--, na skye bar 'gyur tel "011ewho
-'tf,, i bna
~·
(4)lx~~ has
( 1) bdag khyim du acfumu-
I Jug go snyam pa
gt '
illfltA~ lated_ little
dang! 1'€ ' merit
(2) khang bzangs la (6)JxA~ thinks by
'dzeg37 go snyam pa ::4:
r:::J ' himself:
dang! (7) fltA~ 'There is
(3) khang ba brtsegs ff· ~ water and
mar Jug go snyam pa (8) fltA:11 cold wind.
dang! [}g ' A big
(4) khrila 'dzeg go (9) fltA#i crowd of
snyam pa dang! tL, people are
(5) rtsva spyil du Jug (10) fltAii coming to
go snyam pa dang! rl3~ · (253c4- whip and
( 6) Jo ma 'i spyil bur 9) harm me. I
Jug go snyam pa "[The will run
dang! gandhaiva] into a
(7) rtsva §_(__ugpo 'am/ develops great pile
(8) pal£§ !__bibs po 'am/ fancies and of grass or
(9) rtsig pa 'igseb makes enter a
bam/ erroneous pile of
(10) rtsig pa 'i drung ideas. It leaves or a
du 'gro bsnyampa develops the thicket of
ste/(121br 122a1) images of grass. Or I
"The ten erroneous cold, great enter a
ideas are such that }Vjnd, great deep vally.
[the gandharva] gets rain, clouds, Or I climb
the idea that there is and fQ&____ a high and __, - - - - -
 ---~p;F,: '.'/er'-' :';IC:·-' ~;o--

646 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS GASMSV- Biiotaijing I Abhidharma Vi~utti- DDJ

-· -·-1· ·-·-- -
YBhS
- --- -.--- ------- -
YBh
MSV-Tib,_01035 -Yijing, T1451 T317. texts _T607 T606 r BHATTACHARYA ed.
-i-_ma_gg.:1'1'164t.I - ---
. --- - ·-·--

heat, [strong] Sometimes it steep

sun[light ], ~ind, rain, hears .noi§Y [place],
a rain storm, cold, a ypices of a where
bad place, a fierce big crowd of [they]
dusty wind, heavy people. cannot
rain, or ~n uproar Having find [me]."
from a big crowd of developed
people .... these ideas,
When ten other according to
erroneous ideas arise the nature of
within, [the the [former]
gandharva] arises in acts, it
[the womb]. Here, further gives
[the gandharva] rise to the
thinks ten
(1) 'I am entering a erroneous
house', ideas. What
(2) 'I am going up on are the ten?
a terrace', (3) 'I am (1) 'I am now
going up into a multi- entering a
storied building', ( 4) house'. (2) 'I
'I am ascending a am about to
thr9ne', goupa
(5) 'I am entering a tower'. (3) 'I
grass hut', (6) 'I am am going up
entering a small leaf a raised
hut', (7) 'I am palace'. (4) 'I
entering i!Jliic!<etof am
.reeds', or (8) ·~ d~nse ascending a
for~st', or (9) 'I am thrQne'. (5) 'I
going into an am entering
interstice in a wall' or a grass hut'.
(10) 'in front of a (6) 'I am

h47
Pam lid Passages i

---·· - - t- - .- - - n----. I~ . -- --1 - .- \-· - -- \ - -\ - -

GAS GASMSV- Biiotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ · YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035
- - - - - - ----
Yijing,
~--
T1451
~--
T317
-~- ..
texts
·-~-- -
magga
- - --· ---
T1648 T607
--·----~-
T606
~--.--~--- ~ · --·-
- BHATTACHARYA ed.
--· -
'
wall'. I entering a 1
leaf house'.
(7) 'I am
entering a
thicket of
grass'.·-
(8) 'I am
entering a
forest'. (9) 'I
am entering .
a hole in a
wall'.
(10) 'I am
entering into ------- ------ -- -----
a hedge'.'_'- · sacet sukrtakannakiiri
(See [91 ], (See [91],
[40] (Cf. [39]) (Cf. [39]) m~t~ P
. o~*~~
~ / . - .::r,?P&; ,6..
·1~ [93]) [93]) bhavaty UCCefUJw]efU
~~,1[i,~ =1T'"El JC11t1 llfl ·~ pratyajayate/ tasya
4}=,A ar,~fr!:!,>'.!itOO prasiintamadhurasabdaprii
,i.:.,~ '
~~Jilrffi ~**~n3tz~ durbhavalJ pr_f!siidavi-
::R:kffi& Wtt, ~~~* manadisthiiniirohanam ca
~j($t• JUJf t'!li¥M~ , nimittaip pradurbliavati/1
ix:'i'A~ ft) ~if§filI • (2316-17)
J:::ktlf- (AMV, "If this is [a being) who has
~$. ';i~ T1545.360a12- done good acts, it is reborn
~m:J~m- 14) . in a high family, and a
~ffl. "As is said in vision manifests of
(886b7_9) the siitra, when [hearing] calm and
"One who one who has charming sounds and of
h_as practiced- good going up on a terrace
_accum__!!: is about to die, - - - - - - - I --·-- ----

39 The underlying Sanskrit might be vimana, which is found in the corresponding passage from the YBh.

---
 - - - - - · -~,--·-,>:1.-~'

l~

648
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

---- -i-- .- -------. -- - ~- -~---- ~

T6o_1_ YBhS YBh

I - - ----
f~J,;b, Q!03;
- ----- - -- ----- - . - - ~~. ----- - - - --- . - - -- -~~ .
J~1~':'E~1 Tfiiw!;~~- ~~idh~~~~ ~ T;!1'~~t64s_]_ -- -----~ I - ~----- -- ~
!_@§__ BHATTACHARYA ed.
-- ·-
---~- - ----~--~ ----··=--------- -
Jc!t~d_ID<!!!Y he sees
merits and wonderful a {p_rii§_Jd_i), going up into a
is-powerful ~aj~ce, a Jo(t)'_paJ<!c~ ( vif11@_i1, or
thinks: garden, groves, the like."
'Now cold ponds, music,
wind and fragrance, and
great rain flowers. A
from the palanquine39
sky reach decorated with
sentient jewels all over
beings. I appears to
will enter~ receive him."
gre_athall
q_11 tMJQ12
of the
hti1L4i!!g. I
will be in a
flat palace
and ascend
the
ilJ:rQ_ne'."
[41]
tato ~ya Y:.-8:NPU;~
skandha
:x:ary,JrF · tatra saIJ7raktayor
ghanibhavanty ":n:
,~.4- t$~¥IT g]_ F=I
.:J'.1-e
~t$1trlX§~ miitJpjt_ros tivravasthagate
}f:Sl:tt~l£'1AJ ~1if§f · rage sarvapascadghanaip
antarabhava- ,~~ . sn·J::iri\f
ff! .l-'i~ 'J , ""' (187a4_5) fukraip IJl_ucya.Jy tadante
skandhas ~,4- •
~ '1:: "At that time
cantardhiyante cavasyam ubhayofJ
(234a14-1s) tb~father [sukra]so]JitabindulJ
ity upapanno "Immedia- rel~_£1~es pradurbhavati/dvayor api
bhavati/ tely, the ·~ssepce' The ca tau iukraso]Jitabindu
(AKBh, 12626- .fother and gandharva is
21) matur eva yonau
.the mother gladdened m1SJibh1Jtau .6ram
"Then, with the and thinks:
-release
- baddhvii tJ4l!a!/lp
condensation "This is my
-'essence'_
- CK:IJJ!{l(/JJ7/71}(;/l/ /;l{[i:7(/J/i

1
Parallel P.1..,-.,agcs (i_\l)
,
GAS GASMSV- Biiotfjjfing 1-Abhidh~rma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tibz__Q1035 --. Y1j'ing, T1451 _ T317 -------
texts --~--- -
maggaTl648 T607 \ T606
- -----
\ BHATTACHARYA ed.
I
of its [new] The place." pakva1p payaiJ sitibhiivam
aggregates and gandharva at apadyamiinalp/ (24 1-4) 40
the disappear- that time "When the passion of the
ance of the gives rise to aroused f~t!_ier and mother
intermediate a perverted reaches tlie [most]
being's thought, vehement stage, finally
aggregates, thinking that thick §e111en is_released.
there is they are his Thereupon a drop of their
reincarnation." 'essence', and semen and blood definitely
he becomes comes forth. Then, their
pleased." two drops of semen and -·
blood are mixed in the
mother's womb and having
combined into a creamy
substance, they become a
single lump, like boiled
----- --- - ---------- ----------- -- -- -
milk being cooled clmvn_." _
[42] 'du shes 'di ~iey Lt1 lHt t$Af.il§-& anindriyaip hi - 13{f !f::: q:i Jp))i fflfey~p~, [:J yatra tat sarvabijakaip
rnams las_ 'du shes 11:t~B~PA ~U~frx sukrasonitam ~~~1=Ef~illl Jl.ii~tt'.\ vipakasaipgfhitam
gang yang rung bani El:tffi · J!!~D l1i . antariibhavena ~ · ~1:ff~ ffiij-&
,6. Y:. BJ:f!
·-- ----
iisrayopiidatr
gala brten nas ma 'i 5tij-&-i5~~ (886b11) sardham Tp · (234a1s- a · (187as- alavavii.ianam
mngal du Jug par ~. Y:.fflEf "The nirudhyate 16) 6) sammurcchati/15 __ .Itena
'gyur ro//de der skyes ffil~F~~ gandharva ~endrivaip "When he "Immedia- saqijatasareJJa
nas !us Jlllr nur por ¥!!1 . EE Y:. m: immedia- pradurbhavati/ becomes tely the su.kraSOl)itapiIJrjena saha
mngon par 'grub par f! Ifil;fOA[z;I telyforms bijalikura- pleased, the _intermediate tadvioarvastalambano
'gyur ro//dga 'bode r,j-~~pfr
tr, • ~ii a kalala nirodhotpada- intermediate JJ~ing is lost :ntaf~bliavo nirudhyaW
la nur nur po'i !us ni ~{&1emf- (lit. a nyayena [I] yat Q~ing and the five tannirodhasamakalam ca
pha ma 'i migtsang ba 1± · (253c9. 'store- tat /(ala/amity pqi§hes and aggregates ta5yaiva sarvabifasya ·
yin par yang mi blta 11) house')." akhyayate/ [anew enter the vijnanasya samart/Jyat
la/nur__nur po'ilus ---
"The
- ---- - - -
(AKBh,_127 5. __ _ -~eiT1gl _c1_ris~s womb where tadanyll__sii/Jmencf_riya- - ~

4 Corrected according to SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:127); for another English translation, see ibid.
°
 [JibJ~FY'

650
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS GASMSV-
I ·.--_-- --__ ---------_- -- ----_----- - ---_--,-_ --------_--- - ·-
Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tip,_Q1Q3_5________ _Yi_j1ng~J} 4~1 /~~t?n:J~~~dh~rma f__ 111<!ggll 'fl(j4§_ ~ _T~Q7 _____ ~ __ ]606 __ _
BHATTACHARYA ed.
pha ma 'i migtsang ba moment the 7)44
las gzhan yang ma yin intermediate in the the '.e~s_en~es' mahiibhiitavyatimisro 'nyas
"Since the [combined] of the
tel dga 'bo 'on kyang being thinks tatsabhiigaiJ
semen and st!meI!__and parents are
pha ma 'i 1m·Ktsan,I! ba ihus;ii - - _sqkraso1J1'!.ipi1Jqo jayate
de nyidla brten nas
_blc,10d have no t>lood. The united." _s_endr{y@I tasya1µ
enters the sense faculties,
rgyu dang rkyen 41 .£.OnSC!QUS- cfivasthiiyii1µ prafJ~thitalJl
mother's they terminate n_ess rests in
tshogs pa 'i dbang gis womb.One viiiifinam baddhah
along with the the prafJsandhir ity ucyatelsa
nur nurpo'i /us should know intermediate
'byung bar 'gyur tel [combined] ca{tu j(alalavasthal(24 4_
that this !:>_ejQg~[and a 'essence'."
'di /tar khu ba dang embryo is new lump of 10)
khrag niclmJgs_pa called kalala. "Into this merges the
semen and
tsam dang /rten tsam It is not" ~ alayaviiiiana, which
blood] emerges
du 'gyur bar zad do// different contains allseeds, which is
J)Q§~e§1ing
(122a1.3) from the comprised in [the category
s~nse faculties,
"Based on any of semen of the like the of karmic] maturation, and
these ideas from father and which maintains the
[respective]
among-the the blood of body ... That interme_cliate
ceasing and
[erroneous] ideas the mother. arising of a being, which has perverted
[mentioned above], Due to the _cognitfon of its objec!§,_
seed and a
[the gandharva] meeting of Rei:1s_he·s-together with the
sprout. That
enters the mother's the parents' [state of the lump of semen and blood,
womb. Once it has semen and which has become cream-
new embryo] is
reincarnated there, it ~foodas- like. Tlie moment [the
called Jg1Jala."
manifest.~ !lS tJl_t!J~e~~- causes and lump of semen and blood]
_______._ Pe!"i~!J.es, clue tQ_ t_he__ _
-~- - -·----~-- =----- - ~ - ~ - --~- ~-~~
------=- =--~-~ -·--· --~------- -
41
Q rgyan. All other exemplars read rkyen.
42
43 Here "impure" (mi gtsang ba) seems to correspond to asuc1; i.e., the semen and egg of the parents. Cf. fn. 30.
In this context, "foundation" seems to be the intended meaning, but one should also note that in technical Buddhist writings, alambana often
means "cognitive object." Y1jlng's Chinese translation apparently takes this term in that sense.
44
45 See KRITZER (2000a:250). KRITZER believes that Vasubandhu here based himself on the Manobhtimi See ibid., p. 255.
See fn. 31.
46
Corrrected according to SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:127); another English translation in the same place. Sec also KRIT/ER (2000:-L255-256).

Parallel Pa"-..agcs h)\

GAS G1SMSV- j Baotaijing I Abhidhanna I Vimutti~ I DDJ \ YBhS IYBh

MSY-1)b, Q1035
I Yi_1mg,
embryo called] kalala
('morula',_Tib. nur
nur po). Ananda, as
for this, the body of
kalala should neither
. be viewed as being
[identical with] the
parents' impure
[substances],42 nor
[should] the body of
kalala [be viewed as]
being different from
the parents' impure
[§ubstances]. Rather,
Ananda, it is due to
the coming together
of causes and
conditions based on
the parents' imp_!lre
Isul:,_stances] that the
body of the kalala
appears. The semen
and blood are thus
merely _a foundation
( *alambana) 43 or~
§up port.
[43] (See (46]) l(s;~ [46]) - I (See [46D
( I I I
T1451 T606 ~ATTACHARY_~ ed.
T31 ?__ __ texts ___ _ _ __ __magga T16'!_8 __ T607 _
conditions, capacity of the conscto_!l_s-
they stay as riess that contains all seeds,
the f:ogrritive another but similar lump of
9bject and ~~_men and blQQQ, mixed
supgort of with the gross elements of
the sense faculties in a subtle
conscious- state, arises [as a being]
iiesi.''- - possesgng sense_fu,culties.
The ~ons_ciousness that is
staying in this state is said
to have reached [the stage
of] 'conception' (pratisan-
dhi), and this is the stage
of [the new embryo called]
lf__ajala."
---,-- ---r---· ~
r· _ (See [46]) 1(See [ 46]}ftff;i ca tas~a j(alalasye;dri-
yamahabhiitani jca_yendri-
~JJaiva sahotpadyantel ...
I I I I I (2410-11)
"These gross elements of
the sense- faculties of
. - ~------ - --- --~- - - ~ - --· --------
/{ala/a arise with the !ac:hle
 ,:.;ir,t"'',ill!'"'' -

652 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

---- --- ·-------

-- --- - ---- --------------- - ----i- -----------------------~i--- --
GAS GASMSV- BiiotiHjing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
l\!_SY:Ti~,_Q1035 _ . Ylj1n_g, T1451 T317 texts _ _ magga T1648 T607 T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
--, ---- -- 1- -- -------1-_ --- _--~-T-- ------- J-_ ----- -r_ ---- --- -Ts~nse~1a,cu!!yalone."
-- ~-- •- - ----- -T - ------------- - - --,- - - - - - - - - - · - - ~ ----- --,----- - - - - - ···- - ·-----,- •· - . .- - - -- ------ •· - - - ··- - - - - -- --- -

[44] tat punafJ sarva_b[ill.kalp

vijiiiinalp pannirviipa-
dhannakiipii1p paripurpa-
bijam aparinirviipadhar-
makfipiilp punas trividha-
bodhibijavikalarp//(251 _2)
"That consciousness
holding all §~~ds has a
complete [set of] seeds for
those who possess the
qualities [needed] for
complete nirvfipa, but is
deprived of the seeds for
the three types of
awakening ( bodh1) for
those who do not possess
the qualities [needed] for
complete nirvapa."
- --- - - - - - - -- - . ----- - -- - - ---- ·------ ----- - --

[45] 'di dag nyid ttE;§gi~' Q_tMi~ tatra pJthividhiitum

~a_'i Jihams kyis brten/ 1.R §gtl{ ' ~tl{f-,t . upiidiiya rupalp vardhate
chui'khams kyis !Xi:t§gf~' 11<~0- vistin;ataratii1p gacchati/
bsdus/me 'i khams ~!t§t~ .. . 53a-.!kW _abdhiituiJ punas tad eva
kyis yongssu S111111 ~D¥Jrffr .. . [s]51J(=-1 salpgfh]Jiiti/t_eiqfi/Jiitus tad
par byas/[lll_nggj §u1a - eva paripiicayati/
12;J~fO~JJ /' IV
:t=,,-,+-,++--.Jc±:/.1'
lfh_ams kyis g.yo par 'Fl5f~1X~ r&rmJrx _viiyu_dhiitur aligiini
byas bas 'phel zh1ng :?t*~ffi!~ if,X ... vibhajati Salpniveiayati
yangs pa dang rgyas :R: · (254a7_ ' (259_12)
par 'gyur roll ... dper 15)
E~~*
zfi ... 12;1 "In this regard, relying on
na ~a ban . : . de dag "The earth jtg7}(51jf ' the ~arth element, the body
las rgyu rkyen gyi element
- - can t=oclfJN~ grows and becomes bigger.

()):,
Paralld Pa»sages

GAS GASMSV---1 Biiotiiijin~ IAbhidha;ma Vimutti- DDJ

- YBhS YBh
l magga T1648 . T607 \ \ T606 --,\ BHATTACHARYA ed.
- - ~ -~ -----
MSV-Tib, Q1035 --- Y1jlng, T1451 I T317 ___ texts ~ - !
The water~lement, in turn,
dbang gis myu gu support. The tsz:~:?t holds it together. The fire
dang! 'dab ma dang! water ff · ~.l~!llent ripens it. The ~ind
sdong bu dang! ~leIIJ.ent can (886c 19- element separates the
snying po dang!me hold 887a2) limbs and places them."
tog dang! 'bras bu together. "[The
47 earth
dag rim gyis mngon The fire
par 'grub bol!(123a7_ element can element]
b6) ripen. The ultimately
"The earth element wind supports.
48 The water
supports them. The element can
water element holds promote... . .elemen-t
[theniJtogether. The It is like a discrimi-
fire element ripens new seed . . . nates. The
[them]. The wind that --- fire
~lement, by causing develops a element is
[them] to move, sprout, a the name
increases [them], stem, of the
makes space [within branches, cause. The
the fetus], and leaves, ~!fill
expands it. This is flowers, and ~_lement is
analogous to how a fruit in due established
[rice ]seed with order only as the
these49 as causes and when causes cause of
conditions] gradually and growth ...
gives rise to a shoot, conditions The seeds
meet. l1 of the .flve
a leaf, a stem, a pith,
a flower, and a fruit." types or
grains,
_grass, and

47 CQ read gyi All other exemplars read gyis.

48 In this context, "them" seems to refer to the four gross elements themselves.
49 The various conditions needed for a seed to sprout and grow.
 654
Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

-YBh -- - - ---- -··--

[ ~iTib,()11)3~ - lifaig~ii1 -:daiJ~gfa:~ba~~; [:a';;t:6481 f~( YBhS
T606 1 BHATTACHARYA ed.
trees ...
supported
by the
earth and
water
develop
their roots,
stems,
branches,
leaves,
flowers,
and fruit."
[46] zhag bdun fJJ-1::: B : ~ tB~1El
pa dang po la ni· /us fJJt B : ftiZ .1ms~1~m ~1£ijf:ifey1m (See [43][87])
Ht&iUA]@ wf_trm::f ;@Qm~ 0
/.S -fB .::=
f<yfcfbang PQ ... pur t.N , !ltNiC-1\ 1'tr-1J..IC ' &
-~----~Ii l~j~ ' , ,
:ff[}",-{-ij ~
(433b5) t.N · ffi8t JN~tNm ·
f!ll_r f!Q ••• dper na ~--· · tzDM 'l'f3 IIIJ /\)\ • "The first
'bras khu 'am zho 'i ~(254bz-s) (887a23)
B::fr~ · -EB f:-l: rp rm
week: The (234a19-zo) ::ft~r~.
zho kha chu /ta bu "The first "In a week kalalais
stel(l24arb1) "Instantly, (187a9_11)
week: The it [embryo] formed." [the five
"During the first tactile sense- "Then when
stays aggregates] [the embryo]
week: The tactile fu~yl!y and_ [there] and
§e11se-f<1cu!!y ..-:- attain two is in the
the does not
kalala ... it is similar faculties, the womb, it
conscious- grow or tactile sense-
to rice-soup or the ness stay obtains two
decline. It fa_c~Iiy and_ faculties: the
liquid forming on top together .... ripens
of curd."50 the !_n~ntal mental
j(ajala ... like little by fac;_uljy. The
the liquid little." f~Jilty and
'essences' do the !a.c.:tile
forming on not decline
top of curd." sense-
for a week." facajty.
During the

5
°For literal English translations of the Sanskrit terms for the stages of emhryogenesis, i.e .. kala!a and so forth. sec item f87/ bclu·.v.

P<1 ra llcl Passages (155 ,

- - - - - - . ~- - - ,- -- - - - ,-- -- -- 1· -- -- - - - - ---
,
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma VJinutti· DDJ YBh
¥SV-Tib-1Q_l0~? _ ~
. _¥ijing~T14~!__. T3;17 --~_texts _ ~---·~maggaT1648 __'!6_Q_7 \ BHATTACHARYA
~-,-~ ed. --------

[first] week,
it stays in
[the womb],
it does not
develop or
decline."
---- - ---- - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - -

[47] zhag bdun ffi=ta: ffi=t =-1:::a:Tt<. =-1:::a:ffi --1:::a: it (See [87])
pa gnyis pa la ni: ... ffi$~B · 1A B=Alm ~ijff~~ O ~ . fttlDDft ij{:jf~" ' •
de mer IPr.J'J2QI 'gyur Jitrfi~ ' 9)G .51 '1i (453b5) ~~m tzmiM
roll ... dper na 7ho tzoi!~ °tZDlf5J: "The second (234a20,21) (187a.11-12)
'am mar Inkhranf! vo (254b6-10) Mf·- week: The "The second "The second
/ta bu-stel(l24bz_4) "The second (887azs-21) flI]JUdais week: The week: The
"During the second week: "The formed." embryo is embryo
week: The [embryo] Nbuda, second unripe. It is gradually
becomes arbuda which is like week: [The thin like turns into
('blastula', Tib-:-7ner thick c_urd or embryo] butter fat on something
merpo,) . .. ~ it is hardened forms a thetopof- like thin
similar to P!rd or !Jutter." 'b~' curd.''-- curd."
Jiard_en~d !m_tter." (arbuda),
like fat on
the top of
~urd.''-
--------t -~---·--~-------;-------

[48] ihag bdun m--1:::a: ffi= -I:: - t B : ft<. -- -I:: 13 : fffl -- t 13 : iJ (See [87])
O
pa gsum pa la m:· de MF(254b12- B : ffg;t f.!¥F ~ , tzo~M ~o§:::.M
par nyJ2Qr 'gyur roll 13) ~~­ (433b 5_6) ft~~ (187a12)
(124b6-7) "The third (887bz_3) "The third (234a 21 ) "The third
"In the third week: It week: Pesi" "The third week: The "The third week: [The
becomes a pesi week: [The _Pesiis week: The embryo is]
('bilaminar', Tib. nar blastula] formed." embryo like unripe
narpo)." becomes - ~ ·~_Qagul_a~. __ curd." _____

51 Text, ~- I tentatively read If!.

-,
 656 Nobuyoshi y AMABE

GAS
~SV-Ii!\_ Q 1035 ~1.~g~~~;l r ::~fjing I ~~~idharma l:~;!!¢1648 I ffo{ ---- -f:gzs ---lr:TTACHARYAed.

--- - -~1~-~ T--.~.-T__ ---E~I;,d -- ---- r· _--·------·-

[49] zhag bdun mll9-t; B : miz:g-t; [9-t; B : ~ p:g-t; B : ffl [9-t; B : m (See [87])
pa bzhipa lam:· de O
flWJ(254b1s- B : t.r:!'t ~riJffll ffi~tzo~~ {Mtzo~t~
g_q_r gor Jl_Or 'gyur roll 16) ff~ · _(433b6) (234a 21 -22) (187a 12_13)
(125a1_3) "The fourth (887bs-9) The fourth "The fourth "The fourth
"In the fourth week: week: "The week: week: The week: The
It becomes a ghana G/J_ana." fourth *dna 52 is embryo is embryo
('trilaminar', Tib. gor week: [The formed." gradually ~oa_gul~tes
gorpo)." pesi is] h<!rd~ned like ripe
hardened." like curd curd."
being
- ·- --- ····--- --- --- -- - ------ - - - - -- -- ------ ---- - ~--- -----~
formed." - - ·-----
[50] zhagbdun JrE.-t:B : m.n-t E.-tB:~ ±r.-tB : tzo E. -t B : Ji I (See [87])
pa lnga pa la ni· ~]if§fJ!. B : r&E. E.1m 0
~~ tzo§::.~
J11tsha1J 11J.<]_fngfJ_po pfr~ff, - -
~~- Jl!l', -- (4~3b6) (234a22) (187a 13 )
dpung pa gnyis kyi mff, Ez.. mri, m "The fifth The fifth "The fifth
dpung pa 'i mtshan ~j · (254b1s- ~,- week: The week: Like week: Like
ma dag dang! brla 20) ii§.
~.,,,. ..... five parts curd and unripe
gnyis kyi brla 'i "The fifth (887b14-16) are formed." butter." butter."
mtshan ma dag dang/ week: Jhe "The fifth
Jnga pa mgo 'i mgo 'i five week: The I I (See also
mtshan ma 'byung (See
g_istinctive five [54])
I also[54])
bar 'gyur roll(125a5_ ~atures ~istin~!ive
I
6) emerge, features
"In the fifth week: namely, the are
'fhe five distinctive two arms, formed,
feattues develop, two legs, and the two

52
Though the Chinese text indicates *ana, this must be *._!:!han:1. See EHARA ct al. ( 1961: 173).

Parallel Passages <,'; 7

- ----- - ~-·--- - · I - - --- -1··- - ~-

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS
- IYBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035
----~- ---------~--
ij ijing, T1451
-
T317
.--------- -----.
texts ---r-
maggaT1648
------- --- - -
T607 __ T606 ..... ____ . BHATTACHARYA ed.
I
namely the arm- I the head." legs, the
features of the two two
(upper) arms, the shoulders,
thigh-features of the and the
two thighs, and the head."
head-feature of the
head, which is the
fifth."
-'-_L-fB • ~
[51] zhagbdun ffi1'-t;B: ffin-t n-tB:~ / \ LJ • ?']'( 1'tB : ,!@,
0 ~ (187a14)
pa drug pa lam:· lf~:t§fJ!. s:~iz:g IZYir.i ~ (234a22-23)
mtshan ma bzhi vo ~; fiiil/ff , rfilJ ff!!IM . filTI (433b1) "The sixth "The sixth
Jagngar gnyis kyi Jag ~ . (254b22- ~·~ "The sixth week: week:
ngar gyi mtshan ma 23) §t~. week: The 'Condensed 'Polyp'."
dag dang! rje ngar "The sixth (887b19-21) f_our PJtrts hardness'."
gnyis kyi rje ngar gyi week: The "The sixth are formed." (See also
mtshan ma dag four week: The (See also [55])
'byung bar 'gyur roll gistinctive four. (55])
(125a8-b 1) features flisti11_g_ive
"In the sixth week: emerge, features
The four distinctive namely the are
feat~res develop, two elbows formed,
namely the forearm- and the two the two
features of the two I knees." knees and
forearms, and the the two
lower-leg-features of elbows."
!he ~Q_}<:>we_!'l~gs~
[52] zhag bdun ffi-t;-t; B ffi-t;-t; -t-t B : 11 -t-t B : W -t-t B : tzD
O
pa bdun pa la ni· ~12:9:t§fJ! · B : ~~ ±IZYJff tzDJ~,~;t! ffe1~
mtshan ma f!Zhan ~;~~ ' lilU lrnl!fim . (433b1) (234a23-24) (187a14)
J,z]J7 Jag pa 'j bol
po JJtP • (254b2s- 'w-g-:_¥.?I" , "The "The seventh "The seventh
gnyis kyi Jag pa 'i bol 26) f.®ff'.!i · seventh week: Like a week: Like a
gyi mtshan ma dag _ "The seventh _ (8871:>_21 _23) -~---~---~-· week: _ ripe radish." _ chunk_of _ ~· ~-----
 658
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

1 -----·~ - ---·1- ---- -- -- ---- ---·-- ------

Tib, .-T::~;~~t1648 DDJ YBhS YBh
.re
. &-
. -. - - --
T607 T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
----- --------·-·y·------------------------- ~- --
- ~1f
- .- . -· - -()1~3-;-J
-. --- -.ij:g~~~ii
dang rkang ba 'i bol
-.·. .-. --. - . - J::ia
week: The
---- - -~gr
"The
----~~~dha~~
-- --~ --------i- Further,
(See also meat."
gnyis kyi rkang ba 'i (our seventh fQlJr Rarts
(55])
bolgyimtshan ma distinctive week: are formed."
rgya chen po 'byung f~~tures .E_9ur (See also
bar 'gyur te/(125b3-4) emerge, additional [55])
0

"In the seventh week: namely, the distinctive 11~ t;--1::-;

O
Four other two hands features B#ffl ftic
distinctive features and the two are-- ffl:ff fijj~
develop,-namely back legs." formed, J®~o
of the hand-features the two (433b17)
"Others say:
of the two backs of hands and
the hands, and the the two 'In the
large instep-features arms." seventh
of the two insteps." week, the
body is
formed,
which rests
on the back
of the
mother and
squats down
with its head
-- -----::--
downward'."
----.- .-- --

[53] zhagbdun ------- ~------ - -------- -~

ffiJ\tB: m1\--1:-; J\-tB:11 )\--1:-;[1 : ¥
pa brgyadpa la n1:· ij§~=+i-§ B :J~= J\t-B : Po
mtshan ma nyi shu .1=.=+1\ POMEr tf (187a1s)
O
J~ . -=f-JE·+-- -Hft~ · ~p (433b7_
po lag pa 'i sor mo t~ · (254b28_ --rJEJ~ (234a24-2s) "The eight
bcu 'i lag pa 'i sor mo 'i s) "The eighth week: Like a
29) ~,+~ "The eighth
mtshan ma rnams "The eighth week: Like mound."
t~~. week: polished
dang/rkang pa 'i sor week: (887b26-28)
mo bcu'i rkang pa 'i Further, stone." (See also
Twenty "The twenty-eight
sor mo 'i mtshan ma distinctive eighth (56])
rnams skye bar gyur parts (See also
features week: develop."
ro/(125bs-n) emerge to [56])
Twenty
__ J

Parallel Passages (i",l)

GAS ~1SMSV--=--1 Ba-otaijini -Abhidharma -- Vimutti-

r· DDJ \-YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 . _ . Y1.1mg, T1451 ~
T T317 . ·~ , texts ______ -, maggaT1648 ~T607 -~-- T606 I B~'f_T!\_CHARYA e~i_.
"In the eighth week: the fetus. distinctive
Twenty distinctive The ten features
features develop, fingers and emerge.
namely the finger- the ten toes." The ten
features of the ten toes and
fingers and the toe- the ten
features of the ten fingers."
toes."
[54] zhag bdun mtL--1:;a= mn--1:; tL --1:; a :@l tL --1:; B : 1i n--1:; a n =
0
pa dgu pa lam:· ij§ffflJ.mt§ B: tL ~ff·~ ~-m~-· ~. J;®tt-,
mtshan ma dgu po f~. =!IM, fL · m (433b8) i'§ '[W)Bt wifl ' &Jt
mig gi mtshan ma --a-' -· "The ninth i'§ ' ---!!] «<i!ciJ§
::i:,..R _. ....
•
-..r::=t- -- HN. m
gnyis dang/rna ba 'i a.,Jto, :&: , m• week: i'§ · (234a2s- (187a1s-16)
mtshan ma gnyis &~='.A· fL, D Further, the 26) "The ninth
dang/ sna 'i mtshan (254cz_4) ~ '&-f backbone "The ninth week:five
ma gnyis dang! smad 'The ninth mfL · develops." week: Five lum_Q§,
gyimtshan magnyis week: Nine (887Cz_4) l~Jil~, [namely,]
dang/kha 'i mtshan distinctive "The ninth [namely,] the The two
ma 'byung bar 'gyur features week: The distinctive elbows, the
ro//(125b 8-26a1) emerge to nine features of two thighs,
"In the ninth week: the the orifices, the two and the
Nine distinctive embryo. The [namely,] shoulders, head."
features develop, na- two eyes, the the two the two legs,
mely the features of two ears, the eyes, the and the
the two eyes, the fea- two nostrils two ears, head."
tures of the two ears, (lit. 'noses'), the two
the features of the and the nostrils,
two nostrils, the fea- mouth, as the mouth,
tures of the two well as the and the
lower [orifices] (i.e., lower two two lower
urinary tract and orifices." orifices."
anus), and the fea.,. (See also· (See also
ture of the mouth."
--------
[501) __ -- _ f_~Oll_~--~
 660
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

-- ·- - - -- - - ,·---- - ·--~-·---

~J~-!ib,91235~. YBhS YBh

T606
~ _~1~~~;1J ::i1ai~n: I;~~dha,lll·~ L';=tl~ ..i~ -- - - -- -r-.BHATTACHARYA
- ---------- - - ~
ed.-
[55] zhag bdun ffi+-t; B : ~+-t; +-t; B : m: ·f--t; B : ± -f--t; B : E.
pa bcu ba la ni: de'i 'i:J"JJi'.~'.I' B : rm~ 4-ff'~ 0 iz:9JJ1 · wj.:f
]us la §{g baJJ_yid (254c;:6)- ~5s (433bs) if§ ' fxpJfE &fiJ. *~'
!WJ~,,&_~
dang!lei ba nyid kun "The tenth (887c5. 7) The tenth if§ · (234a26. 1£:5§.
,.,.. ..... ~..,. ....
du gnas par 'gyur roll week: The ''The tenth week: 27 ) · (187a16-1s)
(126a1.2) fetus is made week: [The Further, the "The tenth "The tenth
"In the tenth week: solid." fetus backbone week: Four week: The
[The fetus] assumes -~ - becomes] develops." parts
five lumps,
§()lidtty and (See also very ~oJid." develop, [namely,] the
heaviness in its · [521) (See also [namely,] the arms, the
body." (See also [71]) distinctive legs, and the
[521) features of head
(See also [52])
the two develop."
hands and
the.two feet."
(See also
~-·-a• £_
-----~·-~-~- _[75]) ·- -- -- _ ~---- .· _ --·
[56] zhag bdun ffi-f-~-t; ffi + _c.-f::; +---t;B
pa bcu gdg pa la ni· +~-t; B : +~-t; B
B : ~tL-rL
JJl. -~ B : ~3:f m:n:-=.·a ±.=+iz:9 *'lt-=+iz:9
de'i luslaf:,_ugdgy J=lJf}ti;lE O
1f (433b 8. JJ1 · +tt-¥ ~·:Ff~ ·
yang dadpar 'gyur tel (254cs.9) ~~· 9)
(126a3.4) "The (887c9.11)
f~if§ , -t-:t:E fEf~ • ~N •
"The tenth JEt~if§ ' P] El= ' • '
"In the eleventh eleventh "The week:
week: The nine week: The ;(£If · § · lJ · (187a11.
eleventh Further,
orifices become !line_Q_rifices a· DJt.~ rn)
week: The three if§ · (234a "The
pro1ninent on the 27•
emerge." body is hundred
body." 29) eleventh
arranged bones "The week: Sub-
and develop." eleventh sequently
various (See also week: twenty-four
Qar!_s_~~~ .._-~ __ -~ __ --~ _ ,__ [651) _ _Jw~IIty-four lum_ps
--~

53
I am not sure how to interpret the following part.

Parallel Pa,s;igc,- (i() \

GAS ~1-SMSV- I Baotaijing I Abhidhanna Viinutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

NISV-Tib, Q10_3J Y1Jmg,
- - -T1451
- - - .-T317 -- r--
texts----~~ .fl!<'lgga_T 16.i_8__ T607 T606
I \ BHATT~CHARYA ed.__
allocated." parts develop,
develop, [namely,] the
[namely,] ten fingers, toes,
features of eyes, ears,
the fingers, nose, and
ten features mouth."
of the toes,
and four
features 53 of
the realms of
the ears,
eyes, nose,
and mouth." .. - - - - > - - - - - -

[57] zhag bdun ~+=-t; -I<=-t; B : +--=- -t; B : +=-ta:

pa bcu gnyis pa lam:· ~~Jjfilf§ijif
a : *'J\ .
*R :r~=-t;
'il'J:rx 111:.1\-a ~JJ1f.%lE ·
O
lto g.yas g.yon du ~ ' (254C14. ~~:tr:1=1 ~IJ (
433b9) (234a29 ) ~J],t.
rgy,.z_J]1a dang gg):£ 1s) Z;fr; ... ~ "The twelfth "The twelfth (187a 19)
ma dag mngon par "The twelfth ±J=t'i5& week: week: These "The twelfth
'grub par byed do/ week: The rfflJ=IJN · Further, parts week: The
(126a 7. 8 ) !c1.r~and (887c19.23) eight- become distinctive
"In the twelfth week: small "The hundred straight." features of
The .small intestj~ intestines." twelfth joints these lumps
and the Jar_ge . week: [A develop." (See also become
i11testine emerge on wind] [60][61]) more
both sides of the forms the established."
stomach." jntestines
and both (See also
sides of [60][61])
the
stomach ...
[Another
wind]
blows and
662 Nobuyoshi y AMABE

GAS ~--- ·-~ ~ ,-GASMSV- Bffo;aij~ng1·Abhidh~rma-- I Vimutti-

I I DDJ YBhS YBh
~--~-------
MSV-J_ib~.910~ . . __ Yijing, '1'1451_. _T317__ __ _!_e~~--- _____ magga_T1§48 _ T607 _ T606~ ____ _13HATTACHARYAed.
I
forms the
tongue
and opens 1 1
_the ~y~~-"_ ·- __ __
[58] zhag bdun m+-t m+-t +-ts= +-ts= +=-ca =
pa bcu gswn pa la: E3 : -HJiXtt S : ffl:fifr tl1:11 IT rulf§ ,§if§ (187a19-
de 'i mas zos shing ~?fr~~tt~ ~KX},JG 5 ° (234az9-b1) 20)
'thungs pa gang yin {{f~rffiJ\ti 'fflt:p · (433b 10) "The "The
pa de las bcud de 'i lte .D)~Jl. (887c25_26 ) "The thirteenth thirteenth
ba nas Jug cing de de (254C19-z1) "The thirteenth week: The week: The
na des 'tsho bar byed "The thirteenth week: distinctive distinctive
do/(126b1-2) thirteenth week: Further, feature of feature of
"In the thirteenth week:When What the nine the belly." the belly."
week: The essence of the mother mother hundred
what the mother has drinks and eats and muscles
eaten or drunk enters eats, the drinks develop."
[the fetus] through nourishment enters the
its navel, whereby it enters [the body of
is nourished." fetus] the child."
through its
(See also [59]) navel, (See also
whereby its [59])
body is
nourished."
(See also
~9lL
[59] zhag bdun m+imt m+imt +129tE3 : +imta = +12YtE3 :
pa bcu bzhi ba la m:· E3:±-=f E3 : ~11 ftlf::s~ 1[i, • ff.$ • !ff . grµ •
n"ff fiiikh-
O ~
chu rgyus dgu brgya IltI ... . J'cf<J ijjj . . . • ft ( 433b10- . !ff . 1[i, 1L\, El~JW
bo... skyedpar byed (254Czz-23) (887c2s-z9) 11) ±(234bl) .'* . J.
do/(126bz_3) (187a 20 )

(.h 1,
Paralkl P;1,,ag~'"

-- -- -- --· 1 - I ---- - I Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng Abhidharma \__BHATT~CHAR''fA e<!-
!17-~gga f16_48_. _T607 \ T606
r_ MSV-Tib,01035 ___ . Yijlng, T1451 __ T317 .--·~texts ____ _ I r -
"The "The "The "The "The
"In the fourteenth fourteenth
fourteenth fourteenth fourteenth fourteenth
week: Nine hundred week: The
week: One week: week: week: The
muscles ... develop." liver, lungs,
thousand Ninty- Further, one heart,
muscles thousand hundred spleen, heart,
·devefop ... " mu_scles lumps of kidneys, spleen, and
develop ... flesh liver, and kidneys
develop." heart(?)54 develop."
"
develop."
(See also (See also (See also
. r5sn
~--,---- ~----- --
r69D ___ _ r62D _____
[60] zhagbdun ffi+lit ffi+lit +:n.ta: +litS: +litB=
E3 : 'Ji!:= 111=.Ifn ° z;,:~ (234b1_ ;.kfilk (187azo_
pa bcu lnga ba la m:· B: fi==+ (433b11) 2) 21)
[Jsa nyi shu skyedpar fiHJ:& . +m~. "The
(254c2s-26) (888a4_6) "The "The
'gyur(126b4) fifteenth fifteenth
"In the fifteenth "The "The fifteenth
fifteenth fifteenth week: week:L~r~ week: _Lllr~
week: Twenty plood
week: week: Further, int~stine." in~~!ine."
yessels develop."
Twenty types Twenty !Jlood is
(See also [57][67]) of yessels are vessels are formed."
formed." arranged."
(See also (See also
--··--- ---- , ___ _
r52JJ67l)_ r51n
[61] zhagbdun ffi+7\t ffi+7\t +1\tB -t--7\tB : +7\tB
E3 : /] {Jl!:ti: E3 : rffl®. ~~o 1j\~(234b2) !l\~(187a21)
pa bcu drug pa lam:· "The
~§·~ (433b11) The
mig gi skye mched ~§a-+=HN sixteenth sixteenth
gnyis dang!rna ba i' ~?fr, PD~ ll._JL, "The
or~ , ». sixteenth week: Sm_all week: S_mall
skye Inched dag ~l:f~a.o intestine." jn!_estwe."
U[tj~l3j · .it.J§«<i!'i
/"' ,......,;:i::_.F.l
• week:
dang! sna 'i skye
_mcfted dag dang/ (25111s~10) (§89a22-24) Membranes

54 "The heart" appears twice in this line in the original text.

 '-~!-:"~-,-·:.r::-·

-"
664 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

- ----- - r-- - - - - -
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS I YBh
MSV-Tib,
-- -- --·----
Q1035
- - -
I Yijing, Tl451
1- ------ -- -- - I
T317
-
_ textsI
-------1---- ---- ---
I maggaT1648 I T607
- - - - , - - - --- - - ,- - - - T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
kha 'i sgo dang!mid "The "The develop."
pa dang! snying gi sixteenth sixteenth
than kor dang! ... de week: [A week: [A
yang kun tu 'god par wind] wind]
byed/ (127a4.1) arranges the opens the
"In the sixteenth sense-bases two eyes,
week: The two eye - of the two two ears,
sense-bases, the ear eyes of the nostrils,
sense-bases, the nose fetus, as well mouth,
sense-bases, the as the two and
opening of the ears, two throat."
mouth, the throat, nostrils (lit.
and the heart area 'nose'), (See also
are formed." mouth, [57])
throat, and
(See also [57]) chest."
(See also
r51n _____ _
[62] zhag bdun m·rtt ~+tt +ttB ·i-ttt:3 : --f-ttB:
pa bcu bdun pa la ni· !:3 : HN , s:~Jt Jt,&: 0
~ (234b2.3) ~~ (187a21.
mig gi skye mched If'~, HNl~, % (433b11.12) "The 22)
gnyis ... rna ba 'i skye [1, a~~, 1~¥'1~f~ "The seventeenth "The
mchedgnyis dang! gfuJijf ,ft;\ 1§:Ylfll· seventeenth week: the seventeenth
sna 'i skye mched dag ZJ2JJi , %;It &Ir=ffl week: Skin _stomach." week: the
dang! kha 'i sgo dang! nni · 9'tnF5 , develops." stomach."
midpa dang I snying (255a1s-11) ~1d~~
gi than kor dang ... "The 'l!.1!~1Hf
J L S-tt:t ,11 "
de yang yong su seventeenth ®·
byang bar byed/ ... week: [A (888b4.7)
(127b2.4) wind] makes "The
"In the seventeenth the eyes, seven-
week: The two eye ears, nose, teenth
sense-hases, ... the mouth, week: rA

Pai ;t\kl P.i,,agcs (,( ,:',

GAS GASMSV- r
Baotfiijing I Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ \ YBhS YBh
_MSY-Tib, Q1035 \ BHATTACHARY~ ed._
I Yijing, T1451 _ T317 - - ~ texts _______ I_magga T1648 -~ T607 _ _ _ ___ . T606 _
two ear sense-bases, throat, chest, wind]
the nose sense-bases, and digestive opens the
the opening of the tract pupils and
mouth, the throat, smooth." makes
and the heart area them clear
become functionable and lucent.
(lit. 'clean', It also
*pazyavadfita)." makes
essence of
the two
ears, the
nose, and
the
opening of
the mouth
all clear,
lucent, and
. spotless."
~ - - r-- -- - - -------+-- - -- ----- --- ----- - - ------------ --------

[63] zhagbdun m+1\t +J\ t +J\tB +J\tB: +J\tB:

pa bco rgyadpa la ni· a: B=~B
/\~m m JtZ&:a 0 ~~. ff$
~~-~
skye mched de rnams i" · (255a21- f-~~~ (433b12) J2Jjt • ~~
j1,, -- • ml . ,IBlft.::
yangs su dag pa 22) ¥11'. "The (234b3) ~ · (187a22-
dang!yangs su byang "The (888b11.12) eighteenth "The 23)
bar 'gyur ro/(127b8- eighteenth "The week: The eighteenth "The eigh-
128a1) week: The eighteenth skin color is week: The teenth week:
"In the eighteenth six sense- week: established." upper The upper
week: These sense- bases some spots digestive digestive
bases become clear become are tract, the tract and the
( *parisuddha) and clear." removed lungs, and lower dige-
functionable." and [the the lower stive tract.
eyes, etc.] digestive These two
are made tracf organs are
all clear. _develop." ___formed."
666 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

~ -- ----~ --
.- -----~~--·-·- -
_r___ - --
GAS GASMSV- Biiotiiijing Abhidhanna Vimutti- DDJ YBhS
MS\:':-Tib-1.91035 ___ l_yiji11_g1 'f_14?_!_
,T3~?______ texts~_ __ magga T1648 T607 _ T606
YBh I
_ _ _. BHATTACHAI{YA ed.
[64] zhagbdun ffi+11t m+11t + 11t B : + 11t B : + 11t B :
pa bcu dgu pa la ni: g:hl(gt[9 B : f~lm ~J5JT~m~ ffWJEff~ ~ff· Ed~
dbang po bzhipo mig fN · HN , fN · HN !1!~. 0 f'p .:f-JE!EJZ*-5. ~,~ • -:f.
gi dbang po dang! ~,._, fN, ~ (433b12_13) (234b3_4) ~ • JE!EJZ •
rna ba 'i dbang po E · (255a2s- fN • a. "The "The Wt11 • ifn
dang! sna 'i dbang po 26) fl• E nineteenth nineteenth ~ · (187a 23 _
dang! Jee i. dbang po "The fl. week: Wind week: 24)
'thob bar 'gyur ro/ nineteenth (888b16-17) created by Spleen, "The
(128a2_3) week: Four The [former] knees, feet, nineteenth
"In the nineteenth sense- nineteenth acts arms, palms, week:
week: [The fetus] faculties are week: [The pervades joints, hands, Spleen, calf
obtains four sense- established, fetus] (all] parts and insteps." bones(?),
faculties, namely the [namely,] the obtains the [of the palms,
eye sense-faculty, the eye, ear, four sense- body]." insteps, arm
ear sense-faculty, the nose, and faculties, joints, and
nose sense-faculty, tongue. [namely,] tendons."
and the tongue the eye
sense-faculty." sense-
faculty, ear
sense-
faculty,
nose
sense-
faculty,
and
tongue
sense-
------~-----~··-
_ faculty."
[65] zhagbdun ffi=+t ffi = +t =+-t;B: =+-t;B: =-t-t;B :
0
pa nyi shu pa la ni: n : ILtrp* a:~= IBGiL~ ~-~· ~-Mf·
phra mo ma gtogs pa it~~= (433b13) _ ...
:r.,.... • J§
1L · {«ij 1L · M · r~
rus pa chen po nyis
s~*ffi "The :fl5 (234b4_5) Hi · (187a24)
a · ri*~i11\
fl.
~·W~
brgya 'byzmg par r.:::l
;mh-- • twentieth J
(,h7
Para llcl P,1ss,1gcs

GAS f ~1SMSV--- f Biiotiiijing 1 Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh

Y1.1mg, T1451 [ T317 - ~ r-texts _ _ 111~gga Tl2_48 _ "f607 _ \ T606 \ B~!TACHARYA ed.
-\ -- I -
MSv'-Tib-1_Q10_3_5_ I
'gyur ro/;/(128a4-b1) (255a2s-b 9) (888bwc2) week: Nine "The "The
"In the twentieth "In the "The pri_fic:es are twentieth twentieth
week: The two twentieth twentieth formed." week: The week: The
hundred larger week: week: Two private parts, private parts,
Q<;mes, excluding the Among the hundred navel, navel,
smaller bones, are [bones], minor breasts, breasts,
formed." larger bones !,ones are neck,and neck,and
are two formed head are head are
(See also [56]) hundred in and are formed." formed."
number, mixed with
excluding muscles." (See also (See also
the smaller [66]) (66])
bones."
(See also
_f~61~)~
[66] zhagbdun ffi=-t--t; ffi=+- --55 =+--f:; =+--t;
pa nyi shu rtsa gcig a:~~ tB : % B: ~ilfl B: ffl~~
pa la ni: de i" sha (255b10-12) teIDL~ Hl5t~ ... a *~;ttm "CT":"
.,., ••• )J,. ~
The twenty- (888c3_4) /\~it~fil1 ff! 11.&,@. 8
skyedpar byed do#
(128b1-2) first week: "The 9=l · tzo~= /\Wit~
"In the twenty-first The flesh is twenty- · atntf~if ,g... PD:xc:§t
week: Its fl~sh fonned." first week: !} · iftzD ~FL~-
grows." [A wind] ~ · (234b 5_ s, rm:t§~
(See also makes the 10) ~. Jti?*
(See also [65]) I [65D flesh "The twenty- ~tzDtJJ~
emerge." first week: ~ · (187a24-
Bones and 30)
(See also I marroware "The twenty-
[65]) differentia- first week:
I I ted as Bodily pones

55 The twenty-first to the twenty-fourth weeks are missing in this text.

 -·~_:97;._·

668 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

.. --·-·-·--·-- ·----~-

- --- --

- - - r - -- - - - ~ -
Vjmuttj- DDJ
r GAS GASMSV- Bg;taijlilg r Abhidha;;na YBhS YBh
Yljing,
_MSV-Tib_,_Ql0~5 - - · r-- T1451
-
- --- r T317 - -- -- - --- -------
----- ------- -1 texts maggaT1648 -- -
r----- - - -1 T607 --- --
T606 -.-
BHATTACHARYA ed.
--

appropria- are
te ... One differentia-
hundred and ted as
eight smaller appropria-
bones are te ... One
formed in hundred and
the flesh. eight smaller
Thus three bones are
hundred attached to
joints are the flesh ...
subtly Thus the
ctttached to bodily bones
the body, are
just like a altogether
gourd." three
hundred and
are joined
together.
The bones
are soft like
a newly
formed
_ _____ gourd." _
[67] zhag bdun m=+ -_ -c m-=-:+= (See [60]) =+=-c =+=-c
pa nyi shu rtsa gnyjs a:~D1J. -t; B : 1:. B=1tffi~ B: Jt~f~
pa la ni· de 'j fch!!JS (255b13~ trW WYD~Ef:l · ~YD*1~
s.kyedpar byed doll "The twenty- (888cs_9) (234b10-11) ~ · (187a30-
(128b3) second week: "The "The twenty- b1)
"In the twenty- 13_1god is twenty- second week: "The twenty-
second week: Its fo_rmed." second The bones second week:
plood develops." week: [A gradually The bones
wind become solid gradually
makes the like the shell become solid

6(1Y
Parnllcl Passages

G1SMS\T- Baotaijing \ Abhidhar~a 1- Vimutti- \ DDJ \ YBhS YBh

GAS \\_ BH_ATTAC:HARYA ed. __ _
Yl.1mg, T1451
I T317 texts maggaT1648 T607 T606
MSV-Tib, Q1035 I
-------- T-~:{J~- --~--- - - ,-- \i~r~o~se." - \ ~~~;;~
--+- ~---'
sound." _ ~!------~------ _- ~ d . "
[68] zhag bdun m=+_-t; m=-+ =+--1:; =+=-1:;
pa nyi shu rtsa gsum 8=~1& -cB : % s=mm:~ 8 : ;Jtitff
pa la ni· de 'j /us la (255b1s-16) ~l£.~ffi W~DW&:m ~WYDm
"The twenty- :fj5 . (234b11- ;tj5 • (187b1-
lf!al!S Jl.i s.kyedpar ffi~JE
byed do//(128b3_4) third week: (888c10-12) 12) 2)
Skin is "The "The twenty- The twenty-
"In the twenty-third third week:
week: Skin forms on formed." twenty- third week:
third The fetus The bones
its body.'' become even
week: Skin becomes
is formed even more more solid
and solid like a like a
gradually thick-shelled walnut."
becomes walnut."
complete." (See also (See also
~

P6l) _ ~ - [7_61)_ _~--

--- - - - -----{----------

[69] zhagbdun m= +179-1:; m=--+1I9 -+II9-1:; =-+-!lY-1:;

pa nyj shu rtsa bzhi B: Ernl:Yt -I:; B : :;;'ff R:~-1:;-f- a=~-1:;s
pa la ni· de'i /us la '~ ;Jt:iJ%;Jt W5*1~. W:i~~;!t
~t'=:! (234b16-17) ~. (187b14)
Jpags pa rah tu dang (255b11-1s) "The twenty-
"The twenty- (888c13_15) "The twenty-
par byed to//(128b4- fourth week:
fourth week: "The fourth week:
s) The body is Seven
"In the twenty-fourth The skin twenty-
becomes fourth covered with hundred
week: The skin on its muscles are
body becomes clear radiant." week: [A seven
wind] thousand connected
( *prasad)." together and
(See also spreads muscles."
[59]) the skin stuck to the
(See also [59]) body."
and makes
it even."

-.
 ·""W?~~a.r.

670 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

-iti-Tib,Q1035 i1.::.1:~;1-I ::r;mjing- ~~~idharma -- J~~:!t4~1648

- -1-r:zs ----rir:TTACHARYAed.
-~-- ----- ---·r- ff;ualso 1·---~_ -_] ____________T[!jfof
__ ----- -- --·-- ,-- ---~-------------··
---1 .
... - --· --- .... -, - - - - ,- -- ·- - -r- -- - - - ----, ------- --- ---,--- I - --- - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - ·- - - - - ---- -

[70] zhag bdun $=+lit m=+E . =+ii -I:; -+E-t =+.n-t

pa nyi shu rtsa Inga B: Dh~~ -ta : tw B : ~---li; B : 4:-t=f s:~--1::;=f
pa la ni· de 'i /us la fll ~jtJiJL~ -t;=f~ . §ij ' iirr*~
sha dang khrag rab tu (255b19-20) ~tit~ ( 433b13_14) m. (234b11) §lli (187b14-
m.' iirr*~
dang par byed to// "The twenty- (888Ct6-18) "The twenty- "The twenty- 1s)
(128bs-6) fifth week: "The fifth week: fifth week: "The twenty-
"In the twenty-fifth The blood twenty- Seventeen Seven fifth week:
week: The flesh and and the flesh fifth week: thousand thousand Seven
blood in its body become [A wind] tissues are vessels are thousand
become clear." moist." cleans up formed." formed but vessels are
the skin are still not formed but
(See also [60]) (See also and makes complete." are still not
[60]) it smooth complete."
and moist."
(See also
[60])
- ---------- ---- ------------ - - - - ---- - ---------- --- - - ----- . - --·- .. -· --···-- - -·---· -·----· ···~ ,-- ----- - - - · - - ·

[71] zhagbdun m= m-+--L..

- /\ =·+n-t =-1-n-t =+n-t (ct. [87J [88])
pa nyi shu rtsa drug a:~~~ B : B : ~ifllli~ B : ~Jllli~
+·7"'-t -ta :§
pa la ni: §_/µ-a dang filffl .. : . Jr 0
m~ fflJl,@hl(
~1t!Sll.~ fi!l!lJE.~
spu dang sen mo dag (255b21-22) :!=t~R (433b14) gt . (234b17. ~! · (187b1s-
skyes par 'gyur tel "The twenty- (888c 19_ "The twenty- 1s) 16)
(128b6) sixth week: 20 )56 sixth week: "The twenty- "The twenty-
"In the twenty-sixth Hair is "The The body sixth week: sixth week:
week: Hair is formed formed on twenty- becomes All the All the
on the. head and the head and sixth week: solid." vessels vessels
bocly,_and nail_s body, and_ A ----
become become I . _J-

56 After this sentence, the remaining portion of the twenty-sixth week and the first portion of the twenty-seventh week are missing in this text. I
thank KRITZER for drawing my attention to this point.

() i \
Parallel P,hs,ig--:s

GASMSV- Abhidhan~a-
IB.iotaijing I Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh
GAS \ T606 \ BHA_I_TACHARYA_ ed. _
magga T1648 T607 - ----
---1-Yi_1jing, T1451_[ T317 ~ · texts.-~- -·-··-
MSV-Tib,_Ql035 l I ·---~-,-.
open and open and
develop." !l_<,lilS naturally
created complete." complete."
develop.
(See also [55]) wind blows
on the (See also (See also
(See also
body of [83]) [83])
[55])
the fetus."
(See also
f5~l,~) --+--
(See [88][89])
(72] zhag bdun m=·+-t-t ®ttM"iit .-,=;_t_. . -,=,-L-
. =.1:.j/\
=B+-t-t
. -==- l=:1 / \
=a:+-tt =B+-t-t
pa nyi shu rtsa bdun B : ~-=§JR ~~m ...
pa lam:· de'i s.kra tf3~~m ~~~ trt.J. +im~ · +-mi~
( 433b14.1s) (234b1s-19) m. (187b16-
dang spu dang sen gt · ~*J!m "The twenty- 11)
fil!J\ . ... The twenty-
mo rnams rab tu tJJirBBs~ seventh "The twenty-
f!NfiltA seventh
dangparbyeddo/... B
=f1f ,: week: [The week: Three seventh
/us dang ngag dang ~! ';i; ~ M"lli:*ff hundred and week: Three
yid gyi ~dig pa mi dg£ WT¥~ · ... :.fr ~1~ body of the
fetus sixty joints hundred and
ba 'ilas byas shing ~t!tA.tJ~ become sixty- three
becomes]
bsags la/ ... de yan
lag ring na mdzes pa
~tffEtfm
lli · ...
~,~rn
!!!1i~~
~PiiW powerful. .complete." muscles are
all
gang dag yin pa de pfr~~,i B ~· ... complete."
dag ni de la thung 7Jl!if aii ~ (888c20-
ngur 'gyur la/ ... !us ijjjffl ... :.fr 889a1)
dang ngag dang!yid ~i:ltA.tJ~ "If [the
kyi fas dge ba byas ~~f~rj~ · fetus] has
shing bsags la/ ... yan (255b 24-C14) pad sins
lag ring na mdzes pa_ "The twenty- from
gang dag yin pa de seventh former.
dag ni de la ring por week: The lives, what
'gyur la/ ... (128br hairs on its should be
130a2) head and pure, long,
In the twenty-seventh body as well and large
week: The hair on its as its nails become
head and body as_ -~_are al! short and
 672 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS
!\1SV-Tib, Ql035 ____ . _Yijlng, T1451
I GASMSV- ::;llijing I ~:;dharma .l !'~'.:!t¢1648 r!/~{ . .
---------------r--------- -- - - - ~ , - - - - - - - - - . . --- - -.----------- ------ - - - - -
Tr::s . I::.TTA~YAed.
well as its nails complete. small ...
become clear ... If The bad acts If that
[the fetus in its [the fetusj - fetus (lit.
former lives] did and did with its 'person')
accumulated J:,ad and body, practiced
~vil acts with body, speech,and yirtues in
speech, and mind, mind grow previous
the limbs that would day and lives, •..
be [regarded] night and bodily
beautiful if long will receive parts that
become short. If it · their should be
did and accumulated rewards ... long
good acts with body, [The parts of become
speech, and mind, - the body] pure and
the limbs that would that are long ....
be [regarded] regarded
beautiful if long beautiful by
become long." people if
long become
short. .. ·
The good
i).CtS [the
fetus] did
grow day and
night and
will receive
their ·
superior
rewards ...
[The parts of
the body]•
that are
regarded

P,nallcl Pa..,-,agcs h ; :,

GAS I GASMSV- - Bao;.i;jing r Abhidharma Viinutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijing, T1451 T317 texts maggaT1648 T607 \ T606 \_ BJ:IATfA<;HARYA ed.

- - - - - - - · TEit.~::1- -1- - ·r .. I ~
- - - - --------

[73] gal te lt&~~-~-,- ®~~ ;g:~~--~3'!13 - , (Cf. [52]) -- (See [90]) (See [90]) (See [90])
khve 'ur 'gyur na ni de :f±£J:£1Eh~ 9'1 • l:!PAm J.flf£J:t1flaftrr
ma 'i dku g.yas par l®rffi~-.. til£/Wl~ Wit~ ... :fi
tsog tsog por 'dug ste E~:tc~, ~~ · ... :;c ... ~J!B!l
I ... gal te j:J_u_ llJ.OI rr_·£1:£/Eb~ ®1~~:tc 1fm:tr:imrtrrffl
'gyur na ni ma 'i dku li~ffff ~ . 1££3:HlH it~ . (AMV
g.yon par tsog tsog (255C19-20) ~~jf-_x 363b20-c5)
por 'dug ste/ ... "If the fetus ~ · ... "If [the fetus is]
(130a1.3) is ~ale, it sits (889a18- 21 ) male, ... it
"If [the fetus] is going in a "If [the finds itself on
to be ~ale, it sits in a squatting fetus] is the mother's
squatting position in position in male, it right side and
the right side of the the mother's goes to the sits in a
mother's body. If it is right side... mother's squatting
going to be feID11le, it If [the fetus] right side position facing
sits in a squatting is femc:!k. it and sits the spine ...
position in the left sits in a with one If [the fetus is]
side of the mother's squatting instep on f~male, ... it
body." position in the finds itself on
the mother's other.. . the mother's
left side." If [the left side and
fetus] is sits in a
female, it squatting
sits on the position facing
mo!Qer'~- _the bel-"'-ly_."_ _ _._____
 ,c·~-~'1'-f'"i~-

674 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

------------------ ------------ - - --- ----- - --T-- ------ __ f_____ _ --1----------- ---

GAS GASMSV- Biiotiiijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ ----- - -
YBhS YBh
M_sV,Tib,_Qj015__ __ 1Yijing,_Tl451J:1'3p _ ~ _!exts_ --~ - ~ - - _l!l_aggf.l_ T164~ __ T_607 BHATTACHARYA ed.
- --- - - .-
1 T606 - - - - ------
left side
with one sacet57 pq_miin
instep on bhavatimiitur
the dak~ipakuk~im
other ... " iisritya
P!~fhiibhi-
mukha
utkutukah58
Sal!Jbhavaty
atha §fri tato
vamakuksim
asrityodarii-
bhimukhi/
(AKBh, 12621.
28)
"If m11le, it
squats resting
on the right
side of the
mother's belly,
facing the back,
whereas if
fel!_l_ale, it
[squats] resting
on the left side
facing the
- -- · -- _ . • 1 .. I belly," __ _ . _

~:1yish:ttabdun] ~~;\~ l ~-~t~ _I-----·- - -~ _-]ijt/\t- [~t~~ -_ J~ ~~~Ml I-~-

57
Text, sa cet
58 Text, utke{Uka.

Parallel Passages 675

~·-·.•;J,-·
-~---·--- l-DDJ --
Abhidharma Vimutti-
GAS GASMSV- - ~ Baotaijing
- -·· -· 1· YBhS
-- - -\-YBh- -
texts ~-~- magga T1648 _'!'602___~- T606_ ___ .J3~_!\TT~CHARYA ed.
-- MSV-Tib, Q1035 I Yljlng_,_'l:'1451 T317
brgyadpa lam:· phyin tuzm · ~ m1\~ · ~n~n-=f ~ (234b19.
· ~ · (187b11)
0
:=§IL_ 20) "The twenty-
ci Jog gi 'du shes ful Al\ · Pfr *M!&l , .
..,...= ~ - · brgyad po khyim gyi "'83§;,f:§
BF-I /33.,CJ.., • ~ ;,r;:: H
l?fl.l f f l.
,c.a, (433b 15 ) "The twenty- eighth week:
~-~ 'du shes dang! bzhon 1&l, .;m, r~~ "The twenty- _eighth week: The flesh is
pa 'i 'du shes dang! ;ffJij ,c,, ' w f&l ' eighth week: Elevations of first formed."
-H:-;,f:§ ' ct=rrtr ~i#;!t;Bffl ' Ninty-nine flesh
§_kye_dJ!lOS tshal gyi 'F''I' n.:::.f, J/f\..B::. ~fEXt1D.,
---~ 'du shes dang!khang 1i:iJ~ ,
m, wtim , thousand emerge." (See also
~J.1-t;f-§.. ,,!-~ffl ' pores are [80][91])
pa brtsegs pa 'i 'du i ~JC.I'' vfL1 HJ J~"'
_, shes dang!kun dga' (256a2.4) ~7J<m ' formed." (See also
ra ba 'i 'du shes dang! "The twenty- m~m · [80][91])
khri'i 'du shes dang! eighth week: (889b4-6)
chu bo'i 'du shes [The fetus "The ,
dang!rdzing bu 'i 'du develops] twenty-
shes thob par 'gyur eight kinds eighth
ro//(130as-b1) of perverted week: [The
"In the twenty-eighth images. fetus] gives
week: (The fetus] What are the rise to
gets eight perverted eight? They eight
ideas, [namely,] the are: the images.
ideas of [being in] a images of a The
house, a carriage, a house, a images of
gt1!den, a multi- carriage, a riding on
storied house, a park, garden, a [a horse?],
[on] a throne, [in/at] tower, a garden, a
a river, and [in/at] a woods, a room in a
pool." throne, a tower, a
river, and a garden, a
pond." throne, a
river, a
spring, and
a bathing
_ pond." 1 , , • •

l f75l dlagbdun -T *=+n~ ri=+M -~-·· - 1=+JL-t . I =+n-t; !=+At: _j_(Cf.f881)_ -

 676
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

----c. · - - - - -
~~'Iib, QJD3s __ _rn1ig~:i~~l~i~il!J~ ~~~~~ar~_ _ ;;:f1~Jfgj YBhS YBh
pa nyi shu rtsa dgu pa T606 . BHATJACHARYA .
-- r~------ ~--· - -~-,- - - ~
. ----- - ·-------· 1--·- -~--- -. ----·-- ed.
--"--- -
la n1:· de 'i /us kyi_/pcJg§ 8 : fr~M tB : :tt B : B : l~ffi~ B : §JL~ffi
pa/j .(ll__dQCyongs su fg~sw- ~J>t!ilf~ ~-W!r:5t 11 · /~ • {187b17.
byang par byed/rab ~ · :@GFtl~ Jt=W~ · ~K (234b20) 18)
tu dang par byed jJf.j-fgJ.l ~fgu!fl~ {433b16) "The twenty- "The twenty-
do// ... de la kha dg ~ ' ~.fii'f ~J{ni "The twenty- ninth week: ninth week:
gifp11gs pa'imdgg ni fs · {256a6- fT · ... ninth week: The flesh
The flesh
las kyi mam par smin s) {889b1.9) All the gradually gradually
pas nag pol/kha de "The twenty- "The p_odifyJJ.arts becomes
ninth week: twenty- are §.Qlid and becomes
gnag po/(130b 1.z) thick."
"In the twenty-ninth [A wind] ninth fOIDp_lete." full."
makes the week: [A
week: The color of .colorof the wind] (See also
the ~kin of its.body 1'.ogy bright makes the (See also [83])
becomes clean white and skin clean. [83])
( *paryavadata) and pure. Or The face
clear ( *prasad) ... At owing to the .CQJor
that occasion, due to [former] acts naturally
the maturation of [the wind] follows
[former] acts, for makes the [the nature
some the color of the color black of the
skin becomes dai-k or-blue." fetus']
and the face becomes (See also former
dark." [55][81]) acts."
. J~ee_~!so J_5~][8!J)
[76] zhag bdun ~ ~~- ~~---;- - ~-~
ffi. +t ffi~i-t
pa sum bcu pa lam:· B : ~=§nT B : -%1=£ . ·1-tB: _ i-t a = I cct. [88])
£.kra dangspu dang . ,&."a .n::·ill &~fflGJJi.
.!E TJ 1'G':t _ =§~ , llj! Ri~l&#
_sep JllO'i baryangs su ~, a,~~ (234b20-21) ~ · (187b1s)
byang par byed/rab ffiRfrfT · The thirtieth 'The thirtieth
Y6"?5!1i~ {889b1S-16) week: The
tu dang par byed cing f.W, • (256a 10_ "The week: The
kha cig gini§...kra 12) thirtieth skin and skin starts to
dang ~Jll:l dang §en "The week: [A membranes take shape."
f110 'i bargnag pa/ ... thirtieth wind] become like
~ -- ---·- ---~--- -
salted dry (See also

Parallel Passages 671

GAS
. . I .
GASMSV- Baotaijing
. . .
Abhidharma
·- -·· --1 --~- -·
Vimutti- DDJ
-i-- - - -\
YBhS YBh
_MSY-Tib,_Q1035 Yijing, T1451
r T317 texts maggaT1648 T607 T606 BHATTACHARYAed.
(130bs-6) ~ . week: [A makes the I --,-~-~! meat.~- -f[82][83])--,~--~ --· - -·
"In the thirteeth wind] hair on the
week: The hair on enables the head and (See also
the head and body hair on the body grow [82][83])
and the pails become head and according
clean and clear, and body and the to [the
for some the pair on nails to grow, fetus']
the head and body [from which] former
and nails become white and acts."
dark7'- black rays
appear I (See also .
(See also [68]) according to [68])
[the fetus'
former]
acts."
(See also
J68l) _ --
[77] zhag bdun ffi=+-t ffi=+- ~+-t -+-t
pa sum bcu rtsa gcig B : §i'irir tB :~ B: ~~ffi B: ~ff~
pa lam:· de ma 'i Ito 'i Jlff:k~ ~. (234b21) ~ · (187b1s-
nang du 'phel zhing (256a13)
* )E The thirty- 19)
rgyas par 'gyur tel "The thirty- (889b19.zo) firstweek: "The thirty-
(130b1) first week: "The The skin and first week:
"In the thirty-first The fetus thirty-first membranes The skin
week: It increases gradually week: The gradually becomes
and grows in the grows." body of become thicker and
mother's belly." the fetus solid." more solid."
gradually
grows to
become
_ _ __ complete." _
 1
1

678
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

---- r- -- -- ---1- -- -- __ f___ -- -- __f____ ------- --i- ------ ---- ------ --- -~-
GAS GASMSV- Baota1jing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ
_l\,f§Y__-!ib,J)10~5 ~ - yijing,__ '!_135_1 J~17 _ ~ _J_!~xt_s_ YBhS YBh
_ maggaT1648 __ T6p7 __ _ T606 ______ /_BHATTACHARYAed.
[78] zhag bdun m -f-= m += t -- f -~
_=:-- - _____..-LJ
pa sum bcu rtsa gnis 8 : :t1f~J.l t H : 5l -+-=t
pa:dema'ilto'inang * ~Elm B : filE~JIIIDL B : Ez:1fi,t
du 'phel zhing rgyas (256a14.1 5) (889b20-21) _'.±_- • (234b21- 1'1x • (187b19)
pargvurro#(l30b8 ) "The thirty- "The 22) "The thirty-
"In the thirty-second second week: thirty- The thirty- second week:
week: It increases [The fetus] second second week: The skin
and grows in the grows week: The The flesh of becomes
mother's belly." 59 larger. 1160 body of the buttocks more
the fetus is formed." complete."
establishes
itself."
[79] [zhag bdun m·-+=.t -:J ___
- -- -
pa] sum bcu rtsa ff& -+- -+-t
B : !ff~Ji: tB:Jl -+ t
gsum pa: de ma 'j lto 'i *(256a14.1s) ~~¥Mi, B=!f· B : If·
nang du 'phel zhing "The thirty- '~f11_!:iJ • . fill. • • Jg-.
rgyas par 'gyur roll third week: JW. ~~,n~ f~. ~~~[]
(130bs) • '1£1Jt ~fj!.
[The fetus] ffilrf.t.J ~ · (187b20 )
"In the thirty-third grows El~.
};.;,J:;,f<::
(234b22) "The thirty-
[week]: It increases larger." "The thirty- third week:
(889b21-24)
and grows in the "The third week: Ear, nose,
mother's belly." thirty-third Ear, nose, lips, fingers,
week: The belly, spleen, joints of
body of fat, and knees
the fetus is joints become
complete. become complete."
The bones noticeable
upon
---· and joints
~~- _ -~· diagno-_ --- _____!______ _ _ _ __

9
. ~ The same explanation is repeated for the following two weeks.
60
61 The same explanation is repeated for the following two weeks.
The same explanation is repeated for the following three weeks.

Parallel Pa\sagt:s h--;l)

----,
GAS G1SMSV- j Baotii1jing I Abhidharma I Vimutti- -- \ DDJ YBhS -
- - \ YBh - -
MSV-Tib, 01035 YiJmg, T1451 T317 ~s I magga_I!~48 . 1'607 __ \ T606 -~-~B~TTACHARYA ed.
--
are solid, sis(?)."
and it does
not want
to stay in
the
womb." 61
[80] [zhag bdun ~-+rmt ~=+[9 - -+[9-t; -+[9-t;
pa] sum bcu rtsa bzhi El : !ff*JJi tB:)l ·s:~11+ B: ~11+ ' -
pa la yang: de ma 'i ~~ii• Ji;§t:fL . ft ;§t '=§ :FL •
lto'i nang du 'phel (256a14-1s)
* 'ffl'jp~ (234b22-23) ~:fLJifr!a*
zhing rgyas par 'gyur "The thirty~ •, 1±nt "The thirty- ~ . (187b20.
ro# (130b8) fourth week: Jjfil~::f t) fourth week: 21)
"In the thirty-fourth [The fetus] El~. Nine "The thirty-
[week] as well: It grows
~*
(889b22-24) hundred and fourth week:
increases and grows larger." "The ninety Nine
in the mother's belly." thirty- thousand hundred and 1
fourth pores are ninety
week: The formed." thousand
body of pores are
the fetus is formed, but
complete. the pores of
The bones the hair on
and joints the head are
are solid, not complete
and it does yet."
not want
to stay in
the womb." -------

·~;_1_w-11b~!a!t!dJ1n;a ~·flr~~jj I ~ij_til- ~-------1- (See [7S])-- ·1 ~t~in -, ~4 jfJl •_- -- -- ---
pa la ni-yan lag dang ~ !l~1i ' _ ;§t:fLffiftftiG JE · (187b21-
nring lM thams cad (256a16) - i?~P~ - fj! · (234b23_ 22)
~ --·-----·---~---·--·-·•·-----·--- ---· ------.s--·---·--~·- --- --· --· -- - - - . - -.. --•-- -·- • - -·- - -- -
 ":;.~,,..,.,..,)'',"'.;,

680 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

-- ------ ----- ------- - --- -- - -------

------------ ---- - - - -

GAS ~1SMSV- I I Baotaijlng Abhidharma

I Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
M_SV-Tib, Q10~5____ YtJ!!}g, T1451 T}!l__ ____ texts _______ magga_Jl~48 T607 T606 BHATTACHARYA
- ~-- -
-----·-,-- - ------
ed.
gEJJJg ldanpar 'gyur 1'•1'£.tn 24) "The thirty-
ro/1(120b 8-13la1) "The thirty- JfflJll::f ,[,j_ "The thirty- fifth week:
"In the thirty-fifth fifth week: ~filx • fifth week: The pores
week: It pQssesses all The]imbs *
(889b22-z4) Nine are
the limbs and minor are "The hundred and complete."
_body parts.'' -- -- - fOmplete." thirty-fifth ninety
week: The thousand
body of !)Ores
the fetus is gradually
fomplete. emerge."
The bones
and joints
are solid,
and it does
not want
to stay in
--- · - - - --- - - - - - ... · - - - - - -- - -- ·-
the womb."
·------- - --- - - - ------------- -- -- -- ---·-·--- - - -- ----- -----

[82] zhagbdun m=+A-t: ffi-+/\ -+A-t: --+A-t: I (See [87])

pa sum bcu rtsa drug 13 : ~r::r -t:!3 : ~ -
B : )11~ 13 : )TI!_§_
pa la ni· de 'byung ~{.tffi:Jffl: r:p ~mrl· ~ · (234b24 _ m. {1s7b22)
'dod cing mngon par (256a11) ~!fl~ zs) "The thirty-
midgao/1(131a1) "The thirty- I> tE!n "The thirty- sixth week:
"In the thirty-sixth sixth week: JttQ~::fJ;J sixth week: N_~ijs are
week: It wishes to get The fetus ~filx
71<: • _Nails grow." established."
out and does not (lit. 'child') (889b22-z4)
enjoy [staying in the does not "The
womb]." want to stay thirty-sixth
in the belly week: The
(See also [76]) I ofthe body of
mother.." the fetus is
complete.
(See also I The bones
[761) and joints

Parallel Passages h/l. \

GAS GASMSV-
-- I Abhidharma
I Baotaijing - - -- I Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh .
MSV-Tib,Q1035 ____ Yijing, T1451 ,_T317 __ ~-_texts ---~ maggaTl648. T607 __ \ T606 \ B~}'TACHARYA~d.____
-r- - - -
are solid,
and it does
notwant _
to stay in
the womb."
------ ---

[83] zhagbdun ffi - +-t:-t: ffi_+-t: - -+-t:-t: +-t:-t: I (See [88])

pa sum bcu rtsa bdun F3:§:__fm -tE3 : Ea B : -BJJffl: r:p f3 : ~ ffl:Jffl:
pa la ni· phyin ci ma ::f ...tiJHtU*§
;c.,., · ?&1:~tlD ;saffl. tf:1~-=fm
Jog pa 'i 'du shes gsum pJr~i~ff~ 1±m~ac ~! B'i1" ffl' ~iC!ifJ
pa migtsang ba 'i 'du ,ffl
J~\
g;i
' ~
fl 1~:xE:l:B. §,~,o %~·§·
shes dang! dri nga J~, ~M 1%-t-~ lffl800A · 4•D·
.11.::J,,
ba 'i 'du shes dang! *§ . ~ ' !!Nffl ~tw:m1m ~~mm~
'byung ba 'i 'du shes (256a1s-19) JCJ,'"\
z*§ '4
-
"The thirty-
ffl' 'i1"~1 ;!t~i·~
fil~ftiMif,, \~MfiE ft
dag thob par 'gyur ~z~·
ro//(131a1-2) seventh ~~z ::f~lmIE · ~-
"In the thirty-seventh week: [The r~ . ::ftJ ~tiJIJB~ x~mm;
week: It gets three fetus] has ~filx •
p
filL{:g ' ~E3 tfl;·
"\\\,.......;; .;.,
unperverted ideas, three *
(889azs-21) ~Ji[~~~ . ~"" ~
namely the ideas of unperverted "The ~ff::fff. ~f~ft~EE
not being clean, of images, thirty- ~-tBtf:1 W1iiE!l:c-t
smelling bad, and of namely, the seventh n1 , Ifil , 13 r:p · ft)llil.
getting out." images of week: [The Jlfj ' • ' ~~*/J\'ff
impurity, fetus] t1,~, ~ . (187b22-
(See also [751[76]) I odor, and naturally ~·~·* 26)
darkness." feels as if 1]\~~lffl • "The thirty-
[it were (234b25.z9) seventh
(See also caught] in
I "The thirty- week: In the
[75][76]) a net and seventh belly of the
wants to week: In the mother,
escape. belly of the winds arise.
With the mother, A wind
images of some yVinds opens the
__ ___ __i!llpurity,__ -
arise. If a
- - - - ---- --
ears, eyes, __ . _ -- -
 ;~~'f;~.

682
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

~1{!i~Q!03~~l{t1::ll~:1~J:ti~iai:IngL~=~~:~a- ~;~j~~ r~r;{ ~ . . [:;.s- __ Jg:TT~CHAR:Ae: - ~

filth, wind arises, nose, and
prison, and it opens the mouth of the
darkness, eyes, nose, fetus.
it does not and mouth A wind
enjoy and enters arises and
[staying in them. Also, dyes the h_air
the if a wind on the head
womb]." arises~it and body
(See also makes the and [makes
[75][76]) tips of the it] beautiful
bair and or ugly. A
nails neat or wind arises
ugly. If a again and
wind arises colors the
again, it !io4ic1nd
coJors_the face, white,
~kin white, red, or black.
black, Being
yellow, red, beautiful or
and [makes ugly all
it] beautiful depends on
or ugly. In former acts.
this week, In this week,
brain, blood, cold and hot
fat, fatty winds arise
flesh, and open the
marrow, urethra and
heat, cold, anus.
tear, and the
urethra and

[.8.-4].· zh;bdu~~mi:+~~u-.mi:+;\.-Il~--~--.~~l(See. [92])-.1~~;~. ~.'~l:_-+J\i: I (Se~ [89]-[92]_) _____ -- --

1a sum bcu rtsa 8 : -H]:Jffi:rp 8 : {f-BJJffi:
- - - --- ------~--~- : ~ - - -~==----.-- _ _ _ - ---- -~~-- - --~- ~----~- -=-----~---- ---------- --- - ----- ----- ---~---- ---- --~- -
J B : .tlt@Jj~ i: B : ~
...-.
~,· Parallel Passages 6~3

~ -. GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing I· Abhidharma 1·-· Vimutti- ·-

·-DDJ
- -- -·--1 YBhS- 1- YBh -
~ MSV-_TilJ_, 01035 ___ Yijing, T1451 -
T317 - - - - - - Ttexts
-· ·-
maggaT1648
-,-------- T607 ___ T606 __ · - _ . B_HATT~CHARYAed.
II!" brgyadpa la ni· de ~ij~-yjf~ ;jt~~' OOJB • ~1i r:p • fliJt*
~-· _sgvur nas Jag pa gnyis rti:JT. ~§f )}t;JL.J:gJ:I tzDfs$ffJf ff§~M
_1_ bcum ste/ma 'i mngal T-®W~rtu~ ~-~ ~- ffl·
- gyi sgor Jog par bye F~ · (256a21- F~ . ;fifffi::ff , mtr~:ff@:!
,
- do#(131az_3)
"In the thirty-eighth
z3)
"The thirty-
(889b2s-c2)
"The
@:!W Mffl
ey~~%!lffii
#WM , "aJ
Jt~~*~
week: It Jurns and eight week: thirty- IEr'iJA ~~ · iEJt
.=;,'-
.s.a"'- ·A £!.gA- A 1th~
then contracts its This wind eight ,c,fil-a , aJ ~ rut ""P ..,. "JJ.rm
arms, while settling can !µrn the week: [A ~J!til.ffl , f~ IE~::f ~fID(
against the opening _!)9_<jy of the wind] ~~::f~7f m.
of the mother's fetus and blows the P!A · ~ *fr@it~U
womb." make it go fetus' ::fft#itIE~:. ffl~mR · %
down. body, and (234b29-C4) _&7f~::fJ:1J
(See also [72]) Extending [the fetus] "The thirty- 1G,~ · ~jt
both arms, it proceeds eig.hth week: itfil1%{1;f~
proceeds to to the In the belly W~::f!lffii
the birth birth of the IE · X ::f~g
opening." opening mother, ~ 'APfr::f
with its winds arise g-&, ·
(See also head down and make (187cz-6)
[72]) iiidJe_g§ - [the fetus] "The thirty-
!!ll.'' receive (the. eight week:
rewards] In the
(See also correspond- mother's
[72]) ing to the belly, winds
good and naturally
bad acts in arise
former lives. according to
If [the fetus] [the fetus']
pr~c:!iced former acts.
good, If [ the fetus]
fragrant practiced
winds arise good,_ ____ _
 \
684
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

- -.-.-
GAS ·,- -·· --- .. - - - ,---- - ---
r_MSV-J:_i~, Ql035 YBhS YBh
aijiIJ~ _
1i1~t:J;1r::if ~~1c1h~:~ J :i~l~:rnrt T606 BHATTACHARYA
------
ed.
-----
-- ------~ ---- -

and make. fragrant

the pogyand winds arise,
mind and make
beautiful and the bogyand
lovable. mind soft
If [ the fetus] and faultless.
prncti_ced They [the
~vil, foul- winds] justify
smelling the bones
winds arise and.ioints
and make and make
the bogyand them neat
mind uneasy and lovable
and to every-
unlovable .. body.
The b_ones If [ the fetus]
_a.n_d jQints prncticed
are not neat. ~.Yil, foul-
smelling
(See also winds arise
[92]) and make
the p9gy
uneasy and
the mind
unhappy.
[The winds]
blow the
gq__11_e_s and
i9jnts and
make them
crooked and
ugly. They
also make

Parallel Passages 685

-----·-
GAS GASMSV-
. ffi
Baotaijlng
.
Abhidharma
- -
Vimutti- DDJ rt:ojs-
.
YBh
..
MSV-Tib;Q1035 Yi.fing, T1451 .· !317_ ___ texts l maggaTl648 I T607 I _13HATTACHARYA ed. ___
[the fetus]
impotent
and disliked
by people."

(See also
>------- - - - --
.
----,- -- . f92l) - - - - - - - -

[85] --~+J\-tB ~~--+ ~ sa punar garbho

~fCJ§~~ -t 13 ° n_Ji ~f!!_tn%nsadbhil/2.§_8_£t_ahai1J
12:1lB ~f11.E.E :f~~B • §EJ[VaJigap[atya_Jigopeto
~~- .--·--El
..-:_"'_ ;tt~Jlffll.11 bhavati/tata1Jpara1p
(234c4-5) lffi~U~.!% £ElturaheIJfl.}ayate/
"[When] A · (187c6_ yathokta1p Bhagavata
thirtv-eigh! s) {iflr_b!J#_vala_antisiitre sa
weeks, "These are puna/;1 ~ampiirp_o bhavati
namely pine the thirty: navabhir masaih parena va
months eight ~e~ks: punar iti/(27s.1)
minus four [When] nine "Further, the fetus is
gal'.§ [have months complete with all the limbs
elapsed from !!}inus_f_our ~nd ini1!_9r_lfo1bs in !hirtY:
the moment daY§ [have eight weeks. After four
of concep- elapsed from additional g_a..Y§. it is born,
tion], .all the the moment as is said by the Blessed
pQ_nes and of concep- One in the Garbhava-
joints tion], the j(r~ntisiil[a. 'Further, the
pe~qme body and the [fetus] is c9mplete in nine
fOtnpl~te." !;>Qpes and JIIOnths or more'."
ioints of the
fe_tiis become
~Qrnplete

62
Text, a~fatri1psata.
 i

686 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

~---i- ·--- ----- ----,--- --~- -

GAS GASMSV- Baotai/Ing
M~Y_:Ii~, Q!Q3L____ Yijing,_Tli5J_ ._!}17

------y--- -~
'
[86]
~':EfiH'rlf Jt1J \~fflUm
-=:B- . -;t ~-=:5t·-
~X-7t~ :5tf.f£X-;t
HJ · (234c5. ~HJ·
6) (187c13)
"[When] the "The body of
child is born, the child has
[following] two parts.
his former One is from
acts [his the father,
body] has and the
two parts. other from
One is from the mother."
the father,
and the
other from
- - - - - ·-~--~-- the mother."
[87] (See [46] (See [46] (See [46] (See [82])
onward) (See [82]) a~tiivasthiiiJ: (1) kalala1p .. .
onward) onward) (2) arbudaip ... (3) peii .. .
(4) ghanaiJ ... (5)
praiakha ... (6) j(eia-
T9InE1Jl<ikh_gpradurbha-
vas ... (7) indriya ... (8)
vya.i/ana ... (281.s)
"The eight states [of
embryogenesis] [are] ( 1)
kalala (lit. 'flake'), (2)
arbuda (lit. 'a Jong round

Parallel Passages bo7

,
1
GAS ~1SMSV- r Biiotiii/ing IAbhidhanna Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh
_M_SY-J'ib_, Q103_J _ .- Y1JI.Qg, '1'!451
r T317 texts ImaggaT1648 T607 I T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
I,-
mass'), (3) pesi(lit. 'piece
of flesh'), (4) ghana (lit.
'viscid'), (5) prasakha (lit.
'having limbs'), (6) 'having
developed pair·on head
and body and nails'
(kesaromanakha-
pradurbhavas), (7)
'[having] sense-faculties'
(indriya), and (8) '[having]
distinctive features'
-----·------------ ·-~-- ----------i-- - - - - --·- . - - - - - ----------t ----:-------
( vya.ijana). _____ _
[88] (See (See (See (See [83]) (See [83]) tataiJ piirvakarmavasan
[75][76]) [751[76]) [75][76]) miitrii ca
vi~amapariharaJJiid 63
vi~amapari-hara/ais ca
garbhe tadanukiilair
_vayubhil;i j(esavaik{tyaip
_varJJJlVaik[tyaJ_n
tvEJgVailqtyam (289.10)
"Then, due to the force of
acts done previously, due
to the mother not avoiding
adverse conditions, and
due to the corre-sponding
)¥inds that arise in the
womb from not avoiding
adverse conditions, the
deformation of pair,

63
According top. 28, n. 9 of BHATTACHARYA's edition, the editor emends -pariharaJJiid in the manuscript to -parihaJJad I do not follow his
suggestion here.

------
 ~-:~'\'!;',--""'."'

688 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

- - - - - - ·r----- - ------ --~ -------~ - r· -----

GAS
------ --- - -------T GASMSV-
- - --- -Bilotilijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS I YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijing, T1451 T317 texts maggaT1648 T607 T606 _____ ~~'I'TAC~_JAed_:_ __ _
-· - -- -·· • ·-- -r - r -··--··-- ----c r-- - ----r----- [skin]folor, and pails [takes
__ ___ _ . place1, ... "
n
[89) - (Se~i21) I(See [72)) - (see [72]) - - -- - - r.=-- -- l (Se~-[84]) (See [84]) f.J_Tig.ivailqlya1.n ca jilyate I
(2810)
"... and [may] form ugly
]imbs."
[90] (See [73]) I (See [73]) -- r (See [73]) r I (Cf. [52]) l ~1£1r:Jlbb'W !JJ~~ftrnf [sacet] punaiJ §fri 64 bhavati
fi§j1rujffiJAJ mi~ v\JtE:ti: sa pr~thavaipsaip
1&. Jlbbi:11 . nisrityoraiJ sa1.npuraslqlya
ft:;(£,fj i'la!Jl :kr'Wffl:mI vilme pilrsve matur
~lru~IPJ ffi [ii]ff-11J11t avatJ~fhate/sacetp_y_miln
1& · (234cs. kiJlbb-!E. . bhavati sa uro nisritya
9) (187c23.z4) p~fhavaipSaifJ
"A.bQY is "A Pill'. is sa1ppuraslqtya dak~iJJe
situated in situated in pilrsve miltur avati~fhate/1
the left side the left side (287_9)
[of the [of the "Moreover, [if the fetus is]
mother] with mother] with femak, it rests against the
his back his back mother's spine with its
facing the [facing the] chest facing the front, and
front and his outside and stays in her left side. If [the
belly facing with his face fetus is] _male, it rests
the back. facing the against her chest with its
A girl is inside. spine facing the back, and
situated in A girl is stays in her right side."
the right side situated in
[of the the right side
mother] with [of the
her belly mother] with
facing the her back

M Text, punastri.

Parallel P;1~~;1gcs (;\')

GAS - -GASMSV~-1 Bilot--:Z;'jing j Abhidharma

---
Vimutti-
I
DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-l)b, Q103~__ . _Yijing,__'!'1451_ ,_!317 ___ -, _t_ext_s____ _111agga T1648_ . T607 \ T606 \_ BHATTACHARYAed.
front and her [facing] the
back facing mother and
the back." with her face
facing the
-~-----~ - - - - - - - - ; - -
outside."
[91] (See [74]) (See [74]) (See [74]) tLJ:J~~~~ ~-~ftJ~ lit._
(See [40][85])
8 · ~- B--- ~IZYB · m
Brr · ~i! ~aff:t<JJB , 7,~
I
.&,.
fjfffj!~ 5'x Lhi3,
1~ -a·~
1:..
ft;(£' --<+-
q•ft1£1§
,~,§t;fj ::f:
r:p :::,;',::"'- ,~ft:7(
xJ:.
::tt :s:a ,,.-,-.,:s.
u__ 1D' 1T ;~
~. ~ ::r:1~ .,,., 1T,D,
it-'-- i:i~
1r.-a. ~ 1£¥}§.~
521'"Fa,~
1=1:=art-r·
~P!ffi:r:f:1~=
: :,',: ~i!inl~
El •
a JC.:::.,, ~ · (187c26-
(234c11.14) l88a3)
"[When]· '[When] pine
nine months months and
~n_g _four-- fourda~
daj'.§ [have [have
elapsed from elapsed from
the moment the moment
of concep- of concep-
tion, the tion, the
baby is baby is
born]. On born]. On
the first or the first or
second day second day
[after nine [after nine
_1!}onthsl, if months 1__t!J.~- _

------ ---- ---~ -

 690
·-------·····-·-···---- Nobuyoshi YAMABE

0~
-----~r YBh
- - - ------ -~-~--. ------ -~--- --~--- - - -- ----~~ ------- --=--~-- -- ---------
~ii-;ib,~10~~ -1~1£~:J;, ,:~wji;gfa~~~h~;-] ~;i648 rft·-.. -~ l[:s ~ ~
]J!:{ATTA._c_HARYA ed.
the former one who has
eraci1c~ ro"r previO!lfilY
!lie _fe_taj practiced
WclS_J!;OOd, it g_oodwill
thtnks:'fam think: 'I am
in ~garden in a gi!rclen
orm orin
heaven.' heaven.'
If the former The one who
practiceJof has
!iie-1~1~- J;>I"eviOll§}y
wasbad, it w-acti£_ed
tlifuks: 'I am evil thinks: 'I
staying in a am in a hell
J2f!§On for or in a prison
two days.' It in this --- --
thinks that it world.' On
will stay the third day
there for it feels
three days, discontent'."
namely, it
wishes to
stay in the
[mother's]
belly [only]
for three
- - ---- ------..f=-- ---~-~~-~ ~-----.;-~ --------~---- day~~· _______ .
[92] (See [84]) (See (84]) (See (84]) ll9+=-t :t±ll9 B tp , ¥ti IZ9 B B1i-BJ tasya ca karmavipakaja
s: -B·-1:!i.-BJ ~f9It!EB. ~ upapattya1J1S1kii _r-~yavo
j;)~?Jrtf:: ~tf:11:Tffilt J:E,Jfff!J~ jaya11.te/ te garbham
O
m ,,nwe1 re . .Qt:£~ £~·lm-fi- urdhvapadam avaiiraskam
, f-. fil'i foJ E 0
JI!fl. fiff • ffirbJ ~lj?rffiffi'f ~ Pl_ kurvanti/ ... /yonidvara- .
0
rtili£F~ Jtt TJE#J:-, F~-; (188a3_ nirgamasamakiila1_n ca

Parallel Passages ( ,') \

GAS I GASMSV- Biiotaijing I Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh

MS_Y-Ti~, Q1035 .--- Yijing, T1451 T317 texts 1_magga_!_1648_ T607 \ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
I I
~~o ~£3:HfilF~ s) punarjatavasthety ucyate/
(433b17.19) t:p • (235C14. On the (2911.14)
"The forty- 16) fourth day in "As a ripening of its
second "On the the mother's [former] acts, winds
week: Winds fourth day, belly, winds inducing birth arise. They
created by in the belly blowup and cause the fetus to be
[former] of the down and [inverted with its] fe~_!_!!Q
acts turn mother, invert the and head down. The
[the fetus] ascending fetus. Thus moment[the fetus] goes
so that !he and with its head out through the opening of
legs are descending ~own, it - the womb, it is said [to be
pow!ed up winds blow moves at] the stage of being
and the day and towards the reborn."
iieaddown. night. By birth
It moves-, these winds opening."
downward the fetus is
to the inverted :with
opening of jts head
the womb. down_and
At that time, f~etlfil. It
it is born." descends
into the
opening of
the mother's
----~----·---- -- --··-·· ----- +- --+----- womb." .----- r---~----

[93] (See [39]) (See [39]) (See IifJf~f. M: ~~~~fey (See [39] [40])
... :b"=="-~
[39][40]) ffi:Jf@fj t:p ~ J
L' JD, r::=l • -=r.x.i
~ffl1fg7J<1fg t5t'.nt1fg7J< rp
7.J< tjJ ~ . 11 ~~~D~~
ca- /-1-- -ft-& i:t:
'"~" :=t::1L ri=iJ //f\.. 1*'!JWZWK
J:EW~- ill .
q:i . it1f!l:1E-~ J::':i
~,,6../.-iffi: / . . ~~-a~
~:;-7 li
11=1 PPtT,~ J:::::I . .J:::::I
7;;{,c:,, =
I. !._____ ------- -~-- _ _!__ ·--------- - - - -
 692 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

~
------ --- ----~- -- - - --l- -- --- ---- - -- -- --- - --- -- --- - ~- -~ -,-- ---- ~--- -- -j-- -- --
GAS GASMSV- Baotiiijing Abhidharma Vimutti- jDDJ YBhS YBh
r_ MSV-Tib, Ql_0_3~ ___ --· Y_ljh}g, 'T! 4?1 __._ T_3F _ texts ma a T1648 T607 T606
__ ,gg_~-- -~ - - - -- -- --- -- - - - - - -- I BHATTACHARYA
---r- -- ~~---- - --- -ed.- ------
~. g~f;t fftl-U~~~
1lJffl ffiLt · WJ'rnf4titM1
~ft¥l:·~ q:r · ~tlOf:fu
titrr . ffl M1 1~*1~~1:
q:r . !5!~'t~ BJf!l!f,fifdJ~U
i-h • f-1<
!::J1~K- J~'\
i'!m--'7 ._,....
q:r · mm
Lp . ffl~ ~::f~.
Lp. E!7J~ (188as-s)
:ti q:r · ftJr "The
~t~~~. yirtuo_l!~ one
(234c16-20) thinks in his
"One who mind: 'I am
has playing in a
p1~yicm§h: pond, [I feel]
p_r_ati<;ed as if [I am]
gQQd thinks on a throne
at the - oriniilace
opening of with the
the mother's fragrance of
womb that flowers.'
he is playing The vicious
in a pond, or one thin-ks to
thinks that himself: 'I
he is on a am falling
tll.n>~ or from a
inside a mountain
fragrant onto a tree,
flower. onto a shore,
One who has into ditch,
Rf~Vi<JUfil'. into pit, into
.Rn1cticed a toilet, or
evil thinks onto hell-
that he falls like netted

( ,'(\
Parallel Passages

Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

GAS I GASMSV- Baotaijing \ Abhidharma \ \ B~TTACHARYA ed.
T317 texts \ magga T1648 T607 T606
MSV-Tib, 01035 ____Yijing, T1451 -r-- - - I
from a thorns, into a
mountain wilderness,
onto a tree, a into a rocky
shore, into a valley,or
pit, into a onto swords
toilet, on a or spears.'
caltrop, into Thus he is
a net, onto distressed
cogongrass, and
or onto lined unhappy."
up swords
and spears.
From one's
practice, one
is distressed
and restless." ---

ye~JP ca sattviinfiJ!l yasmin

[94] sattvanikiiya atmabhiivasya
priidurbhavo bhavati tatra
ya sattvasabhagata sa
tesam sattvanam caturbhih
pratyayaiiJ pratyayakiiiyaip
karoti/ (306-7)
"When the bodies of
sentient beings emerge in a
group of sentient beings,
the commonality among
the sentient beings65
_!unctjQl!§_aS conditions ffor
---------
- - -- - ------
'

"The commonality among sentient beings" (sattvasabhiigatii) is equivalent to nikayasabhagata, "commonality of a group," one of the elements of
65
cittaviprayuktasaJ!lskara, "conditioned elements not associated with the mind." See the Paiicaskandhaka (LI & STEINKELLNER ed., 13u-151).
 ~

694
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

-- ------- -------- ---- - --- --- - - --- ---- -~ ~ - ----~- ~------ _______
] _______ --~--- --~--~-----------------

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh

MSY:_Tjb, g_IQ35 --- Ytjing,_'!145_! _11 T} }_7_ _ - ll texts - - - -- _ ll_ m_agg_a__1'~l!_4~_-J/ T607 -r 'f60~ ------~ - __Jr _BHAJTAClJ,\R__rA~-- - -
------ -------- ~-·-- - --=- --·-- =-~--~----- --===-- - ------- ------- ---- -- --------~ ----·· _____ ,_ - --.----
_the ~ - --------- - --------
rebirth_s] in four ways."
It _ __ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ ___
[95] de /tar skyes j_~~p $ l~~~$ !\MP* L\±fi~ !\ +~l!
shing de /tar 'byung (256b29) (889c 22) (433bzo) (234c29) (l88a29)
ba 'i !us la zhag bdun "_Eigl:!!Y "J;ig_h!y "~jgh_!y "pigl:!!Y "~igh.!y
'das nas _s1/JJ bu 'i rigs !ho:u_sand JhQ_!1_sand tJlQ_!I~and !ltQ_l!~and thoµsand
brgyad khri 'byung wq_rms." types of ~Qrms." types of types of
bar~{ zhing de ~9_rms." wor_ms." :wgrms."
dag g1s sems can
de 'i /us thams cad la
za bar byed de/
(132b1)
"In the body thus
born and arisen,
when seven days
have elapsed [after
birth], ~Q,000 types of
'wQrms' (Skt. *Jqmi)
appear in the body.
These [worms] eat
the whole body of

~i:~~~~~;r~,J~m: ~ Jl:f'_ ] _ _- ~--[lfEEH ~,~;Wio Jm~¥_-l_-__ -- --~--

- --- - - -- - -- -=---- --·--~-- - - - ~ - - -- -

66
Q gi, but from the context this must be gis.
67
Given that no Sanskrit list has been identified for this translation, the English translation given below for the names of these worms must be
treated as highly tentative. Extensive lists of worms in the body are also found in the Saddharmasmrtyupasthanasutra (Zhengfanian chujfng lEi!~
~*~), T721.38lc1sff. I thank Professor Florin DELEANU for the reference. "Eighty thousand worms" appear also widely in various Mahayana siitias.
See Jonathan SILK (1994:350 n. 2). Reference must also be given to an extensive discussion of this topic in LrN Li-kouang (1949: 109-111 ).

Parallel Pa..,..,agc\ {l'l)

-- - -

GAS 6:_1SMSV- I Baotaijing I Abhidharma Vimutti- - \ DDJ YBhS YBh

T1451 T311______ _magga T1648 __T607__ \ T606 \ BHATTACHAR'iAed.
MSV-Tib, Q1035 _____
I Y11mg, texts I I
bani skra 'i drung na (256c1) EE.i;:(£~ (433b21) 235a1) r§-fil · mfil
rten cing skra dag za "Roots of the fiijjj;fgcp "Worms - "Two kinds (l88a29-b1) -
barbyed(132b1) hair: --i;a resting on [of worms] "Two kinds
"The type of worm 'Hair-Eater'." ~·-i; the hair: emerge at [of worms]
called 'Hair-Eater' li~· 'Hair Iron'." the roots of are at the
rests at the roots of (889Cz3.25) the hair." roots of the
the hair and eats "Roots of hair:
hair." the hair: 'Licking with
Licking the l'_Qng', -
with the 'Licking
tongue. 8,.gain,. 1168
According
to the
YBhS, the
names of
the worms
are: One is
'Licking
Fith the
Jongue',
and the
other is
'Lickin_g
Again'."
----- -- --
[97] mgo: dbyug Ej. ).I, • !iJLt : ft<l»fll:a: -~~gj -f_m:f:EEi :
0 (235a1) ~~ • ffi
gu can, mgo bo che tti\!. ~gj ~rm·1 ~HI
(132b2) (256c2) ffl ~- ~,g_ (433b21-22) "Three kinds ffl · ~ft
"In the head: [The "Head: (889czs) "Worms [of worms] (188b 1)
worms called] 'Storing a "On the resting on stick to the "Three kinds
'Having a_Stkk' a11~ -~tic~'! - - - head: the skull: head." _ fofwormsl_ __ , - - -
- -~- -~----~---~

68
The same pair appears in [101 ].
 .
,

696 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma -1 Vii;utti-- _ DDJ YBhS

I YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 _ YljiJ!g, 'f_!j51 1317 _______ .texts ________ . magga1l648 T607 1606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
-------- - -- - - -----~
'Big Head'." 'Rough _____ ,
'Solid' 'Swellings at are on the
Head'." 'Dama£ed' the Ears'." head:
- ----·~--·
'Harmed'." 'Solid'
. _,
'Pa1na,ged',
'Jfarmed'."
[98] (See [102]). I (See [102]) f1XnizER : -f_i~]i -fitEHi:
0
15~1£T (235a1) iffflll(l88b1.
roH£filf ll9 "One kind 2)
f_i: [of worm] "One kind of
§tf81~~. sticks to the worm is in
'-J3.rWfilz
1~~m pf.:
• RJ-!--,, brain." the brain:
~11iiJ • ~BlliiJ 'Lizard-
g'!FF'i!i 0
Mouth'."
(433b22-24)
"Worms
resting in
the brain:
Named,
'Under the
Sway of
Madness'.
There are
also four
kinds of
'Madness':
*Uku-
dmba 70
-- - - - - _____,______ - -- - ~- - -·--~ ---- ' _:_.!_ ___ - - ----

69
Text, ~ii], but I read OnJ following a footnote to the Taisho canon.
70
Since the passage quoted from the Vimuttimagga has no corresponding portion in the Visuddhimagga, the restoration of the names of these
worms is very difficult. I have referred to the restorations in EHARA et al (1961:173-176), but they are just transliterations of the Chinese transcrip-
tions. For this reason, this and the following restored names of the worms are highly tentative.

P:11:tlkl P;,.,-,,,i:'c:'> (1'-17

GAS GASMSV- Biiotaijing Abhidharma

I r V.Iinutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
\ 1606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
MSV-Tib, Q1035,Yi_jing, 1145!_1 1317~ _ t~X!__s_______
I_ I111~gga1l~4t,
I T607
*Sivara,
*Dhara.ka,
____ - -

-- ------ -~ r
1 ---,--~
*Dha.kaSJJa." \
[99] -f.1~9Hi ~fm:t:EHI
(235a1) ~:
"Two kinds lH~ · 'f'IIL
[of worms] (l88b1-2)
stick in the "Two kinds
brain." [of worms]
are on the
surface of
the brain:
'Exhaustion',
'Distur-
- - - - - i- - - - - - - ~ ··-----------i - - - - - - -
bance'."
----

[100] f_l{f~ j;®f_itE~:

(235a1-2) ~T · t75~
"Three kinds (l88b3)
of worms are "Two kinds
on the [of worms]
forehead." are on the
forehead:
'Abasement',
'Decomposi-
-
tion'."-- ·----·-
- --- --- - ---·1-·-----
[101] mig: mig §_N : ~ 1------ -----i-- f1X§Z!R : =.f,l~filHN J;®f_i{£ffi :
zan (132b 2) ~§_N(256c3) ~§N (235a2) ~~ • _m~
"In the eye: 'Eye- "Eyes: (433b24) "Two kinds (l88b3-4)
Eater'." __ _____ 'Sun:oun4ing --- ~ ----------------
"Worms
--- -----------·----
_fof worms l __Two types _ ___ _

71
The same pair appears in [96].
 !"l.v::-<:<~'.>--~"'Y''~'
•••@111__

698 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

-------- - -- - ---- - --~---- - - - - - - ----- - -- - -----~ ,--- --

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ -1 YBhS-- - YBh

MSV-Tib,
--
Q1035
- -- - - - - ---,
Yijing, T1451
--- -- I
T317
---- I -
texts--- -,
maggaTl648
- -- -
T607 j T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
--~ -- -- - --
the Eyes'." resting on stick to the [of worms]
the eyes: visual are on the
'Licking the organ." eyes:
Eyes'." 'Licking with
the Tongue',
iJ_,icking- -
-- --- -------
Again'." 71
[102] gladpa: H~: (See [98] (See[98] [99])
rgyug pa, sbyin byed, ,'M~. ~ [99])
rigs ldan, gang po 'A§: • ~~•
(132bz_3) f§Jii®(256c4_
In the brain: s)
'Runner', 'Giver', "Brain:
'Having Caste', and 'Driving out',
'Full' 'Running',
'House',
'Full'."
[103] mig: bsam - ---- --j (See [101]) (See [101])
lo(132b3)
In the eye: 'Thought-
Y ear'
- -- --------------1
[104] J+: {t<JZ!:R : -=tt~J+ ~.f.m1'£l+ :
.fis~ (256c6) ~~ l+ (235a2) ~~. f;l~
"Ears: (433b25) "Two kinds ~(188b4_5)
'Leaves of "Worms [of worms] "Two kinds
Rice'." resting on stick to the [of worms]
the ears: ears." are on the
'Licking ears:
Ears'." 'Cognizing

72
Text~, but I read ~R following a footnote to the Taisho canon.

l'a1;1lkl P.i~~;,g,'s t1') 1 J

GAS - /- GASMSV- I Baotaijing I Abhidharma \ Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

M~Y-'!\b, Q1035 _,- Yljing, T1451__T317_ _ m_agga_Tl648 _T607 \ T606 \_ BI~'_l"fACHARYj\_ ed.
1tex(s ____ -: I -
the Taste',
'Showing
1
Good
-·---·-- .---- - --- r - - - ~ - - - - - - ,
Taste'."
[105] -=fl~J+t~ ffi.f.iiE!l=
(235a2) fl:
"Two kinds w.(188b· 11~
[of worms] 5)
stick to the "Two kinds
roots of the [of worms]
ears." are at the
roots of the
ears:
'Red', 'Red
---------- --i----- ----
Again~t __
[106] sna: mdzod -;,-.·
~- -ft<"-ZER: -=.f.i~JUN m:f.i1=E4 =
+ct/3 i"1el 0
sgo (132b3_4) ~D(256c6- liJ.-1, w- (235az_3) HI:! • 1IHI:!
In the nose: 1) 11~=.fm: "Two kinds (188b6)
'Storehouse- "Nose: f1:J=D$:bJ • [of worms] "Two kinds
Entrance' 'Storehouse- ~iiJ ;fl:J=D • * stick to the [of worms]
Entrance'." ffl)*f ftj:BJ root of the are on the
(433b2s-21) nose." nose:
"Wonns 'Fertile'
resting on 'Fertile '
the nose: Again'."
'Licking the
Nose'.
It has
further
three kinds: ---------

73
Text f.,;£, but I read~ following a footnote to the Taisho canon.
 •1
~
~

700 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

GAS - . GASMSV- BaotaijinglAbh_ -idhanna

1 ·- ------ _l _________
Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Ql03t_ Yijlng, T1451~ !317_____ t~1ts ___ _L magga T1648
---- - --r T607
----- - I T606
----T- BHATTACHARYA ed.
-~--
*Raka-
mukha,
*Aruka,
*Manara-
mukha."
-------
[107] mchu: 'phen '1: =fi~DF~
byed, jog byed ~li1£D
ii~·~~ (235a3) tp:
(132b4) (256c7-8) "Two kinds
"On the lips: "Lips: [of worms]
m· lllm
(188b6-7)
'Shooter,' 'Rester'." 'Throwing stick to the "Two kinds
Far', opening of [of:
'Throwing the mouth." worms] are
Every- in the
where'." mouth:
'Swinging',
- - - - - - - - i - ---- - ---+---- - - - - - - - - 'Oscillating'." .
--- - - ---- - ·------r··-- ----------
[108] so: sbrang ~:
rtsii' 'dab74 (132b 4) =fitttli ~ft{£~
~~ (256cs) (235a3) tp :
"On the teeth: "Teeth: "Two kinds .!iliffi~ • r-vr .!j'/!.
1D,-:f"-r ~~
'Honey-Leaf." 'Honey- [of worms]
(l88b7_3)
Leaf." are on the
"Two kinds
teeth."
[of worms]
are in the
teeth:
'Wicked'
'
------~-_ -~---·-'Violent'." ____ 1. __ - - - - - _
---------
[109] -- ------u---
soi"rtsa ba: JmfN : ---1· _ = =fi1:E~:f-N . AliEim
shingsgo(l32b5 ) *D(256c9) (235a3.4) :f-N : -
"At the roots of the __ "RQ_ots of the ___ _ __ __ _ __ . _ --~1'_\\T_o kinds __lltM,I _·_j,f(_ ____ _

74
Q mdab.

P,1r;dkl l\1-..-..;\t',l'.S -II\

GAS G1SMSV- j Baotaijing I Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

_¥SV-Tib_,_Q1035 --~_Y11mg, T1451 T317 texts I maggaT1648
- -
T607 I ---
\ T606
I -
\ _BH!,-TTACHARYA ed.
teeth: 'Tree- teeth: [ofworms] 11:.. t¥~
Entrance'." 'Tree- are at the (l88b3_9)
Entrance'." roots of the "Three kinds
teeth." [of worms]
are at the
roots of the
teeth:
'Asthma',
'Rest',
. 'Grasping'." ,
- - - - , - - - ~----,---- '
[110) Jee: khab %: ~%zm= -fi1:E~ -fi1:E'r5:
mchu (132b 5) ito 1JJiDD (235a4) i:t~(188b9)
"On the tongue: (256c10) (433b21) "One kind "One kind
'Needle-Lips'." "Tongue: "Worms [of worm] is [of worm] is
'Needle- resting on on the on the
Mouth'." the tongue: tongue." tongue:
*Mukha." 'Sweet'." + - - - - ----~_,.,- - - - - - - - - - ,

[111] Jee drung: %:f-N: ~%tNm: -fl#f%fN -;fi:(£15

mchu rnon (132b5) flj D (256c10_ £J:{B:g, (235a4) tN:
"At the root of the 11) (433b27) "One kind *~(l88b9_
tongue: 'Sharp Li~s' "Roots of the "Worms [of worm] 10)
(Skt. nyalikufa)." 5 Tongue: resting on sticks to the One kind [of
'Sharp the root of root of the worm] is at
Mouth'." the tongue: tongue." the root of
*Motanta." the tongue:
_ _ _ ~ - - - ___ _ 'Soft'.lf __ .
[112] dkan: Jag 75.,,.,
'ffi •.
~~ZER: r-m~ocp -fitEJ-:
can(132b6) -=f:-~ (256cu) ~~(433b27 _ • :
J-:~ (235a4. -
"Palate: 'H~v_i_ng___ _ "Palate: ~~---~-~28~)_
r r _____s) _______ -*-1l(l88b10)
r _ __ _

75
See the Mahavyutpatti, no. 4948.
 -
, ~

702 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS GASMSV-- Baotaijing_l_ Abhidharma Vl~utti:-- ·1 DDJ-- ------, YBhS

----- ·1- -- ---- -- -----
YBh
_l\1SV-J'i_Q, 9_1035 Yijing, Tl 451 , T3 l 7 _-~ texts _ _ ____ magga Tl 648 T607 T606
-
BHATTACHARYA
--- - - -- -
ed.
-- - --- ---~---

Hands'." 'Round "Worms "One kind "One kind

Hands'." resting on [of worm] [ofworm] is
the teeth: sticks to the on the
*Kuba." palate in the palate:
mouth." 'Immigrant'."
--~-··----- --- -- ------
[113] Jag sor: chu'i ~~tNz
dra ba~ phye sgur m=
(132b6) f~~frij~
"In the fingers: (433b2s)
'Water Net', "Worms
'Crooked Powder'." resting on
the roots of
the teeth:
------ ---- - -- - - -
-- ----- ---- --•---- *Upakuba.f'
[114] (See [126]) (See [126]) ft<~z:e : -;ffl{Ell~ -fi{Ell~:
~iiJ~fflElluJ (235a5) n.f):~(l88b10_
(433b29) "One kind 11)
"Worms [of worm] is "One kind
resting on in the [of worm] is
the throat: throat." in the throat:
---- - -- --- ---- -
*Abhalika."
- - - - --- - - i ----- - - - --- 'Cot1g1!!n_g'."
[115] ft<~JiZ!R :
Jl'nuJ*-' • m
~noJm
( 433b29-C1)
"Wonns
resting on
the neck:
*Rokaia;
*Virokara."

P.ir.dkl P.1,,c1gc·~ I),

GAS / GASMSV- / Baotiiijing I Abhidharma Viinutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

_M~Y-Tib__, QJ035 Yijing, Tl 45_!_ ~-T~!l__ _ _ . ~~-s _ - l --
I magga T1648 T607
---- --- - - - l - - ---
\ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
[116] {&tz ER=
~ =§
(433c 2)
"Worms
resting on
the body
hair:
'Licking the
Body
-
Hair'."
---- 1
. ---- - - -

[117] _-:f_i::(:E~ f
(235as)
"Two kinds
of worms are
under the
knees."----------- - -~ ---

[118] r:®f.itt!Jft
-=f:
± ·~1~
(l88b11)
"Two types
[of worms]
are on the
pupils:
'Raw',
'Unripe'."
[119] -r- --1· -·-----.. ~=~-:~-=-r=-___ _
(Cf. [120]) -- r _
.-1=_ ---- I -- - -- --- "Twq_ tyees __
, --

76
Text fi;, but I read !K following a footnote in the Taisho canon.
 '
~
,
1

704 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

------ --- - -- ----- - - --- - --- - - -- ------- --- -------- - - ·r------ ------ ---- --- ~

GAS GASMSV- Baotai}Ing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ

- - - -
YBhS
---- -,- -·- - ------- YBh
~SY'_-Tib,_ Q1Q~5 ____ . yijing,]!15_1_ . T~J 7 __ _ _ .-t~~!s ________ __Il1El_gga T!~~~ ,_1.'_6Q?__ _ -
l T606
---- -- -·· - ---~- ---- ---- - - - - - - ---------
BHATTACHARYA ed. - - -
[of worms]
are on the
shoulders:
'Hanging',
'Hanging
Again'."
-- - -- ----- --- r-_ -- --- - - - ------···----

[120] Jagpa'i bol: -.J--~

+'st •. (See [123]) (See [123],
'phyang ba, rab tu -'f-~ . '.'-f}ffi Cf. [119])
'phyang ba (132b 7) (256C12-13)
"Palms of the hands: "Palms of the
'Hanging Down', hands:
'Hanging Down 'Palm
Completely'." Pattern',
'Half
Bending'."
(See also
__ J121JL _---•-- ----- ----

[121] dpungpa 77 : !t98 : (See [119])

dpung ba, nye dpung 7'.!1. j\Yh jtfl,
~~*. J.-.X~~'*'
(132b1) (256C13_14)
"Upper arms: '[the "Arms:
Worm] of the Upper 'Short
Arms', 'the Smaller Hanging',
[Worm] of the Upper 'Long
Arms'." Hanging'."

(See also [120]) (See also

L_ _ _ - - - - __,_ _ _
I _ --- ----- I _ --··----
-- ___ .J122]) -- _ _

77
Dpung pa, "shoulder" or "upper arm," does not exactly correspond to wan (BJH), "wrist." Perhaps it should be compared with ~.fiJltF!rt "two
kinds [of worms] live in/on the shoulders" ( YBhS, [1191).

\ ,:::.
Paralkl l\1~~;1gcs

B.iotaijfng \ Abhidharrn; Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

GAS -1 GASMSV- \ T606 \ BHAl'TACHARYA ed.
texts magga T1648 T607 , ---
- YijingL'!'1451 --- - ---- - - -------- -- ---
MSV-Tib, 01035 I T317 I ,·---
ff: =w~Wt~ -fliEff:
[122] (See [121]) (235a5) f.:EJ'I.(l88b12-
jfil1' . lliff
(256c14) "Two kinds 13)
[of worms] "One kind
"Upper arm:
stick to the [of worm] is
'Far Upper on the upper
Arms', 'Near roots of the
upper arms." arm:
Upper 'Stanc!_ing'."
Arms'."- - ~ -
[123] (See [120]) (See [120]) =mtE-¥ -•1£-'f-:
(235a 5_6) µ!fln'fE(l88b13)
"Two kinds "One kind
[of worms] [of worm] is
are on the on the
hands." hands:
, . 'Revolving'."
,--~--------.--------
~------+ --+---·--~-----

[124] ~ffiZER :
~ ffi 0

(433c2)
"Worms
resting on
the nails:
'Licking
I
Nails'."
-----1-~----~- ,
-~
[125]
-fm~JM
(235a6)
"One kind
[of worm]
sticks to the
elbows."

78 Text ii;, but I read~ following a footnote to the Taisho canon.

 ,
l
,
. 706 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS YBhS YBh

~1:g~l~;l l ~alo;aijing
l ~~~idharma -
r :;:t¢1648 ~f{ - T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
MSY-!i~, Q103_5
[126] lkog ma: ~
------------·--1·--------------,------------ -----, -- ---
: _ I (See [114])
----, (See
- [114]) (See [114])
rko ba, nye rko ~n·Btf
(133a8) (256c1s-16)
"Throat: 'Digger', "Throat:
'Smaller Digger'." 'About to
Swallow',
'Already
Swallowed'."
[127] snying: ~: m~:{:E~:
khon can, khon can ~~ J[!J\
+5'13
-:t=.;?E • /\..,e.,
ffitfL . Bl*
chen po (133a8) (256c16-11) (188b13_14)
"Heart: 'Having "Chest: "Two kinds
Grudge', 'Having 'Having [of worms]
Great Grudge'." Grudge', stay on the
'Great chest:
Grudge'." 'Forehead-
Holes',
'Wide'."
[128] ft<&:ZER:
qem. 9'E~
~(433c2-3)
"Worms
resting on
the skin:
*Tuna,
*Tunanda."
--~- -----

[129] ft<HlZER :
lbf/!~~ • rJl1
~~~
(433c3-4)
"Worms
resting on

-\ ,-
Par<1lkl Pci;.,";igcs

----- -r - - - - -1 Abhidharma-- Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing \ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yljlng, T1451 T317 texts \__ magga_T1648___ T607~
--- --- --- ----- - -- - - - --- - -- .. r----- ~- T··----- ~~

the
membranes:
*Vairam-
bha,
*Ma[ha]-
vairambha."
~--
---- -- ---- ~ - ------+- - ----- }----- +-- - -- -------
f~~z1a =
[130] sha: dung, r~: ~iiJm~ · m
dungchu(133a1) ~~. ~o·
(256c11) ~(433c5)
"Flesh: 'Conch', "Worrns
'Conch Water'."79 "Flesh:
'Conch resting on
Shell', the flesh:
'Conch *Arabha,
----- - -----
----
Mouth'." , *Rabha."- - - -
~---
- - - ~ - -:------~
,--.----
[131] khrag: r1Il : ~r1rrz1a :
mdog can, stobs can ~@.·~fl ~m·~~
(256c1s) m(433c6)
(133a1) "Worms
"Blood: 'Colored', "Blood:
'Colored', resting on
'Powerful'." the blood:
'Powerful'."
*Bhara,
*Bhadara" ---- ,
' --
---~- -~-------- ---- ------------{--------- __.
[132] chu rgyus: m5: {~m5z1!:
ffi~~.g
dpa 'po, dri sgo ~{jt • WD
(256C19) ~~·~~
(133a1-2) ~~m-m
"Muscles: 'Hero', "Muscle:
'Bl"_avery', ____. __ _ ·---~- ______ ._ffi3*mw __ -------
'Fragrant Mouth'."

79 Comparing the Tibetan word dungchu, "conch water," with the Chinese rendering Ju6k6u (t;D), "conch mouth" or "spiral mouth," the Tibetan
word might be emended to dung mchu, "conch lips," though this expressioin is not attested. Note, however, that in D57 (=Q760[13]), Ju6k6u is
translated as dung kha, "conch mouth," which is close in meaning to dung mchu. I thank KRAGH and KRITZER for these pieces ofinformation.
 ~
,

708
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS
YBhS
MSV-Tjb, Q1Q3~·- r
-··--·n-YBh------·~. ·-----
T606
~1.~g~:~;11 ~~WJing :~idh~~.- r:~~~~6~ [¥~~ _
'Fragrant
-- -
BHATTACHARYA ed.
-----
(433c6-s)
Mouth'." "Worms
resting on
the muscles:
*Rotara,
*Kitabha,
*Bharava-
tara, *RaJJa-
varana."
---_.__--
-----~
[133] (See [164]) (See [164]) 1:&HfilZEB :
~~{~ffl3
(433cs.9)
"Worms
resting on
the vessels:
*Karikuna."
[134]
f:&HfilfNZ
:a:
F~&·~
~F~som
(433~-10)
"Worms
resting on
the roots of
the vessels:
*Sivara,
--------
[135] -----;~altsh1is: · 1· ff · - . . ~r -.-_---r ~Upa§ivara:_'
(Cf. [145])
. dma 'ba~ kha sbubs ......~ ~ ·_IJJ r-~
80
Text r, but I follow the variant given in a footnote in the Taisho canon.

Parnlkl P:1,,~1g<.·s \i'l

GAS G1SMSV- I Biiotiiijing I Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

MSY-Jib, _Q10~1 YiJmg, T1451 _ T317 texts I magga T1648 . T607 \ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
can(133a 2) (256c20)
"Spine: 'Low', 'Facing "Spine:
Down'." 'Not High',
'Mouth
Down'."
RI:::. •
[136] tshil: tshil /jl=f • 1tcIDJzs =

mdog ( 133a2) g~5 · g~5 trm. tt

"Fat: 'Fat-Colored'." (256C21) mFm
"Fat: (433c17-1s)
'Fat- "Wonns
Colored', resting on
'Fat- the fat:
Colored'." *Kara,
*Karasila."

{tcH~z:a :
3IfW8JimiJ
(434a3-4)
"Worms
resting on
the fat:
*Jidalika."
[137] mkhris pa: 'il: ~ 5 s1
mkhris mdog(133a3) (256c21-22)
"Gall(bladder): 'Bile- "Yellow:
Colored'." 'Yellow
Color'."
[138] mcher pa: --
mu tig(l_33a 3)__ \)Js:!·-;)1*~__-[~.---.·-~ --=i ------·-----
I-
81 Probably huang('Jli.), "yellow," in the MSV-Yljing should be understood in the same sense as Tibetan mkhris pa, "bile, gall."
 s· ?,1:",+;_AA-

710
-----------
Nobuyoshi Y AMABE
~~--

~1K;i~,Q~03l ·. - ~t;g~f~;l -:i~aijin;) i~~dhar;a Ti{i:~-l~~J fi{- -- rioz5- - 1:.r,;~=Y~ed.- ----

"Splee; ;Peil!!;_;, -r~t~0s: -,- -_---_--- - - - - ~- ---- - T ---. ---
--- ---- --:-:,- -r---- -- ~-, ------ - ,--------- ---r---· ---~---] ---------- . , -------- ------
(139] mkhal ma:
-HI :-.*~~~
mu tig chen po82 (256c23)
(133a3) "Kidneys (lit.
"Kidneys: 'Big Pearl'." 'waist'):
'Bi_g pearl'.'~----- ~- ~
[140] mchin pa 83 : JJ$:*¥
'ongs min (133a4) (256Cz4)
ft<J1'Z:E ~ -=Ii~Ji-f (See [181])
~=fm = (235a6)
"Liver: 'Not- "Spleen:
Arrived'." r~m · tt?b "Two kinds
'Not yet (433cn-14) [of worms]
Reached'." "Two stick to the
additional spleen."
(See also kinds of
[181]) worms
resting on
the spleen:
*Nila,
---- - - - - ------= ---~-~---- *Pita." - - ~ - · - - -- ~--=-- - - - ~ - - - ~
[141]
it<iC.i'ZER : -f_i~1L, --fm1:E1L,:
JE!'e?b. ff (235a6) :FJIJf~(l88b14)
£-*~m?b "One kind "One kind
(433c1s-16) [of worm] [of worm] is
"Worms sticks to the on the heart:
resting on heart." 'Spotted'."
the heart: - - -----' - - - ~----- ----- - ~ --- _,_ _______ - ----~ --

82
Judging from the correspondence between mu tig chen po, "great pearl," and da zhenzhti (X!~J-*), "large pearl," the word yao (!if), "waist," in
tlie MSV-Ytjing seems to correspond to mkhal ma, "kidneys." , .
83
Q reads 'chin pa, which I cannot find in dictionaries available to me. All other exemplars read mchin pa, "liver." 'Ongs min, "not arrived,"
corresponds to wei zhi (*¥), "not yet reached."

Parallel Pa~s;1gcs -; '1 \

1
GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma
I I I Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib,_(}1035__ . Tl45l ~(Jing, magga T1648 T607 \ _160_6 _ \ BHATTAC~F.__YA ed.
(xts *Sibhita,
~
*Upada-
-- - - - - ---,-------.-------~
bhita."
-----

[142] ft<iCAN~
1l :
1r¥i1:lJ • )~ *11.
(433Ct6-17)
"Worms
resting at
the root of
the heart:
*Manka.
*S11a." .
[143] -fm~1Lt.N -fi;tE$L:
(235a6-7) ilr~(l88b1s)
"One kind "One kind
[of worm] [of worm] is
sticks to the on the
roots of the breasts:
breasts." 'Emergence
of Milk'."
---r----
[144] (See [152]) I -fj{E)ll!f :
lffl~(l88b1s)
"One kind
[of worm] is !!
~

in the navel:
'Surroun-
ding'."
[145] (See [135]) -t1=?Jtwti ref. [141n
[135]) (235a7)
-~· (See L~ ___r___ _ "One kind -- ---- ------
 1
1
~

712 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

GAS GASMSV- Baotai}ing Abhidharma

.-i----- - - ---1-Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
---i-~
MSV-Tib, Q1035 I Yijing, T1451 l T317 texts maggaT1648 I T607 I T606 BHA TTACHAll_YA ed.

---r. . --.- ... ~fl---.--- ~pme."

- ----.--,l --.-. 1-- I
l~-.I -~11~1~F.
I
[146] _ f_ f_ I I ~n].1$ = - t14f Ha- mftn:!la =

~m-~filJ!t (235a7) Jj • Jj tfil

m-~IN · 1'.iX "Two kinds (188b 16)
m-~1&1tm- [of worms] "Two kinds
~1& · 1!x.m- stick to the [of worms]
~trttn~~ sides." stay on the
ti. • ~m-Ja, sides:
k:l~m-~ 'Moon',
k:l= 'Surface of
ffi~83iE~ · the Moon'."
'JfOoJJE!f.f •
~M«!f.l~o
(434a6-9)
"There are
five kinds of
worms that
rest on the
front part of
the body
and eat the
front part of
the body,
[worms] that
rest on the
back of the
body and eat
the backof
the body,
fwormsl that

l\1r;ilkl l':i~~;i~i.:-.. 7 \:;

~---
~1SMSV- -,-Baotaijing I Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh
,__!
M_S-V_
-Tib_, Q1035 Y1J1ng, T1451 T317 texts I maggaT1648 T607 T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
- - I
I
rest on the
left side of
the body
and eat the
left side of
the body,
[worms] that
rest on the
right side of
the body
and eat the
right side of
the body:
*Candasira,
*Sinkasira,
*Pucura."
[147] (See [135]) (See [135]) =fi~1J fflfii=Eff :
(235a7-8) Jj:f=f. Jj~
"Two kinds (l88b16-17)
[of worms] "Two kinds
stick to the [of worms]
back." are on the
(See also spine:
[145]) 'The
Movement
of the
Moon', 'The
Appearance
of the
r------ -- - - - - -
Moon'."
[148] - -T-- ---=---=i-=------
~
------r~----- 1-- --,~~i'E~~_ I~

---
 ,
l

714 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS GASMSV-
M~V-Iib) Q~35 yijing, T1451 ::i~;~~gli:idh~,~~ - :~::~\648Jfi(-_-~_}~!:s J;:TTACHARY:ed
~ii (l88b17_
18)
"One kind
[of worm] is
between the
back and
chest:
'Peaceful
Abun-
dance'."
[149] (See [153]) -f.i,{££z
ll:
,1;t)TI(l88b1s)
"One [kind
of worm]
stays inside
the skin:
'Claws of a
- .J)ge(" - --- --- ------
[150] (See [154]) -~~fr~:
m!l·mw
(188b1s-19)
"Two kinds
[of worms]
stay in the
flesh:
'Removing
the Skin',
'Burning
. Trees'."
[151] (See [163]) (See [163])
l 1~_-n_''° ~-·--~-·_· : I (See [155]) ,
tii
pi;/• c=E. 0
n:1"t,r11 : I-
;1>-:J :'1//i:.LI::: *. 1:cl· I J+ ' -1 ''1

'

P.1r,dk·l l\1,.,,.,;1gL·s

-
GAS GASMSV- Bgofaijing I Abhidharma Viinutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, CH035 T1451
IYijing, T317
---- - -
texts
--~- -.---------.-- - ----- --- - - - -
I maggaTl648
- -- - -1
T607 --
\ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.

3(mma · ~ . ~llifl' .
~Mi£@~ ~Ji (l88b19-
~~*' 20)
"Four kinds
£@. 433c10_
1:!J*'(
12) of worms are
"Worms on the
resting on bones;
the bones: 'Strong
*Kachi- Poison',
bhida, 'Accustomed
*Anabhida, Poison',
*Chinka- 'Thin Bones',
bhida, 'Miscella-
*Kachi- neous
-------- -- --
pokara."---~- _ Poison'."
"-----~-----

[152] -f.i~WftffN I (See [144])

(235a 8 )
"One kind
[of worm]
sticks to the
root of the
navel."
[153] -fi~lz · I (See [149])
(235a8)
"One kind
[of worm]
sticks to the
. sl<i_ns."__
[154] -~=fl~~. (See [150])
(235a8)
---f--.- "Two kinds
1
---------- rof worm l
 ~

716 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

------------ -~----- - - - -- ------1·~~-~-i--------ij-~-------

GAS GASMSV- Baota1jing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijlng, T1451 T317 texts
I mag&l__'!'_1648 T607 T606 I BHATTACHARYA ed.
------------_ -I - ----r - -- -- -- ---1- -_~[-ift~~ the- --,- - --_ -r
---- r-(See [163]) - - ,-= --- ~r --- r (See [151 ~
D-, [Zgfl~it -T (S~~ [15-1 ]) --i------ -- - -
[155] (See [163])
(235a8-9)
"Four kinds
[of worms]
stick to the
bones."
[156] ftf~Z£R: E.~=i=ti nrt-f±~ =
(235a 9) {JL~ •1HE
5.Efffd::5.Ef ffd: 'I'.)<. r:I ""
Flf(433c12- "Five kinds l1 · ijzf,N •
13) [of worms] 11i~·Bit
"Worms stick to the (l88bzo.21)
resting on marrow." "Five types
the marrow: ofwormsare
*Ml~a, in the
*Ml~asila. II marrow:
'Killing', 1Not
Killing',
':Pestruc-
tion',
'Leaving the
Skeleton',
'White
Bones'."

)(;)<_
I~:1res~~:~s__· . ~ti, . I=- -_ --~----·- - rfft~fR To:i:*~-1 ;1!:_1_;_~-r-

1'a1;t\k( 1'.1,,dbL'S ;\7

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing I Abhidharma

I T317 Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh
M~_Y-Ti9, QlQ~ -
I Yijing,- Tl451--, -- - I
texts-
I magga
- --
T1648 T607 \ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
I

chen po, khab fip' • itrJ . :~)J:j3~Ull} • "Two kinds Ml (l88b21)

mchu, 84 khab mchJ5 7][] t~(~~UaJ [ of worms] "Two kinds
chen po (133a4) (256Cz4-Z6) (433c2s-26) stick to the [of worms]
"Small intestine: "Intestine: "Worms large are in the
'Water-Mixer', 'Large 'Water Life', resting in intestine." intestine:
Water-Mixer', 'Large Water the large 'Dung
'Needle Lips', 'Large Life', 'Needle intestine: Beetle',
Needle Lips'." Mouth', *Ana- 'Dung Beetle
'Sword bhhaka, Mouth'."
Mouth'." *Bhaka-
---------,--
bhaka."
-c~

[158] ~!J\imz =r.m~1J\im r®~tt*m

£R : (235a9) Jm:
w*i~ · 1* "Two kinds £-r- · 1i-r-
gnJ*i~ [of worms] (l88b22)
(433Czz-24) stick to the "Two kinds
"Worms small [of worms]
resting in intestine." are in the
the small small
intestine: intestine:
*Sola ta, 'Child',
*Maha- 'Second
solata."
-- --~- ----- .. --- ------
Child'."
[159] ft<Jmf.&Z
m=il!l·~
gnJJEiEl
(433C24.z5)
"Worms
________ ~resting at -------

84 Q khab chu. Cf. [110].

85 See fn 84.
 1
1

718 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

GAS
-·---~- -
f{i ·-·· lf:js YBh
MSV-Tib,.Q1_035 .,~itf~: ..ff;aijin; li~:idhar.;;a- 1:'.::~1~ T
- - - . . -· -- . ··- --- .. - -- -- - - -- - -- - - -I - - ---· - - I - . - .. . ~HATTf\C~RYA ed.
the root of
the
intestine:
*[Si]va,
*Mahiisiva. II
----- · · - - - - -
[160] ~~{Eiff:
mo~(l88b22-
23)
"One kind
[of worm]
stays in the
liver:
'Noisy
--+-Biting'.".
[161] glo g.yas pa: +-rrn ·
/QfjJJJ] •
(Cf. (147])
zla ba, zla gdong, zla fajMi•faj
'od, zla 'odgdong, 00 • !fffti ·
rgya chen (133a5) BfOO • 5JU{t
"Right side: 'Moon', (256c26-21)
'Moon-Face', 'Moon- "Right side:
Light', 'Moon-Light 'Full Moon',
Face', and 'Vast'." 'Moon Face',
'Radiation',
'Radiating
Face',
'Staying
Elsewhere'."
[162] glo g.yon tcna: (Cf. [147])
pa: de skad ces bya faj ii · faj
bagzhan dag(133a 5) illi . Bf~ .
"Left lung: another Bffm • 53UH:
rgroup of five worms l (256C27-2s)

Parallel l\1ss;1gcs ·7 i q

- ,. - - - - . ·-· --

GAS GASMSV- Biiotiiijing Abhidhanna \ Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

MSV-Tib, Q1035. Yijing, T1451 T317
I texts maggaT1648 T607 \ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
·-- r---· - - - - - - · · - - y..- -· - -- - ~ - -
I - -- -
of the same names." "Left Side:
'Full Moon',
'Moon Face',
'Radiation',
'Radiating
Face',
'Staying
Elese-
where'.11
,.g .
[163] rus pa: dm FJ • (See (151]) (See [155]) (See (151])
'bigs, sngar 'bigs, sra goo.~
'bigs, brtan 'bigs 11 · :i$~ •
(133a6) ~f:t
"Bones: 'Drilling the (256c29·
edges', 'Drilling the 257a1)
Front', 'Drilling the "Bones:
Hard', 'Drilling the 'Drilling the
Solid'." Front',
'Drilling the
Back',
'Driling the
Hard',
'Drilling-
Staying'.11
(164] rtsa: dkar JW: (See (133])
po, nye dkai; stobs :*:a · 1J\a
'phrog, snom pa ·:m~-~
(133a6) *1. (257a1.2)
"Blood vessels: "Vessels:
'White', 'Smaller 'Great
White', 'Strength White',
Robber', 'Odor'." 'Small - - · . ---·--·-
 J;~:1--~$'~'P

1
~
·~ '..:::

720 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng 1Abhidharma Vimutti-

--DDJ - --- --------
-- - -·----r--YBhS YBh
-~- -
MSV~Tib,_ Q1035 -· Yijir1_g,_ J'1451 T317 I texts _Jmag,,_T16_48 T~ -- -- : _T6~ -- -~---- BBATI~HARYA ed.~----l
White', 'Piled
Clouds',
-- -r- r
r
-
'Odor'."
-------- -- - - -----------.------~-
[165] pho ba: t&~zm= -f.11:E~
seng ge, stobs can, §ffir · viJJ
~-= ~Sttf. ~ ~:
'dam bu, me tog len 86 • ~~. ;-!.J;
,D,f'JIJ ~
ffr±~ · ~Dffd: ~.&:~(l88b23-
(133a1) ?E (257a3-4) ~·)'c:$~ 24)
"Stomach: 'Lion', !!Upper (433c21-2s) "One kind
'Powerful', 'Reed', Digestive "Worms [of worm] is
'Flower Taker'." Tract: 'Lion', resting in in the upper
'Powerful' the stomach: digestive
'
'Fast Arrow', *Ujuka, tract:
Lotus *U~abha, 'Crimpy
Flower'." *Ci§abha, Skirt'."
--
---- -- •--- --
, *Se1,nsibha."
------,-~- -----

g)\.#.
[166] long ka: J\\\jj~ • :f~-1r1A
r+-.± 'i:;:.-±
{&,A~z -~:t:E~~ -1~1±,,"
brtan 87 pa, nye brtan 3CJCi, • JLLJD, Ee : (235a9_10) ijl:
(133a1) (257a4_5) · ~OoJffl) • }'lJ "One kind ::k,~,(l88b23-
"Large intestine "Lower ioJ~OtiJffl) • [of worm] is 24)
(colon): 'Stable', Digestive r~m~ · w in the lower "One kind
'Near Stable'." Tract: ffl3£Jt71 digestive [of worm] is
'Settling (433C2g- tract." in the lower
Mind', 'Near 434a1) digestive
Mind'." "Worms tract:
resting in 'Excessive
the lower Breath'."
digestive
tract:
*VllkEJna,

86
Q Ian.
x7 Q rtan but see the following item.

Pam lie! P,1'-.sagL'.S ,2 \

--- ----- --!-~--------- r----- ----- --~- - -- -- -- I I \ YBh

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijlng Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS
MSV-Tib, Q1035_ _ Yijing, T1451 T317 _ ___ __ texts ______ -, maggaTl648 ~ T607 ___ T606 __ _ \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
*Maha-
vakana,
*Danabhii,
*Punar-
--------+
mu.kha." ------l--------------
[167] -f.l:t:E*~
(235a10)
"One kind
[of worm] is
in the cold
__ +J>_lace." ----- ----- --

(168] gciba'ilam: lj\'ffil[ : 1~!%'ID'tz

srin bu'i mchu, phung go-mo ER :
ba 'igdong, dra ba 'i · t~o · * s1Htm · •
.kha, 'dral byed 0(257a _ ) 56 ioJtf*i
(133a1-s) "Urethra: (433c1s-19)
"Urethra: 'Worm 'Salt Mouth', "Worms
Lips', 'Aggregate 'Aggregate resting in
Mouth', 'Net Mouth', Mouth', 'Net the bladder:
'Ripper' Mouth', *Mikara,
'Sparrow *Maha-
Mouth'." kara." , ----l----- .
, - - --

[169] 1&!%'ID'ttN ~
tf*1 · ff*tE
F~(433C19-
20)
"Worms
resting at
the root of
the bladder:
*Kara,
*Karaslla"
------- .__ ,
__
 ----<£f•"_'"!4'F·

1
,
;

722 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

-- --- -- - _ _ l _______ ------

GAS GASMSV- BaotaiJing
-----~-- ---Abhidharma - -- ----- ·-1----DDJ
--- --- -----i--Vimutti- --- - ---- -~- -
YBhS YBh
-
MSV-Tib,
-
Q1035
-- - - - - -- --- - 1
Yljing,
--
T1451
- -- - - T3 l7 texts magga T1648 T606
- --- -- - -- - - - -- -
- - -- ----. - ---- -~ -- ----------. T607- --- -
! BHATTACHARYA ed.
[170] i&ntzER :
~,~mrnoJ
(433C29-
434a1)
"Worms
resting in
the
gallbladder:
-*Bitalika."
- - - - ~-- I·------
----------

[171] {&U~ZER:
~Ou}(434a2)
"Worms
resting in
saliva:
*Senka."
[172] fRifZ!R:
lffi~elftOaJ
(434a2)
"Wonns
resting in
sweat:
*Sudhalika."
[173] bshang ba 'i *~m= --fi1:Ex~ -f_i:{£~
Jam: sgra ngan, sgra ff!{'F • * m (235a10) ~:
ngan chen £_O, 'dren {'F • lj\~ . "One kind M!$t(l88b24)
byed, 'drul 8 ldan lj\}R [of worm] is "One kind
(133as) (257a1-s) in the [of worm] is
"Rectum/Anus: 'Bad "Rectum: rectum." in the
Sound' 'What needs rectum:

88
Q seems to be 'dul

Parnlkl Pa..,-.,;l!c-1.'S '

GAS G1SMSV- I Baotaijing I Abhidhanna Vlinutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

magga T1~4~ . T_607 \ T606 \ ~HAT'f_~CHARYA ~d.
MSV-Tib, Q_1Q_3_5~- YiJmg, T1451 ,_T317____ ,--!_exts ,- --
I
(fart/diarrhea?), 'Big to be Done', 'Heavy
Bad Sound', 'Puller', 'Large Act', Boy.
d '"
'Putrid'." 'Small
Shape',
'Small
Bundle'." ----- - ------

[174] =tltE-}(~ _f_i{Ejt

fl (235a10-11) r:p:
"Three kinds JVJF3 • *a
[of worms] §·*i~
are at the (l88b24_25)
root of the "Three kinds
rectum" [of worms]
are in the
feces:
'Sinews',
'Tied
Sinews',
'Knotted
Hair'."
[175] i&T=tLl'r =fi~/filfN ffifiiEOC=
-wER: (235a11) blt:T · mtt
fp]tffp]mnt "Two kinds (l88bzs-26)
IIiR<. ~m~ [of worms] "Two kinds
• J}Ii]~~ stick to the [of worms]
(434a9_11) root of the are on the
"There are body." buttocks:
three kinds 'Flowing
of worms Down',
resting in 'Flowing
the two Again'."
lower
 11111112,,-,r ~ c <

724 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

------ ----- - ___1___ --- - -i--~-------

GAS GASMSV- BaotaiJing Abhidharma -. Vimutti-
--- ------r DDJ ---- --1 YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 ___ ~ Yijing, T1451 . T317 ____ , _texts __ . magga T1648 T607 T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
-,---~ - --- I - - - - - -
orifices:
*Kuru-
kulayuyu,
*Carayu,
*Handu-
, pada."
,--
[176] 1~MQ~ER 1if_ltt}ffQ :
c':7-hf./- :s:a
m= ~}tt • 1D"
~~W·1* ~. w..~.
§oJi:b~m ~~'.11: • ~1+
( 433c20-21) (l88b26-27)
"Worms "Five kinds
resting in [of worms]
the womb: are in the
*Sahara, womb:
*Maha- 'Family
iabara. Name', 'Bad
Family',
'Lying on the
Bed', 'Not
Awake',
'Protecting
-----------+---- ------+ ·------- Juice'." ------- ·--- ·--- -
[177] ~Jlt!1t.Nz
$:
fl~. *§oJ
fl~( 433c21-
22)
"Worms
resting at
the root of
the womb:

P:1r;ilkl P,,-,";it',~·-,

GAS ~1SMSV- Baotaijl;g I Abhidhar~a \ Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YB11

\ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
Y1Jmg, T1451
I T317 texts magga Tl648 T607
MSV-Tib, Q1035
-
-- ,~----~- ----- - - I :f;;Z~ata." 1- \_
---- I ,------ - - - ~ --····--- -

1~~~z1l: :nJm~~tN
I
[178]
:fi~OEJfB: • (235a11)
ffi±.J-~~ "Five kinds
( 434a2_3) [of worms]
"Worms stick to the
resting on private
th~ vitality: parts."
*Subha-
kama,
---~-
*Samahita."
[179] 1~jlf.NER: -
~OoJFJ:HiJ ·
~tti'OnJ BWJ
· ~W£llfiJ
(434a5_6)
"Worms
resting at
the root of
the vitality:
*Sukha-
mukha,
*Daruka-
mukha,
/

*Sana-
~--~------·
mukha."
---- --

[180] - -fm~t§ffi1
~ (235a11-12)
"One kind
[of worm]
- ----------~--~- -
to the
sticks -~----
 :
j

726 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

GAS riji:g~i~sl- ·-:-:if§jjJ-'11g-r ~~~idh-a-rm-a -- J~~~;~t{-164~

I I~f; [~:;:1TTA-C-HARYA ed.
MSV-Tib, Q1035
~T- -. - - I . ---r --. -- ----- - - , --- - -,~hal;nges.''
~~-:s _ _
r ----- - 1
-- - --·-
· - r-··--~-----1- --- - i---- ~

[181] brla: kha

--iffl! : ------- ----. (See [140]) (See [140]) -fittff :
nad, Jigs byed l*D·::*:D Mtt(188b21)
(133b1) (257a9) "One kind
"Thighs: 'Sick "Spleen: [of worm] is
Mouth', 'Terrifier'." 'Black on the
Mouth', spleen:
'Large 'Beating
Mouth'." Stick'."
(See also
Jl 401) _ --- _ t----·· -- _ ---~-
[182] pusmo: JW:
mdze, nye mdze •. JJ\8
(133b1) (257a10)
"Knees: 'Leprosy', "Knees:
'Small Leprosy'." 'Leprosy',
'Small
. ----
-------, Leprosy'." ,
--,---- __ - -

[183] rje ngar: it! : -f.11:EM~

gleng gzhl'9 (133b 1) ~f.N(257a 10. (235a 12 )
'Calves: 'Basis of 11) "One kind
Dispute' "Calves: [ofworm] is
'The Root of on the
Stupidity'." calves."
_(Cf. f186l)
[184] (See [182]) (See [182]) --·-fltEMrnJ -f.itE~:
- - ---- -- -----r -r= ----· --- (235a 12) fJi11!(188b27.
1
"One kind 2s)
1 fofworm] is_ "One kind

s9 Q bzhi

,-,
~
-; l
P;,r;dk\ P:1~\;1g_cs

GAS -~1SMSV- - , Baota.-ijing I Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh

MSV-Tib,_ Q1031_ _ _ Y1.1mg_,_'f_!451 . T317 ----· __ te:,cts____ __ 1magga_'I1648__T607 \ 'f606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
on the [ofwormJ is
knees." on the knees:
'Manifest
--
Wounds'." ------- - - - -
------
-------. - -- - --- ··-----.-- -,- -~

[185] -f.itEli* :
iia~(l88b2s)
"One kind
[of worm] is
on the
ankles:
'Needle
.. ---- - - .-- - ;---
Mouth'."
[186] rkang sor: HW: -:fmtEJE~ -f.itEJE
f~.
mgo nag(l33b 2) -~J§
.1,,, ...... (235a12) rs·
"Toes: 'Black Head'." (257a11) "One kind ~?~(188b 29 )
"Legs: [of worm] is "One kind
'Black in the [of worm] is
Head'." calves." on the toes:
_(Cf. f183l) 'Scorched'."
[187] -· ll1=E5l
1L;\ :
~J)l(l88b29)
"One kind
[of worm] is
on the
plantar
arches:
'Eating
-------
Skin'."---~

------
 728
Nobuyoshi YAMABE

.ii:ii;ib, ~1:3~ . . l~;gg~~~~l }ft/Wfing ~~~idharm~ :i:u:~1648 lg~{· ~J r:~S~~ TL::TTA~J<~RYA~~-

[188] nad bzhi fmEfRg;1rg -·· . - - -- -- -- - . - --- . - - ·----- -- . --- ---, - ----. - ---·-- -- ---
- - ---- -- '!!Blf ___ -~- -----·~
brgya rtsa bzhi (257b26) V9t::ftz:91pg p:~ra[9f~90 IT9GIJ]:fjig
(135a1) "Four (890azo) - (235a 15 ) (188c8)
"Four "Four "Four
"Four hundred and hundred and
four diseases." four hundred hundres and hundres and
and four four four
diseases." diseases." diseases." diseases."
-~--~ -~ ~ ~-
---- - -------- -~----~- -- --- -
------ -~---
--
-----~ --- ~
[189] skye bani "t=a: #~pfr)}<
sdug bsngal ba b I rga ::fsE f°ifn=.s
bani ... 1iJg3 tR · ~1~
na bani... 'chi ba 3'EE ~U~ .....
ni ... sdug pa dang ~J3UJMra= n~~u=~
bra/bani ... mi sdug t~'[tfi}=6 (890a2s-29)
pa dang phradpa :J<::ff~=[s "Seeking
ni ... gang 'dodpa ]i}f3,Z~~5 after many
brtsal te mirnyed (257c 7. 8) things and
pa ... mdor na nye "The striving
bar Jen pa 'iphung po suffering of [after
Inga sdug bsngal birth, themJ is
bao;,1(135b6-7) the suffering the root of
"Birth is suffering. of old age, suffering.
Aging is suffering. the suffering If one does
Disease ... Death ... of disease, not get
Being separated the suffering [the
from what is loved ... of death, desired
Encountering what is the suffering objectsJ, it
!!QOo~d~. ~~~~n_g . of St!parating_
~---- ~
- ~ - - - - is~-
· ----

--~------ ~ - ~ - - - - - - - - ~ ~ ------=,.-__,__

9
°Cf. Bodhicaiyavatarapaiijika ad Bodhicaiyavatara verse 2.55 (VAIDYA ed. p. 3416_ satam akalamrtyunam, ekal!J kalamaraJJam ity ekottara1.n
17):
safal!J mrtyunam I te ca pratyeka1,n vatapittasle~malqtaiJ tatsaipnjpatalqtas ceti caturuttaraJJi catvari satani bhavanti /. Translation: "There are one
hundred [types of] untimely deaths and one [type of] timely death, thus there are one hundred and one [types of] deaths. Further, each of them is
caused by wind, bile, phlegm, and their combination, thus there are [altogether] four hundred and four [types of deaths]." I owe the reference to
Professor Paul HARRISON.

1';1r:tlkl 1';1,,;1;::'.c·'-

--l.

GAS GASMSV- Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS Y!-/h

·1-
MSVJ'ib, QlO~- .-Xlii~g, T145!_
I~ T317 I
. texts _ _ I magg_a Tl MS . T607 _ \ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
but not getting what from the distress ...
is desired ... In sum, loved, The five
the five appropriated the suffering aggregates
aggregates are of meeting are
suffering." enemies, suffering.
the suffering
of not
getting what
is sought
after,
the five
appropriated
aggregates
are
-~ -~. suffering:" ------ ---------- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -

[190] *rr~miB ~tAfl:tttrfr (See [3][4])

C'E!:
~!J'Ef.l±
j-.f:n: '
•11ll!~ fF,fiijmi '::f
ffil~(235a 28• Hir~~?Jt~
29) cp :':krffi:?£11!
"Previously ~ · (189a3.
practiced 4)
good and "If cine
evil are calculates
already the good and
exhausted, evil that one
or some- has made in
times one this life, the
dies li(espan has
prema- not been
turely." exhausted.
Neverthe-
less, there
are people ..
730 Nobuyoshi YAMABE

--
GAS
----------- -- __J_____________
GASMSV-
r_ _ _ _ _ _ -------1- ---- - -----i-- - - -------- -------
Baotaijing Abhidharma Vimutti- DDJ YBhS YBh
MSY-Tib, Q1035 _ _ Yijlng, T1451 T3ty _ texts _ __ maggaTl648 T607 _ T606 _ BHATTACHARYA
----- ~---·- ---------
ed.
- - --- -r - -- · ------- -r ----,~~!;-- -
--~ -- - ---- - -- - - - - , - - -- - - ~ - - - - , - - - - - -~----,--- - ----------1------- - --- --,-- - - - -
92
[191] mngaldu ~Jt[J:gf_i)._ catasro garbhavakrantayafJ/
Jug pa ni bzhi ste/ fj~BJiji:J. £ katamafJ/ tadyatha/( 49 13 )
bzhiganf zhe na/ 15J~IJY · "There are four [ways] of
(136b2)9 (257c19) entering the womb. What
"There are four "There are are [the four]? [They are]
[ways] of entering the four ways of as follows."
womb. What are the entering the
four?" mother's
womb. What
are the
four?"
[192] (1) 'di shes (l)IE~A
bzhin du ma 'i mngal 1.tl-B
du Jug! shes bzhin du (257c22)
ma 'i mngal na gnas/ "(1) One
shes bzhin du ma'i enters, stays
mngal nas 'byung in, and
(136bs) emerges
"(1) One enters the from [the
mother's womb with womb]with
awareness, stays in correct
the mother's womb awareness."
with awareness, and
emerges from the
mother's womb with
awareness."

91
Cf. HONJO (1991:98).
42
See KRITZER (1998a:10).

J':,r:dkl P.i,,;1!c'-~·s

-- YBh
GAS GASMSV- BaotaiJing I Abhidharma Vimutti- \ DDJ YBhS
I
MSV-Tib, Q1035 - ~ - Yljlng, T1451 I T317 texts \ {~gga_'!'Hi4_8 . T607 \
_ T606 \ BHATTACHARYA ed.
-- -·-- -----· -------------

[193] (2) 'dishes (2) lE~A

bzhin du ma'imngal 1-1::r-lE~lu
du Jug! shes bzhin du (258b 10)
ma'imngaldugnas "(2) One
shing shes bzhin du enters and
ma yin par ma 'i stays in [the
mngal nas 'byung womb] with
(138b 2_3) correct
"(2) One enters the awareness,
mother's womb with but emerges
awareness, stays in from [the
the mother's womb womb] with
with awareness, but incorrect
emerges from the awareness."
mother's womb
without awareness." ___ 1_ __ - - - - - t -------

[194] (3) 'di [shes] (3)lE~A (1) (1) samprajanan pravisaty

bzhin du ma 'i mngal g-&::r-lE{tlB samprajanan asamprajanaJ!lS tJ~fhati
du Jug cing shes (258b20) viiaty ekap niskramatJ:· cakravartinah
(AKIII.16a) (4913-16)94 •
bzhin ma yin par ma 'i "(3) One
mngal na gnas/shes enters the tisthati "One enters with
bzhin ma yin par ma 'i womb with nijkramati awareness, but stays and
mngal nas 'byung correct vasamprajanan/ emerges without
93 awareness. [This applies] to
(139b 5) awareness, (AKBh 1281_
"(3) One enters the but stays in 2) a universal monarch
mother's womb with and emerges "One enters ( cakravartin)."
awareness, but stays from [the with awareness
in the mother's womb womb] with (AK 111.16a) -
without awareness incorrect - - -----fbutJ staysoI"__ - - --

93 See KRITZER (2000b:20-29). Corrected according to ibid., p. 21, n. 37.

94 See KRITZER (2000b:30-33). As pointed out by KRITZER, this portion is separated from the descriptions of the process of rebirth.
 1
,
. ~-
'\"!

732 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE

GAS ~~SMSV- IBiiotii1)fng Abhidharma

I Vimutti- DDJ ·1····YBhS -- YBh
_MSV-Tib,_ QlO~ Y1.1mg, T~4~1 . T317 - · ,_texts ·~ -·-- _magga TJQ._48 T607 T606 BHATTACHARYA ed.
--- --- ---
and emerges from awareness." emerges
the mother's womb without
without awareness." awareness."
[195] (2) t~thaty apy (2) samprajanan pravisati
apara};l (AK ti~thaty asamprajiinan
111.16b) ni~kriimati· pratyeka-
saIJ1prajiinan iti buddhasya (4914-16)
vartate/ "One enters [and] stays
pravisaty apity with awareness, [but]
apisabdiit/ emerges without
(AKBh 1283_4) awareness. [This applies] to
"Another also a solitary buddha
stays (AK (pratyekabuddha)."
III.16b)-
meaning 'with
awareness',
since the word
'also' [here]
implies 'also
enters'."
[196] (3) apara/;1 I (3) samprajanan pravisati
ni~.kramaty api tistha ti niskrama tJ'.·
(AKIIl. l 6bc) bodhisativasya (4915.17)
saf!1prajfinan "One enters, stays, and
pravisati emerges with awareness.
ti~fhaty api/ [This applies] to a
(AKBh 1285_1) bodhisattva."
"Another also
emerges (AK
III.16bc) - as
well as enters
and stays with

P;1 r,i\kl Pd,,dgcs

GAS
---·-· GASMSV-
-
Biiotiiijing
I Abhidharma Viinutti- \ DDJ YBhS YBh
MSV-Tib, Q1035 Yijing, T1451 T317 texts Imagga T1648 T607 \ T606 \ BHATr ACHARYA ed.
-- --=-~-,= _=r ~-=1~wareness." _ !--~---= l -- l - I .
[197] (4) 'di shes (4) A.{1:tfj (4) sarvai;u (4) asamprajiinan pravisati
bzhin ma yin par ma 'i {J~jf~ mu(jo 'nya};l tisthati niskriimati:
mngal du Jug! shes (258b21) (AKill.16d) tadanye~iiIJ1 sattvaniiip
bzhin ma yin par ma 'i "(4) One kascit punalJ (491s-11)
mngal na gnas/shes enters, stays sarviiJJY "One enters, stays, and
bzhin ma yin par ma 'i in, and eviisaipprajana emerges without
mngal nas 'byung emerges n karoti awareness. [This applies] to
(141a 2_3) from [the pravisaty the sentient beings other
"(4) One enters the womb] all asamprajanan than the [above-mentioned
mother's womb with tisthati cakravartin, pratyeka-
without awareness, incorrect ni~kramaty api/ buddha, and bodhisattva]."
stays in the mother's awareness." (AKBh 128s.10)
womb without "Another [goes
awareness, and through] all
emerges from the [the three
mother's womb stages] in
without awareness." confusion (AK
III.16d). One
[being] goes
through all [the
three stages,
namely] enters,
stays, and
emerges
without
awareness."
 734 Nobuyoshi Y AMABE Parallel Passages 735

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Garbhavakrantau ('In the Garbhavakranti')
Quotations from the Garbhavakrantisrltra in
Abhidharma Literature and the Yogacarabhii.mi
Robert KRITZER
Introduction
The Garbhavakrantisfitra (The Siitra on the Descent into the Womb) is a detailed
account of how a new being is conceived, is carried in the mother's womb for 38
weeks, and is finally born, only to be afflicted by the various miseries of existence.
The text clearly presupposes some medical knowledge, and I have sugges~ed
elsewhere that the sfitra and the classical Indian medical literature perhaps rehed
on a common source for at least some of their material on conception, gestation,
and childbirth (KRITZER, 2004:1094). Furthermore, the sfitra is one of the main
sources for discussions of embryology in Tibetan medical texts (GARRETT,
2008:136).
Although there is no extant Sanskrit version of the text, there are three Chi-
nese and three Tibetan translations. The earliest is the Baotai jing (ijfil§'E:l*-fil, T317),
translated by Dharmarak~a (Zhu Fahu "°"Y!JM) in 281 or 303 (LANCASTER,
1979:26). There are also two Tang-dynasty translations. One is the translation of
the sfitra by Bodhiruci (Putiliuzhi ::g:myfrE$) between ~06 and 713 (LANCASTER,
1979:12, 15) as F6 wei Amin shu6 chutai hui ({,t]%pPJJlW,~§'E:!1t, T310 no. 13) of
the Ratnakiifa (Da baojijinr*-Wfli*-fil). C~tal?g~es such as ~aiyuan shijiao Ju (lffl
lC~~j.(jJ, T2154.586c20_21 ) say that Bodhuuc1's 1s a translation of the same text
that Dharmaraksa translated. HIRAKAWA (1990:293), also referring to Kaiyuan
shijiao Ju, says that when the older translations seemed to be based on the ~ame
manuscripts, but were shorter, Bodhiruci would "supplement the older Chmese
translations." However, there are differences between Bodhiruci and Dharmarak~a
that cannot be explained in this way (see KRITZER, 2006-2007:142-144). Another
translation, made by Yijing (~lJ) in 710 (LANCASTER, 1979:15), is found in two
places, in the Miilasarvastivadavinaya ~udrakavastu ( Genben shu6 yiqiey6ubu
pfnaiye zashi fN::$:W,--f:;7],(=fcgGEB~.lfG~JJ, T1451) and as F6shu6 ru t~izang hui
({,tW,),J'E:!~1t, T310 no. 14) of the Ratnakiifa. Below, I refer to the Chmese texts
by the italicized names of their translators; when I refer to the translators them-
selves, the names are not italicized.
I am indebted to Elizabeth KENNEY, Jan NATTIER, and YAMABE Nobuyoshi for their
valuable comments on a draft of this article. I would also like to thank Daniel BOUCHER
and Jan NATTIER for their advice regarding Dharmarak~a and his very difficult Chinese
translation of the sutra.
1
MIZUNO (1982:193) gives the date of compilation as 730.
Garbhavakrantau 739
Two of the Tibetan translations are said to have been translated from Chinese
rather than from Sanskrit. The colophons of the Narthang blockprint and Stag
Palace manuscript of Tshe dang Jdan pa dga 'bola mngal du Jug pa bstan pa (D58)
say that the text was translated from Chinese by 'Gos Chas grub, 2 whose Chinese
name was Facheng O!f&) and who was active in Dunhuang in the ninth century.
D58 generally corresponds to Bodhiruci, from which LALOU (1927:240) thinks that
it was translated. We do not know who translated Dga' bola mngal na gnas pa
bstan pa (D57), but it corresponds closely to Yijing, from which Bussho kaisetsu
dai jiten suggests that it was translated (IX.259; see also DE JONG, 1977:30;
KRITZER, 2006-2007:139). Below, I refer to these two texts by their catalogue
numbers
There is also a Tibetan translation of the sfitra, under the title Mngal du Jug pa
zhes bya ba 'i chos kyi rnam grangs, within the Tibetan translation of the (Mulasar-
vastivada) Vinaya KJudrakavastu ( 'Dul ba phran tshegs kyi gzhi, D6). In this article,
I refer to this translation of the sfitra simply as KJudrakavastu. The translators of
D6 are given as Vidyakaraprabha, Dharmasribhadra, and Dpal 'byor, 3 and there is
no indication that the sfitra was translated separately and inserted into D6. Since
there is no evidence to the contrary, I assume that this translation of the sfitra was
made from Sanskrit. DE JONG (1977:30) mentions the possibility that this text is
not identical to Yijing, and my work on ~udrakavastu, which I am critically editing
and translating, shows that there are indeed considerable differences between the
two texts, beginning with the fact that ~udrakavastu is about 25 percent longer
than Yijing (see KRITZER, 2006-2007:140). _
. Finally, there is a commentary on the Vinaya KJudrakavastu, the Agama-
ksudrakavyakhyana, which quotes and comments upon portions of the sfitra. It is
attributed to Si1apalita4 or to Silapalita and Dharmottara (PREBISH, 1994:111), and
it is extant only in a Tibetan translation, Lung phran tshegs kyi rnam par bshad pa
(D4115). Unfortunately, there are long sections of the sfitra that it ignores, and it is
often difficult to understand. However, it sometimes sheds light on particularly
obscure passages in the sutra, and I refer to its explanations when they seem
helpful.
In a paper entitled "On the School Affiliation of An Shigao: Sarvastivada and
Yogacara," which has long been available to me in a draft version (Y AMABE, 1996),
YAMABE establishes the importance of the Garbhavakrantisfitra as a source for
descriptions of rebirth in meditation texts such as the Xiuxing daodi jing (~tf'r:D![
riM-fil, generally known as the Yogacarabhiimi of Sarµgharak~a) and the Daodijing
(.Dl:!Jili*-fil), as well as in the Yogacarabhumi He also identifies a number of passages
in Sarvastivada abhidharma texts that correspond with the meditation texts, the
Garbhavakrantisfitra, or both. YAMABE is primarily concerned with the develop-
ment of meditation methods in the Sarvastivada School that he connects with the
Yogacarabhiimi and, at some remove, with the more systematized philosophy of
the Y ogacara School. He focuses especially on An Shigao (3(ttt ri"b ), who translated
2
N dkon brtsegs v. ga, folio 426b5 ; S dkon rtsegs v. ga, folio 388a 1_2 ; LALOU, 1927:249.
3
The translators' names appear in the colophon to the Stog Palace edition (484a7).
Dpal 'byor was born in the ninth century (see "Dpal 'byor" in bibliography, secondary
sources). ,
4
According to CHIMPA and CHATTOPADHYAYA (1980:252 n. 13), Si:lapalita was a
disciple of Dharmottara (eighth century). I have been unable to find any further informa-
tion about him.
 740 Robert KRITZER
several meditation texts, and he argues that An Shigao must have been associated
with the Sarvastivada. Although YAMABE cites several versions of the Garbhava-
krantisutra, he does not discuss the differences among them, nor does he go into
much detail regarding which versions are the sources for the passages that he
identifies as being based on the sutra. 5
In this paper, I examine a number of passages in abhidharma texts and in the
Yogacarabhum1: in which the sutra is either quoted directly or heavily used
specifically in order to try to clarify which versions of the sutra are the bases fo;
6
these passages. There are three types of passages:
I. passages attributed to the sutra and traceable to the sutra
II. passages traceable to the sutra but not attributed to it
III. passages attributed to but not found in the sutra
F~r. the fi~s.t two groups, I provide a translation of the original passage from my
cntical edition of the ~udrakavastu, translations or summaries of other versions
of the text with a discussion of the differences among them, and translations or
summaries of the quoted passages, together with my conclusions regarding the
version on which they rely. I relegate the third group to an appendix, in which I
translate the attributed passages and discuss their possible sources.
The results are not very consistent, and they suggest a complicated situation in
which different authors had access to different versions of the sutra, including
perhaps ones that are no longer extant. Furthermore, the translators of the various
versions may well have had other translations or other versions at their disposal,
and there may have been a certain degree of contamination among the different
versions. Nevertheless, some patterns may become clear. In any case, the passages
are of considerable interest in and of themselves as illustrations of Buddhist
theories of rebirth, concepts of embryology, and attitudes toward the female body.
5 dga 'bo dper na I so ga rnams kyi zla ba phyi ma la sha 'i dum bu I me 'i khams med pas gsher
It was the unpublished draft of this paper that first got me interested in the siitra and
I am deeply indebted to Dr. YAMABE.
6 ba migtsang ba nur nur (N208b) po'ilus de la sa'ikhams dang chu'i khamsyod kyJ lme'I
. I have ~ot ~ea_lt here with the Xiiixfng daodi Jing or the Daodi Jing, but YAMABE
pomt~ out an m~~ig,umg ~on,n.~ction between the Xi~ng daodijingand Dharmarak~a, who
mentions the Xmxmgdaod1pngby name. The relationship between these two texts and the
versions of the siitra deserves further investigation.
Garbhavakrantau 741
I. Passages attributed to the siitra
and traceable to the siitra
A. On the necessity of the four elements (mahabhOta)
7
1. Passage from the Garbhavakra.ntisdtra (~drakavastu)
a. Translation
Nanda, if in that body of the kalala, 8 (which is based on) the impurity
arising from the father and the mother, there is earth element, but there
is no water element, it will dry up and disperse, like, for example, a hand-
ful of flour or a handful of ashes. Nanda, if in that body of the kalala,
(which is based on) the impurity re.suiting from the fath~r ai:id the mother,
there is water element, but there is no earth element, it will flow out as
liquid, like, for example, oil or water. However, Nanda, due to the water
element, the earth element, by condensing, does not disperse, and due to
the earth element, the water element, by being caught, does not flow out.
Nanda, if in that body of the kalala, (which is based on) the impurity re-
sulting from the father and the mother, there is earth element and water
element, but there is no fire element, it will become wet and ruined and
rotten. Nanda, just as, for example, in the later month of the hot season a
piece of meat will become wet and ruined and rotten in the absen_ce C?f
fire, (in the same way), Nanda, if in that body of the kalala, (which ~s
based on) the impurity resulting from the father and the mother, there is
earth element and water element, but there is no fire element, it will be-
come wet and ruined and rotten. 9 Nanda, if in that body of the kalala,
(which is based on) the impurity resulting from. the father and the m~ther,
there is earth element and water element and fire element, but there is no
wind element, it will not, furthermore, be able to move, to develop, to be-
come large. 10
7
Unless otherwise noted, all translations of original passages from the siitra are based
on my forthcoming critical edition of ~udrakavastu, as is the text that I provide in
footnotes at the end of the translations. Numerals in parentheses are line numbers in D,
while the first lines of folio sides of other exemplars are preceded by the standard sigla. For
the sake of readability, I have omitted the critical apparatus.
8
Kalala is a frequently used Sanskrit term for the embryo at its earliest stage.
9
The alert reader may notice that there is a great deal of repetition here, but this is not
dittography, at least not on my part. One notable feature of the K!judrakavastu is its
frequent repetitiveness.
10
D6.128a4-b 1: dga' bo gal te pha ma las byung ba migtsang ba nur nur po'ilus de la I
sa 'i khams yod kyi chu'i khams med na I skam pa dang gyes par gyur te I dper na phye spar
gang (L13b) ngam I thal ba spar gang Jta bu o II dga' bo gal te pha ma 'i rgyu fas (5) byung ba
mi gtsang ba nur nur po 'i Jus de fa I chu 'i khams yod kyi sa 'i khams med na I gsher bas 'bo
bar gyur tel dper (C165a) na 'bru mar ram chu !ta buo/;ldga' boon kyangchu'ikhams kyis
sa 'i khams bsdus pas mi gyes la Isa 'i khams kyis chu 'i khams bzung bas mi 'boo II (6) dga 'bo
gal te pha ma'irgyu las byung ba mi gtsang ba nur nur po'i /us de la sa'i khams dang chu'i
(SJ 95b) khams yod kyi I me 'i khams med na I gsher ba dang Jig pa dang 'drul bar gyur te I
ba (7) dang Jig pa dang 'drul bar 'gyur bade bzhin du I dga 'bo gal te pha ma 'i rgyu las_byung_
'
khams med na gsher ba dang Jig pa dang 'drul bar gyur ro II dga' bo gal te pha ma 'i rgyu las
byung ba (D128b 1) mi gtsang ba nur nur po'i /us de Ia sa'i khams dang chu'i khams dang I
me 'i khams yod kyl"Irlung gi (F189a) khams med nag.yo bar yang mi gyur 'phel zhing rgyas
pa dang I yangs par yang gyur du mi btub pa zhig na.
742 Robert KRITZER
b. Remarks on other versions of the sutra 11
Yijing is very close to ~udrakavastu, agreeing on all main points:
Nanda, if the body of the kalala, (which is made from) the impurities of
the father and mother, has the earth element but no water element, it will
quickly dry up and completely scatter, just like dry flour, ashes, etc., held
in the hand. If it has the water element but no earth element, it will
quickly disperse, like drops of oil, or water. Due to (the presence of) the
water element, the earth element does not scatter. Due to ( the presence
of) the earth element, the water element does not flow away. Nanda, if
the body of the kalala has earth and water element but no fire element, it
will become rotten, just like a lump of meat placed in the shade in the
summer months. Nanda, if the body of the kalala has earth, water, and
fire elements, but no wind element, it will not be able to enlarge and ex-
pand.12
Both texts mention the kalala, and both texts contain the examples of flour and
ashes, of oil and water, and of a piece of meat that spoils in hot weather. As is often
the case, the KJudrakavastu is somewhat longer, containing repetitions of the
phrase, "impurity resulting from the father and the mother," as well as a repetition,
after the example of the meat, of the conditional sentence that precedes it. One
more significant difference is that Yijing specifies that the meat is placed in a
shadow; ~udrakavastu does not mention this.
DharmarakJa also seems to agree in general meaning with the other versions:
Ananda, even if the embryo created from the father and mother com-
prises the earth element, the water element will make it spoiled, just as in
flour, and If skin obtains resistance, it becomes spoiled If the embryo
created from the father and mother comprises the water element but
does not comprise the earth element, due to its thinness, it is like fluid,
for example, just like oil and water. Furthermore, Ananda, If the water
element depends on the earth element, (the embryo) will not become
spoiled If the earth element depends on the water element, there is no
sticking. Ananda, even if the embryo created from the father and mother
(comprises) the earth element and then the water element, but the fire
element does not obtain support, it will be ruined, dried up, and rotten.
Just as during the extreme heat of the fifth month of summer, the inside
of meat, due to the fire element, pollution, and filth, smells bad and rots,
so does (the embryo) smell bad and rot. Thus, Ananda, if the embryo
caused by the father and mother achieves the earth element and the wa-
ter element, as well as the fire element, it will not rot, be spoiled, and be
destroyed. Even if, Ananda, the embryo caused by the father and mother
achieves the earth element and the water element and then achieves the
fire element, but it does not have the wind element, the wind element not
being established, the embryo will not attain growth, and it will not be ac-
complished.13
11
I only refer to D57 and D58 when they differ from YiJi'ng and Bodhiruci, of which
they are said to be translations.
12
T1451.253c2s-254a6: IIW8 l'f.Y:©~~mm~~ {J=l.lcf:tfuW~JJ(W~ ~HP~~
° 0
~-1&:fr!j[tftzD'f-t~~~!r~, l'f{J=l.Jj(Jrf-~:tfuW~ HPf~~Uj[tzD1HJ¥$7J( ESJJ(Wi&:tm
O O
W~!j[ ES:tfuWt3uJ<W~ifrE 11~'8 ° mmi;;'~lcf:tfuJJ(W~xw~ ffiH~Jlil tftzD
0 O 0 O
~J=l13~~~~ 11~'8 ° mm~~ fJ=J.lcJ:f;fuJj(j(Jrf- ~MW~ HP~~~tttrt~JJtk.
0 0 0 0
T317.886crn: 111f~flriJII [z;;[X:fB:t>t~Jlfil§t~fffiffi:tfufi 7J(fi%JI Wtzo~cp:&
O O
l'f§J1Jl1~!1f~JI 111f~[z;;[X:fB:~Jm§t ~ffiJJ(fi~ffl:tfufi ffl~tz0iijt5tm WtzDZl±I
O O O O
&* x.flriJII *:¥if1x:tfu:¥i~J1t!m :tfu:¥i11x7J(:¥1Ym~J5Jr~ 1m~flriJ11 ° x:a[z;;[~
0 O O 0
Garbhavakrantau 743
H;wever, the text of DharmarakJa seems to be corrupt in several places (indicated
b italics). The first sentence seems to m~ke no sense. It sh~ul? say that th_e fetus
y Id be ruined if earth were present while water was not. Similarly, the th1rd and
;:th sentences cannot b~ understood, ~iven the struct~re and logic of the p~ss~ge
whole. Finally, there IS another possible problem with the text at the begmnmg
as the
of a example of meat in hot weather. Dharmarak Ja says ~ h at f.1re msI· ·cte ~ h e meat
causes it to rot and decay, but it seems as though a negative h~s been mistakenly
dropped from the text: surely, it should say that the absence o~ fire causes the meat
to rot. The remaining portions of the passage are comprehe_nsible. .. , , ,
Unlike the other versions, DharmarakJa does not mention the kalala (j1eludlan
~~~), using instead the more general word for embryo, *garbha ( baotai ijfilij"EJ).
And unlike the other versions, DharmarakJa explains after the example of meat
14
that if fire is present in addition to water and earth, the fetus will not rot. The
examples themselves are largely ~he same, although in the first exa_mple we find no
mention of ashes. Finally, it is Ananda who is being addressed m DharmarakJa
(and in Bodhirucias well), not Nanda.
Like DharmarakJa, Bodhiruci generally agrees with Yijing, but this is the most
compressed of all the versions:
As for the body of the kalala, if it only has the earth element and no water
element, it will ultimately not stay together, like dry flour or ashes in _a
person's hand. If it only has the water ele1!1ent and no ear~h e_lement, 1t
will have the wetness that is the nature of 011 and water, but It will lack so-
lidity, so it will disperse. If it has earth and water, but no fire element, it
will be like a lump of meat placed in the shade in the summer months
that becomes rotten because it has no sunlight to shine on it. If it has
earth, water, and fire, but no wind element, it will not enlarge. For exam-
ple, there is a man and his disciple, who are good at blowing_ sw_eets: when
all the necessary conditions are present, they cause the ms1de (of the
sweetl to be hollow. but without the force of wind, this will ultimately not
/ 15 '
be accomplished.
Bodhiruci simply lists the bad consequences of the absence of the particular
mahabhiltas, without explaining how the bad consequences are avoided if all the
mahabhiltas are present. Like all the versions except for DharmarakJa, it uses the
term kalala. Bodhiruci uses the same examples as Yijing and also specifies that the
meat is in the shade. However, unlike the other versions, Bodhiruci explains that it
is the absence of sunlight that causes the meat to rot.
n\GJJfil§t~ :tfufi~iJfflJJ(fi x:¥i~1~f1xm ~Ut!fi±;~ WtzD~liJ=l ~~B~ ~cp[z;;[
0 O O 0 0
xfi ~tJ§~Jl!Jlt!~IJg,tJ)!Jm; tzD~llriJII fm~[z;;[X:fB:§t~:tfufi~ Eul<:¥1~ ;!t
O 0 O 0 0
:/j~;)(,f_i~Jm;~~,5(fffi11Him fm~flriJJi [z;;[X:fB:§t~:ttMi&JJ(fi~ &~XTi~lFJ®.
O O 0
Ti @.l.fi~}'[~1~~:k~iJ~~gt. At the very beginning of the siitra, Dharmarakfa uses
O
the name Nanda three times; thereafter, it always uses Ananda. Bodhiruci, on the other
hand, never uses the name Nanda.
14 T317.886c 4-16: tzD~flriJII 111f~[z;;[X:i-B:§t~:tfufi~ :&JJ(fi~ ;!t:/f~Xfi~Jm;t!
0
1 O 0 0
O ~rm11;;1m.
15
T310.322c 12-18: ll!Xfil~~ l'fot:tfuW~JJ(W~ WtzDlF At~~~Y<*f~lDis- l'f
0 0 0
UiJJ(W~:tfuW~ WtzD1HJJJ(;!ttt~~1ij ~lF~WHPfJ!ifrE!j[ l'fOi:tfuJJ(~xw~ w
0 O 0 0
O
tzo~J'§ ~~~~ ~ B j(J.ij~IJf~:,t;Jt! Oi:tfuJJ(x~J®.W~~iJ~f~~ WtzDlF A:&;!t
0 0 0
51sTHg~;J:J[but the alternate reading IJ).'. seems better]ffi ~lcf Pfrf'Ffffi%;!t1AJ~f~~
O
rt l'f~M1J*f~rxlltt.
O
 744 Robert KRITZER
There is a problem at the end of the passage in Bodhiruci (the sentence in
italics). In none of the other versions is the absence of wind illustrated by an
example, and in all of them it is followed by the statement that, if the mahabhutas
are all present and are animated due to past karma, they will be able to perform
their functions properly, and the fetus will be able to develop. After this, similes
are given, showing that the embryo is the result of a confluence of causes not
·
simply the semen and blood of the parents. 16 In Bodhiruc1; the statement about' the
presence of all the mahabhutas is omitted and the simile of a candy-maker who
makes a hollow confection by blowing into heated sugar seems to be given to
illustrate the necessity of wind. Since only this version ( and D58, the Tibetan
translation of Bodhiruci) does so, one can speculate that Bodhiruci inadvertently
· skipped ahead in translating his text.
Furthermore, Bodhiruci is said to be retranslating the same text as Dharma-
rak~a (see above), but he frequently appears to be looking also at either Yijing's
translation, the text on which Yijing based his translation, or both. This would
explain why he does not follow Dharmarak~a here concerning all the details of the
simile of meat.
2. Quotations
a. Vibhasa
In explaining its affirmative answer to the q~estion, "Are the four mahabhutas at
all times inseparable?" the Vibhii$ii refers to the Garbhavakrantisutra by name. It
gives a rather condensed version of the sutra passage that omits all of the examples:
As the Garbhavakrantisutra says, the Buddha informed Ananda: "The
first (stage of the embryo, namely) the kalala, if it had the earth element
but no water element, would have to dry up and disperse. Now, it does
not disperse because it is condensed by water. If it had the water element
but no earth element, it would have to flow away. 17 Now it does not flow
because it is held together by earth. If it had the earth element and the
water element but no fire element, it would have to become stinking and
~otten. Now, it is not rotten due. to b~ing cooked 18 by the fire (element). If
1t had three elements but no wmd, 1t would not grow. Now, it grows due
to the motion from the wind (element)." 19
This passage clearly is not identical to any of the extant versions of the sutra. Even
if we assume that it is an abridgement that omits the examples, the structure is
somewhat different because, in all the versions that describe the consequences
when all of the mahabhutas are present (that is, all versions except Bodhiruci), the
absence of the earth element and the water element are mentioned together at first.
After that, their presence is mentioned together. But in the case of the fire and
16
In Dharmarak_sa, the first simile is that of a lotus; in the other versions, of a candy
blown into the shape of a lotus root.
17 L. , ·'-, ( 'ft ',L,,) I f" . '.kW~/00.W~
18 JU~111 VrLfo . cannot md the meanmg of this compound in any dictionary.
Shau (J;:~). The context seems to demand a word that means "to dessicate with heat."
But 19
I cannot find such a definition of sh6u in any dictionary.
T1545.663b19_26; no corresponding passage in T1546: F1=1~ll:tlm:k,fl1f~~tJJB'!f::f;j:§J11
~~ ~tzo~ :z::fBJJO~ tzDA§t*f~ fti!r~:;s; inm~~ ;;s~:l:filJ'f-~7J<.W~
O O O O O O
OOJJ!~ft 4::fft~7J<.Mfflii& ;§'~7J<.J'f-~~W~ 00JJ!ifrE~ 4::fifrE~~MM
0
0 0 0
i& ;§'~~1J<.~xW~ 00JJ!~• 4::f•~xM~i&;§'~~W ~!00.W~JJ!::fm
0 0 0
0
ffi: 4:i:!ell~~/00.pJri!Jtjz:.
0
Garbhavakrantau 745
~ind elements, the presence and absence of each element are described separately.
In the Vibhii$ii, the prese?ce and abs_ence of all_ f?ur elements are treated in turn.
Furthermore, only the Vlbhii$ii explams the positive consequences of the presence
of wind. Therefore, the compilers of the Vibhii$ii either had before them a more
ncise and systematized version of the sutra than any of the extant ones, or they
~istematized as they abridged a text similar to the Sanskrit original ~nderlying ~ne
f the texts described above. However, one could say that, concernmg one pomt,
~he VJbhii$ii may be closer to Dharmarak$a than to the other versions, since
Dharmarak$a is the only one to explain that if fire is present, the fetus will not rot.
b. *Pa.icavastukavibha~astra
The *Pa.icavastukav1bhii$iisastra refers to the sutra in the same context as the
Vibhasa, and the quotation is similar to the one in the Vibhii$ii in omitting the
examples found in all our versions of the sutra:
The Garbhiivakrantisutra says, "At the stage of the kalala, if it had the
earth element but no water element, its nature would be dry, so it would
have to disperse. But actually, since it does not disperse, we know that it
certainly has the earth element and is able to condense. If it_had thew~-
ter element but no earth element, its nature would be to dissolve, so 1t
would have to flow away. 20 But actually, since it does not flow away, we
know that it certainly has the earth element and is able to hold together.
If it had the water element but no fire element, its nature would be moist,
so it would have to rot. But actually, since it does not rot, we know that it
certainly has the fire element and is able to be cooked. If it had the fire
element but no wind element, its nature would be (such) that it would not
grow. But actually, since it gradually grows, we know that it certainly has
the wind element and moves." 21
Since this passage is so close to the passage in the Vibha~a, the comments that I
made about that text apply equally here.
3. Relationship between quoted passages and the sutra
Due to the fact that the passages in the Vibha~a and the *Pa.icavastukavibha~a-
sastra are so abbreviated, nothing definite can be said about what extant version of
the sutra, if any, these texts rely on. However, since only Dharmarak~a states that
the presence of fire can prevent the decay of the fetus, there is at least a small
possibility that it was the source for the two abhidharma texts. 22
20 Liugu (ifrt:1/li). I am guessing from the context at the meaning of this compound.
21
Tl555.990c1s-22: A§t*~fill mJliJf~B'!ft't'~:!:ttW-~7](:W-~ ;!t'[:c!:~*~UJJ!:5tffJ:
O 0 0
ret::f:5tfti&9;05:i::~7J<.W~tm t't'~*w~:1:t11w~ mum ret::ft1um i&9;05:i::~:1:t11w
O 0 O O
~~:t~ t't'~7J<.W~xw~ ;\t'l'1JFll1i~UJJ!fi,~ re\;::ff'J,~i&9;05:E~ !J<W~tll:~ t't'~
0 0 0 0
22
0
;itt1~UJJ!~t~ffi:~ !Ifmt~ffi:i&9;05E~/OO.Wi!Jf£.
0
Two more references to the sutra in abhidharma texts can be mentioned. In both his
commentaries on the Abhidharmakosabhawa ( *Nyayanusara and *Abhidharmasamaya-
pradipikasastra), Saiµghabhadra refers to the Garbhavakrantisutra in his comment on
verse I.12cd, which concerns the functions and nature of the mahabhutas. Vasubandhu
O
does not raise the question of whether the mahabhutas are inseparable, but Saiµghabhadra
does, justifying his positive answer by appealing to scripture and reason. The Garbhava-
krantisutra is one of his two scriptural authorities (T1562:336b5_6; T1563:782b 14). Unfortu-
nately, only the title of the text is mentioned: no passage is given.
 746 Robert KRITZER Garbhavakrantau 747

B. On hunger and thirst in the womb · the case of the passage about the thirteenth week, the quotation of the sutra
Asmdiffers markedly from the correspondmg · portions
· o f any o fh .
t e extant versions.
1. Passage from the Garbhavakrantisiitra (~drakavastu)
~~: most striking difference is the use. of the term mahabhuta ( da ~h61!g ::kf.1),
h. h appears in none of the other versions. Dharmarak$a and Bodh1ruc1both use
a. Translation wh icword "body" (shen ~), which probably translates the Sanskrit word kaya. In
Nanda, in the thirteenth week, hunger and thirst arise for that fetus in the te. context the mahabhutas are the constituents · of the bd o y, so t h e meanmg· 1s
·
mother's belly. 23 t h IS ' . d ' .i. 1 . f
not significantly different, bu! it seems unhkely that_ a zuong 1s a _trans atl_on o
V •

b. Remarks on other versions of the siitra
This sent~nce is part of the week-by-week account of gestation that takes up much
of t~e sutra. In most of the weeks, a wind, usually described as resulting from
pr~;10us kar~a.and_ often given a ~anciful name (for example, "Crooked opening"
or Yak face ), 1s said to cause vanous developments in the fetus. In this case the
v~rsions differ in whether or not they include a wind that causes hunger and thirst.
Like K$udrakavastu, Dharmarak$a simply says that the fetus experiences weakness
and hunger and thirst, without ~en~ioning a wind. 24 On the other hand, Yyi'ng
states that due to the force of a wmd m the mother's belly from the previous week
25
th~ fet~s has hunger and. thir~t. Bodh1~uci names the wind, "Making hungry and
thirsty, and he charactenzes 1t as resultmg from karma. 26 But this name, which is
more strai~htforward than those of the other winds, may have been added by the
translator m order to make the thirteenth week conform to the pattern for the
other weeks.
kaya. It is possib~e that the VIbhfi$fi was _bas~d- o~ a d1ffe!ent S_an~knt recens~on of
the sutra, which mcluded the word mahabhut~m. More hke~y, 1t s~mply substltu!ed
the word mahabhutani for kaya in order to flt the context m which the quotation
appears, namely a long discussion of various issues related to the mahabhutas.
3. Relationship between the quoted passage and the siitra
It seems as though the Vibhfi$fi is more similar to Dharmarak$a and Bodhiruci
than it is to K$udrakavastu and Yij1'ng, neither of which makes any reference at all
to the body or mahabhutas of the embryo. In addition, the V!bhii$ii agrees with
Bodhiruci in specifying that hunger and thirst are produced by wind resulting from
karma. Since K$udrakavastu and Yij1'ng are both obviously translations of Mulasar-
vastivada versions of the text, it may be possible here to distinguish between a
Mulasarvastivada group and another group, presumably Sarvastivada, to which
Bodhiruci and Dharmarak$a belong.

2. Quotation II. Passages traceable to the siitra but not attributed to it

a. Vibhasa
In_ answer to the question, "From the mahabhutas of what place are hunger and A. How a woman fails to conceive (part one)
thirst created?" the Vibhii$ii cites the following opinion:

They are created from the mahabhutas of the abdominal area. The 1. Passage from the Garbhavakrantisiitra (~udrakavastu)
Garbhav_akrantisutra ~ays, "In_ t?~
mother's belly, at a certain time (for) a. Translation
th~se bemgs who are ~n the v1c1mty of the navel, there are subtle winds, Nanda if fluid emerges from the father but does not emerge from the
which are the maturation of karma, that arise for the first time. Then the mothe; then one time 28 there will not be entrance into the womb. And if
mahabhutas of that place are able to produce hunger and thirst." 27 fluid en'ierges from the mother but does not emerge from the father, then
one time there will not be entrance into the womb. And if it emerges
from neither the mother nor the father, then one time there will not be
entrance into the womb. And if the mother is pure while the father is not
23 pure; 29 the father is pure while the mother is impure ... 30
D6.l31b6: dga' bo zhag bdun pa bcu gsum pa la ni mnga/ na gnas pa de /ama'i Jto'i
nang du bkres pa dang skom pa dag 'byung ste.
24
T~l 7.8~7C2s-25: {~1:1r/wJJfO
Ji~+=~ B ::!'t~~IAJ:/i~©-fil[~ JfffitfflUl3Z.i:Mli.
O
0

28
Translat10n: The Buddha told Ananda: m the th!fteenth week, inside the womb in the The Tibetan here is re shig. An alternate reading for every occurrence in the sutra is
25 belly, [the fetus] feels a weakness of body and feels hunger and thirst."
mother's re zhig, meaning "a little while" or as a translation for the Sanskrit tavat (see HIR~WA,
T1451.254C19-20: J!Wt O
~+ = -1::: B :!i~-S-BicpJ;)mJmRJJ~o~M1i. Translation:
O
1977.111:272). However, on the advice of Dr. Helmut EIMER (personal commumcation),
"Nanda, in the thirteenth week, in the mother's belly, due to the previous wind, [the fetus] is who suggests that re shig is an archaic spelling of res shig, I accept the reading re shig and
aware that there is hunger and thirst." translate it accordingly.
26
, +
T310.323b26-21: =-1::: B~©-Bit~; 1i~*mR1'S{'FM1i EEJl:cmRJJBitffiti;t&~M
0
O
29
According to the commentary, this means that the father's seed is damaged; see
1ifrl!. Tra?slation: "In the thirt~en~h week, when it is dwelling in the mother's womb, [the Agamaksudrakavyakhyana (D4115.48bs).
fetus] agam expenences a karmic wmd called "Making hungry and thirsty." Due to this wind, 30 D6.125b _ : dga' bo gal te pha las khu ba byung la/ma las ma byung nayangde'i tshe
67
th~ body of the fetus [feels] empty and weak and gives rise to sensations of hunger and re shig mngal du Jug par ( Q121a) mi 'gyur ro IIgal te ma las byung la I pha las ma byung na
thlfst.
27 yang de'i tshe re shig (7) mngal du Jug par mi (LlOb) 'gyur ro II gal te ma las kyang ma
, T1545.,665c14-11; n<:J_~orresponding passage in T1546: FoiM1i{i'iJ~::kf_lJifr@ ~~ 0 0 byung pha las kyang ma byung na yang de 'i tshe re shig mngal du Jug par mi 'gyur ro II ma
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dag par gyur la/pha ma dag par gyur pa dang I pha dag par gyur la I ma ma dag par gyur pa
dang.
 748 Robert KRITZER
b. Remarks on other versions of the siltra
There are some slight differences between Yijingand KJudrakavastu here:
How does (the antarabhava) 31 not enter (the womb)? If, when the fa-
ther's seed comes out, the mother's seed does not come out, (or) if when
the mother's seed comes out, the father's seed does not come out, (or) if
neither seed comes out - in all these cases, there is no conception. If the
mother is impure, but the father is pure, (or) if the father is impure, but
the mother is pure, (or) if they are both impure - in all these cases, there
is no conception. 32
In the last part of the passage, the order in Yijing is the reverse of the order in
KJudrakavastu. Also, Yijing alone mentions the case in which both the mother and
the father are impure. Nonetheless, the two versions are very close.
If DharmarakJa is read as it stands here, the first part of the passage is some-
what different:
If the mother has seed that has been discharged, or the father has seed
that has been discharged while the mother does not have seed that has
been discharged, or if the father is pure and the mother is impure, or if
the mother is pure and the father is impure ... 33
However, it appears as though the clause, "the father has seed that has not been
34
discharged," has been dropped from the beginning of this sentence in Dharma-
rakJa. If we insert this clause, DharmarakJa essentially agrees with K§udrakavastu
and Yijing; however, it does not mention the case in which the seed of neither
parent is emitted.
Finally, Bodhiruci seems quite different from all other versions here:
On the other hand, the blood and semen of the father and mother might
come together not at the same time, either sooner or later; furthermore,
in their bodies, each might have various faults; if they are like this, then
there will be no entrance into the womb. 35
Although the first part of the passage generally agrees with the other versions, the
second part does not.
31
Antarabhava is a term for the intermediate being, i.e., the transmigrating being
durin?, the period between death in one lifetime and conception in the next.
3
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Garbhavakrantau 749
2. Quotation
a. Yogacarabhilmi
The Manobhiimi, in its long account of the rebirth process, 36 mentions three faults
that can prevent conception: faults in the vagina (yonidoJa), faults in the seed of
both parents ( bijadoJa), and faults in the karma of the parents and the antariibhava
heading for rebirth (karmadoJa). Although the Garbhiivakriintisiitra does not use
the terms yonidoJa, etc., and although it discusses faults in the seed before faults in
the vagina, it· appears to be the source of the passage in the Manobhiimi The
bljadoJas are defined as follows:
What are the faults of the seed? If the filth of the father is discharged,
and not that of the mother, or that of the mother is discharged and not
that of the father, or if that of neither is discharged; or the mother's is pu-
trid, or the father's, or that of both. 37
3. Relationship between the quoted passage and the siltra
This passage does not correspond perfectly to any of the extant versions of the
siitra, and it appears to be abbreviated to suit the style of a siistra. The order in
which the possibilities of emission or non-emission of seed and of purity and
impurity are discussed matches exactly Yijing's version. Otherwise, however, it
could as easily come from K§udrakavastu.
B. How a woman fails to conceive (part two)
1. Passage from the Garbhavakrantisiltra (~drakavastu)
a. Translation
Or, at that time, if the mother's womb is obstructed by wind, or it is ob-
structed by bile, or it is obstructed by phlegm, or it is obstructed by blood,
or it is obstructed by fat, or the space is filled with flesh, or it is altered by
medicine, or the center is like barley, or (the womb) is like an ant's waist,
or it is like a camel's mouth, or the opening is like an open Vafa tree, 38 or
the opening is like a plow beam, or the opening is like a cart, or (the
womb) is like cane, or it is like a leaf, or something like awn is produced
inside, or (the womb) is deep at the bottom, or it is deep at the top, or it is
not suitable to function as a womb, or it is dripping blood, or it is short, or
it is like a crow's beak, or it is wide on the left, or it is wide on the right, or
it is wide at the top, or it is wide at the bottom, or it is high, or it is low, or
36
See Y AMABE's paper in this volume.
37
· Yogacarabhum1; 226. 8 : bijado~alJ katame I sacet pitur asucir mucyate na matulJ I
matur va mucyate na pituiJ / tadubhayor va na mucyate I matur va putiko bhavati pitur va
tadubhayor vety evaf!Jbhagiya bijado~a veditavyalJ.
38
The Vata tree is another name for the Nyagrodha tree, Ficus benghalensis, i.e., the
Indian fig or· Banyan tree; I am indebted to G.J. MEULENBELD for this identification
0
(personal communication), and I also wish to thank Dominik WUJASTYK for help in
obtaining this information. The identification of the Vafa with the Nyagrodha is confirmed
0
by the gloss on the text in the commentary, which reads nya gro dha'i myu gu (the shoot of
the nyagrodha). It explains that when a new leaf of the nyagrodha tree appears and assumes
a shape like that of a cotton seed, it is called a shoot. The opening of the womb is like this
when (something similar to) a small piece of wood grows at the entrance to the womb
(Agamak~udrakavyakhyana, D4115 .49a2. 3).
 750 Robert KRITZER Garbhavakrantau 751
!tis upside down, or it only has a sign, or it is crooked, or it is faulty, or it translation is said to be based on the same text ~s Dharmarak~a's, t~ere ~re m~ny
1s altered by something astringent, or again if it is eaten by be sa ra ka 39
creatures, then one time too there will not be entrance into the womb. 40 items on Dharmarak~a's list that are not found m any of the other hsts, mcludmg
Bodhiruci's. I can imagine two possibilities: either the catalogs are wrong, and
Bodhiruci's translation is based on another recension of the text, or Bodhiruci has
b. Remarks on other versions of the siitra
allowed himself the freedom to make his translation agree with Yijing's translation
Non~ of the versions of the stltra agrees perfectly with any of the others concerning
of an entirely different version of the text.
the41hst of faults of the womb. K~udrakavastu lists 34 items, Dharmaraksa gives
31, a~d both Y}jing and Bodh1ruci list 27. 43 All versions more or le;s agree
42

regardmg two of these faults: there can be no conception when the womb is filled
44
with interstitial flesh or when it resembles a leaf. In twelve additional cases
~udrakavastu, Yijing, and Bodhfruci agree. K~udrakavastu, Yijing, and Dharma~
rak~a agree five times. ~udrakavastu and Yij}ng agree twice, and Ksudrakavastu
and Bodhiruci agree three times ( although two of these agreem~nts are not
definite). Finally, there are 41 items that are found in only one version.
These figures are not precise, since in some cases it is not clear whether the
vers~ons _agre~ ~r di~ag:ee. But they give some idea of the variation among the
versions ~n this hst. Similarly, the names of the winds in the week-by-week account
of gestation (KRITZER 2006-2007), the names of worms that are said to inhabit the
body shortly after birth, and the enumeration of bones in the twentieth week of
gestation vary from version to version in ways that are difficult to predict.
One observatio? that can be made is that Bodhiruci agrees with Yij}ng far
more often than with Dharmarak~a. Although, as I have mentioned, Bodhiruci's
39
The comr.nentary reads "a family of be sa ra ka worms" (Agamak~udrakavyakhyana,
D4115.49b 2 : snn bu be sa ra ka'i rigs).
40
_D6.125br126a4: de'i tshe ma'i mngal rlung gis bgags par gyur (126a[251].l) pa 'am/
mkhns pas bgags pa 'am I bad kan gyis bgags pa 'am / khrag gis bgags pa 'am / tshil gyis
bgags pa I mtshams shas gang ba 'am I sman gyis bsgyur ba 'am/ dbung nas 'dra ba 'am/grog
(N 204b) mo'irkedpa 'dra ba 'am/(2) rnga mo'i kha lta bu 'am/sgoshing 'ba'ta kha 'bus pa
lta bu 'am I sgo gshol mda 'lta bu 'am I sgo shing rta lta bu 'am/ sba Jta bu 'am /lo ma Jta bu
'am I na~f d1: gra ma fta bu skyes pa 'am I 'og zab pa 'am /(S 192a) steng zab pa 'am/ mngal
snod du muung ba am I khrag zag (3) pa 'am I thung ba 'am/ bya rag gi mchu (F 185b) Jta
bu 'am I g.yon yangs pa 'am I g.yas yangs pa 'am I steng yangs pa 'am / 'og yangs pa 'am /
mtho ba 'am I dma 'ba 'am I khas bub pa 'am I mtshan ma tsam yod pa 'am/yo ba 'am/ skyon
dang bcas (4) pa 'am I bska bas bsgyur ba 'am I srog chags be sa ra kas zos par gyur na yang/
de 'j tshe re shig mngal du Jug par mi 'gyur ro.
41
" ~©ffl~~BPfr3tJt.tlP::f st§15 ° tzD~3t~~#ftt~ ~~~!flli=1H~
T3~ 7.8,86a17-2(
2. Quotation
a. Yogacarabhiimi
The passage in the ManobhtJmj in which the yonMofas ar~ defined is somewh~t
problematic. BHATTACHARYA's text is based on the smgl_e extant _Sansknt
manuscript, to which I do not have access. I translate the text as 1t stands with some
suggestions in the notes regarding where it might be unsatisfactory:
45
If the womb is stopped up by wind or stopped up by bile, or the center !s
(like) a sesame se_ed, 46 or tJ1e ope~ing is (like) ~ cart, or th~ opening 1s
(like) a conch, or 1t has a sign, or 1s crooked, or 1s faulty, or 1t has some-
thing astringent: 47 things of that category are to be known as faults of the
womb. 48
3. Relationship between the quoted passage and the siitra
Unlike the passage on bfjado~a, which corresponds most closely to Yijing, here the
YogacarabhtJmj is closest to the K~udrakavastu. This passage is a drastic abb~evia-
tion of the list in the stltra; however, the order of the faults follows the order m the
stltra, and the agreement with the stltra regarding the last four items in particular
suggests that the passage is indeed based on the stltra. There is one item that is not
found in any extant version of the stltra, namely, "the opening is (like) a conch,"
and I cannot explain how it found its way into the Yogacarabhtlmi Otherwise, the
faults on the list of yonMo~as correspond almost perfectly with those in the
Ksudrakavastu. The only other items on which they do not agree are "obstructed by
phlegm" and "the center is like barley" in the stltra, and in both cases, there is a
good chance, as I have noted, that BHATTACHARYA's text is in error. Two of the
items in the Yogacarabhtlmi ("has a sign" and "has something astringent") are
found only in ~udrakavastu, while another ("crooked") is found only in Bodhiruci,
and another ("faulty") in Bodhiruci and Dharmarak~a. None of these appears in
Yijing.
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~ ~Fo•f~~tzomt~ ~tzo~2: ~Hf Ti~ ~# J:i~ ~1F§15~ ~tl:!Ifo.te
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0 O
O
yod.ga which may mean sabhiiga."
44 Yogiiciirabhumi, 22 2_5 : saced yonir viitopastabdhii bhavati pittopastabdhii vii tila-
Yij1~g talks about _the expansion of flesh and Bodhiruci about knots (consisting of) madhya vii sakafamukhiva saiikhamukhivii sa/iiiga savaiikii sado~a saka~iiyetyeva1pbhiigiya
an expansion of flesh, while Dharmarakfa says simply "full of flesh." yonido~ii veditavyaJ;,
 752 Robert KRITZER
C. How a woman fails to conceive (part three)
1. Passage from the Garbhavakrantisiitra (~drakavastu)
a. Translation
If the father and and mother are exalted, while the gandharva 49 is not
exalted, at that time no one will enter the womb. If the gandharva is
exalted, while the father and mother are not exalted, then one time too
there will not be entrance into the womb. If they all are unexalted, but if
the father and mother have not performed and accumulated the karma
that would result in their obtaining a child, and if the gandharva has not
performed and accumulated the karma that would result in (their) being
its father and mother, and if the gandharva does not produce whichever
of the two thoughts is appropriate, either the thought of the male or the
thought of the female, 50 then one time too there will not be entrance into
the womb. If they all are exalted, but if the father and mother have not
performed and accumulated the karma that would result in their obtain-
ing a child, and if the gandharva has not performed and accumulated the
karma that would result in (their) being its father and mother, and if the
gandharva does not produce whichever of the two thoughts is appropriate,
either the thought of the male or the thought of the female, then one
time there will not be entrance into the womb. 51
b. Remarks on other versions of the siitra
Yijing's version is considerably compressed, compared to that of the K~udraka-
vastu:
Or when the father and mother are noble and the antariibhava is base, or
the antariibhava is noble and the mother and father, base, that sort, too,
will not conceive. If the father and mother, as well as the antariibhava, are
all noble, and if their karma does not come together, there will also be no
conception. If that antariibhava is in their presence, and does not have
(one of) the two feelings of love, a male's (or) a female's, there will also
be no conception.52
49
The gandharvas are a class of gods, but the term is also used, as here, to refer to the
intermediate being.
50
The phrase "two thoughts" must refer to two pairs of thoughts: a male to-be-reincar-
nated being's thought of desire toward the mother and hatred toward the father, and a
female to-be-reincarnated being's thought of desire toward the father and hatred toward
the mother.
51
D6.l26a4. 7 : pha dang ma dag dbang che bar grags la I dri za dbang chung bar(C 162b)
grags na yang de 'i tshe re shig mngal du jug par mi 'gyur ro II dri za dbang che bar grags la I
pha (5) dang ma dag dbang chung bar grags na yang de'i tshe re shig mngal du jug par mi
'gyur ro II gal te thams cad dbang chung bar grags la I pha ma dag gis kyang bu rnyed par
'gyur ba'i las ma byas (L lla) shing ma bsags par gyur I dri zas kyang pha mar 'gyur ba'i las
ma byas shing ma bsags ( 6) par gyur I dri zas sems gnyis po I pho 'i sems (N 205a) sam I mo 'i
sems las sems gang yang rung ba zhig nye bar bzhag par ma gyur na yang de 'i tshe re shig
mngal du jug par mi 'gyur ro II gal te thams cad dbang che bar grags la I pha ma dag gis
kyang bu rnyed par 'gyur ba 'i (7) las byas shing bsags par ma gyur I dri zas kyang pha mar
'gyur ba 'i las byas shing bsags par ma gyur I dri zas sems gnyis po pho 'i (S 192b) sems sam I
mo'i sems las (F 186a) sems gang yang rung ba zhig nye bar ma bzhag na yang de'i tshe re
shig mngal du jug par mi 'gyur ro.
52
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Garbhavakrantau 753
In addition to the fact that Y/;i'ng is much shorter, there are some other differences
that suggest that it is based on a different Sanskrit text than K~udrakavastu. First is
the fact that Yijing uses a term that translates antarabhava (zh6ngy6u c:p:;g), while
Ksudrakavastu uses one that translates gandharva ( dri za). Furthermore, if Yijing
w~re simply an abridgement of the text on which K~udrakavastu is based, we might
expect YI'j1'ng, when condensing into one, the case in which the parents and the
antarabhava are both noble and the case in which they are all base, to choose the
first one mentioned in ~udrakavastu, namely the case in which they are all base.
However, Yi;i'ng in fact mentions only the case in which all three are noble.
Bodhiruci's version, which is longer than Yijing's, is even more different from
the one in ~udrakavastu:
If the father and the mother are noble and have great merit, while the
antariibhava is base, or if the antariibhava is noble and has great merit,
while the father and mother are base, or they all have merit, but they do
not have karma ( the result of which is) to be mutually experienced-if it
is thus, there will also be no conception. Thus, when the antariibhava de-
sires conception, he produces two types of deluded thoughts. What are
the two? At the time when the father and mother have sex, if (the anta-
riibhava) is male, he gives rise to love for the mother and hatred for the
father, and when the father emits his seed, (the antariibhava) thinks it is
his own. If (the antariibhava) is female, she gives rise to love for the fa-
ther and hatred for the mother, and when the mother emits her seed, (the
antariibhava) thinks it is her own. If there is no production of these
thoughts of hatred and love, then there will be no conception.53
Unlike K~udrakavastu but like YI'jing, Bodhiruci uses the term antarabhava
(zh6ngyin tp~) instead of gandharva. The most striking difference, however, is
the detailed explanation of the two types of deluded thoughts, which is missing
from all other extant versions of the stltra. 54 The catechistic form of this explana-
tion suggests that it may be an insertion on the part of the translator.
Dharmarak~a is again different from all the others, including Bodhiruci:
Or the father and mother are noble, 55 and the coming spirit is base, or the
coming spirit is noble, and the father and mother are base; therefore, the
fault of dissimilarity arises. (With) similar actions and similar resolution,
both (spirit and parents being) noble or both base, minds being similar
~~~§t1:. D57 is quite different here, saying explicitly that the antariibhava destined to
be reborn as a male will love the mother and hate the father, while the one destined to be
reborn as a female will love the father and hate the mother. This is one of the frequent
indications that Chos grub does not always translate faithfully from Yijing's Chinese but
sometimes refers to Sanskrit manuscripts of different versions of the text, to other
translations, or, in this case, perhaps to other texts, for example, the Abhidharmakosa-
bhawa, which are more detailed in their descriptions. SCHMITHAUSEN (1987.11:430 n. 844)
notes that the Yogiiciirabhiimi does not mention the hatred of the parent of the same sex.
53
T310:322b1-14: BX:£;/:#iltlF::ktllHf cp~~~J ~cp~#iltlF::ktitt X:£;/:~
O O O
M1 ° ~fJH@iffig,t§~* BtiD~~~~§t§{c; t/O~cp~~'t§t§{c;S~ n;M\=fi~ffUZ
0 0 0
G ~Wffl= ffi~x:-am~z~ B~~~ ~£;1:1:~ ~X:1:~ X:~~~~
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
~cl§ B~ft~ 15~5<:1:~ 15~£;!:1:§j; -a1mJ!LSif~~l'JclF B~iIBJtt§j;~{,'
0 0 0 0 O
~ 0 JlU~§t§t.
54 But it is found in D58.
55 The main Taisho text reads
wu (TE) here, which does not make sense. The alternate
reading gui (ilt) is better, and HUEBOTTER (1932:8) clearly accepts it.
754 Robert KRITZER
and not different, then (the spirit) enters the mother's womb. Why does
the mother not conceive? (If) there arc none of the various faults above
and no inharmonious things; there are similar intentions and identical ac-
tions; all are noble or all base; the causes and conditions from past lives
should result in (the parents) giving birth to a child. The coming spirit
should meet the mother and father and will become their child. At that
time, the spirit also holds the two different thoughts in his mind. When
such thin~s as those do not come together, entrance into the womb is not
obtained.· 6
Some features in Dharmarak~a that do not appear in other versions include: the
use of the word "spirit" (shen tffl or jingshen fl!rt$) instead of antarabhava or
gandharva; the mention of similar actions and resolutions or intentions; the
repetition of the question "Why does the mother not conceive?" which was already
asked once at the beginning of the section.
2. Quotation
a. Yogacarabhiimi
All the versions of the stltra treat the factors of the social status and the past karma
of the antarabhava and the parents together with the antarabhava's feeling of love
for the parent of the opposite sex. The Yogacarabhumi, on the other hand,
includes only social status and past karma in its exposition of karmado~a:
If the karma that would result in a child has not been performed and ac-
cumulated by the mother or the father or both, or the karma that would
result in (the parents' being its) mother and father has not been per-
formed and accumulated by that being, or the karma produced and ac-
cumulated by that mother and father would result in a different child, or
the karma performed and accumulated by that being would result in dif-
ferent parents, either resulting in (parents who are too) noble or resulting
in (parents who are too) base, things of that category are to be known as
faults of karma. 57
3. Relationship between quoted passages and the stitra
As in all the above cases, the Yogacarabhumi, while clearly based on the stltra,
abridges and rearranges material for its own purposes of systematization. Unlike
the stltra, it explicitly shows the connection between social status and karma.
Furthermore, it completely neglects the question of the antarabhava's sexual desire
here, reserving it for the next section, in which the narrative of rebirth (with
emphasis on how consciousness gets from the past life to the present one) is
resumed.
56
~)(£3:Ji:3Kt$1'ffl ~:3Kt$Jl")(£3:lq!~j ~il;jz:::f;j:§il§'i'.'J:. ~fi
T317:886a25-b3: O O 0 However, Yijing, in the description of how the antariibhava enters the womb,
~~ 1~Jt1JUtiCAi'!J::fJrnUA£3:§~ 16J~BJ::f'3t§~ ffllilW~~i~$::f;rD~JaJ$ ~~
0 0 0 0
[r'tJfi 1~-1~ffl (Ejtiplz9~&J!l'.±.r :31Zt$J!l~)(£3:ffiJ&~T JJ~S~flH$~·r~=,e,,
O O O O
pfr~~~ tzo~z-~U::f;rDi'r::f1~A§~.
0 de la ma'i ltor nang(N 222a) nas rlungyan lagces bya ba dag ]dang stelde daggis(C 175a)
57
Yogaciirabhumj, 229. 15 : sacen miitrii vii pitrii vii putrasa!pvartaniya!p karma na krta!p
bhavaty upacitam ubhiibhyii!p vii I punas tena vii sattvena miitiipitrsa!pvartaniya!p karma na
krtaJP bhavaty upacitaJP I tiibhyiif!l vii miitiipitrbhyiim anyiidrsaputrasaqwartanfyaf!l karma
krtaJP bhavaty upacitaJP I tena vii sattveniinyiidrsamiitiipitrsaJPvartaniyal!} karma krtam
bhavaty upacita!p I mahesiikhyasa!pvartaniyam amahesiikhyasa!pvartaniya!p vety eva!pbhii-
giyiif; karmado~iil; veditavyiil; /.
Garbhavakrantau 755
Despite the rearrangement and abridgement, the section on karmado~a, like
the one on yonido~a, seems to be based on a text close to the one translated in
Ksudrakavastu. Among all our versions of the stltra, only K~udrakavastu describes
k~rma as being "performed and accumulated," a formulation that appears in the
Yogacarabhtlmi In fact, the other stltra texts merely mention the absence of karma
that is "similar" or "comes together" or is "mutually experienced" on the part of the
parents and the antarabhava: none of the texts talks of karma that results in a
specific antarabhava s being born to specific parents, as do K~udrakavastu and the
Yogacarabhtlmi
Although the Yogacarabhzlmi does not mention the antarabhavas sexual de-
sire in its section on karmado~a, it does refer to it a few lines later. As
SCHMITHAUSEN (1987.11:430 n. 844) points out, the Yogacarabht1m1: unlike
Vaibha~ika texts, does not mention hatred for the parent of the same sex. In this, it
agrees with K~udrakavastu and Yijinl{ 8 as opposed to Bodhiruci and, probably,
Dharmarak~a.
D. Description of a stillbirth
1. Passage from the Garbhavakrantistitra (~udrakavastu)
a. Translation
Nanda, in the 381h week, to that fetus arise winds from within the mother's
belly called "Limbs." When those (winds) turn the fetus, its two arms hang
down, and (the winds) position it at the mother's vagina. Winds called
"Facing down," arise as a result of that (fetus's) karma. Those (winds,
having made) that fetus's legs point up and head point down, push (it)
toward the mother's urethra. Nanda, if that (fetus) has formerly per-
formed and accumulated sinful and evil actions (as a result of which) it
will die within the womb, its legs will be (pointed in the) wrong ( direc-
tion), or its arms will be (pointed in the) wrong (direction). If that (fetus),
being upside down, is unable to emerge, its life-force (jivitendriya) will
cease. Then women who are skilled in that (sort of thing), or those who
are skilled at caring for children, anoint their hand with butter or warm,
gentle oil and ointment of well-ground siilmali or something else. They
fasten to their hand a fine blade, its edge well honed, exceedingly sharp
like a razor. And they insert that hand, softened by butter or oil and siil-
mali ointment into that cavity, which is a wound on the body that has
arisen from the maturation of past karma, a dark hole, very disgusting
like a toilet, foul smelling, heaped up with filth, home to many thousands
of types of worms, always dripping, continually in need of being cleaned,
vile, always putrid with semen, blood, filth, and pus, thoroughly putrefied
and rotten, slimy, covered with a perforated skin that is frightful to be-
hold. After seizing that fetus and cutting it into pieces, they remove it. 59
58
mentions both desire and hatred. See below.
59
D6.l36bT137a 1:dga' bo zhag bdun pa sum cu rtsa brgyad pa la ni I mngal na gnas pa
mngal (4) na gnas pa de bsgyur nas I Jag pa gnyis bcum ste I ma 'i mngal gyi sgor Jog par
byed do;,/(F 201a) de'ilas dang 'bras bus rlung kha thurdu ]ta ba zhes bya ba dag ]dang ste
I de dag gis de'i rkang pa gyen du bstan cing I mgo thur du bstan nas ma'igci ba'i Jam du
phyogs par 'phul lo II dga 'bo gal te des (5) sngon mngal gyi nang du 'chi bar 'gyur ba sdig pa
midge ba 'i las byas shing bsags na de rkang pa log pa 'am I lag pa Jog par 'gyur ro ;,1 de Jog
cing 'byung du ma btub na I de 'i srog gi dbang po 'gag par 'gyur ro II de nas de la mkhas pa 'i
 756 Robert KRITZER
b. Remarks on other versions
Yijingis here not very different from K~udrakavastu:
Nanda, in the 33th week, in the mother's belly there is a wind named
"Indigo flower." This wind can make the fetus turn its body to face down-
ward, _stretch bot~ arms <;n~t long, and hasten toward the vagina. Then
there '.,s anoth~r wmd, (ansmg) due to the force of karma, called "Facing
down. The wmd blows on the fetus and makes its head face down and
both its legs poi1:1t up, an_d makes it emerge from the vagina. Nanda, if
that fetus, when m a previous body, did many bad actions and falls into a
human womb, due to those causes and conditions, when it wishes to
emerge, its arms and legs being sideways and askew, it cannot turn over
and it will immediately die in the mother's belly. At that time, a know-
ledgeable woman or a good doctor will smear warm butter and oil or elm
bark juice on her hand and attach a thin knife, as sharp as the tip of a
lance,. an~ push her hand, making it enter this polluted place, the interior
~f which 1s the center of a black, dark, smelly, polluted, revolting, hole,
hke a cesspool, an abode that always has countless thousands of worms
with foul-smelling liquid constantly flowing, putrid with semen and blood'
profoundly dis~usting, a thin s~in covering the sore which is the body of
bad karma. Usmg the sharp kmfe, she cuts up the child's body and pulls it
out, piece by piece. 60
One significant difference is the name of the first wind. It seems impossible that
the Tibetan yan lag ("limbs") could be a translation of the same word or phrase that
Yi;?ng tr~nslates as "ind~o flower" (!an hua ~?E). Other versions give this wind
v_anous different names. Another difference 1s that, where K§udrakavastu speci-
fies women who are skilled at caring for children (gzhon nu gso ba mkhas pa),
bu? med dam l_gzhon nu gso ba ~~ ;17kha~ pa dag (6) gjs m~r ram I 'bru mar Jam tsam dang/
shmg shal ma Ii legs par btags pa 1 'de gu am I gzhan dag g1s Jag pa bskus nas / Jag pa de nykf
la m_tshon sr~b mo so legs par bdar ba shjn tu rnon po spu gd lta bu btags nas / chab kung sa
b~hm du shm tu skyug bro ba I drj nga ba I mun khung (7) nyal nYJl gyjs beer ba / snn bu'i
ngs stong phrag shjn tu mang po 'i gnas rtag tu 'dzag pa can rgyun du byj dor bya dgos pa/
btsog pa khu chu dang khrag dang I dd ma dang/ chu ser gyjs kun tu rul rnam par rul dng
(S 208b) myags pa I 'gred pa mthong na Jjgs su rung ba'j bu ga'i Jpags pas (137a[273].l, N
222b) g.yogs pa I sngon gyj las kyj rnam par sm111 pa las byung ba 'j lus kyj rma 'i sbubs der Jag
pa mar ram I 'bru mar dang I shjng shal (L 25a) ma Jj'j 'de gus Jam par byas pa bcug nas /
mng~I na gnas pa de kun tu mnams te I dum bur bead nas 'bYJn par byed do. I have
prev1?usly tran_slated the following passage (KRITZER, 2004:1088-1089), but there are
certamly some improvements that can be made, beginning with correcting the name of the
person being addressed from Ananda to Nanda!
60
Tl451.256a2i-b3: §Wt ~=+;\-c-B :o~E:Hir:f:J~M:'.f5Eli[::ffi lf:t@.§g4'i'§r'lr
O
O
O
ifif:§tri'DT ~lffr®~~ri'Dil:F~ ~W:~Mi5El~T El3*1Ji'&Ml!X§r'Jr 4i-R~ri'DT
O 0 O
O
~~ri'Dk ~lliil:F~ R~ ~~~r~W:§tr:pffi~~*#mA~ El3~~-~~
0 0 0
0 65 Abhklharmakosabhiiwa, 130 _ (for a French translation, see DE LA VALLEE
~~ :_ -=f.!Etl~~L::f ~gififf.!lU ~:o~E:Hi.DJ!f>Zi:$#1 ° 8~1Hr1"ftA~~g~ .L,J~ff
O
0
1E8~fll{(&'.1t&!n't~~Jt.-=f. L RPn r:pf~~M7JrfrJ~~2: 17'JtzDJi:OOJ~M~mfaJ
O
0
~%r:f:1 ° ~~m.!:R'l1lfifrfr5Jt ~1t1l'tt1E:fflrtn~;t;i~-a:Jm,f, M&'.N~~*:§t11f:fj~:ttfi
O
0
~~tt-=¥-4i->-
61
0
.L,JfrJJJrflf!U~:§tJtJttmm. ,,
. D57: "* Assembling the limbs" (yan lag sdud pa); T310 no. 13: "Citron" Uu yuan :J0).,
which I thmk should be emended to ju yuan ffi]~; the Sanskrit was probably miitulwiga
[see H~RAKAWA, 1977.II:94]); D58: thogs pa'i rkyen (literally, "Seized conditions," which
looks hke an attempt to translate ju yuan :J0J• rather than ju yuan :J0J~); T317 does not
mention a corresponding wind; instead, it here names a wind corresponding to the one that
follows immediately in our text.
Garbhavakrantau 757
y;-·' ,g at the same point, gives the more general "good doctor" (shan yi zhe tfi.U
~~nFinally, while K~udraka~a~tu men,tion_s sa~m1i~~ntment (shing shal ma li'i :de
YJ1j'}no- has elm bark JUICe (yzi p1 zh1 fiRc&:tt ). D57 here agrees with
gu) ' b . h vc' .,
Ksudrakavastu rather than, as we would expect'. wit 1 ljmg.
· Neither Bodhiruci nor Dharmarak~a descnbes the removal of the dead fetus.
2. Quotation
a. Abhidharmakosabh~a
At the end of an exposition of the antarabhava, and bef~re a disc~ssi~n of
dependent arising (pratityasamutpad~), Vasuband~u qu~te~, _w1t~~ut attnbution, a
portion of the description of week 38 m the GarbhavakrantJsutra:
When in the course of time the fetus has achieved maturity, winds that
are produced
'
as the result ' of karma blow .i~sid~ the mothers I
~omb ,
(winds) which, having tur_ned the fetus, J?OSitI~n 1t _at t_he mothers ur_e-
thra.63 This (embryo), which has been m1scarned, 1s dislodged from its
position with exceedingly great difficulty, like ~ hard lump of excr~ment.
If, furthermore, the embryo dies at some time, due to faults m the
mother's activities of taking food or living64 and due to ( the embryo's)
crimes of previous karma, then women knowle~geable i~ such things ~r
those who care for children, having smeared their hand with heated cl~n-
fied butter, oil, ground salmali paste, or sof1:1ething else, and ha~mg
attached a sharp, thin knife to it, and having mtroduced the ~and mto
that place that is like an excrement-hole, a cruelly foul-smellmg, dark
pool of ordure, the home to many thousands of familie_s of worms, per-
manently oozing, constantly in need of care, dr~nched 1~ ~emen, blood,
mucus, and impurities, decayed, steaming, and shmy, temfym~ to behold,
covered by a thin, perforated skin, the great ulcer-like wound m the body,
produced from the result of previous karma, and having cut ( the embryo)
limb by limb, th~y pull it out. An~ it is led aw~y to (w~o knows~ w~ft des-
tiny, due to previous karma that 1s to be expenenced ma later hfe.
62 I have previously translated this passage (KRITZER, 2004:1087-1088) but have made
a few changes here.
63 kiiyiivaksaradviira. Literally "door of the body for flowing down." Tibetan: mj gtsali
ba'i sgo. Chin~se: shen men JlrF~, chan men !'£F5. ,
64
Here, the Tibetan corresponds with the Sanskrit, but DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN (1914-
1918:29-30) translates gnas pa as "la position (de l'embryon)" (i.e;, ":he positio~ o~ th e
embryo"). However, the word vjhiira must here refer to the mot?er s l~fe~tyle. ~uanzang s
1
disciple, Puguang ( ~ 71:: ), gives examples: moving,. _standmg, s1ttmg, ly1_ng down
(T1821.164a 20 _21 ). See the CarakasaJphjtii for more spec1f1c examples of behavior of the
mother that can cause the death of the fetus ( 4.8.30). ,
6 10
POUSSIN 1914-1918:29-30; 1971.II:58-59): tasya khalu kiiliintareJJa paripiikapriiptasya
garbhas;Jyasyiibhyantariit miituiJ kuk$aU karmavipiikajii viiyavo viintj ye ta1p garbhasaJ;:a1p
sa1ppadvarttya miituiJ kiiyiivak$aradviiriibhjmukham avasthiipayan_fj Isa kruraP_U~i$ap11:}<fa
iviitjmiitram sthiiniit pracyuto duiJkha1p sa1ppan·varttyate I yad1 punaiJ kadacm fl!atur
iihiiranna;akrjyiipaciireJJa ca purvakarmiipariidhena garbha ~va. vyiipiidaf!l_ priipn?!1 tat~
ena1p tajjniistrjyaiJ kumiirabhrtyakii vii sukh0$1Jena sarp1stailena sup1rtena siilmal~-
kalkeniinyena vii hastam abhyajya tik$1Ja1p tanuka1p ciitra sastrakam upambadhya tas1;11m
varcaskupa jvogradurgandhiindhakiirasamalapalvale subahukrjmjkulasahasriiviise mtya-
sriivini satatapratJkrjye sukraso1Jjtalasjkiimalasa1pkHnnavjkfjnnakvathjfapkchile pa~ama-
bibh~tsadarsane chidratanucarmiivacchiidite purvakarmavipiikaje mahati kiiyanii<;livraJJe

758 Robert KRITZER
3. Relationship between the quoted passage and the siitra
The first part of this passage, up to the mention of the knowledgeable women, is
Vasubandhu's summary or paraphrase of the siitra passage; as for his last sentence,
there is nothing in the siitra corresponding to it. The remainder of the passage,
however, is taken almost word-for-word from the siitra, and it is clear that it is from
a version extremely close, if not identical, to K~udrakavastu. The Abhidharmakosa-
bhawa, like ~udrakavastu, specifies women who care for children and mentions
salmalipaste, both details missing from Yijing. Furthermore, the descriptions of
the vagina in the two texts agree almost perfectly; what few differences there are
can probably be explained as a result of the process of translation into Tibetan.
This passage in the Abhidharmakosabhawa is probably the longest fragment of the
Sanskrit Garbhavakrantisiitra available anywhere, and unlike the brief quotations
or paraphrases in the Yogacarabhiimi, it is long and verbatim enough for us to be
able to say with some certainty which version of the siitra it is from.
E. False notions upon entering the womb
1. Passage from the Garbhavakrantisiitra (K$udrakavastu)
a. Translation
Nanda, then, if the gandharva wishes to enter the mother's womb, due to
the force of causes and conditions of former karma in various different
births in which he had wrong thoughts and possessed an erroneous pride,
he will get ten false notions, namely: the notion of warmth; the notion of
sun; the notion of wind; the notion of rain; the notion of heavy rain with
wind; the notion of cold; the notion of a tempest; the notion of a gale; the
notion of heavy rain; the notion of the roar of a mass of people. Nanda,
after those notions of his have come into existence,· and he possesses
(them), ten different false notions will arise internally: he thinks, "I am
entering a house"; he thinks, "I am ascending a multi-storied dwelling;" he
thinks, "I am entering a penthouse;" he thinks, "I am ascending a throne";
he thinks, "I am entering a thatched hut"; he thinks, "I am entering a leaf
hut," or "thick grass," or "a dense forest," or "the space between the stones
(of a wall)," or he thinks, "I am going near a wall." Nanda, based on any of
these notions, (the intermediate being) enters the mother's womb. 66
hastaip pravesyaiigaip aiigaip nikrtyadhyaharanti I sa capy aparapaiyayavedaniyena
karmapa purvakepa kam apigatiip niyate.
66
D6.126br127a4 : dga' bode la dn·za ma'imngal du Jug par 'dad pana/sems phyin ci
(N 206a) log dang Jdan pa I log pa 'i nga rgyal can gyi skye ba so so tha dad par sngon gyi las
kyi rgyu dang rkyen gyi stabs kyis yang dag pa ma yin pa 'i 'du shes bcu po I 'di lta ste dro ba 'i
'du shes dang I nyi ma 'i (127a[253] .1) 'du shes dang I rlung gi 'du shes dang I chargyi 'du shes
dang I rdzi char gyi 'du shes dang I grang ba 'i 'du shes dang I yul ngan gyi 'du shes dang I
rlung mar gyi 'du shes dang I char drag gi du shes dang I skye bo phal po che ku co 'don pa 'i
'du shes de dang de dag thob par 'gyur ro dga bo de'i 'du shes de dag skye ba thob cing Jdan
nas I yang dag pa ma yin pa 'i 'du shes gzhan bcu nang du skye ba na skye bar (S 193b) 'gyur
(C 163b) te I 'o na bdag khyim du Jug go snyam pa dang I khang bzangs la 'dzeg go snyam (L
12a) pa dang I khang pa brtsegs mar Jug go snyam pa dang I khri la 'dzeg go snyam pa dang
/(3) rtswa spyil (F 187a) du Jug go snyam pa dang I lo ma 'i spyilpar Jug go snyam pa dang I
rtswa stugpo 'am/(Q 122a) nags thibspo 'am/rtsigpa'igseb bam/rtsigpa'i drungdu 'groo
snyam pa ste I dga 'bo 'du shes 'di rnams las 'du shes gang yang rung ba zhig la brten nas I
ma 'i mngal du Jug (4) par 'gyur ro.
Garbhavakrantau 759
c. Remarks on other versions
Yijing here generally follows the same structure as that of ~udrakavastu:
Because of various karma produced in past lives, he gives rise to m\staken
ideas and creates a thought of false knowledge. He produces the idea of
Id a great wind ' great rain ' and clouds· and fog, and he hears the clamor
of a 'great crowd. After
co he creates_ thes~ ideas, accor ct·mg to th e exce.II ence
or inferiority of his karma, he gives nse to ten types of deluded idea~.
What are the ten? "I am entering a house." "I wish to ascend a l!lultI-
storied building." "I am ascending a tower hall." "I am ascendmg a
throne." "I am entering a grass hut:'' "I am ent~1rf1ng a leaf s~ed." "I am.en-
tering a grass thicket." "I am entermg a forest. I am entenng a hole m a
. . h d 1167
wall." "I am entenng a gap m a e ge.
However, it does not give the number of the first set of false notions, and it only
mentions five: cold, wind, rain, clouds and fog, and ~he clai_nor of a crowd. As for
the second set of false notions, like ~udrakavastu, 1t mentl?n~8that there an~ te~,
and it enumerates the same ten, also in a generally descendmg order of des1rab1-
lity. . .
Bodhiruci, on the other hand, has a different structure.
Furthermore, there are two types. What are the two? The f~rst one ha~ no
merit. The second one has great merit. As for that one with no ment, a
fanciful thought arises, and he creates this idea (abou~) the place that he
sees: "I am encountering wind, cold, clouds, and ram. A large, unruly
crowd is coming to harass me, so I am afraid. I now ~ust enter a grass h1;1t,
or a leafy hut, or the hidden base of a wall, or I will e~ter a mo~ntam
swamp, or a forest, or a cave." And he alsoyroduces vanous other ideas.
He then enters his mother's womb accordmg to what he has s~en. (?ne
with great merit also produces the same ide~: "I a~ encountenng wmd,
cold clouds and rain. A large, unruly crowd 1s commg to harass me, so I
am ~fraid. 1'will ascend a tall building, or climb a Ia~ge tower, ?renter a
palace and take the throne." And he_ produces vanous othe[9 ideas. He
then enters the mother's womb accordmg to what he has seen.
Two types of antarabhavas are specified in this passa~e, ones wi~h no merit_ and
ones with great merit. First, the notions of the ones with no ment are described,
then those of the ones with great merit.
Here, Dharmarak~a is very similar to Bodhiruci:
The Buddha said to Ananda: How does (the spirit) obta~n entran~e into
the mother's womb? One with little merit produces an idea by ~1ms~If:
"There is water, cold, wind, and rain, and a crowd of people arnves, m-
760 ·Robert KRITZER
tending to give me a thrashing. I will enter beneath a large pile of grass,
or I will enter a pile of leaves on top of a large quantity of grass, or a
valley dug out by a river, 70 or I will climb a high cliff. They will not be able
to get me, and I will escape the cold, wind, and great rain, and the crowd.
Hence I enter the shelter." One with great merit obtains a powerful
thought and produces an idea by himself, saying, "Now there is cold and
wind, and it is raining hard, and there's a great crowd. I will enter a lec-
ture hall on the roof; I will be in a level pavilion; I will climb up onto a
couch." 71
2. Quotations
a. VibhA$8
In a passage from the section in the VIbhiifii devoted to the four types of garbhiiva-
kriinti, the false notions upon entering the womb, as well as residing in it and
emerging from it, are described as follows:
There are two types. One who has little merit, when he enters the womb,
gives rise to this sort of distorted idea and distorted intention: he sees
that the sky has darkened, that it is cold, that there is a cutting wind and
rain. A large crowd of noisy, agitated people has gathered, and so he
thinks, "Now I'd better enter this kind of grass and bramble thicket or a
grassy or leafy den in a thick woods," or "I'm going underneath a tree in a
hedge in order to escape the wind, rain, and noise." Moreover, he sees
himself going there. When he is residing in the womb, he also has this
sort of distorted idea and distorted intention: "I'm now staying in this sort
of grassy or leafy den in a thick woods or underneath a tree in a edge, and
I must rest for a moment." When he is emerging from the womb, he also
has this sort of distorted idea and distorted intention: "I'm now emerging
from this sort of grassy or leafy den in a thick woods or giving up (being)
underneath a tree in a hedge and leaving."
If it is a person with meritorious virtues, when he enters the womb,
he also gives rise to this sort of distorted idea and distorted intention: he
sees that the sky has darkened, that it is cold, that there is a cutting wind
and rain. A large crowd of noisy, agitated people has gathered, and so he
thinks, "Now I must enter this garden or flower forest or ascend to a
palace or multi-storied building in order to escape the wind, rain, and
noise." Moreover, he sees himself entering the garden, or ascending the
building, etc. When he is residing in the womb, he also has this sort of dis-
torted idea and distorted intention: "I'm now staying in this sort of garden
or flower forest or palace or building and sitting cross-legged." When he
is emerging from the womb, he also has this sort of distorted idea and dis-
torted intention: "I'm now emerging from this sort of garden or descen-
ding from the multi-storied garden, etc." 72
70
The meaning of the Chinese phrases here are not completely clear to me: f.lt&5EA
j;:[ffi with the radical -H-- on top ]!j[T ~A-[ffl with the radical -H-- on top ]Wf!j[*~
O 0
~A{~fsii*fr
11
(T317:886bs-6),
T317.886b3.9: {tf§-Jliirli ::fr{PJf~ J\~£l/fe2§t ~-t&i~~U § :c:t:_~ i'f7.K~&.l.:o~
O O
~xm i'fj;:*3l(tJXffi~tt tt&5EJ\j;:iff!j[T ~J\-iffW!!j[*~ ~Ai~tsii*
O O O 0
fr ~~~~ ~~gf~ ttf~§;t~&J.&j;:m **:o~~A~t&iWf~~,c" § ~§ ~
O 0 0 O
i'f~M®x*m&Wi**
72
tt& J\~_t*~~'§t &1'EZJSl¥lJ+:o~vtffl.
0 O
T1545.863awb 8; Kokuyaku Issaikyo Bidon-bu 15: 369-370 (no corresponding
passage in T1546; see KRITZER, 2000:13-15): ::fr{6J::flE5;0A£l§t{.1:c±EfJ,ffif~Jlti'f=fi
~~-t&i~~A~~fflDffl~ Dfflafi ~x~~*W&.1.m ~A~R**~ 0 0
* {]e~tt~ _§_J\tzO~!j[ifiJIHflcp ~fijf,fFai!j[Ji.Ji ~ iii {1:PD~MIFaiWT J,:)jjt&J.
O O
m&Wirr@'fmL ~BNP~J'H1~cp f.il{i:§tS~ zfr;fflPD~fiLl!Jta~f §l'Jilt~{i:PD~it
O O 0 O
f,t!j[Ji.JiMIFaiWT;;~§J(1r.,~, f.ilt±:rnts~ zfr;i'fPD~1¥LltJta~f §l'!tt~/:f:\PD~itt,t
0 0
Garbhavakrantau 761
b. Yogacarabhiimi
The Yogiiciirabhumi, like the sutra and unlike the VIbhiifii, mentions the noise of
the crowd and the varieties of desirable and undesirable dwellings as part of the
narrative of rebirth. The following passage appears after the antariibhava goes to
the place where conception will occur, just before the mixture of the parents'
semen and blood is described:
If ( the being) is of little merit, he will be born among those of low families.
At the time of his death and at the time of entering (the womb), a sign
will appear of the sound of a crowd and of entering a reed thicket, etc. If
(the being) has done meritorious actions, he will be born among those of
high families. A sign will appear of the manifestation of a calm and
peaceful sound and of ascending to a dwelling such as a lofty mansion or
73
a celestial palace, etc.
C. Abhidharmakosabh~a
Vasubandhu here seems to be relying on the VIbhiifii rather than on the sutra,
probably because, like the Vibhiifii, he is quoting the passage in the context of the
four types of garbhiivakrfin{j and of what constitutes full awareness, rather than in
a narrative of the events involved in conception and gestation:
A mistaken notion and inclination arise thus in a being of little merit who
is entering the mother's womb: "A wind blows, it rains, it is cold, it is
gloomy, or there is the noise of a crowd. Oh! I'm entering a grass thicket
or the depth of the forest, or a grass hut or a leaf hut, or I'm getting next
to the root of a tree or the base of a wall." And when he is dwelling (in the
womb), he thinks, "I'm dwelling in those places," and when he emerges
(from the womb), he thinks, "I'm emerging from those places." But for a
being of great merit, (the notion is): "I'm entering a garden or a park, or
I'm ascending to a lofty mansion or a penthouse or a palanquin. (And he
thinks, ';{m dwelling (in those places); I'm emerging (from those
places)."
!j[Ji.Ji ~~-00WTfffi* ~t&ire~~A~~ ztr;fflDffl~DfflaM ~x~
0 0 0 0
'l~*WMm~ArMJIL**~* {]e~tt!JlJ\Jltffillm ~7U,tFai ~¥\1-~'§t ~~~
0 O O O
MO J,:)~&J.m&§tifmJIL ~BNP~% }\[fil]cp]J_¥~1¥j :0~{1:§tS~ OztJ-;fflPD~{fLlfJta
O O
~f O§l'!tt~{i:PD~ffillm1U,t'§tl¥]WJIJ~Jm~ :o~/:f:\§tS~ zfr;i'fPD~fiLl!Jta~f §l'!tt~
0 0 O
UJPD~ffillm n.¥1~:0~~MJmT ° Footnote iii: 11:=11< =: > <'§>.
O
73
Yogacarabhum1; 23 14. 17 : saced alpapw;yo bhavati nice~u I kule~u pratyajayate tasya
0
cyutikale pravesakale ca kolahalasabdo na(javanagahanadipravesas ca nimittaip pradur-
bhavati II sacet sukrtakarmakari bhavaty ucce~u kule~u pratyajayate I tasya prasanta-
0
madhurasabdapradurbhaval; prasadavimanadisthanarohaJJaip ca nimittaip pradurbhavati
74
Abhidharmakosabhawa, 128 15. 20 : alpesakhyasya tavat sattvasya matul; kuk~ilp
pravisatal; evaip viparitau saipjiiadhimok~au pravartete I vato vati devo var~ati I sitaip
0
durdinaip mahato va janakayasya kolahalaip hanta tp;agahanaip va pravisami vana-
0
gahanaip va tp;akufiJP va pan;akufiJP va vrk~amulaip va sarpami ku(jyamulaip vetiI hffhato
O 'py e~u ti~fhamiti mfkramato 'py ebhyo niryamiti I mahesakhyasya tu sattvasyaramaip va
pravisamy udyanaJP va prasadaJP va 'bhirohami kufagaraJP va paryankaJP veti I tatha
O
tiHhami niryamiti/.
762 Robert KRITZER
3. Relationship between quoted passages and the siltra
The relationship between the Vibhii$fi and the sutra here seems rather complicated.
Although the details do not exactly match those in Bodhiruci or Dharmarak~a, the
structure of the passage is the same. Two types of antariibhava are defined, and the
unmeritorious type imagines four kinds of bad weather, as well as a pursuing crowd,
from which it is escaping; it imagines the different types of humble dwellings into
which it will escape. Everything is similar for the meritorious type, except that the
dwellings into which it will escape are much grander. Neither Bodhiruci nor
Dharmarak$a contains any reference to the four types of garbhavakriinti, the
context in which the false notions upon entering the womb appear in the Vibhii$fi.
~udrakavastu and Yijing, however, contain long sections on the four types but,
like Bodhiruci and Dharmarak$a, mention the false notions in their sections, early
in the sutra, on how the antarabhava enters the womb. I would speculate that the
Vibhii$fi is based on the same, or a very similar, version of the sutra as Bodhiruci or
Dharmarak$a ( assuming that these two are not, in fact, translations of exactly the
same text). Clearly, the Vibhii~ii does not follow the same structure as ~udraka-
vastu and Yijing. In turn, the expositions in ~udrakavastu and Yijing of the four
types are perhaps influenced by abhidharma texts like the Vibhii$fi, although the
order in which they list the types is the opposite of the abhidharma texts. 75
The Yogiiciirabhum1: as usual, does not quote a long passage directly from the
sutra; instead, it seems to paraphrase selectively in order to establish its own more
systematized narrative of the rebirth process. Still, like Vasubandhu in the Abhi-
dharmakosabhawa, it relies on a version of the sutra closer to Bodhiruci or
Dharmarak$a than to ~udrakavastu or Yijing; perhaps it is based on the Vibhii$fi
rather than directly on the sutra.
Vasubandhu, as I mentioned, appears to be relying on the VIohii~iirather than
the sutra. Not surprisingly, therefore, the structure of the passage in the
Abhidharmakosabhawa on the false notions, like that in the Vibhii$fi, clearly
resembles Bodhiruci and Dharmarak$a, not K$udrakavastu and Yijing.
Conclusion
The textual history of the Garbhiivakriintisutra is complicated, and there is little
that can be said with certainty about the relationship among the different extant
versions. We can assign Dharmarak$a, Bodhiruci, and D58 to a group of shorter
texts and ~udrakavastu, YJjing, and D57 to a group of longer ones, but we cannot
be sure that the six texts are based on only two separate Sanskrit originals. It is very
likely that ~udrakavastu, for example, is a translation of a different text than the
one underlying Yij}ng and D57. It is also likely that there was some borrowing
among the versions: Bodhiruci may be basically a translation from the same text as
Dharmarakg with some changes made on the basis of YiJi'ng. Similarly, D57 may
be a translation of YJjing, but with some changes made on the basis of ~udraka-
vastu (see KRITZER, 2006-2007).
75
Both the Vibhii~ii (T1545.863a 11-15) and the *Sarpyuktiibhidharmahrdaya (Tl552.
952a24-b 15 ) list them in ascending order beginning with the person who enters into, resides
in, and emerges from the womb unaware, while the Abhidharmakosabhawa begins with the
person who enters with awareness but resides and emerges unaware. The sutra, on the
other hand, moves in descending order, beginning with the person who enters, resides, and
emerges fully aware (KRITZER, 2000).
Garbhavakrantau 763
As for the quoted passages that I have discussed above, with the exception of
the description of a stillbirth, quoted by Vasubandhu in the Abhidharmakosa-
bhfi$ya, none of them can be traced without doubt to a particular version of the
sutra. Nevertheless, some cautious observations can be made. Passages from the
Vibhii$fi are always closer to Dharmarak$a and Bodhiruci than to ~udrakavastu
or Yijing. As I have previously noted, much of the abhidharma-like material in
J(sudrakavastu and YJji'ng is not found in Dharmarak$a (KRITZER, 1998:11), and
the same is true for Bodhiruci This suggests that the text or texts on which these
translations are based are earlier than the Vibhfi$fi, which is one of the earliest
systematized abhidharma works and which contains much of the material missing
from Dharmarak$a and Bodhiruci but found in ~udrakavastu and Yijing. All of
the passages from the sutra quoted in the VIohfi$fi are found in Dharmarak$a and
Bodhiruc1; as well as in ~udrakavastu and YJj1'ng; of course, if the Vibhii$fi quoted
a passage from the sutra that was not in Dharmarak$a and Bodhiruci, it would cast
doubt upon my chronological assumptions.
All of the passages in the Yogaciirabhumi are shorter and more systematized
than the corresponding portions of the sutra and are not identical to any of the
extant versions. We can say, however, that the three passages concerning the
failure to conceive are definitely closer to ~udrakavastu and YJj1'ng than to
Dharmarak$a and Bodhiruc1; and I think that they all may be based on ~udraka-
vastu, despite the fact that the description of karmado~a follows the order in YJjing
more closely. The enumeration of the false notions upon entering the womb, on
the other hand, seems to be based on a version of the sutra closer to Dharmarak$a
and Bodhiruci, perhaps via the Vibhfi$fi.
As for Vasubandhu, the Abhidharmakosabhii$ya passage on stillbirth, as I have
mentioned, is almost identical to part of the passage in ~udrakavastu. But in the
explanation of the false notions, Vasubandhu appears to rely on the Vibhii$fi,
rather than directly on the sutra, and the Vibhii$fi in turn relies on a version close
to Dharmarak$a or Bodhiruci
 764 Robert KRITZER Garbhavakrantau 765
Figure 1. Tentative chart of relationships among versions of the Garbhavakrantisiitra th Ksudrakavastu. 77 The somewhat shorter version that was translated by Yijing
and texts in which they are quoted. ems· not to have been as important in India as K$udrakavastu, but it became
see · T1·b etan trans1atlon,
· fluential in Tibet through its · D57 .
Short version ill Concerning the school affiliations of the versions, we are safe in assuming that
Sanskrit text(s) (not extant) Ksudrakavastu and Yijing belong specifically to the Mulasarvastivada SchooI78
[Dharmarak$a] [Bodhiruc1] si~ce they are both fou~? in the Miilasarvii~tiviidav1naya, and g~ven the ~lose co!r~-
pondence between Yljmg and D57, D57 1s also almost certamly a Mulasarvastl-
~ada text. In the cases of Dharmarak$a, Bodhiruci, and D58, there is no such
convenient way to determine their affiliation. The fact that the antariibhava plays a
crucial role in all versions suggests a connection with Sarvastivada (including
Mulasarvastivada), the most prominent school to accept an intermediate existence.
However, since we have no versions of the siitra besides the ~udrakavast1! and
Vibhii$ii Yijing that we can positively connect to another school, we have no pomt ~f
•
I ' reference for saying anything definite about Dharmarak$a. If Dharmarak$a 1s
I '
I \ indeed a Sarvastivada version, and if Bodhiruci is, as the catalogs say, another
I '

I
I '
'
I
I \
'
' \
I
I \
I '
I
I ''
I ''
Abhidharmakosabhawa
Solid arrows indicate the main influences on a particular text.
Dotted arrows indicate secondary influences.
(For this chart, it is assumed that K§udrakavastu and Yiji'ng were translated from
somewhat different Sanskrit texts.)
Of course, my observations may be mistaken: there may have been one or more
different versions of the siitra, no longer extant, that correspond exactly to the
passages discussed above. Therefore, my conclusions are provisional, ready to be
discarded or altered if other versions of the text are found, perhaps in the form of
Sanskrit manuscripts in Tibet or Beijing, or Sanskrit or other Indic manuscripts in
76
Central Asia. But on the basis of the texts that we have, it seems likely that
the version translated by Dharmarak~a and then by Bodhiruci, or one like it, was
the source for the VIbhii$ii and the *Pancavastukav1bhii$iisastra, as well as for the
Yogacarabhiimi and the Abh1dharmakosabhii$ya when they are relying on the
VIbhii$ii. On the other hand, when they are quoting from the siitra directly,
the Yogiiciirabhiimi and the Abhidharmakosabhawa use the version underlying
76
Professor Georges-Jean PINAULT is editing fragments of a Tocharian version of the
siitra, but they do not appear to include portions relevant to this paper.
translation of the same text, then Bodhiruci and D58 would also be affiliated with
Long version the Sarvastivada School.
Sanskrit text (not extant) Sanskrit text Finally, the Garbhavakriintisiitra has been characterized as a Mahayana siitra
[K$udrakavastu] (not extant) (see, for example, LANGENBERG, 2008:1; GARRETT, 2008:29). I suspect that the
[ Yijing]
main reason for its sometimes being considered a Mahayana text is that Bodhiruci,
, Yij1'ng (T310 no. 14), D57, and D58 are all found in the Ratnakii_ta, an otherwise
''
, ,,
'' ,, Mahayana collection, and that the latter two are explicitly called Mahayana siitras
''
, ,, in their Tibetan colophons (D57.205b 2 ; D58.237a2). Similarly, they are classified by
''
'' , ,, the ninth-century Tibetan catalogue, the Ldan kar ma, as Mahayana siitras
&: belonging to the Mahiiratnakii_ta (LALOU, 1953:320 [nos. 37 and 38]). LANGEN-
BERG (2008:62-64 ), while admitting that the siitra has none of the features
Yogiiciirabhiimi generally associated with Mahayana, asserts that it can be considered an early
Mahayana text because it is inspired by what she refers to as a movement to reform
the Buddhist monasticism of its time. But according to SKILLING (1997.II: 94 n. 12),
"this is the sole Sravaka sutra in the Ratnakiita collection."
However, it may be better not to try to label it as either a Mahayana siitra or a
non-Mahayana one. There are a number of reasons for skepticism about its
designation as Mahayana. First of all, two versions of the siitra (~udrakavastu and
Yij1'ng[Tl45l]) are embedded in the Miilasarviistiviida Vinaya, and one would not
expect to find a Mahayana stltra, quoted approvingly and in full, in such a context.
In addition, the VIbhii$ii, as we have seen, quotes the siitra by name as authority,
which would be very unlikely if the authors or compilers considered it to be
anything other than a traditional scripture. Most important, as LANGENBERG
(2008:62-63) herself points out, words such as Mahayana, bodhisattva, and siinyatii
are not found in the siitra, and it shows no signs of the Mahayana concept of
77
Incidentally, the fact that Vasubandhu and the Yogiiciirabhiimi use the same or
similar versions of the siitra is consistent with my observations about Vasubandhu's reliance
on the Yogaciirabhiimi in his Abhidharmakosabhawa (see KRITZER, 2005).
78
I do not discuss here the complicated question of the relationship between
Sarvastivada and Mulasarvastivada. It is unclear whether the name Mulasarvastivada refers
to a separate sect or to a subsect of Sarvastivada or is synonymous with Sarvastivada
(ENOMOTO, 2000). All we can say here is that Dharmarakfa and Bodhiruci are clearly
based on very different texts than are K§udrakavastu and Yij1'ng; however, there are no
doctrinal differences.

766 Robert KRITZER
multiple Buddhas. This was recognized explicitly in Faji:ng's O!*-fil) early Chinese
~at_alog.: Zhon_gjlnf, mulu (**,fil 79
§ §l!J where Dharm_arak~a is_ found in a list of
0
Hmayana sutras (T2146.128b12). Furthermore, m the Agamak~udrakavya-
khyana, in a comment on the epithet "unadulterated" (ma '(ires pa) used to de-
scribe the sutra at the beginning of K§udrakavastu, it is said, "it is unadulterated
because it does not rely on the Mahayana to avert all suffering."81
Nonetheless, there is nothing in the sutra that is antithetical to Mahayana.
Zhisheng observes in the Kaiyuan shij1ao Ju that according to the contents of
Bpdhiruci (T310 no. 13) and Yging (T310 no. 14), these texts both belong in the
Sravakapifaka, but that Bodhiruci, by inc~uding them in the Ratnakufa, accepts
them as being common to the Bodhisattvapifaka, as well. 82 Zhisheng also notes
that Dharmarak~a, according to the old catalogues, was included as a Hinayana
sutra that has no other translation, but that now, because it is similar to Bodhiruci,
it is appended just after the Ratnaku{a in a group of sutras, different translations of
which are found in the Ratnakufa. 83 Furthermore, it is quoted in the Yogacara-
bhumi (which, admittedly, depends mostly on non-Mahayana agama), where it is
used in support of a system of rebirth that includes the concept of alayavij.iana, as
well as in other meditation texts that have no such Mahayana elements (YAMABE,
1996). On the subject of meditation in general, Y AMABE observes that there is not
a clear distinction between Sravaka and Mahayana practices and that both
methods and content are shared by the two, although their goals and interpreta-
tions may be different. Some sutras, particularly ones that do not contain syste-
matic expositions of doctrine, were perhaps common property for Buddhists of all
sorts. In fact, it seems as though the Garbhavakrantisutra can be and has been
claimed by both Mahayanists and non-Mahayanists as their own. ' ' II. On the full term of pregnancy
79
MIZUNO (1982:190) gives its date of compilation as 594.
80 I am grateful to Jan NATTIER for this reference and for locating the title, xiaosheng
xiudiolu6 zang Ju (!J\~nitHI~~), at the b~ginning of the section (T2146.127c25).
D4l15.48a1: ma 'clres pa zhes bya ba m sdug bsngal thams cad zlog par byed pa la
thegga chen po la ltos pa medpa 'iphyir ma 'clres paste.
T2154.584c20: lft~&Jw~~;!'t3t:Elt[i;-J\ ~f*1~pg~1%fiJ\WfJUmtt~ilii~4:t I
am ~rateful to YAMABE Nobuyoshi for help in understanding this passage.
3 YAMABE (1996), which I have altered slightly.
*~
- T2154.584c18-21: HfilHE1f~-~ -i;Hfil§E1§'t!tf~ ft§~.=~'±"J!lll~ m-~ ti-
WWfflm+=1~!U~lfrtJ"Jllill~HE1 ~~*~~, il:tHfilHE1f~rtflijJcpfili\j,!%1J\*¥*2r-
0
J;)JtJ!t§1tllftz~il:t.
Garbhavakrantau 767
Appendix
III. Passages attributed to but not found in the siitra
I. On the question of whether derived matter
( *upadayanlpa) is tangible
A. Translation (from AbhidharmakosabhA$)1a)
"Monk, this 'person' is the six dhatus" (was sai? by the B_uddha). in the
Garbhavakranti(sutra), for the purpose of showmg the basic constituents
· 84
ofa b emg.
B. Actual source
According to HONJO (1991:116), the source of this quo~~t~on is t_h~ *Dhatuvibhaii-
gasutra, extant as the Dhatuvibhaiigasuf!_a of the Ma1Jh1ma N_ikaya (III.237-247)
and the Fenbie liujie Jing (:5t3U7\:W-*~) of the Madhyamagama (T26.690aw
692b 20 ). Although DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN (1971.I:49. n. 2, ?6) does _n_ot directly
question Vasubandhu's attribution, which is still sometimes cited uncntically ( e.g_.,
SKILLING, 1997:94 n. 12), HONJO (1991:116) rightly notes that Vasubandhu 1s
mistaken.
I can offer no explanation for why Vasubandhu,_ who, ~s we have ~ee:1, h~s
quoted an extensive passage from the Garbhavakranflsutra without mentionmg his
source, here refers to the sutra in error.
A. Translation (from the Manobhtlmi of the Yogacarabh-,:µ»i)
The fetus is endowed with all the members and secondary members m 38
weeks. Four days later, it is born. As the Buddha85 said in the Garbhava-
krantisutra, it is complete in nine months or later.
B. Actual source
YAMABE (1996) notes that this passage cannot be found in any e~tant versio~ of
the sutra, but he suggests that it may be based on a somewhat d1f~erent vers~on.
However a notable feature of all of the known versions of the sutra 1s that the time
of gestation is calculated by weeks and never by months. Thus, while the fir_st
sentence of this passage could well be a summary based on the 38-week account m
the sutra, it is highly unlikely that the state~e~t._attri':!:1ted_to the sutra actuallJ
came from it. Y AMABE also refers to the Cha d1 png (O*w*~) of the Madhyama-
gama, which reads, "The mother's womb holds it f?r ni~e months or te~ ~~nths,
and it is born." 86 It is far more likely that a passage hke this, from the Cha d1png or
from some other sutra, was the source for the Yogacarabhumi.
84 Abhidharmakosabhawa, 2410-11: Jaqdhatur ayaip bhikJO puruJa iti garbhavakrantau
maulasattvadravyasaipdarsanartham. .
85 Yogacarabhumi, 275-7: sa punar garbho '{ifatriipiata saptahaiiJ sarvali~apra!J'a1!g_opeto
bhavati / tataiJ paraip catur ahel}a jayate I yathoktaip bhagavata garbhavak_rantJsu_tre sa
punaiJ sampilrl}o bhavati navabhir masaiiJ parel}a va punar itJ: My translation rehes on
.
+
86T26.769b 25 _26 : £J:HE1~t'ifflJ'l J=l ~g:_. A corresponding passage can be found _m the
Mahatal}htisankhayasutta of the Majjhima Nikaya: "Then, monks, the mother for nme or
 768 Robert KRITZER Garbhavakrantau 769

Like the Abhklharmakosabhawa, the Yogiiciirabhumi seems on a number of Abbreviations and Sigla
occasions to quote from or paraphrase the sutra without attribution, but on the one Cone.
occasion that it refers to the sutra by name, a corresponding passage cannot be C
D Derge.
found in the sutra. However, in the case of this passage, there is at least some Phug brag.
F
connection between the meaning of the passage and the contents of the sutra. L London manuscript.
N Narthang.
Q Peking.
s Stog Palace manuscript.
Kfudrakavastu Mngal du Jug pa zhes bya ba 'i chos kyi rnam grangs in 'Dul ba phran
tshegs kyi gzhi

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Sanskrit and Pali Texts
Anonymous: Carakasaiphita: Agnivesa s treatise refined and annotated by Caraka and
redacted by Dr<;Jhabala (Text with English Translation), edited and translated by P.
SHARMA, Jaikrishnadas Ayurveda Series 36, Varanasi: Chaukhamba Orientalia,
1981.
Anonymous: The Ma;jhima-Nikaya, edited by V. TRENCKNER, Pali Text Society Text
Series 60-62, Oxford: Pali Text Society, 1993-1994.
Anonymous: Yogacarabhtlmi, edited by Vidhushekhara BHATTACHARYA, Part I, Calcutta:
University of Calcutta, 1957.
Vasubandhu: Abhidharmakosabhawa, edited by P. PRADHAN, Tibetan Sanskrit Works
Series VIII, Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute, 1967.

ten months carries the foetus in her womb with great anxiety for her heavy burden. Then,
monks, at the end of nine or ten months the mother gives birth with great anxiety for her
heavy burden" (HORNER, 2000:322; Tam enam bhikkhave mata nava va dasa va mase
gabbhaip kucchina pariharati mahata saipsaye°iia garum bharaip. Tam enaip bhikkhave
mata navannaip va dasannaip va masanaip accayena vijayati mahata saipsayena garum
bharaip [MaJJhima Nikaya I.266 6_10]).
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Anonymous: Baotai Jing !!fil§i:lt-fil (= Garbhavakrantistltra), translated by Dharmarak~a
(Zhu Fahu '±"{!~), T317.
Anonymous: F6 wei Amin shuo chutai hui {~IH~frriJ!lt~~~iji:)Wf (= Garbhavakrantisutra),
translated by Bodhiruci (Putiliuzhi ~:J:lr:tm.7t), T310 no. 13.
Anonymous: F6shu6 ru taizang hui {,m~}ji:)~W{ ( = Garbhavakrantistltra), translated by
Yijing (~1$), T310 no. 14
Anonymous: Madhyamagama (Zhong ahan Jing cp [rriJB"t-fil), T26.
Anonymous: Mtllasarvastivadavinaya Kfudrakavastu ( Genben shuo yiqieyoubu pfnaiye
zashi i'N;z!s:~~w~~Gm*~Gn:JJ), translated by Yijing, T1451.
Anonymous: *Paiicavastukavibhafasastra ( Wiishi pfp6sha Jun li1Jm~1Y§ils), T1555.
Anonymous: Ratnakufa (Da baoJiJing--}(fjJJ..t-fil), T310.
Anonymous: Vibhafa (Apfdam6 da pfp6sha Jun ~iiJ m~!J!:*m~19J§ils ), T1545.
Dharmatrata (Fajiu 1!151:): *Saipyuktabhidharmahrdaya (Za apftan xinlun nfrriimtt,c,,§ilB),
T1552.
Fajing O!t-fil), et al.: Zhongjing mulu (**-fil § ~), T2146.
Sarµghabhadra (Zhong xian *~): *Abhidharmasamayapradipikasastra (Apfdam6zang
xianzong Jun rrrIT m~JJ!~IJ'[*§ilB), TI563.
- - - - ~ = - : - - - - - - - - : *Nyayanusara (Apfdam6 shunzhenglf Jun frriim~m/1~
lEfJ.ails), ns62.
Zhisheng (~H ): Kaiyuan shijiao Ju (!ffl5t~~~), T2154.
Tibetan Texts
Anonymous: Dga' bola mngal na gnas pa bstan pa ( = Garbhavakrantistltra), D57, ga 205b 1-
236b7.
Anonymous: 'Dul ba phran tshegs kyi gzhi ( = Vinaya ~udrakavastu), D6.
 770 Robert KRITZER
Anonymous: Mngal du jug pa zhes bya ba 'i chos kyi rnam grangs ( = Garbhiivaknintisutra),
D6, tha 124b6-153a 1•
Anonymous: Tshe dang ldan pa dga' bo la mngal du jug pa bstan pa ( = Garbhiivakriinti-
sutra), D58, ga 237a 1-248a 7.
Silapalita: AgamakJudrakai,yiikhyiina (Lung phran tshegs kyi rnam par bshad pa), D4115,
dzu lb 1-232a5 .
Japanese Works
Bussho kaisetsu daijiten (1.l W~f im::k/m$, 1933-36), edited by ONO Genmyo (1J\ff ;tpj>),
Tokyo: Daito shuppansha. 13 vols.
Kokuyaku Issaiky6 (~lJf~f.;;J*~), Bidon-bu (mtl:l'f~) 15 (Japanese translation of
VtbhiiJii).
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ENOMOTO, Fumio (2000): "'Miilasarvastivadin' and 'Sarvastivadin"' in Vividharatna-
kara1J¢aka: Festgabe filr Adelheid Mette, edited by Christine CHOJNACKI, Jens-
Uwe HARTMANN, and Volker M. TSCHANNERL, Indica et Tibetica 37, Swisttal-
Obendorf: Indica et Tibetica Verlag.
GARRETT, Frances (2008): Religion, Medicine and the Human Embryo in Tibet, London:
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(1990): A History of Indian Buddhism from Siikyamuni to Early
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HONJO, Yo~ifumi (~J±..R:X)(1991): "A?on to kus~aron: kaihon (3)" (lfriI--a t {l1'f§ffi1 ,
Wm::i (3)) [Agama and the Abh1dharmakosabhawa: The Dhatu Chapter (3)] in
Bukky6kenkyu({.l~1iJf~) 20, pp.107-123.
HORNER, LB., trans. (2000): The Collection ofMiddle Length Sayings (Majjhima-Nikiiya):
Vol L The First Fifty Discourses (Mulapal}l}iisa), Pali Text Society Translation
Series 29, Oxford: the Pali Text Society.
HUEBOTTER, Franz (1932): Die Sutra ilber Empfiingnis und Embryologie, Tokyo:
Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Natur- Und Volkerkunde Ostasiens.
DE JONG, J.W. (1977): "The Bodhisattvavadanakalpalata and the ~atjdantavadana" in
Buddhist Thought and Asian civilization : Essays in Honor of Herbert V
Guenther on his Sixtieth Birthday, edited by Leslie S. KAWAMURA and Keith
SCOTT, Emeryville: Dharma Press, pp. 27-38.
KRITZER, Robert (1998): "Garbhiivakriintisutra: A Comparison of the Contents of Two
Versions" in Maranatha (Kyoto Notoru Damu Joshi Daigaku Kirisutokyo Bunka
Kenkyiijo Kiyo) 6, pp. 4-13.
-----,---,,.,---(2000): "The Four Ways of Entering the Womb" in Bukky6 Bunka (1.lf!J...
:X1t) 10, pp. 1-41.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2004): "Childbirth and the Mother's Body in the Abhidharmakosa-
bhawa and Related Texts" in Inda tetsugaku bukky6 shis6 ran shu: Mikogami
Esl_!6 k]roju shoju kinen ronshu ( 1 / r:'E'"¥:{!JM!J...J~t*~§ffil~:t$r __tJ!t;!:.f!J...:f§t:z;J[
~J'ic~affil~)[Studies on Indian philosophy and Buddhist thoughts : volume in
honor of Professor Esho Mikogami], Kyoto: Nagatabunshodo, pp. 1085-1009.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2005): Vasubandhu and the Yogiiciirabhumi: Yogiiciira Elements in the
Abhidharmakosabhawa, Studia Philologica Buddhica Monograph Series 18, To-
kyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies.
Garbhavakrantau 771
(2006-2007): "The Names, of Winds in the Various Versions of the
----G=a-r.--:bh--:a-=--v.-akriintisutra" in Bulletin d'Etudes Indiennes24-25, pp. 139-154
DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN, Louis (1914-1918): Vasubandhu et Ya9omitra: troisieme chapitre
de l'Abhidharmako9a: Kiirikii, Bhawa et Vyiikhyii : avec une analyse de la Loka-
prajiiiipti et de la Kiiral}aprajiiiipti de Maudgalyiiyana, London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, and Trubner.
(1971): L'Abh1dharmakosa de Vasubandhu, new
----e--:d::-it--:io_n_,--::M~e-;-la_n_g_e_s_ch;-i:-n-o--:is-e-:t--;b-ouddhiques 16, Bruxelles: Institut Beige des Hautes
Etudes Chinoises. Reprint. (First edition: Louvain: J.B. Istas, 1923-1931.)
LALOU, Marcelle (1927): "La Version Tibetaine du Ratnakiita: Contribution a la
Bibliographie du Kanjur," in Journal Asiatique 211.2, pp. 233-259.
(1953): "Les textes bouddhiques au temps du roi Khri-srori-lde-bcan" in
------:----:-
Journal Asiatique 241, pp. 313-353.
LANCASTER, Lewis (1979): The Korean Buddhist Canon: a Descriptive Catalogue,
Berkeley: University of California Press.
LANGENBERG, Amy (2008): Like Worms Falling from a Foul-sme/ling Sore: the Buddhist
Rhetoric of Childbirth in an Early Mahayana Sutra, Ph.D. thesis, Columbia Uni-
versity.
MIZUNO, Kogen (1982): Buddhist Sutras: Origin, Development, Transmission, Tokyo:
Kosei Publishing.
PREBISH, Charles (1994): A Survey of Vinaya Literature, The Dharma Lamp Series 1,
Taipei: Jin Luen Publishing House. .
SCHMITHAUSEN, Lambert (1987): "Beitrage zur Schulzugehorigkeit und Textgesch1chte
kanonischer und postkanonischer buddhistischer Materialien" in Zur Schulzu-
gehorigkeit van Werken der Hinayiina-Literatur, edited by Heinz BECHERT, 2.
Tei!, Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen,
Philologisch-historische Klasse, 3. Folge, Nr. 154, Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and
Ruprecht, pp. 304-406. .
SKILLING, Peter (1997): Mahiisutras: Great Discourses of the Buddha, vol. 2, Oxford: Pah
Text Society.
YAMABE, Nobuyoshi (1996): "On the School Affiliation of An Shigao: Sarvastivada and
Yogacara," Unpublished conference paper given at the international workshop on
"The Works of An Shigao" (Leiden, 19-20 Dec., 1996).
(2009): "The Paths of Sravakas and Bodhisattvas in Meditative
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yana Buddhism: Its Origins and Reality), pp. 47-75.
 Nets of Intertextuality 773

often by title, but he rarely recapitulates, summarizes, or integrates them into his
primary texts in the manner seen in the Yogacarabhzlmi or the Abhidharma-
Nets of Intertextuality samuccaya. 4 Still, it is important to stress that Vasubandhu and Asanga draw on
many of the same texts - their references overlap but are put to different ends. 5
Embedded Scriptural Citations in the Yogacarabhiimi vasubandhu's style is deeply indebted to the abhidharma or sastra style of the
Sarvastivadin or Vaibha~ika literary/philosophical traditions; the boundaries of
Asanga's style remain to be delineated.
Another feature of Yogacarabhzlmi is anthologies of verses with commentary -
Peter SKILLING notably the Paramarthagatha, Abhiprayikarthagatha, and Sarirarthagatha of the
Cintamayi Bhzlmi Most remarkably, the Yogacarabhzlmi cites one long Mahayana
szltra more or less in full - that is, the Samdhinkmocanaszltra in the Bodhisattva-
bhzlmivindcaya of the Viniscayasa1pgrahapi. 6
!~e Yogacarabhiimi and Siitra Literature All of this makes the Yogacarabhzlmi a precious resource for the study of szltra
0
o_~e {.te stnk}ng ~eatures of the Yogacarabhumi is its intimate relationship to literature. But what szltra literature? In most cases, the source material is Sarvasti-
s1: ra 1_ er~ture. This takes several forms, from allusion cross-reference vadin, in the broad sense, or, specifically - and ignoring the difficulties that
direct ~itation_, t? paraphrase, reformulation, and recapitul~tion or summary' ;~~ surround the term - Mulasarvastivadin. The Sarvastivada/Mulasarvastivada was
! atter 1s a bmldmg block throughout the Yoaacarabh - · h ·
elepha ( k b' um1 , so muc so that this one of the major Vinaya lineages of northern India, and a prodigious producer and
n me wor may reasonably be described as an encyclopedia or di est I promoters of texts of all categories and genres - Vinaya, Sutra, and Abhidharma;
:~nsse, th~ t!"~g.d~carabhumi shares this condition with early Abhidharma ~ext~ l~k: narrative, ritual, technical, and exegetical. The supposition that the source texts for
e arvas 1va m Samgitiparyaya Dharma k. dh d P, ·- •/
Pali Vibhaiiga all { h · h d ' . s an a, an ra;naptJsastra, and the
tend t ' ~ w _1c raw extensively on szltra literature. 2 But these texts
bh - ? segregate t e sutra passages from the commentary while the Yi - - see with reference to alayavijiiana, SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a, Section 1), and more recently
~ml doe~ not_ necessarily do so, and when it does it u;es innovative ora~~r~- KRITZER (2005:xiii-xviii) and DELEANU (2006.I:154 seq.). It is disappointing that Asanga
dev1ces. This article presents one of these which I will call "embedd" " ty i_stic and Vasubandhu - brilliant intellectuals whose careers, dates, and even bibliographies are
of indirect citatio · h· h ' mg , a vanety
. . n m w 1c a canonical passage is set seamlessly with little or n murky and tangled - are still described in purportedly authoritative literature as "founders"
~hhange, wit~m a larger text unit, with the result that it becomes ~ natural part ~ of "the" Yogacara tradition (a similar fate is also suffered by Nagarjuna with "the"
e progression of thought. 0
Madhyamaka), in statements like "Asanga and Vasubandhu, sajd to be the founders
This is_ not to suggest the Yogacarabhzlmi does not employ direct citation· it (together with a very obscure Maitreya) of the Yogacara tradition" (Paul WILLIAMS,
doe~, and It do~s so rather frequently. Citations are distinguished b O enin a~d 2009:85 - italics mine), or "Asanga js regarded as the founder of the Y ogacara tradition of
~los~ng conventions; often they are ascribed to "bhagavat"(the "Bles:edpOne'~ th t Mahayana philosophy" (John P. KEENAN, in Robert E. BUSWELL, 2004.I:32- italics mine).
!a!k:r~.~:~h;~
.
?t to ~'szlt-:a" (see below) and closed by the Sanskrit quot;tio!-
1 s ex ens1ve use of paraphrase the Yogacarabhumi r bl
Statements like these raise questions of "said to be" by whom? and "regarded by" whom?
Does Yasomitra's ptlrvacarya yogacara aryasaJigaprabhrtayaJ; ("[The expression] 'earlier
masters' [refers to] the Y ogacaras, starting with the noble Asanga and so forth") justify
another text associated with Asanga the Abh dh
with the works of Vasubandhu the Ko~akara. 3 v
1
~su:;::~~:~:~; ~:~t~i~~~;:~:
esem es
calling Asaii.ga a "founder"? For this statement, see DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN (1919:26 22
(traduction), 151z4 (texte sanscrit; 1971.11:53 n. 1 ad kan"ka III 15c); see also his
introduction (1971.I:xxiv-xxviii). The meaning of "founder" in Indian Buddhist (or even
See DELEANU (2006.I:156), "The Snivakabhumj
many canonical texts, but this should hardly come quot~s,ff irs to, or_ presurposes
the sastra literature ... is to comment upon and clar1~fys tahsurpnsed.. e very r_a1son d'etre of
Indian, or even Buddhist) tradition and the weight in historical analysis of retrospective
labels with their implications of agency are ripe for investigation.
4
For citations in the Abhklharmakosabhawa and related texts, see Bhikkhu PASADIKA
I h d · e sacre mtertexuahty" _ add. "f (1986 and 1994). See also DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN (1919:358-360) and WOGIHARA
p:z;e~o~~;la~~~;;:;i;~;~:~~::J ::~t~i(~~it;~~~~N~~1~~~)ayOj:llla) is also to re;:f;;_ (1932-1936:9-15 (renewed pagination at the end of the volume), General Index, Gatha,
3 ~ee ~~ikkhuf DHhAMM1:10TI (2?09:83-91) on the "treatises of the earliest period"
Proper Names). A synoptic concordance of references is a desideratum. The indispensible
ues 10ns o aut orsh1p remam unresolved if t I bl · · · key to Vasubandhu's sources for the Abhidharmakosabhawa is Samathadeva's Upayjkafika,
work of Maitre ~. or At.
DELEANU (2006 I-154) . b r . ( no unreso va e. I am mclmed to echo
e i~vmg note the verb) that "the YogacarabhtJmj is not the
stretching over !everal ge~:~:tio~/eJft~s;;ts the_ ~esul~ of collective and creative efforts
for which see HONJO (1984) and HARRISON & SKILLING (2005). For titles cited in the
Vyakhyayuktj, see SKILLING (2000:339-344).
5
See Robert KRITZER (2001; 2005).
recasting of stltra and abhkfharma 'materi ~ p;c1s10n ~l at these efforts included a massive 6
This quotation of the Saipdhjmrmocanastltra begins in the Vinjscayasaipgrahapi with
Asanga, see KRITZER (1999·5-18)· f th a s. or pro em~ of authorship connected with the sentence (Q5539.47b 7): gnyjs su med pa'i mtshan nyjd nj dgongs pa nges par 'grel pa'i
(2000)(but I h . ' or _ose connected with Vasubandhu, see SKILLING mdo las JI skad 'byung ba bzh1n blta bar bya ste/ byang chub sems dpa' tshul bzhjn kun 'clres
now ave stronger reservations about Vas b dh ' h ·
Saipgrahasastra, Gatharthasaipgrahasastra, and Eka ath~b:~ us aut orsh,p of G~tha- byang chub sems dpa' don zab mo dgongs pa nges par 'grel la drj ba drjs pa . . . (cp.
am not clear about the relation between the "Samg ~ _,, t awa [~p. 305-307]). Agam, I
bhumjs ( and I wonder whether Mauli bhumj w;s :~itr:~r:x~:~~ip~?;ns~t:~~ie:~~~~;~
LAMOTTE, Salfldhimrmocana Stltra, 1935:34.I.1 1). It ends with the sentence (Q5539.109a 1):
yon tan gyi le'u rnam par gtan la dbab pa rdzogs so (cp. LAMOTTE, 1935.1663, yon tan gyi
tshogs rnam par nges pa 'i le'u zhes bya ba rdzogs so).
 774
Peter SKILLING
Nets of Intertextuality 775
the Yogacarabhumi were Miilasarvastivadin is based on a number of factors
including vocabulary, phrasing, and parallels within extant Miilasarvastivadi~ · ·· · d. ddanas Ondex-verses) which introduce topic headings. 12 The chapter ci~es
texts. 7 space . ul texts rather frequently, starting with a statement made by Sthav1ra
canomca
Mahamaudgalyayana on how he has seen "a b emg · a f"ire, a bl aze, _an d a fl ame, a
If the Yogaciirabhumi adds to our knowledge of Miilasarvastivadin sutra lite-
r~ture, the overall degree of correspondence is difficult if not impossible to gauge, . 1 ass of flames" as an example of an ephemeral hell-bemg (pratyeka-
smg e m13 The next reference is to Maudgalyayana's deta1·1 e d expos1tion ·· o f th e
give~ that no_ Mulasarvastivadin "canon", or any significant portion thereof, k )
nara a,, . ar.·,,ka when asked by Laksmana II"Just as m • h -t " 14 Th.
t e su ra ·. d · 1s reca lls
survives, eve~ 1~ translation, let alone i~ an Indic language. The recent discovery pratye11.a-n a · • ' . ·
and study, still m progress, of a Sansknt Dirghagama manuscript, believed to be Mahamaudgalyayana's tours of the infernal realms,_ which a~e descnbe ~n vanous
from Gilgit in Pakistani Kashmir, has for the first time given access to reasonably but I do not know of any parallel in which the mterlocutor 1s named
intact Indic originals of a significant number of long sutras. 8 ~:~:~ai:ia (Tib. Dpal ldan). The nex~ cit ~tio~ is in~r~duced by !athoktaip ("as w_as
1

It is difficult to adequately assess the function, nature, and sources of the sutra
citations and allusions until we have consistent annotated editions of the
Yogacarabhumi, and we still seem to be far from that - for over a century sections
or excerpts have been edited in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and/or Chinese and translated
into European languages or Japanese from Calcutta to Gottingen to Tokyo but
there are still many gaps. 9 ' var
In this paper, I give a brief survey of sutra reference in the Savitarkadibhumi. I
then examine how one particular sutra is summarized and embedded in the
Savitarkad1bhumi as well as in the Sravakabhum1: This is the Mayajala, "The Net
of Illusion" - a sutra which has perfect credentials within the Sarvastivadin/
Miilasarvast~vadin tra~ition, regardless of the fact that it has no counterpart
whatsoever m the Pah canon of the Mahavihara tradition of Ceylon, or in the
canon of any other known tradition (with the caveat that for the other known
traditions our information ranges from the scant to the nonexistent). The sutra is
10
scarcely known to modern scholarship. The Mayajala belonged to the Sarvasti-
vadin/Miilasarvastivadin Dirghagama and was also transmitted as a Mahasutra, or
"Great Siitra", a class of selected canonical texts transmitted by the Sarvasti-
:adin/Miil~sarvastivad!~ orde~s for liturgical and possibly didactic purposes. Cited
m several important sastras, 1t was one of the grand sutras of the Sarvastivada/
Miilasarvastivada tradition.
Sutra ~eference in the Savitarkadibhiimi of the Yogacarabhiimi
The Santarka savicara bhumir avitarka vicaramatra bhumir avitarkavicara
bh~mif - hencefor~h the Savitarkad1~h~mi - is a l?ing chapter _of the Yogacara-
'?hum11 that deals_with these three bhum1s together. It opens with a pil}<;foddana,
1.e., a summary mdex-verse'; throughout the chapter there are eight irregularly
7 vuttaka.tp §34 (BHAGWAT, 1962:41-42).
See, for example, SCHMITHAUSEN (1970:147-124; 1987b), ENOMOTO (1989; 1994),
and BUCKNELL (2007).
8
9
See HARTMANN (2004).
Fo: the struct~re of the Yogacarabht1m1; see DELEANU (2006.1:43-48) and the article
~y Martm DE~H~Y m the present volume, which surveys the existing editions and transla-
tions. For a bibliography up to about 2005, see KRITZER (2005: Table 1); for an earlier
bibliography, see SILK (2001:151-159).
10
The Mayajalastltra bears no relation to the Mayajalamahatantraraja: see SKILLING
(1997:230).
ll For ~ Sanskrit edition, see BHATTACHARYA (1957:73-232). See BHATTACHARYA's
note (op.cit.:73 n. 1), "Chapters III, IV and V are taken together in both the texts
S[ans]k[ri]t and .!ib[etan]. Th_e conclu?ing colophon also supports it." According to
KRITZER (2005:xm), the combmed Santarka&bhtlmi is the third longest section of the
Yogacarabhumi
"d")· 1·1 1·s on the five "advance warmngs (purvamm1tta) expenenced by a celestial
sa1 ,
· ( w,,eva) who is about to pass away
· h 11 1 ·
b emg . from the heavens; 1t as a para e m
, 1s
Samathadeva's Upayika/ika on the Abhidharmakosa. .
Introducing the seven precious jewels (saptaratna) of a umversal _ruler ( cakra-
tin) the text combines citation with cross-reference: "'What 1s the w~eel
treasur'e which arises at that time like?' - The 16
manifestation
•
of.
,,
the seven precious -t
· 1 should be stated 1·ust as in the sutra." Other direct re1erences are 1o su ra
1ewe s 17 · h "d "f" h
or to bhagavat ("the Blessed One"). The famous s_h?rt sl1!ra wh1c _1 ~ntI 1es t e
wor d 'all' (sarvam) . with the twelve bases of cogmtion (ayatanas) 1s mtroduced
12 BHATTACHARYA (1957:7311, 1129, 1143, 11~2, 14417, _16013.' 17012, an~ 19813). Va:ious
verse summaries - pil;u;Joddana, antaroddana (mtermed1~te mdex-verse ), and pl~m or
arden uddana, are used throughout the Yogacarabht1m1. For a general presentation o~
~ddanas in Miilasarvastivadin literature, see PANGLUNG (1989:226). DELEANU (20~6.~.
150-153) raises some of the problems that the uddanas of the Sravaka- and other bhum1s
pose to the textual geologist. _
13
See BHATTACHARYA (1957:75 11 ) yathokta.tp sthavira-mahamaudgalyayanena, 11 As
was said by Sthavira Mahamaudgalyayana." For pradesika- or pratyeka-naraka, see DE LA
VALLEE POUSSIN (1919:80 ultimo; 1971.11:155 n. 1). _ .
14 BHATTACHARYA (1957:87 10): tadyatha JakfmaJJena P!flo_ m~udgaJJ:ayano v1sta-.
renodahrtavan yathastltram eva. Q5536.5la6: mdo las dpal Jdan gps dns pa m, maudg_al gp
b;s rgy~s par brjod pa bzhin na. "This is just as in the stltra where Maudgalyayana
explained [this] at length when asked by I;ak~maqa." _. .
15 BHATTACHARYA (1957:89 ); cp. Samathadeva, Q5595.tu.198a4. For Pah, see Ih-
6
.
16 BHATTACHARYA (1957:91 ): katha.tprtlpasya tasmm samaye cakraratna.tp sambha-
8
vatiti yathastltram eva saptana.tp ratnana.tp pradurbh~vo vaktavyaiJ. There are. several
possible stltra sources. The long section on cakravartm/saptara~13_a!s~ptabod~yanga (:he
latter meaning 'the seven factors of awakening') in the KaraJJapra;naptJ also rehes on sutra
materials (Q5588.khu.134b5). __
17 Sutra: stltrantaresu (BHATTACHARYA, 1957:90 ), "in other stl~ras"; yathasutra1!1 eva
11
vistareJJa veditavya.tp (~p.cit.:99 14), "should be u~derstood_ as [explai~ed] a~ length_ m th~.
stltra(s)"; yathastltram eva v1staraiJ (op.cit.:151 3), as extens1v_ely [expl~med] 1~ the sutr~~s~ :
yathokta.tp ... yathastltra.tp ... (op.cit.:171 6), "as has ?een said ... ~s m th~ sutra_(s) ... , 1tJ
vistarena stltra.tp (op.cit.:204 1), "thus the stltra [explams] at l~ngth (for this section on the
divisio~ ( vibhagaiJ) of dependent arising (pratityasamutpada), ~ne may c_omp_are _the
citation from the Yogacarabhtlmi itself in Vasuba~dhu's PratJo;asamutpadavi~~anga-
nirdesa (a.k.a. Pratityasamutpadavyakhya"'), Q5496.chi.llb 3ff.: rnal 'byor spyod pa1 sa las
bstan pa ... , "taught in the Yogacarabhtlmi... "). For references to bhagavat, see BHATTA-
CHARYA (1957:9910, 9916, 1251, 1372, 228s, 2295).
 776 Peter SKILLING
18
simply by "as said" [~y the ~ord]. One long cluster of citations, introduced by
11
yathoktaip b~agavata ( as said by the Blessed One") and punctuated by successive
yathoktaip-s, is dra~n from stltras which, by their contents and by the fact that they
have counterparts m the Anamataggasawutta of the Pali Saipyuttamkaya, are
probably drawn from a Saipyuktagama.
Some cit_ations are ?ighly ab?reviated and at the same time analyzed with the
use of techmca~ terms hke. uddesapada ( bstan p~ 'i ts~1g, 'indicati~e words'), a term
also employe~ m the Abh1dharmas~muccayabhaJya. The markmg of cited passa-
ges and the highly condensed allus10ns to stltras set within technical frameworks
show that the use of canonical texts is more than mere citation for reference or
invocation of th~ auth?ri~ of buddha~acana ('Buddha-word'); the canonical passa-
ges are ~breads m an mtncate ~xeget1cal fabric. The brevity of reference suggests
!hat a wide k~owledge of both Agamas and technical literature was expected of the
~ nt_en~ ed aud1en~~- The section. studied h~re does not use a single title apart from
1 1
sutra . In ~dd1tion, the section contams many numerical categories drawn
from_ texts hke the S~ipgitjpazyaya, as well as parallels with cosmological and
Abh1dharma texts, mcluding the classic manuals, AbhJdharmasamuccaya
and AbhJdharmakosa.
The Mayajalasutra: A Summary
H~w do we know the Mayajala, and what do we know about it? Until recently, the
p~1mary source for the Mayajala has been a complete translation into Tibetan done
c1rca 800 CE by Jinamitra, Prajfiavarman, and Ye shes sde under the title mDo
chen po sgyu_ma 'i drab~ zhefo bya ba, _transmitted in t~e Sutra Division (Mdo, Mdo
sde) of the Ti?etan KanJ~rs .. Sansknt fragments retneved from the drifting sands
of Central Asia at_ t?e be~mnmg of the ~ast c~ntury are kept in the German (Turfan)
~nd Hoernle (Bn1~1sh _Library) collections. 2 The oldest of these fragments is in
Turkestan Gupta scnpt and may date from the fifth to sixth centuries; the other
~ragments_ may date to the seventh century or later. Three fragments are from Kizil
m the region of Kucha, and one is from Toyok in the Turfan oasis. A much more
complete v~rsion is included in the recently discovered Gilgit Dirghagama ( dated
pa~eograph1ca!ly to ~bout th~ sevent~ or eighth c~nturies) but it has not yet been
edited or published. There 1s no Chmese translat10n and no Pali parallel.
!SB
11
HATTACHAR~A .(1_957:12710): yad uk:af!l_ sarvam 1ti yavad eva dvadasayatananftj:
As far _a~ [t?,~ word] all [1s concerned], as said [m the sutra], [it signifies] 'the twelve bases
of c~p1t1on. The phrase yad uktaip ('as said') also occurs at 2297 and 229 11 •
For the Yogacarabhumj,. see BHATTACHARYA (1957:171 7, 1721.s, 173 16, 1764, 1777,
178 13, 1806) ; f or the Abh1dharmasan:uccayabhawam, see TATIA (1976:1275 , 1279). These
are the only two references recorded m SAKUMA's (1996:193) index to the latter text.
20
For an edition of the Tibetan text, see SKILLING (1994:3-57). For various details, see
SKI\\ING (1997:227-265). For the translators, see ibid., pp. 114-130.
See, for details, SKILLING (1997:252-256).
22
See HARTMANN (2004:126, Table no. 18). At Oxford in 2002, I was able to read and
study the manuscript together with Lance COUSINS and Somadeva VASUDEVA. I am
grateful_ to the two scholars for inviting me to join them. The Sanskrit and the Tibetan
translat~on are very close except for several small differences in phrasing. The Sanskrit
makes liberal use of abbreviation, while in the Tibetan there is no abbreviation whatsoever.
Nets of Intertextuality 777
Like many good stltras, the Mayajala is set in Anathapii:iqada's Pleasance in
23
Prince Jeta's Grove in SravastI. Address~d ~o. the m~n~s i~ general, the stl~ra
opens and closes with stock form~las; that 1s, 1t 1s not d1stI~gmshed by any special
narratives. The body of the stltra 1s structured around the six sense bases, or more
specifically, around visual forms perceived_by the eye, up to dharmas perceived ~y
the mind ( cakJurv_ijiieya-rtlpaJ; to manoviJiieya-dharmaJ;). Substructures are bmlt
around relationships and interactions between sense-experience and the four
delusions (vjpazyasa), the four ties to the body (kayagrantha), and the fetters
(samyojana). This complex of relationships illustrates how the mind is bound and
dec~ived, and how, through seeing the truth, the mind is freed.
Two sets of similes, six in each set, are applied to the sense objects. The two
sets which I describe as "Group A" and "Group B", have very different applications.
'rhe su similes of Group A - Each simile describes some sort of foolish action
or bizarre behavior that is later regretted. The similes follow the same pattern and
employ the same stock phrases. The application that follows each simile is id~nti-
cal: the noble disciple rues the way that he used to behave before he obtamed
transcendental wisdom. For example:
4.21-22. Suppose, 0 monks, that a madman or a drunkard sleeps with his
mother, and that he enjoys himself and sees no fault in it. But when he comes to his
senses or becomes sober, then he is sorry and ashamed, and he regrets and rues the
fact that he has slept with his mother. 24
I have not been able to find even a single close parallel to the similes of Group
A in any of the Sanskrit, Pali, or Tibetan texts available to me, although much of
the vocabulary and phraseology is traceable in (Mula-)Sarvastivadin texts. It is
possible that the similes are unique to the Mayajala, although, given the incom-
plete state of the (Mula-)Sarvastivadin stltra corpus, this cannot be confirmed.
The su sim11es of Group B - Each simile describes some kind of illusion, in
illustration of the deceptive nature of experience. Like those of Group A, the
similes follow a common pattern and they share many stock expressions. In
contrast with those of Group A, each simile of Group B has a number of parallels. I
give here one example:
6.25. Monks, it is thus: in the last month of summer, when the sun burns down
at noon from a clear and cloudless sky, mirages shimmer in the heat.
6.26. Those sentient beings who are foolish by nature, gullible by nature, and
unintelligent by nature think, "This water that appears thus truly and really
exists" .25 ·
The Mayajala is long but it is streamlined and meticulously symmetrical. The
six sections, one for each of the sense-objects, develop identically, with appropriate
substitutions. It strikes me as a contemplative stltra, a melody of the spirit which
guides readers and listeners through a graded series of rhythmic reflections on the
nature of sense-experience. Even if its vocabulary and phrasing are often drawn
from the same pool of literary devices as many other stltras, the synthesis of terms
and images and the progression of ideas are not. The Mayajala is a distinctive
composition, an elegant and eloquent example of (Mula-)Sarvastiviidin editorial
expertise. As a philosophical text, it inspires interesting questions. Is its message
23
On the relative value of the "Sravasti maana" (the "Sravasti narrative setting")
according to the Miilasarvastivadin Vinaya, see Gregory SCHOPEN (2004:395-407).
24
For the Tibetan text, see SKILLING (1994:18).
25
For the Tibetan text, see SKILLING (1994:35).
 778 Peter SKILLING
ontological or epistemological? What is the relationship between awareness of the
deceptive nature of things and knowledge of things as they are (yathabhutajiiana)?
The Mayajalasiitra in North Indian Buddhist Literature
Unique to the (Mii.la-)Sarvastivadin tradition, the Mayajala circulated for centu-
ries in Northern India, from well before the time of the Mahavibha~a (ca. second
century CE) until the time of its translation into Tibetan (late eighth-early ninth
26
century). The Mahavibha~a gives the Mayajala as an example of 'extensive scrip-
tures' ( vaipulya), one of the twelve aligas or genres of the Buddha's teaching.
Harivarman (ca. third century CE) cites the Mayajalastltra in his Tattva- ( or
Satya-)siddhisastra, which was translated into Chinese by Kumarajiva about 400
CE. Vasubandhu (fourth-fifth centuries?) quotes it by title in his Vyakhyayukti; his
commentator Gul).amati (ca. 420-500?) follows suit in quoting it, again by title, in
27
his Vyakhyayuktifika. Several other texts refer to the Mayajala by name. In
Sati.ghabhadra's *Abhidharmanyananusarasastra (fourth-fifth centuries?), the
stltra is invoked in a debate with the Dar~tantikas, especially with reference to the
simile of the magic-show (maya); the authority of the stltra is beyond question, the
disagreement is a matter, of interpretation. 28 Dharmapala (530-561) - professor at
Nalanda and teacher of Silabhadra, Xuanzang's teacher - refers to the siitra in his
Cheng weishi baoshenglim (n\GrlfE~W±ffi¥ff, T1591), a commentary on Vasu-
29
bandhu's Vimsatika. Like the Mahavibha~a, Acarya Silapalita's Agama-
k~1!drakavyakhyana (seventh century?) and Prajfiavarman's UdanavargavivaraJJa
(eighth century?) - two texts preserved only in Tibetan translation - give it as an
30
example of vaipulyastltra. The Yogacarabhumi contains (at least) two embedded
c~tations of the Mayajalastltra, one in the Savitarkadibhtlmi and another in the
Sravakabhumi. If one follows the "long duree" ('long term') theory of the compila-
tion and evolution of the Yogacarabhtlm1; it is impossible to assign any precise date
to these references to the Mayajalastltra.
The Mayajalasiitra in the Savitarkadibhiimi
A good example of embedding is the use of the Mayajalastltra in the Savitarkadi-
bhtlmi; I give the relevant text in Sanskrit and Tibetan with a full English transla-
tion as Appendix 1 to this paper. The embedded citation covers, very compactly,
the thought of the whole stltra from beginning to end. 31 The embedding occurs in a
complex passage that follows a discussion of two types of pleasure (sukha): that
arising from ignoble wealth and that arising from noble wealth. 32 This leads to the
citation of one of the key opening phrases of the Mayajalastltra, namely aryaf;I
26
All of the dates given here are by necessity approximate and provisional.
27
For the VyakhyayukH and its Tika, see SKILLING (2000). For the Vyakhyayukti, see
CABEZON (1992), MATHES (2007), and VERHAGEN (2005, 2008). LEE (2001) edits the
Tibetan on the basis of the four xylograph Tanjurs.
28
See DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN (1937:31, 39).
29
For references, see SKILLING (1997:229). For Dharmapala and his date, see
TILLEMANS (1990.1:8-13).
3
31
°For references, see SKIL.LING (1997:228-229).
That is, the whole sutra excluding the nidana and the nirgamana ('conclusion').
32
BHATTACHARYA (1957:95 16): api khalu dvividhaf!J sukham anaryadhanajam arya-
dhanaJaf!J ca: "Pleasure, moreover, is twofold: that arising from ignoble wealth and that
arising from noble wealth."
Nets of Intertextuality 779
33
prajiiajivy anuttaraip prajiiajivikaip jivati This ~hrase set_s the t?eme for t~e
whole stltra, and opens and concludes each of the six succeedmg sections on the six
senses. The Mayajala passages are used to contrast the five ways in which the
enjoyment of the dharma ( dharma-paribhoga/upabhoga) is distinguished from or is
superior to the enjoyment of sense-pleasures (kama-paribhoga/upabhoga).
The Mayajalasiitra in the Sravakabhiimi34
The Second Yoga-Section (Dvitiya-yogasthana) of the Sravakabhtlmi embeds a
short but important passage on the three trainings ( trisiksa) from the beginning of
the Mayajala:
Tatra asty adhisilruµ s~a nadhicittam, nadhipraj:fiam I asty adhisilam
adhicittam, nadhipraj:fiam I na tv asty adhiprajfiarp. sik~a ya vinadhisile-
nadhicittena ca I ato yatradhiprajfiarp. sik~a tatra tisral). sik~a veditavyal). I
idam. tavac chik~avyavasthanarp. tatra yogina yogaprayuktena sik~itavyam
35
11·
As for this, there may be training in higher discipline lacking in higher
contemplation and higher insight, or training in higher discipline and
higher contemplation lacking in higher insight, but there cannot be trai-
ning in higher insight devoid of higher discipline and higher contempla-
tion. Hence, it should be understood that wherever there is training in
higher insight, all three trainings must be there. As this is how training is
prescribed, the yogi well-engaged in yoga must train therein.
This may be compared with the text of the Mayajalastltra:
dge slong dag lhag pa'i tshul khrims kyi bslab pa yod la I lhag pa'i sems
med cing I lhag pa'i shes rab med pa dang I lhag pa'i tshul khrims dang I
~~~kyi~~~lal~~~~~~~~~
I 'phags pa nyan thos !hag pa'i shes rab la brtson pa'i rjes su sbyor ba la
gnas na I !hag pa'i tshul khrims dang I !hag pa'i sems kyi bslab pa'i bsgom
pa yongs su rdzogs par 'gyur te I36
Monks, there may be training in higher discipline lacking in higher con-
templation and higher insight, or training in higher discipline and higher
contemplation lacking in higher insight, but when a noble sravaka en-
gages in a diligent application of higher insight, he [necessarily] perfects
the cultivation of higher discipline and higher contemplation.
33 BHATTACHARYA (1957:97 ). Q5536.58a _ , D4035.50a _ : des na 'phags pa shes rab
18 78 67
kyis 'tsho ba mams la bla named pa'i shes rab kyis 'tsho bas/ 'tsho ba zhes bya ste/: "[It was
said that] the Noble ones, who live by insight, live [guided) by a life ofunexcelled insight."
34
The Sravakabhumi is the second longest section of the Yogacarabhumi As KRITZER
(2005:xiii) and others have suggested, it may have circulated independently until it was
inco{p?ra_ted into t~e Yogacarabhumi .
· SRAVAKABHUMI STUDY GROUP (2007:1344); cp. SHUKLA (1973:2652). Tibetan text
(D4036.98a6-98b 1): de la /hag pa'i tshul khrims kyi bslab pa yod la/ /hag pa'i sems med pa
dang! /hag pa 'i shes rab med pa yang yod//lhag pa 'i tshul khrims dang! /hag pa 'i sems yod la/
/hag pa 'i shes rab med pa yang yod/ /lhag pa 'i shes rab yod la/ /hag pa 'i tshul khrims dang!
/hag pa 'i sems med pa ni mi srid de/ de 'i phyir gang na /hag pa 'i shes rab kyi bslab pa yod pa
de na bslab pa gsum char yod par rig par bya 'o//de ni re zhig gang la ma/ 'byor ba ma/ 'byor
la brtson pas/ bslab par bya ba 'i bslab pa mam par gzhag pa yin no//.
36
SKILLING (1994:3-4, §2.1).
 780 Peter SKILLING
The Sriivakabhumi does not name its source, but I conclude that the passage is
from the Miiyiijii/a, because as far as I know this particular hierarchical treatment
of the three trainings, privileging insight (prajfiii), is not developed in these terms
anywhere else.
Emptiness in the Bodhisattvabhiimi
The Bodhisattvabhumi provides a further example of embedding related to a
Mahiisutra. This is the phrase *yad yatra niisti tat tena sunyam iti yathiibhutaip
samanupasyati yat punar atriivaSJ~faip bhavati tat sad ihiistfti yathiibhutaip prajii-
niititJ: iyam ucyate sunyatayakriintir yathiibhutii aviparita, 37 which is drawn from
the refrain of the (Lesser) Sunyatii-mahiisutra. The phrase played a cardinal role in
definitio~s of e~ftiness in siistras a~d sutras _withi~ the ~ og~cara and Tathagata-
garbha hneages. Moreover, there 1s a possible direct citation from the Mahii-
sunyatiisutra in the Samiihitabhumi:
yathoktam sarvaso rupasamjftanaiµ samatikramad bahirdhasunyatam
kayena sa~atlqtyopasampadya viharamiti vistara!J j 39
As was said: "Through complete transcendence of all sorts of notions of
physical matter, I arrived at the emptiness of external [reality], making
this a direct bodily experience, and [thus] I remain ... " and so forth at
length.
The chapter goes on to give terse summaries or embedded references to other
sections of the Mahiisunyatiisutra. 40 That is, in this section the Samiihitabhumi
relies on the Mahiisunyatiisutra. Furthermore, the Mahiisunyatiisutra is a canoni-
cal source for what the technical literature calls the "nine stages of stabilization of
the mind", which is fundamental to the description of meditation in the Yogiiciira-
bhumi and related texts. 41
37
Bodh1sattvabhiimj, Tattvarthapafala, D4037.26b5. 6 : gang gj phYJr gang la gang med
pa de nj des stong par yang dag par mthong la/ 'cfj la ]hag ma gang yjn pa de nj 'cfj nj yang
dag par yod do zhes yang dag pa jj ]ta ba bzhjn du rab tu shes pa de nj stong pa nyM la yang
dagpajj lta ba bzhjn du phyjn dma log par zhugs pa zhes bya ste/: "Whoever correctly and
fully perceives that when something does not exist in a thing, that thing is empty thereof,
and who correctly and fully perceives that when something remains in a thing, that
something truly exists therein, he is said to have entered unmistakably into emptiness as it
is."
38
See SKILLING (1997:350-351; 2007:233-237).
39
Sanskrit edition by DELHEY (2009.1:185). Tibetan (DELHEY, 2009.Il:354; Q5536.
162b1.2; D4035.142b2.3): jj skad du mam pa thams cad du gzugs kyi 'du shes roams las yang
dag par 'das pas phyi stong pa nyid lus kyis mngon sum du byas nas bsgrubs te gnas par
bya'o zhes rgya cher gsungs pa lta bu'o/1. For DELHEY's similar reference to the
*Mahasiinyatasiitra
40
for this quotation, see DELHEY (2009.II, p. 460).
41
For details see SKILLING (1997:379-380; 2007:236-237).
See SKILLING (1997:381).
Nets of Intertextuality 781
The Web of Intertextuality:
,,
The Mayajalasiitra and the Salistamba-,
Smpdhinirmocana-, and Suv8J'!laprabhasasiitras42
To step beyond the Yogiiciirabhumi: the Miiyiijiilasutra participates in a broad and
complex intertextuality, and its phrasing and thought carry into s~v~-~al ~ell-known
and important Mahayana sutras. Among key phrases that the Mayapil~sutra ~ha~es
with (Miila-)Sarvastivadin and Mahayana sutras are the terms for reahty begmnmg
with tathatii which are used in the Miiyiijiilasutra, the Pratityasutra of the
Nidiinasaipyukta, and the Dasottarasutra of the ,Dirghiigama - all transmitted by
the (Mula-)Sarvastivadins - as well as by the Siilistambasutra and the * Jiiliguli-
dhiirani43 The string beginning with raga ('sickness') is f~und in the Nidiina-
44
saip~kta, in a quotation in the CatufJsatakavrtt1; and in the Siil~st~mbasutra. T~e
key simile on the illusionist (miiyiikiira), one of the grand s1m1les of Buddhist
literature, is shared with the Saipkyuktiigama and two well-known Mahayana texts:
the Samdhinirmocana- and Suvarnaprabhiisasutras.
In the case of the Siilistambasiltra, the correspondences with the Miiyiijiilasutra
are the products of editorial processing, in that the two texts draw on a common
fund of phraseology and similes. The relationship between the Miiyiijiila, Saipdhi-
nirmocana, and SuvarJJaprabhiisa is more challenging to establish. The phrasing of
the Samdhinirmocana version of the simile of the illusionist suggests that the
source text may be the Miiyiijiilasutra itself. In the SuvarJJaprabhiisasutra - in the
recension translated into Tibetan by Jinamitra and others, but not in the other
Yersions - the same simile shares phrases with the Saipdhinirmocana that are not
found in the Miiyiijiila. Is one text copying the other, or are the two drawing on
another unknown sutra? Are they influenced by (a) commentarial tradition(s)? 45
These are'
some of the knots that wait to be unraveled. %
Although we know virtually nothing of the training or education of the Sarva-
stivadin and Mulasarvastivadin monks, we do know that the two schools recited,
and probably memorized, their Mahiisutras. The redactors of Mahayana sutras -
here the Siilistamba, Saipdhinirmocana, and SuvarJJaprabhiisa - may have drawn
on this memory bank, which suggests, perhaps, but only perhaps, that they were
monastics in the Mulasarvastivadin lineage.
Reflections and Uncertainties
I hope these references leave no doubt that the Miiyiijiilasutra was well known and
authoritative in the North Indian (Mula-)Sarvastivadin tradition. A sutra of this
42
See SKILLING (1997:245-249).
43
See SKILLING (1997: Table 25(1)). For the latter, I originally referred only to the
citation without title in the ,Sjkfasamuccaya. The short text is the (variously spelled)
*Jaiigujjvjdya, preserved in Tibetan Kanjurs (Arya dz1gufj nama bJaya, 'Phags pa dug sel
zhes bya ba'i dg sngags, Q189/D571, Q615/D990). DharaIJi and Viaya should not be blindly
classed as "Mahayana" - we must evaluate them case by case - and at any rate to class them
as Mahayana or non-Mahayana is not necessarily relevant. The *JaiiguHdharaIJi has no
distinctive Mahayana contents.
44
See SKILLING (1997: Table 25(2)).
45
SCHMITHAUSEN (1987a:11) notes the problems involved in the a pdod assumption
that siitra is later than sastra with regard to the Sa1[1dh1nkmocana.
46
The series of similes in the Mahayana NkvaIJasiitra may also be related to the
Mayajala; see INAGAKI (2003:150-151).
 782 Peter SKILLING
Nets of Intertextuality 783
stature cannot be ignored in the study of the history of the development of contrasted the style of reference with Vasub~ndhu's style; other a_uthors, s~ch_ as
Buddhist ideas and the transition from Sravaka to Bodhisattva literatures - or Sthiramati, have their own distinctive style. Differe~t authors use different citat1~n
better, the interdependence and complementarity of Sravaka and Bodhisattva t hniques which depended on context and audience. Can we suggest that m
literatures. Indeed, the Mayiijalasutra was not neglected in North Indian Buddhist ~~subandhu, citations are part of a fabric of exegeti~al deba~e. - a type. of meta-
scholasticism or, more to the point here, in the Yogacarabhumj tradition. The h sical shadowboxing inherited from much earlier traditions, which w~re
Yogacarabhumi is thickly referential - intrinsically dependent upon Mulasarvasti- p riserved or in a sense frozen in the Vibha~a - where they are marked as canomcal
vadin materials. The metaphysical and cosmological background as well as the
presuppositions and grammar of ideas are the same, but fresh meanings and
h frameworks of reference, while in the style of "Asail~a" they are more _state-
;ents of authority, of pontification, seamlessly integrated mto the flow of logic and
conclusions are drawn.
exposition? It is possible there are se~eral broad "citation cultu~es", but much more
I have described this tradition as "North Indian" because what evidence we precision is needed before we can delineate mo~e than the ?utlmes. _ _ . _
have locates these texts in the North. Textual transmission and exegesis were not From a wider perspective, the unabashed mtertextuality of ~ulasarv~stivada,
uniform throughout the subcontinent, and it is evident that (Mula-)Sarvastivada Sautrantika, Vaibha~ika, and Yogacara is part of a long process m the h~story of
and Vaibha~ika were strong in the North, from Mathura to Magadha to Bengal. North Indian Buddhist ideas - a continual dialogue or polylogue. The history of
The Mayajalasutra and several other sutras important to these traditions are Buddhism cannot be treated in simple terms as Hinayana versus Mahayana, or
completely unknown in Pali and probably to several other major schools. It is (even worse) as Mainstream versus Mahayana. There was n~ Mainstre~m, there
crucial to take this into account: the "Pali canon" was not a source of authority or were only many streams, which like the rivers of the Gangetlc delta, twisted and
inspiration during crucial stages of the evolution of North Indian Buddhism. turned and meandered and mingled and branched off anew. There are no separate
Across North India, the Sarvastivada/Mlllasarvastivada, Vaibha~ika/Sautrantika, chapters in this history; chapters are concessions to the need to ~rganize i_deas and
and Y ogacara relied quite happily on their own canons which included not only an (in)convenience of the textbook i~dustry. In idea_s and practice and life, there
different recensions of sutras shared with other schools, including the Mahavihara was no segregation. The Mahayana did not develop m a forest purd_ah, but rather
Pali canonical tradition, but also significant sutras quite unknown to the other in interdependence and interaction along the Grand Trunk Road of ideas, at every
schools, like the Mayajalasutra. 47 The Vinaya schools and canonical traditions step of the way. The Yogacarabhumi is part of the evidence for this development.
flourished in different regions or zones, although there were overlaps and
48
interchanges, and ideas and practices traveled rapidly. The language of Gandhari
written in the Kharo~ti script, with its own textual traditions, predominated in the
Northwest, while Sanskrit and varieties of Buddhist Sanskrits or Prakrits held sway
across the North, from Mathura to Bengal. Individual canonical traditions
circulated according to monastic lineages - Mahasaiµghika, Sarvastivada,
Saiµmitiya, and so on - although today little evidence remains to reconstruct the
"canonical map".
The texts examined here use exegetical methods that contemporary scholarship
have not yet begun - or even attempted - to understand. Different commentarial
lineages employed different technical terms (like the above-mentioned uddesa-
pada). The stylistics of the craft of citation merits further study. Texts have been
read literally (yatharuta) in a quest for substance and hard facts; insufficient
attention has been paid to style - to literary, rhetorical, and didactic techniques. I
have given a few examples of styles of reference within the Yogacarabhumi I have

47
Even Louis DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN, the most learned of the learned, did not know
the sutra, writing in 1937, with regard to the mention of the Mayajala in the Nyayanusara,
that "II semble bien que ce soit le nom d'un Sutra" (DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN, 1937:39 n. 2:
"It seems as if it is the name of a Sutra"). His hunch was correct.
48
A close reading of the Mulasarvastivadin Vinaya - which predominated in certain
regions of north India - in comparison with the Pali or other Vinayas highlights the degree
to which each Vinaya has its own distinct character. The editors of the Mulasarvastivadin
Vinaya often employ an ironic and self-deprecating rhetoric - as if rules infringed on the
spirit, a style very different to that of the Pali Vinaya. Each Vinaya is a literary and social
product of different historical and regional circumstances, processed over centuries by a
succession of monastic editorial boards. An understanding of Indian monasticism requires
careful reading of the appropriate texts from the appropriate periods and places (a point
which has been made by Gregory SCHOPEN and others).
 784 Peter SKILLING Nets of Intertextuality 785

Appendix: Texts ' abhinivista-(§3.13)cetasarµ sakamasarµkleso 'nu~akta eva bhavati I vitaraga-

Sanskrit text : : api puu'~ti pratyudavrttir bhavati I na tu tatharyaprajfiajivinarµ dharmopa-
Extract from BHATTACHARYA (1957:97w994). BHATTACHARYA's text is based on a single bhoga!J 11 _ . _ 55 - - - - ·k- - · ·
manuscript, copied by Rahula Sankrtyayana in Tibet, compared with the Tibetan Narthang (5) punar apararµ kamopabhogmarµ tadv1tara?a9arµ ca lauk1 a~a_m ap1 apan-
Tanjur version. BHATTACHARYA has added material in two places, on the evidence of the . annam 56 kamasukharµ vivekasukharµ ca bhavatI I marapratyarth1kanugatarµ ca
msp · (§3.25) pratisrutko~~marµ (§4.2?)_pra!1"b"1_m_b opamarµ (§5 .25) manc1-
m.1.yopamarµ - ·
Tibetan (see my notes 49 and 52). I have corrected the text in five places, as explained in
the notes (nn. 55, 56, 57, 59, 60 - but those corrected in notes 57 and 60 are more probably kopamarµ (§6.25) svapnopamarµ· (§7.25) mayaict:alaiikar~pat?a~ (§,8.25) ca yat
58
simple misprints rather than actual manuscript readings). Given that I have no copy of the sukharµ (99) [tad] halal}. (§3.26) kamopabhogmo _1,auk1kav1taragas .c~nma_tta-
original or any other manuscripts, the corrections remain conjectures based upon the kopamal}. (§3.21) pratini~evante I mattakadyup~~as (§4.!1) ca an~fjlt'.1111-ar~~
59
Tibetan and the context. In the notes, material in quotation marks is a direct citation of sarµgramas (§3.~5) ca paribhufijate I t~s_1:_1~d. a?anm~pannas ca bhavatI amhata-
BHATTACHARYA; information about Narthang is derived from his notes. Paragraph marapratyarthikas ca I na tu tatharyapraJna11vmarµ dharmopabhoga!J 11
divisions are my own; in the opening list I have resolved the sandhi in order to present the
items separately. Phrases that echo the Miiyiijiilasutra are placed in bold-face type, and Tibetan text
followed by the paragraph number of the appropriate Miiyiijiila passage in my edition of Yogaciiriibhl1m1; rNal 'byor spyod pa'i sa, Q5536.58a6-59a6, D4035.50a5-50b5 (rtog pa dang
the Tibetan text (SKILLING, 1994). bcas dpyod pa dang bcas pa dang rtog pa med la dpyod pa tsam dang rto! f!~ ya~g med
dpyod pa yang med pa 'i sa, beginning of bampo 5). Phrases that echo the Maya;alasutra are
api khalu paficabhir akarair bahyat kaminarµ kamaparibhogad arya9arµ placed in bold-face type.
prajfiajivinarµ dharmaparibhogo visi~yate yenaryal}. prajfiajivy anuttar[a]rµ prajfia-
jivikarµ49 jivatity (§2.2) ucyate yang 'phags pa shes rab kyis 'tsho ba rnams kyis longs spyod ni phyi rol gyi 'dod pa
(1) asarµkli~tatvad dharmaparibhogasya can rnams kyi 'dod pa'i longs spyod las rnam pa lngas khy ~d par du 'p~a?s te I des
(2) atyantikatvad dharmaparibhogasya na 'phags pa shes rab kyis 'tsho ba rnams la bla na med pa11 shes rab kyis tsho bas I
(3) ekantikatvad dharmaparibhogasya 'tsho ba zhes bya ste I
(4) asadhara9atvat tadanyai!J prajfiajivibhir50 dharmaparibhogasya (1) chos kyi longs spyod kun nas nyon mongs pa ma yin pa dang I
(5) parini~pannasukhatvan nihatamarapratyarthikatvac ca dharma- (2) chos kyi longs spyod gtan du nges pa dang I
bhogasya51 11 (3) chos kyi longs spyod gcig tu nges pa 61 dang I ,.
(4) chos kyi longs spyod shes rab kyis 'tsho ba d~ng I de las gzhan pa 1shes rab
(1) tatra kaminarµ kamasukharµ saumanasyasthaniyam anunayanugatarµ (§3.3) kyis 'tsho ba rnams dang I thun mong ma ym pa dang I .
daurmanasyasthaniyarµ pratighanugatam (§3.4) upek~asthaniyam apratisarµkhya- (5) chos kyi longs spyod bde ba yongs su rdzogs pa bdud dang phy1r rgol ba
yope~anugatarµ (§3.5) I na tu tatharyaprajfiajivinarµ dharmaparibhoga!J 11 nges par bcom pa'i phyir ro 11
(2) punar apararµ kaminarµ kamopabhogasya piirva koµ na prajfiayate (§3.7) I
anityatayanyan kamarµs tyajanty anyan kamarµ llabhante I ekada ca na labhante I (1) de la 'dod pa can gyi 'dod pa'i bde ba yid bde ba'i gnas lta bu rjes su chags pa
na tu tatharyaprajfiajivinarµ dharmopabhoga!J I dang ldan I yid mi bde ba'i gnas lta bu ni khong khro ba dang ldan I btang snyoms
52
(3) punar apararµ kaminarµ kamopabhoge vartamananarµ tad eva vastv kyi gnas lta bu ni so sor brtags pa ma yi~la'i btang sny~ms dang Id~ la I 'phags pa
ekatyanarµ saumansayasthaniyarµ bhavati I tad evaikatyanarµ daurmanasyasthani- shes rab kyis 'tsho ba rnams ky1 chos ky1 longs spyod m de lta ma ym no 11
yani va I punal}. kificit kalarµ saumanasyasthaniyani bhavanti I kificit kalarµ
daurmana-sya sthaniyani (§3.10) I na tu tatharyaprajfiajivinarµ dharmopabhoga!J 54
BHATTACHARYA (1957:98) notes that "these two words [that is, te~u te~u] are not
II 53 supported by Tib"; however, the Tibetan indeed has the phrase, rendered as de dang de dag
(4) punar apararµ [ito bahyanarµ] sarµtyaktakamanarµ prajfiajivinarµ te~u te- la.
55
~u54 dr~!igate~u svavikalpasamutthapite~u mithyadhimuktipade~u sthamasal}. para- kiimopabhoginiiip, my emendation after Tibetan 'clod pa la longs spyod pa. BHATTA-
CHARYA (ibid.) has dharmopabhoginiiip. .
56 aparini~pannaip, my emendation after Tibetan yolis su rdzogs pa ma ym. BHATTA-
49 "MS 'Jlvikiinaip." CHARYA (ibid.) has parini~pannaip. .
57 Text reads stapnopamaip: misprint? The Tibetan clearly has rm1 lam lta bu =
50
The Tibetan text here attests the (possibly corrupt) reading *asiidhiira]Jatviit *svagnopamaip. .
prajniijlvibhis tadanyail; prajniivjjlvabhich ca. 8
· Added by BHATTACHARYA (ibid.) on basis of T1?etan de la. .
51
Note that the Sanskrit text here has 0bhoga 0 • In the preceding it has °paribhoga 0 , in 59
anirjitamiirasaipgriimiis, my emendation after Tibetan bdud ky1 g.yul las ma rgyal ba
the following °paribhoga in (1), and then °upabhoga in (2)-(5). In all cases the Tibetan has
0
rnams: niijitamiirasaipgriimiis Bhattacharya. . .
longsspyod 60 anihata, my emendation after Tibetan nges par ma bcom pa. BHATTACHARYA (1b1d.)
52
"MS kiimikii": BHATTACHARYA (1957:98) amends to kiiminiiip on basis of Tib. 'clod has anihita (misprint?).
paean. 61 D reads pa, whereas Q reads pa 'i.
53
Phrase added by Bhattacharya on basis of Tibetan 'c/i las phyi rol pa 'i. 62
D attests chos kyi, but it is omitted by Q and N.
786 Peter SKILLING
(2) gzhan yang 'dod pa can rnams kyi 'dod pa'i longs spyod ni sngon gyi mtha'
mi mngon te I mi rtag pas 'dod pa gzhan dag 'dod63 zhin I 'dod pa gzhan dag 'thob
la I res 'ga' ni 'thob par mi 'gyur te I 'phags pa shes rab kyis 'tsho ba rnams kyis chos
kyi longs spyod ni de lta ma yin no 11
(3) gzhan yang 'dod pa can 'dod pa'i longs spyod la gnas pa rnam las I kha cig gi
ni dngos po de nyid yid bde ba gnas lta bur gyur I kha cig gi ni de nyid yid mi bde
ba'i gnas lta bur gyur pa dang I de dag la yang dus la lar ni yid bde ba'i gnas lta
bur'gyur I dus la lar ni yid mi bde ba'i gnas lta bur 'gyur la I 'phags pa shes rab kyis
'tsho ba rnams kyi chos kyi longs spyod ni de ta ma yin no 11
(4) gzhan yang 'di las phyi rol pa'i shes rab kyis 'tsho ba I 'dod pa kun nas
spangs pa rnams ni I lta bar gyur pa rang gi rtog pas kun nas bslang ba log par mos
pa'i gzhi de dang de dag la nan tan gyis mchog tu bzung nas I sems mngon par zhen
pa rnams kyi 'dod pa'i kun nas nyon mongs pa de yang rjes su 'brel pa nyid yin pa
dang I 'dod chags dang bral bar gyur pa rnams kyang yang phyir ldog par 'gyur la
I'phags pa shes rab kyis 'tsho ba rnams kyi chos kyi longs spyod ni de lta ma yin no
11
(5) gzhan yang 'dod pa la longs spyod pa rnams dang I de'i 'dod chags dang bral
ba 'jig rten pa rnams kyi 'dod pa'i bde ba dang I dben pa'i bde ba ni yangs su rdzogs
pa ma yin la I bdud dang phyir rgol ba dang ldan pa yin te I sgyu ma lta bu dang I
brag cha lta bu dang I gzugs bmyan lta bu dang I smig rgyu lta bu dang I rmi lam
lta bu dang I sgyu mar byas pa rgyan lta bu gang yin pa de la byis pa 'dod pa la
longs spyod pa rnams dang I 'jig rten pa'i 'dod chags dang bral ba I smyon pa lta bu
I ra ro ba la sags pa lta bu I bdud kyi g.yul las ma rgyal ba mams rab tu bsten cing
longs spyod par byed de I de bas na yangs su ma rdzogs pa dang I bdud dang phyir
rgol ba nges par ma bcom pa yin la I 'phags pa shes rab kyis 'tsho ba rnams kyi chos
kyi longs spyod ni I de lta ma yin no 11
English Translation
Moreover, the enjoyment of Dharma felt by Noble Ones who live by insight is
distinguished through five features from the sensual enjoyments felt by the
externally impassioned - that is, the Noble Ones of whom it was said, "The Noble
ones, who live by insight, live [guided] by a life of unexcelled insight." [These five
features of Dharma-enjoyment are:]
[the features]
(1) of Dharma-enjoyment due to [its] having no defilement
(2) of Dharma-enjoyment due to [its] being endlessly faceted
(3) of Dharma-enjoyment due to [its] being singularly faceted
(4) ofDharma-enjoyment due to [its] not being shared by those living insight-
fully within other [traditions]
(5) of Dharma-enjoyment, because it is the perfection of happiness and is the
definitive crushing of Mara and [other] adversaries. 64
63
Read 'dor = tyajanti?
64
I follow the Tibetan translation in interpreting the Sanskrit compound njhata-mara-
pratyarthjka as "... overcoming Mara and [all other] adversaries", in the sense of Mara (the
defilements, or the Lord of Death) and his army (sena).
Nets of Intertextuality 787
(1) With regard to these [five features], the sensual p!e~sure felt _by th~ im~a~-
. d is followed by attachment what represents the gtvmg of satisfaction; it is
swne
followed · · o.f d"_issatis.
by aversion to what represents t h e givmg · fac~ion;
· i·t is " 11owed
· 1.0
by non-reflexive indifference to what represe~ts th~ gi~g _of md~erence. Yet, the
Dharma-enjoyment felt by Noble Ones who hve by 1~s1ght 1s not hke t~at. .
(2) Again, no end is kn?wn to ~he sensu_al enJoyment_s of the 1m~ass1oned;
those who earlier have acquired des1res, acquire [new] de~ires. Due to_ 1mper~a-
nence, when some desires have been abandoned, new destres are ac~mred: w~tle
others are not. Yet, the Dharma-enjoyment felt by Noble Ones who hve by ms1ght
is not like that. . .
(3) Further, for those who live by the sensual pl_e~sures of _the 1?1pass1oned,
some may regard something as what represents the gtvmg ~f. satisfac~ion,. yet ~ay
regard that very same thing as being what represents the ~i".1°g of di~satis~act10n.
In other words, at one time, it may be what represents the g1vmg of satisfaction, but
after some time it becomes what represents the giving of dissatisfaction. Yet, the
Dharma-enjoyment felt by Noble Ones who live by insight is not like that.
(4) Moreover, the defilement including desire of those living _insightfully in
alien traditions, whose desires have been abandoned, and whose mmds - strongly
touched by the highest - adhere to this or that article of mistaken belief, which are
doctrines thought up [only] by their own notions, just becomes attached [all over
again], and even those who are free of desire turn back. Yet, the Dharma-
enjoyment felt by Noble Ones who live by i~sight is not like that. .
(5) Again, sensual pleasure of the pass10nate and the pleasure of withdrawal of
those who mundanely have become free of such desires are not incontrovertible.
Which pleasure is followed by [our] adversary, Death (Mara), resembling a magical
illusion, resembling an echo, resembling a reflection, resembling a mir~ge,
resembling a dream, resembling ornaments wrought by magic, [only] the foolish,
that [pleasure] is worshipped [only] by those impassioned by the se_nses, th~se
mundanely free of desires, or those akin to madmen. Those crazed like lunatics
and those who have not conquered the troops of Death (Mara) enjoy it. Hence, [it]
is not incontrovertible and has not overcome [our] adversary, Death (Mara). Yet,
the Dharma-enjoyment felt by Noble Ones who live by insight is not like that.

788 Peter SKILLING
Sigla
D Tibetan Derge canon.
Q Tibetan Peking canon.
T Chinese Taisho canon.
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790 Peter SKILLING

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 The Bhavanamayi Bhum1"f:J 793

manuscript's 156 leaves, starting from folio 139a 1 until folio 153a3•3 The left half of
the second photo and the right lower part of the fifth photo are especially difficult
to decipher; additionally, each photo contains some parts that are hard to read.
The Bhavanamayi Bhumil;l The folios of the BhavBh contain five or six lines each, which differs from the seven
Jines men-tioned in Sarµkrtyayana's report. 4 Since 1950, Tibet has been occupied by
Contents and Formation China. Reportedly, the original manuscript was at one point brought to Beijing and
5
remained there for some time, but it has now been returned to Tibet.

Yasunori SUGAWARA II. Outline of the BhavBh

Chinese Tibetan Tibetan
Edition, Sanskrit
Taisho Peking Derge
Bhavanamayi bhumil; (henceforth BhavBh) is the twelfth bhumi of Yogacara- page-line manuscript
bhumi and deals in detail with all the stages of meditative cultivation. There have Tl579 Q5536 D4035
hitherto only been few studies on the BhavBh, because its Sanskrit text has not yet General Introduction
been published. 1 Below is an introduction of its contents and a discussion of some
compilatory problems. Segment 1.
abhinirv[tti-SGl!lpat
I. The Sanskrit Manuscript of BhavBh 1.1 nikiiyasabhiiga-
Unlike the Bodhisattvabhumi, which is preserved in several Chinese translations 388b19 305a6 262a 1
saf!!pat
and extant in several Sanskrit manuscripts, there is only a single complete Sanskrit 139a5 388b21 305a7 262a2
1.2 desa-Saf!!pat
manuscript of the Mauli Bhumil; which was discovered by Sarµkrtyayana. This
1.3 iisraya-sampat 139~ 388b2s 305b2 262~
manuscript includes the BhavBh. Though other Sanskrit fragments of the Mauli
Bhumil; are contained in the Sravakabhumi Manuscript,2 these fragments do not 1.4 karmanavara,:za-
388c2 305b4 262a5
include passages from the BhavBh. saf!!pat
In 1936, Rahula Sarµkrtyayana discovered the "Yogacarabhumi Manuscript" in 1.5 adhimukty-
262~
388c 5
Sakya Temple in Tibet. The manuscript contains fifteen bhumis of the Mauli aniivara,:za-saf!!pat
Bhumi, and - like the Tibetan translation - it excludes both the Sravakabhumi and 1.6 siistr-saf!!pat 388c 13
the Bodhisattvabhumi Sarµkrtyayana photographed the text and brought the film 1.7 slif!!ketika-
to India, thereby providing the only form of the Maull Bhllmil; manuscript still 306a5
dharma-prajiiapti-
available nowadays. Moreover, Sarµkrtyayana and an assistant transcribed the first
SGf!lpat
several chapters of the manuscript, but this transcription seems to have been lost.
Nevertheless, his pictures have fortunately survived, although not all of the 1.8 piiramiirthika-
photographs are legible. Sarµkrtyayana photographed eight-ten palm-leaves per dharmiinupravrtti- 139b5 388c20 306b2
image, and the letters are therefore tiny and sometimes illegible. Also, the writing SGJ?lpat
is out of focus in the margins and some letters are too obscure to decipher. Even so, 1.9 pratipatty-
388C25 306b 5
the photos of the BhavBh are not too bad and none of the leaves in this section is anantardhiina-saf!!pat
damaged. However, there is a minor problem. When Sarµkrtyayana photographed 1.10
the leaves, he fixed each folio by inserting two pins at the upper margin, which iinulomikopakara,:za- 388C27
resulted in two illegible shaded spots on the first lines of each leaf.
saf!!pat
According to Sarµkrtyayana's report, the manuscript consists of 156 leaves
measuring 22 114 x 1518 inches, with three damaged leaves at the beginning and at 3
the end. The text is written in the Kufila script with seven lines per folio. Since Among Sarµkrtyayana's photos, these pages are found on the following six pictures: (1)
these figures cannot currently be verified against the actual manuscript, his report 131a-140a, (2) 131b-140b, (3) 141a-141a, (4) 141b-148b, (5) 149a-156a, and (6) 149b-156b.
4 The first folio, 139, has six lines, while all the other folios have five lines.
must be accepted as it stands. The BhavBh itself is found on fourteen of the 5 It is theoretically possible that the manuscript which Sarµkrtyayana filmed in Sakya
never left Tibet and that it was a different manuscript that was brought to Beijing; however,
1
However, Sanskrit and Tibetan editions are now being produced and will be I regretfully do not have more detailed information about the manuscript(s). For further
published shortly by the author. general information about the manuscript and its history, see also the present article by
2 See TSUKAMOTO et al (1990:318-329) or the article by Martin DELHEY in the present Martin DELHEY. The present article by Alexander VON ROSPATT is also relevant in its
volume. analysis of the text.
 794 Yasunori SUGAWARA The Bhavanamayi Bhumil; 795
Summary of
81 140a2 389a3 307a 1 263a5 pratipak~a 3
Segment 1
Explanation of 301 143a5 390cs 312a8 267b2
pratipak~a 7
Segment 2.
Summary of 301 144a2 39la9 313b4 268b1
saddharma-sravm.za- 91 140~ 389a12 307a7 263b2 Segment 5
SGY(lpat
2.1 samyag-desana 9s 140a4 389a 13 307a8 263b3 Segment 6.
2.2 samyak-sravm.zam 912 140a5 389a1 5 307b1 263b4 144~ 39la17 313b7 268b4
sarvakara laukikf 31 I
visuddhi~
Segment 3.
101 140b1 389a20 307b3 Section 1. samadhi- 144a5 391a1s 314a1 268b5
nirva,.za-pramukhata 263b6 321
Zabha~
Introduction to
103 140b1 389a20 307b3 Section 2. samadhi- 39lc4 315a6 269b 5
segment 3 263b6 351 145~
paripuri~
3.A nirva,.za-
Section 3. samadhi- 315b 8 270a5
pramukha~ da§a 371 145b3 39lc23
1011 140b3 389a24 308a 1 264a3 vasita
dharma~
6-3-A. catu~-sthana- 315b 8 270a5
3.B nirva,.za- 373 145b3 39 lc23
pratyavek~a
pramukhasya 131 14la1 389b13 308b2 264b2 6-3-A-l. nihfna-
paficamusaf!Lsa~ 381 145b5 392a3 316as 270b2
ve~eryapatha-
Summary of
151 141~ 389b28 309a2 vrttabhyupagamam
Segment 3 264b7
6-3-A-2. atandrita-
sfla-vrttabhy- 391 146a 1 392a 10 316b, 270b4
Segment 4. upagamam
vimukti-paripacinya~ 161 14la5 389c 1 309a3 265a 1 6-3-A-3. kusala-
prajnaya~ paripaka~ bhavana-satatyabhy- 40, 146a4 392a2, 317a1 27la3
Summary of Segments upagamam
181 14lb4 389c 23 309b7 265b2
2-4 6-3-A-4.
411 146b1 392a27 317a5 271%
du~khasyanu~aktata
Segment 5. 6-3-B. samadhi-
191 142a 1 390a 1 310a4 265b5 421 146b2 392b5 317as 27lb1
pratipak~a-bhavana vasita-prapti~
Section 1. agari- Summary of
451 147b1 392c 7 318b3 272b1
kavastha (pratipak~a 203 142a 1 390a4 310a6 265b7 Segment 6
1-2)
Section 2. pravrajita- Segment 7.
vastha (pratipak~a 211 142a2 390a 10 310b1 266a2 sarvakara lokottara 461 147b1 392c11 318b 5 272b2
3-6)
visuddhi~
Section 3. pravivikta- Introduction to
463 147b1 392c11 318bs 272b2
sya pratisaf(llayana- Segment 7
231 142b2. 390a9 3 l la5 266b3
yoga-bhavanastha Section 7-1.
471 147b2 392c16 318b7 272b4
(pratipak~a 7-10) satyabhisamaya~
Explanation of Introduction to
261 142b3 390b7 3llb1 266bs 473 147b2 392c16 318b7 272b4
pratipak~a 1 Section 7-1
7-1-A. citta-saf!Lveja-
481 147b3 392C23 319a2 272b6
Explanation of 271 143a3 390b24 312a3 267as nasya pafica kara,.zam
Introduction to 7-1-A 483 147b3 392C23 319a2 272b6
 796 y asunori SUGA w ARA The Bhiivaniimayi Bhiimil; 797

7-1-A- l. sa7?1klesa-
491 147b5 392c2s 319a5 273a1 7-2-B-2.
sa7?1yogaf:z
pratisaf!Zkhyana- 641 15la2 394b17 323b2 276b3
7-1-A-2. vyavadana-
4911 148a 1 393a5 319a8 bahulf-karasya catur
visa7?1yogaf:z 273a3
kausalyam
7-1-A-3. Sa7?1klesa-
501 148a2 393a9 319b3 273a5 Summary of 651 15 lai 394b26 323bs 276b7
sa7?1yogadfnavaf:z
Section 7-2
7-1-A-4. vyavadana-
50s 148a3 393a 13 319bs Section 7-3.
visa7?1yogadfnavaf:z 273%
k~iprabhijfiatayai 15las 394c2 324a3 277a2
7-1-A.5. 661
pramodya-vastu-
vyavadanasya 511 148a5 393a19 319b7 273b2 manasikaraf:z
krcchra-sadhyata
Section 7-4. bhavana- 394C14 324b1 277a6
Summary of 671 15lb2
521 148b2 393a29 320a4 marga-ni~eva,:iam
Subsection 7-1-A 273b5
7 -4-A. bhavana- 675 15lb3 394C14 324b2 277a1
7-1-B. citta-sthitaye
531 148b4 393b10 320b1 274a2 marga~
pafica kara,:iam
7-4-B. bhavana- 681 15lbs 394c25 324bs 277b4
Introduction to 7- I -B 533 148b4 393b10 320b1 274a2 paripiirif:z
7- l-B-1. manasikara-
551 149a2 Summary of 152a2 395a3 325a3 277b6
prativedhaf:z 393b21 320b6 274a6 6814
Section 7-4
7-1-B-2. sa7?1nisrayaf:z 56, 149a4 393c2 32lai 274b3 Section 7-5. sa-
7-1-B-3. alambanava- phalanusaf!lsaf:z
571 149b1 393c 10 32lb1 274b7 691 152a3 395a6 325a5 277b7
tara-mukhaf:z suvisuddha-marga-
7-1-B-4. sa7?1bhara- prapti~
581 149b3 393c16 32lb4 275a2
parigrahaf:z 7-5-A. suvisuddha-
695 152a3 395% 325as 278a1
7-1-B-5. upaya- margasya phalam
59, 149b5 393c2s 322a1 275%
parigrahaf:z 7-5-B. suvisuddha-
6917 152as 395a14 325b1 278a4
Summary of margaf:z
601 150a2 394as 322a7 275b3
Subsection 7-1-B 7-5-C. suvisaddha-
701 152as 395a16 325b2 278as
Summary of margasyanusa7?1saf:z
6010 150a3 394a11 322a8 275b4
Section 7-1 Summary of
711 153b3 395b, 326a2 278b3
Section 7-2. Section 7-5
abhisamita- Summary of
611 150ai 394a 15 322b2 275bs 721 153a, 395b11 326b1 278b7
satyasyantaraya- Segment 7
vivarjanam Summary of
7216 153a2 395b16 326b4 279a3
7-2-A. Segments 6 and 7
615 150a4 394a, 5 322b2 275bs
ekadasantarayaf:z
7-2-A-l. cara-gataf:z Summary of all the
61 8 150a4 394a16 322b2 275b6 731 153a3 395b,s 326bs 279ai
saptantarayaf:z Segments
7-2-A-2. vihara-gatas End 739 153a3 395b21 326b7 279as
62, 150b2 394a2s 322b7 276a2
catur antarayaf:z
7-2-B. dasa
631 150b5 394b11 323% 276a1
kausalyam
7-2-B-l. samadhi-
rati-bahulf-karasya 63s 150b5 394b13 323a1 276b,
~af kausalyam

798 y asunori SUGAw ARA
III. Summary of the BhavBh
Overall, the BhavBh chapter of Yogacarabhumj (YBh) consists of seven segments:
1. The Fulfillment of Coming into Existence ( abhjnfrvrttjsaippat)
2. The Fulfillment of Hearing the Genuine Dharma (saddharmasrava1;a-
saippat)
3. The Turning toward Nirva9a (njrvfiIJapramukhata)
4. The Maturation of the Knowledge that makes Emancipation mature
( v1nwktjpanpacanyaiJ prajiiayaiJ parjpakaiJ)
5. The Cultivation of Antidotes (praHpak~abhavana)
6. The Purity of all Mundane Aspects (sarvakara laukjkJv1suddhjiJ)
7. The Purity of all Transcendent Aspects (sarvakara lokottara vduddhjiJ)
1. The Fulfillment of Coming into Existence
(abhinirvfftislllppat, shengyuanman ±11i11m)
First, in order to be able to practice the Buddhist teachings, certain conditions of
life have to be fulfilled ( abhinjrvrttjsaippat). There are ten fulfillments of the
conditions of life, viz. five fulfillments concerning oneself (adhyatmam upadaya)
and five fulfillments concerning one's outer circumstances ( bahfrdhopadaya).
As for the five fulfillments concerning oneself, one needs to be reborn as a
human (njkfiyasabhagasaippat) and must be born in a good land (desasaippat).
Further, one must be free from physical problems and should have the ability to
understand the Buddhist teachings ( asrayasaippat). Also, one must be free from
the evil influence of the five most negative actions (paiicanantaryani karmani wu
wujjan ye 1iffl!iFsi*) (karmanavara1Jasa1ppat). Finally, one should. not beli~;e in
bad teachings (adhimuktyanavaraIJaSaippat).
The five fulfillments concerning one's circumstances require that one should
find a good teacher (sastrsaippat) and must be given instructions by this teacher,
such as the teaching on dependent arising (siiipkeHkadharmaprajiiaptisaippat).
Further, one should receive instructions on the highest meaning (paramarthjka-
dharmanupravrWsaippat), which is permanent (pratipattyanantardhanasaippat),
and one should be able to obtain daily necessities from benefactors ( anulomikopa-
karaIJaSaippat).
The fulfillment of these ten living conditions is the ground for cultivation ( bha-
vanapada). Tl~e same set of ten fulfillments is also taught with only slight diffe-
rences in the Sravakabhumi chapter of the YBh.
2. The Fulfillment of Hearing the Genuine Dharma
(saddharmasravapaslllppat, wen zhengfayuanman OOIE$1ilii)
The second, short segment on the fulfillment of hearing the genuine Dharma has
two main themes: (1) explaining what the precise teaching is (samyagdesana) and
(2) explaining what precise hearing is (samyaksravaIJam). The precise teaching has
two aspects: being suitable and being undefiled ( anukulasaipkfj~fa). The text also
explains in further detail twenty different aspects of the precise teaching. Precise
h~aring involves four points, namely to listen without obstinacy, without contempt,
without restriction, and without inattention ( saipstambhapagatam avamanyanapa-
gata saipkocapagata vjk~epapagatam). These are further divided into sixteen
subtypes. Both themes are explained in the YBh's Bodhisattvabhumi chapter.
The Bhavanamayi Bhumil; 799
3. The Turning toward Nirvaqa
(nirvB{lapramukhata, wei niepan shangshou ~ifil~__t §~ .
This segment of the BhavBh states that the disciple should hear the teachmg with
the aim of liberation (njrvaIJa, njepan 11:E.~), and not for the sake of ~onor or
acquisitions. Then ten stages of c~ltivation th~t aim, at njrva1!a are ~-x_plamed. (1)
On account of the wisdom acqmred by heanng (srutamay1Ip pra1nam), (2) the
disciple develops three beliefs toward njrvfiIJa, namely the belief in the existence of
njrval}a (asHtvasaippratyaya), the belief that njrvaIJa is excellent (guIJavattvasa:11-
pratyaya), and t~e belief that ther~ fortu~at~ly is a "'..ay, even for oneself, by whi~h
one can reach mrva9a (atmanafJ sakyapraptisukhopayasaippratyayaiJ). Next, (3! i_n
order to perfect the knowledge acquired by reflection ( dntamayaJ1a1!~panm~-
pattaye), the practitioner must dwell in a remote place ( vyapakr~favjhanIJa) and
remove obstacles and bad thoughts (njvaraIJavjtarkkavjveka). (4) The practitioner
then obtains knowledge acquired by reflection ( dntamayajiiana), and (5) thereby
knows the twofold preparatory effort brought about by constant and respectful
cultivation (bhavanasatatyasatkrtyaprayoganupravesa), through which (6) he
develops knowledge acquired through cultivation ( bhavanamayajiiana). At this
point, (7) the practitioner will be convinced that saipsiira is terrible and that
njrvaIJa is excellent. (8) With repeated practice ( abhyasa), the learner re~ches t~e
stage preceding the realization of the reality (abhisamayasatya) and will obtam
emancipation in the stage of still-learning (sajk~avjmuktj). (9) _The student t~en
practices the path of cultivation ( bhavanamarga) a~d thus o?tams Jh_e em_ancip~-
tion associated with the stage that no longer reqmres learnmg ( asajk~aVJmuktI ).
(10) Thereby, he attains perfect emancipation ( vimuktjparipud), which is !7frv_a1Ja
with remainder (sopadh1se~anjrva1Ja) and continues toward perfect emancipation,
which is nirvana without remainder (nirupadhise~asya nirvaIJam).
The expla~ation of these ten stages of cultivation that aim at nirvaIJa is follo-
wed by an account of five benefits (anusaipsa) that befall those who reach the tenth
final stage. Both the stages of hearing the teachings and cultivating t~~ teachings
involve various benefits for oneself and others. In the end, the practitioner, who
obtains nirvaIJa, reaches the end of all misery ( dul;khasyanta).
4. The Maturation of the Knowledge Maturing Emancipation
( vimuktiparipacanyalJ praj.iayalJ paripa.kalJ,
/ ••V
,I,./
nengs.uupetuo -h w' zw
.I..: .I../
c.uengs.uu Ab~fttlrT,71:J,A-$$----'7
,I,./ ci';~)
lk,1'!:~!'J"f/jJL~t<'.....J{X.fi"
The fourth segment first explains two steps that mature knowledge. These are the
maturation of insight ( VIpasyana) and tranquility (samatha), which both lead to the
maturation of knowledge. The practice of insight requires, in the beginning,
reliance on good friends (sanmitra). The maturation of tranquility occurs based on
perfecting a virtuous life (silasaippattI} The practitioner th_e~ reaches th_e matura-
tion of knowledge through ten stages. (1) Through acqumng good fnends, the
practitioner obtains the desire to realize truth (s~nmHrapa1Jgraha~ arabhya
jiieyatattvavabodhaya cchandafJ). (2) When he has fulfilled the virtuous hfe, he can
endure if he should be blamed for mistakes by his peers. (3) On account of the
desire to realize truth, he wishes to hear the teachings ( taip ca jiieyatattvavabodha-
cchandam njsrtya srotukamata). (4) By wishing to hear, he will formulate questions
( taip ca §rot;kamatiiip msrtya parjprcchata). (5) Upon questioning, th~ practiti?-
ner will listen to explanations that he has not heard before ( tiiip ca panprcchataip
njsrtyasrutapurvasyarthasya sravaIJam). ( 6) By repeated hearing, the practitioner
 800 Yasunori SUGAWARA
t~en a~quires P~1:fection of h~aring and overcomes doubt (punaJ; punal; sravaIJa-
sata_tyac ca tasya1va par;:a_vadan~m utpa1?nasaipdehavinivrttis ca). (7) He has thus
attamed a perfected, bnl~iant wisdom with a mind terrified by seeing the misfor-
tunes of all secular achievements ( tatha ca paryavadatabuddher sarvalaukika-
saippattyadinavadarsinas cittasaipvegaJ;). (8) With such dread in mind, he wishes
no s~cular su~cess ( tatha saipvignacetasaJ; kusalamanaskarasya tasv eva sarvasam-
pathfv apr~IJkl_han~m). (9) ~ithout des~re for any secular prosperity, the practiti~-
ner ~I~es his mmd firmly_whde ~band~~mg all evil qualities and obtaining all good
quahti~s.' the!eby remov~n~ ~ll 1mpunties (sa evaip sarvalaukikabhyudayamarge~v
apralJ:1n1tall}anasaJ; sarvap~y~ka_dharmaprahfiIJay~ ca cittaip praIJidadhati, tatprati-
pa_k~!kakusaladha~masamadanaya ca sarvaklesapratipak~1kakusaladharmasama-
d~nay~ ca). (10) Fma~ly, he fixes his mind firmly in order to purify it in accordance
with _his comp:ehens1on _o! the. results of_ their antidotes ( tatpratipak~aphaladhi-
gamac ca svaCJttavyavadanaya c1ttaip pra1J1dadhati).
1:he topics covered in_ these three ~egments on the fulfillment of hearing the
genume Dharma, the turmng toward mrvapa, and the maturation of the knowledge
that_ m~kes emancipation develop are all the causes needed for the stage of
cultivation ( bhavanopani~at).
5. The Cultivation of Antidotes
. (pratip~bhavana, xiiixf dulzhi {~~J11EJ)
Th_e fifth se~ment expl~ms ~he cultivation of the antidotes against obstacles
( vipak~a). This segment 1s entitled Bhavanamayl Bhumil;, and is therefore _ in a
sen~e. - t_he core part of the chapter. The segment begins by explaining three ways
of hv_mg. (1) th~ mode of the householder (agarikavastha), (2) the mode of the
ascetic (p~avra;1tavastka), and (3) the mode of the solitary disciple cultivating
concentration m reclusion (praviviktasya pratisaiplayanayogabhavanavastha). The
ho~seholder faces two o~stacles ( vipak~a) and is taught two antidotes (pratipaksa)
agamst these. The ascetic must accomplish four tasks, but these tasks are ha~-
p~r~d by four_ obs~acles, against which he is taught four antidotes. The solitary
d1sc1ple must hkew1se remedy four obstacles with four antidotes. Thus there are in
total t~n obstacles and the cultivation of ten antidotes (pratipaksabhavana). The
ten antidotes are as follows: · has already arisen - pertaining to the completion of cultivation and how to make it
(Pl) cult!vat!ng awareness of foul things ( asubhasa1J1jiiabhavana)
(P2) cult'.vat'.ng awareness of impermanence ( anityasa1J1;nabhavana)
(P3) cultivatmg awareness of misery toward the impermanent ( anitye duhkhasam;na-
bhavana) · ·
(P4) cultivating a non-substantial awareness toward misery ( duhkhe 'natmasamjiia-
bhavana) · ·
(P5) cult!vat!ng a disa~reeable attitude toward food (ahare prati/aJ/asaipjiiabhavana)
(P6) ~ult1v~tm? a --~isf~voring attitude toward all secular affairs (sarvaloke
nabh1ratJsaIJ1;nabhavana)
(P7) cult!vat!ng awareness of splendor ( a/okasalJljnabhavana)
(PS) cult'.vat'.ng awareness of non-attachment ( viragasa1J1jiiabhavana)
(P9) cult'.vat'.ng awareness of cessation (nirodhasa1J1jiiabhavana)
(PIO) cult1vatmg awareness of mortality ( mara1JaSaIJ1;nabhavana)
The Bhiivaniimayi BhiimiiJ 801
Three of the above-mentioned awarenesses (saipjiia) are then explained in detail,
namely (1) the awareness of foul things, (3) the awareness of misery, and (7) the
awareness of splendor.
The first type of awareness, the awareness of foul things ( asubhasaipjiia), is
divided into two types, viz. what is included in the power of careful consideration
(pratisaipkhyanabalasaipg(hita) and what is included in the power of cultivation
( bhavanabalasaipgfhlta). The former is obstructed by five obstacles: (i) life with a
woman (matrgramasaipnikar~avasa); (ii) oblivion in public (prakasaip mu~ita-
smrtita); (iii) indolence on the sly (rahal; pramadav1narita); (iv) [to rely on] the
strength of former practice in public or on the sly (rahal; prakfisaip va purvabhyasa-
balal; ); and (v) missteps of mental concentration in spite of being engaged in the
preparatory efforts toward cultivating awareness of foul things ( asubhabhava-
naprayuktasyapi manas1karav1bhrantil;). The second type, what is included in the
power of cultivation, is met with seven obstacles: (i) slippage of the mind toward
bad deeds (prakrtakaraIJJyacittavyak~iptata); (ii) becoming engaged in bad deeds
(prak(takaraIJJyavyaparagamanata); (iii) not being good at the mentally reflective
concentration regarding non-asking or non-questioning (yogamanasikarakusalata,
asusru~am apariprccham agamya); (iv) baffling the mind with tainted bad thoughts
arising due to unprotected senses in spite of having gone to seclusion (indriyair
aguptadvaratam agamya rahogatasyapi kli~tavitarkkacittasaipk~obhal;); (v) unheal-
thiness due to ignorance about the right quantity of meals ( bhojane camatrajiiatam
agamya kayakarmaIJyata); (vi) getting no pleasure in spite of resting in the
tranquility of the inner mind in seclusion due to distraction by bad thoughts
( vitarkkasaipk~obham agamya praviveke 'dhyatmaip cetal;samathe 'nabhiratil;);
and (vii) the inability to observe the meditative object exactly with insight due to
unhealthiness ( tam eva ca kayakarmaIJyatam agamya vipasyanayam akalyasya
jiieye yathabhutam apratyavek~a). The antidotes of these obstacles are their
opposites.
The third type of awareness, the awareness ofmisery toward the impermanent,
is hindered by six obstacles: (i) laziness concerning the generation of good
doctrines that have not yet arisen ( anutpannanfiip kusalanaip dharmfiIJfim adita
evotpadayalasyam); (ii) idleness of maintaining the memory of good doctrine that
develop and expand ( utpannanaip ca kusalanfiip dharmfiIJam sthitaye 'saipmo~aya
bhavanaparipuraye bhuyobhavavrddhivipulatayai kausidyam); (iii) to neglect con-
stantly asking questions about obedience to the teacher (gurususru~opa-
saipkramaIJapariprcchasv asatatakarita); (iv) to neglect constantly cultivating good
qualities (kusaladharmabhavanasatatyayasatatavarttita); (v) not to believe the
teacher and constantly doubting due to a lack of faith (guru~u vaisraddhyaip, yad
vaisraddhyam agamyasatatakarl bhavatJ); and (vi) to be indolent with regard to
oneself, and due to this indolence to neglect constant cultivation of good qualities
( adhyatmaip pramado, yaip pramadam agamya kusaladharmabhavanasatatye
'satatavarttl bhavati). The antidotes of these six obstacles are their opposites.
The seventh type of awareness, the awareness ofsplendor, involves many kinds
of splendor as the objects of awareness, which are explained in the Samahita
Bhumil; chapter ( tadyatha samahitayfiip bhumau), but here the splendor of the
doctrine is treated as one such kind of splendor. The splendor of the doctrine
(dharmaloka) is the memory of the doctrine (smrtyasaippramo~o dharmfiIJfil?J) that
never forgets how it was heard, acquired, and understood (yathasrutaparyapta-
gamite~u). The awareness thereof is the awareness of splendor (alokasaipjiia). To

802 Yasunori SUGAWARA
forget the memory of the doctrine is said to be the worst darkness of the mind
(paramarthjkam andhakaray1'tatvarp cetasal;) and the reverse thereof is the highest
splendor.
Memory of the doctrine leads to the wisdom acquired by reflection ( cinta-
mayaprajiiasahagata) and the wisdom acquired by cultivation ( bhavanamayapra-
jiiasahagata). The wisdom acquired by reflection is hindered by four obstacles
( vjpakfabhuta dharmal;): (i) thought filled with doubt due to a lack of deep consi-
deration and ascertainment ( asumimfilpsjtatvad anjscitatvac ca cintaya v1'd-
kjtsanufaligal; ); (ii) in the night-time, weakness of the utility of time due to too
long sleep because of idleness and laziness (ratrjv1'haropagatasyalasyakausidyad
atJ'svapnanjfeVaJJad bandhyakalakrjyfi); (iii) in the daytime, unhealthiness due to
eating unsuitable meals that are unconducive for the comprehension of the
doctrine ( dfravjhfiropagatasya mjthyfipjJJ{japatapraHm~evaJJad dharmanklhyana-
nanukula kayakarmaJJyata); and (iv) incapacity to concentrate the mind on the
doctrines heard, acquired, and understood due to living together with ascetics as
well as householders (saif1Sfftav1'hfirj1JaS ca grh1'pravra1itafr yathasrutaparyavapta-
gamitanarp dharmfiJJfim amanasikaraJ;). These arise due to having doubts and
lacking the basis for getting rid of doubt. The wisdom acquired by cultivation is
hampered by seven obstacles: (v) in terms of cultivating the basis of exertion, it is
an obstacle to be trying too hard (pragraham'mittabhavanam arabhyatyarabdha
viryal!] v1'pakfabhutam); (vi) in terms of cultivating the basis of tranquility, it is an
obstacle to be trying too little (samathanimittabhavanam arabhyatilinarp viryal!]
vjpakfabhutam); (vii-viii) in terms of cultivating the basis of equanimity, there is
the obstacles of taking pleasure in love brought by the sweet taste of mental
concentration and there is the obstacle of mental fear arising from a mind
frightened by the calm and feeling aversion toward it ( upekfanim1'ttabhavanam
arabhya, samapattyasvadarasahadtal!] canunayasahagatam audb1'Jyaif1, nirvaJJe
cottrastamanasataya tatpratighatasahagatal!] cetasas chambhitatvarp, vjpakfa-
bhutau dharmau); (ix) in terms of mental concentration, there is the obstacle of
engaging in discussions and quarrels of deciding about the doctrine and thus
always being too loud ( tam eva ca yogamanasjkfiram arabhya, dharmasfilpkathya-
vjniscayaprayuktasya vjghya prabandhena catyabhijalpaif1); (x) the perception of
improper characteristics and features toward vision, sound, smell, taste, and feeling
following a misstep of the mind arisen due to bad thoughts (rupasabdagandha-
rasaspraftar,yefu cayonisonimittanur,yaiijanagrahjtfi, asadvitarkkaj§ cittavikfepaya);
and (xi) overdoing contemplation of the doctrine due to pondering unthinkable
cases (acintyasthananidhyanac cfi{jnkfhyayitatvarp dharmfiJJfim). The opposites of
these are their antidotes.
6. The Purity of all Mundane Aspects
(sarvaka.ra lauldki visuddhiJJ,
shijian yiqie zhong qingjingt!tFsi~tJJfimlffe)
The sixth segment of the chapter concerns concentration (samadhj) and consists of
three sections: (1) the acquisition of concentration (samadhilabha), (2) the com-
pletion of concentration (samadhjparjpud), and (3) the control of concentration
( samadhivasjtfi).
When explaining the acqw'sition of concentratjon, the text presents twenty
different obstacles ( vjpakfa) or problems ( dofa) that interrupt the acquisition of
concentration (samadhilabha). Their opposites are the twenty antidotes (prati-
The Bhavanamayi BhumiiJ 803
aksa). The twenty obstacles are: (1) the problem of companionship _with. other
fsc~tics (sabrahmacan'sahaya) who do not pursue abandonment (prahaJJancchan-
daka); (2) the problem of following a teacher who .teaches a wr~ng method of
ncentration (samadhyupaya); (3) the problem of mcomprehens1on (agrahaJJa-
C:Osa) due to confusion of the mind ( cittavikfepa) arising from h~ving little de~ire
to ·hear about the method of concentration; (4) the problem of mcomprehe~s~on
due to stupidity; (5) someone filled with craving ( t{fJJfi) has the proble~ o.f desmng
ttainments and respect (labhasatkarasprha); (6) someone complammg a lot
( bahusocya) has the problem of non-satisfactio~ and difficulty in finding sup~ort
and nourishment ( dufpOfadurbharatasarptuftJ ); (7) the problem [of ~avmg]
various things to be fixed ( vjcitrar,yapara); (8) the problem of abandomng t~e
preparatory effort (prayogam'rakaraJJa) due to idleness a~d lazin~~s (a~asyakaus1~-
yat); (9) the problem of encountering different obstructions ( vJCJtrav1ghnotpatt1)
from others; (10) the problem of impatience with suffering due to heat and cold,
etc. (sitofJJfididul;khasahjfJJUta); (11) the problem of incomprehens~~n of the
instructions due to a fault of pride or anger (managhatadofad upadesagrahaJJa);
(12) the problem ofmisunderstandi~g (upad~san'par(takalpana); ~13) the p~obl~m.
of oblivion in spite of understandmg the mstruct1ons ( upadesasyodgr_h1tasyaP.1
sarppramofa); (14) the problem of living with househo.lders and as~etics. (g(hl-
pravrajj{asarpsrftavihara); (15) the problem of reposmg or sleepmg m f~ve
incorrect ways (paiicadofayuktasayanasanasaif1njvasa); (16) the problem of havmg
bad thoughts (asadvitarkka) due to unprotected senses (asaif1vrtendriyatam
agamya) in spite of having entered a life of seclusion (praviviktasyapi); (17) the
problem of physical heaviness and unhealthiness (ka.yagaurava.karma]Jya) due t.o
eating irregularly ( bhakwavaifamyanaimittika); (18~ someo~e, whose. natu~e 1s
sleepy (prakrtisvapnalu), has the problem of sleepmess at mappr~pnate tI~es
( akalamiddhopaklesasamudacara); (19) someone, who has not earl~er pra.ctI~ed
the methods pertaining to tranquility (samathapakfa), has the problem of fmdmg
no pleasure therein in spite of creating tranquility in his inner mind in seclusi?n
( adhya.tmarp cetal;samathapravivekye); and (20) someone, who has not earher
practiced the methods pertaining to insight ( vipasyanapakf~), has the problem o_f
finding no pleasure in the exact observation of the state of ex1~tence ( dhar~ay~:ka-
bhutapratyavekfii.ya.m) through insight into the state of existence ( a~h1pra1narp
dharmavjpasyana.m a.rabhya). These twenty problems obstruct the acqmrement of
concentration. Their opposites are the twenty antidotes (pratjpakfa), which lead
the disciple to the acquirement of concentration (sama.dhilabha). .
The completion of concentration means that those who have acqmred concen-
tration (labdhasamdhi) will complete their concentration through eleven stages.
This section involves certain textual problems in the manuscript and the exact
division of the eleven stages is therefore somewhat uncertain. In general, they are
as follows: (1) one is unsatisfied with little distinction and seeks the supr~me
completion of concentration; (2-3) one sees the merits in wh~t is s~~ght an~ stnves
for what is meritorious; (4) one has not yet abandoned the 1mpunties entirely but
one is no longer overcome by them; (5) one thinks that one is unable to live in the
purified place where the gods live, because one still has bad inclinations; (~-8) one
understands the object of conception in concentration by understandmg the
appearance of tranquility, exertion, and equanimity thr?ugh constant resrectf~l
preparation; (9) one who realizes the appearance of existence asks quest10ns m
order to complete concentration; (10) one who correctly pe~forms the p~eparatory
effort for the completion of concentration obtains pleasure m the tranqmhty of the
 804 Yasunori SUGAWARA
inner mind while dwelling in seclusion and the exact observation of the state of
existence with insight.
The control of concentration (samadhivasita) first involves the observation of
f~u~ stages ( catu1Jsthanapratyavek$a), which includes twenty-two dispositions. The
d1sc1ple,, whose _concentration is complete, is still afflicted (kli$/a) by impurities
(upaklesa) a~d 1s not yet cleansed (anavadata). Hence, he observes four stages in
twenty-two different ways in order to control his mind and concentration. The four
stages are: (1) accepting a life of humble clothing and observances (nihinave$erya-
pathavrttabhyupagama); (2) accepting to lead a strict and virtuous life (atandrita-
silav_rttabhyupagama); (3) accepting to constantly devote oneself to discipline and
good [actions] (kusalabhavanasatatyabhiyogabhyupagama); and (4) observing that
one is still connected with misery and that these three stages have been observed in
order to ab~~don misery (yasya duiJkhasya prahaJJayaitani trlJJi sthanany abhyupa-
gataiJ: tasy~1va ca du1Jkhasyanu$aktatarp pratyavek$ate). During the first stage, one
prac~1ces five observances, such as having no hair, wearing bad clothing, and
beggmg for food. The second stage also involves five observances, including
abandoning one's wife, sons, servants, etc., and abandoning various kinds of
pleasure. Likewise, the third stage requires five observances, whereas the fourth
stage is practiced through seven observances. The explanations on the first two
st~ges are, howev~r, problematic in view of their context, which is a problem that
will be addressed m the last part of this paper.
The practitioner, who has observed the above-mentioned four stages, experien-
ces the thought that he has accepted the three stages but has not yet abandoned his
connection to misery and that he should therefore attain full control of concentra-
tion. This makes him advance further. Thereafter, he will be a person delighting in
aband~nment (prahaJJaram~), delighting in discipline ( bhavanarama), delighting in
n~t be~ng co~etous ( an_abhJdhyalu), in not having a malicious mind ( avyapanna-
c1tta), m havmg a precise awareness (samyaksmrta), and in not being too proud
(nirabhimana): ~e will be satisfied with any clothing (itaretareJJa civareJJa), meal,
or _seat. In addition, he will eat his meals understanding their purpose. Thereby, he
gams control over concentration (samadhivasita). Being pure in mind and having
passed beyond impurity ( vigatopaklese), he is able to obtain supernatural
knowledge (abhijiia) and the destruction of taint (asravak$aya).
7. The Purity of all Transcendent Aspects
(sarvakara lokottara viiuddhi.fi,
chO shijian yiqie zhong qingjlng tfj i!tFsi-to~iffffe)
The last segment of the chapter consists of five sections dealing with subjects
r~lated to the realization of reality (abhisamayasatya). Amounting to about two
fifths of the length of the whole chapter, it is the longest segment. These are the
subjects of the five sections:
(1) the realization of reality (satyabhisamayaiJ)
(2) the removal of obstacles hindering the realization of reality (abhisamita-
satyasyantarayaviva1jana)
(3) concentrating the mind on pleasant things in order to quickly obtain super-
natu~a! knowledge (k$iprabhijiiatayaipramodyavastumanasikaraiJ)
( 4) pract1cmg the way of cultivation ( bhavanamargani$evana)
The Bhavanamayi BhtJmj]J 805
(5) acquiring the purified way along with its fruit and benefits (saphalanusarpsa
suvisuddhamargaprapti)
The realization ofreality begins, on the one hand, with an explanation of com-
plete worldly purity (sarvakara Jaukiki visuddhiiJ) belonging to the phenomenal
world (sarpprapaiica dhatu), which is easy to establish (suvyavasthapaka).
Complete spiritual purity (sarvakara lokottara visuddhiiJ), on the other hand,
belongs to the essential world (ni$prapaiica dhatu) and is therefore difficult to
establish ( durvyavasthapaka). This section is divided into two parts dealing
respectively with terrifying the mind ( cittasarpvigna) and steadying the mind
( cittasthiti).
As for terrifying the mind, the practitioner needs to terrify himself in the fol-
lowing five ways, because he lacks the fruits of monasticism (sramaJJyaphala). That
is, he must be terrified: (1) because of his connection with impurity
(sarpklesasa1pyogatas); (2) because of his lack of a connection with purity
(vyavadanavisarpyogatas); (3) because of the mishaps (that arise from) his
connection with impurity ( sarpklesasarpyogadinavatas); (4) because of the mishaps
(that arise from) his separation from purity ( vyavadanavisa1pyogadinavatas); and
(5) because he understands that purity is difficult to establish ( vyavadana-
krcchrasadhyasarpdarsanatas). Subdividing these further, the first item involves
three kinds of connections; the second involves three kinds of separations; the
third relates to three kinds of connections; and the fourth and fifth pertain to five
items respectively.
As for steadying the mind, the practitioner, having prepared his mind well
(suparikarmakrta), lets his mind dwell steadily in twenty ways in the destruction of
craving ((r$1Jiik$aye), i.e, in cessation (nirodhe) or nirvaJJa. The twenty ways are
subsumed under five groups: (1) according to penetration into mental concentra-
tion (manasikaraprativedhatas); (2) according to support (sarpnisrayatas); (3)
according to the senses through which the sense-objects enter ( alarpbanavatara-
mukhatas); (4) according to comprehension of the requisites (sarpbharapari-
grahatas); and (5) according to comprehension of the methods (upayaparigra-
hatas). Steadiness of the mind ( cittasthiti) is thus explained in detail and at length,
but in the present subsection the twenty divisions are not elaborated as such.
The second subsection of the explanation concerns the removal of obstacles
hindering the realization of reality. First, the obstacles (antaraya) are divided into
two groups, namely the group concerning activity ( caragata) and the group
concerning dwelling ( viharagata). The former has seven obstacles, while the latter
has four. There are seven obstacles for activity: (1) often joining a crowd (abhik$-
JJarp gaJJasarpnipataiJ); (2) being attached to eating ( bhojane gurukata); (3)
someone engaged in tasks such as [begging for] clothing or food can become
attached to these tasks; (4) someone making an effort to recite (svadhyaya) may
like to talk (bhii$ya); (5) during the night-time, to be fond of sleeping (ratrivihara-
gatasya va nidraramata); (6) during the daytime, to be fond of tainted topics of
conversation, such as talking about kings or thieves ( divaviharagatasya va
rajacoradisarpkiI~fakatharamata); and (7) to be fond of living in a place where
family or friends live, talk, and chat together (yasmin va dese jiiatayaiJ sarpstuta
valaptasarplaptakasapriyakaiJ prativasantI; tasmad desad avipravasaramata). The
text provides no commentary on these matters. As for dwelling, it is said that
dwelling ( vihara) refers to the cultivation of tranquility and insight (samatha-
vipasyanabhavana). There are four obstacles for dwelling, viz. (8) problems related
806 Yasunori SUGAWARA
to insight ( vpasyanfiiigavaigw;iya); (9) problems related to tranquility ( samathfi-
Iigavaigw;ya); (10) problems of awareness related to both ( tadubhaya-
pakwasmrtivaigw;ya); and (11) problems of place (sthfinavaigw;ya). The text gives
a detailed explanation of these four.
The above-mentioned obstacles can be removed by two methods: by repeatedly
cultivating delight in concentration (samiidhiratibahulikiiratas) and by repea-
tedly practicing careful consideration (pratisaipkhyfinabahulikfiratas). Both
respectively involve six good matters (kausalya). Once the practitioner has acqui-
red concentration ( samiidhiliibhin) but has not yet completed it (paripiirJJa-
samiidhi) and is not yet able to control it (samiidhivasitfiprfipta), many delights of
concentration (samiidhiratibahulatfi) will arise by: (a) skill in tranquility (samatha-
kausalya); (b) skill in exertion (pragrahakausalya); and (c) skill in equanimity
( upekJiikausalya). Subsequently, when the practitioner has completed concentra-
tion (parpiirJJasamfidhi) and has become able to control it (samfidhivasitfiprfipta),
many delights of concentration (samfidhiratibahulatfi) will arise by: (d) skill in
concentration (samiidhikausalya); (e) skill in remaining in concentration
(samiidhisthitikausalya); and (f) skill in exiting the concentration (samfidhivyut-
thfinakausalya). It is here said that careful consideration (pratisaipkhyfina) is the
same as good wisdom (kusalii praj.ifi), and with good wisdom the practitioner:
(g) knows precisely any increase of good qualities (kusaladharmiibhiv_rddhi);
(h) knows precisely any increase of bad qualities (akusaladharmiibhivrddhi);
(i) knows precisely any decrease of good qualities (kusaladharmahfini); and
U) knows precisely any decrease of bad qualities ( akusaladharmahfini). By careful
consideration, the practitioner abandons the bad qualities that appear successively
for those without endurance (anadhivfisanfiyogena) and cultivates good qualities
instead.
The third subject, concentrating the mind on pleasant things to quickly obtain
supernatural knowledge, means that the practitioner has understood reality
(d!Jtasatya) and attained serene faith (avetyaprasiidaliibhin). Relying on this
serene faith, he concentrates his mind on a variety of foci, such as the Buddha, the
Dharma, the saiigha, and so forth. This section is quite short in the text.
The fourth subject, practicing the way of cultivation, means that the practitio-
ner whose mind is moistened with pleasure (priimodyiibhiJyandacitta) becomes
impatient with reaching completion (niJ/figamana) in this life (drJte dharme). A
desire for departure [from the secular world] (naiJkramyacchanda) therefore arises
repeatedly in him ( 'bhikJJJasamudficfirin). He wishes to live in a place inhabited by
saints ( firyfirhantal;). With this wish, he endeavors to practice constantly and
earnestly ( udyukto bhavati sfitatye napakye), and devotes himself to accomplishing
the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment (saptatriipsato bodhpakwfiJJfiip dharmfi-
JJfilp bhiivanfiyogam anuyuktal;). Having taken up the heroic efforts ( firabdhavirya),
he no longer dwells together with ascetics and householders ( asaipsrJtas ca viharati
grhpravrajitail;) but lives in a remote and secluded place (prfintfini ca sayanfi-
sanfini pratiniJevate) with a mind withdrawn from the world ( vyapakrJtacittal;).
Nevertheless, he is still unsatisfied with this small-distinguished realization and
seeks progress. This leads to the following completion of the path of cultivation: (1)
pleasure (priimodya) in reaching the completion of cultivation ( bhiivanfiparpiiri);
(2) delight (priti) in reaching the completion of cultivation (bhfivanfiparpiiri); (3)
the attainment of alleviation (prasrabdhi) following the departure from wicked-
ness (dauJthulyfipagamfit); (4) the favor of the fresh state (sitibhavfinugraha)
The Bhavanamayi Bhumj}J 807
associated with reaching the completion of cultivation; and ~5) conce°:trat_ion in the
stage of still learning ( saikJasamiidhi) reaching th~ ~ompletion of c~ltiv_at1on ..
The fifth subject, the acquirement of the purified way along w1th 1ts frwts and
benefits, commences with a brief explanation of impurity. I~puritie_s appear in
ordinary persons as well as in practitioners on the stage of still learnmg (prth~g-
janasaikJayol;). There are two kinds of imp~r~ties, those pert~i_ning to grasp!ng
( upadanasaipklesapakJa) and those pertammg to p~eposi_tt~ms ( saipskara-
samklesapakJa). What hinders the abandonment of these impunttes and the entry
int~ practice and cultivation is defilement and the complete abandonme°:t. of
defilement is the fruit of the purified way (suvisuddhamargaphala). The punfied
way (suvisuddhamarga) is the agglomeration. of five_ branches t~a_t no longer
require learning (paiicasaikJa skandhalJ). Havmg attamed the punfied w~~, !he
practitioner abides in noble dwellings that are fn~e from ten faul_ts ( das~ara:
doJapagataryavasanivasi bhava~i), viz. (1) con~erm?g external desire (bah1:dha
kaman upadaya), the fault of bemg connected with mise~, namely the, unhap~mess
of grief and lament or the unhappiness of sorrow and disturbance (sok_apandeva-
duhkhadaurmanasyopayasaduiJkhaduiJkhatasaipyogadoJa); (2) concermng oneself
(adhyatmam upadaya), the fault of not.~uarding the ~e~s~s (!ndriyasaipvaradoJa);
(3) the fault of being fond of easy conditions (sukhaviharasvadadoJa); (4) the fault
of indolence in both activity and dwelling ( caraviharayos ca pramadadoJaiJ); (5-7)
three faults related to uncommon and peculiar explanations, thoughts, and
investigations, which have arisen from the mistaken theories of outsider heretics
( bahyakais ca tirthyair asadhara1;as teJfim eva kevalii asad~rJtisam_utthapi~fi ~ag-
vitarkaisanadosas trayah); (8) the fault of going to extremes m treatmg meditation
as a supp~rt (dhyanas~ipnisrayaparyantagatas ca doJaiJ); (9-10) the fault ar~s~ng
from the impurity of grasping ( upadfinasaipldesapakJa) and the fault of ansmg
from the impurity of prepositions (saipskarasaipklesapakJa), both of which are
included in dependent origination (pratityasamutpada). The practitioner, who has
separated himself from these faults, is someone having a final body and who will
not be reborn with another body ( anena dasfikfireJJa doJeJJa visaipyukto 'nti-
madehadhari dvitij'am anyam atmabhfivaip na vivarttayati). He dwells in a supre-
mely undisturbed calm (paramaprasante ca nirvfiJJe 'tyant~ip saipnivasa~} He
reaches the superior state of all beings up to the peak of existence ( bhavagrop~-
pannaips ca sarvasattvan upadaya sarvasattvasreJthatam_ anuprapt? ~ha~a!1).
Therefore, he is called someone abiding in the noble dwellmgs ( tasmad aryavasa-
nivaso 'ty ucyate). These are the benefits (anusaipsa) of having acquired the
purified way.
The purity of all mundane aspects and the purity of all transcendent aspects
together constitute the fruits of cultivation ( bhavanaphala).
IV. Problems concerning the Formation of the Yogacarabhiimi
In this chapter, I shall discuss some problems concerning the formation of the YBh.
It is uncertain whether the YBh was written all at once or compiled from genera-
tion to generation over a long period of time. The latter opinion seems t_o be
predominant and several pieces of evidence in support of this have been pomted
6
out in the existing scholarship.
6
See, e.g., SCHMITHAUSEN (1969; 2000).
 808 Yasunori SUGAWARA
Because the BhavBh is an introduction into the disciplinary way, we can con-
firm some of ,the same topics and several parallel passages in the Sravakabhumj
(henceforth SrBh) and the Bodhjsattvabhumj (BoBh). By means of an analysis of
these similar contents, it is possible to investigate certain aspects of the formation
history o~ the YBh. The parallel passages between the BhaBh, on the one hand,
and the SrBh and the BoBh, on the other hand, may be classified into two groups.
Passages that are close parallels or almost the same in the BhavBh and the SrBh
constitute the first group. Shared passages that concern the same topic and are
similar but which have somewhat different contents constitute the second group. In
the first group, it can be observed that there are certain inconsistencies in the
BhavBh when compared to the SrBh and the BoBh. Such contextual problems
need not to be considered in terms of the latter group, where the texts diverge
further. This observation leads to the supposition that the BhavBh originally was
written as a separate work that was indepe~dent from the YBh's other bhumjs (i.e.,
stages or chapters), in particular from the SrBh and the BoBh. Perhaps, the BhaBh
was partly revised at a later stage by inserting sentences from the SrBh and the
BoBh. In the following sections, I shall introduce the parallels of the first group,
i.~., such cases where there are nearly identical passages in the BhavBh and the
SrBh or BoBh and where structural discrepancies are found in the BhavBh.
A. The Case of BhavBh 6-3-A-1 & 2
1. The Discrepancy in BhavBh 6-3-A-1 & 2
(1) Analysis of the Sentences in BhavBh 6-3-A-1 & 2
To begin with, let us consider the case of catuiJsthanapratyavek~a (inspection in
the four stages) found in section 6-3-A samadhjvasjta (control over meditative
concentration) in part 6 of the BhavBh. As shown in the outline above, the passage
begins by listing several items and then comments on each. However, at times there
are inconsistencies between the listed items and the commentary. Thus, in BhavBh
6-3-A-1 & 2, such a discrepancy between the item and its commentary can be seen.
First, three sthanas (stages) are listed: 7
(a) nihinave~eryapathavrttabhyupagama
(b) atandritasilavrttabhyupagama
(c) kusalabhavanasatatyabhiyogabhyupagama
If following the exposition in the commentary, these sentences are to be inter-
preted as follows:
(a) acceptance ( abhyupagama) of observing [a lifestyle] ( vrtta) with a shabby
appearance (nihinave~a) and bad features (iryapatha)
(b) acceptance of observing ( vrtta) a consistent ( atandrita) virtuous life (sila)
(c) acceptance of an effort (abhiyoga) for the constant cultivation (bhavana-
satatya) of good deeds (kusala)
7 WOGIHARA (1930-1936:113), Durr (1966:79).
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:37).
The Bhiivanamayi BhumiiJ 809
A problem is found in the interpretation of the items (a) an~ (b), especially item
(a). The two items are somewhat parallel and at the begmnmg of 6-3-B the
following sentences appears:
8
aham asmy etadarthaIJJ
hinave~eryapathavrttataip cabhyupagataIJJ,
atandritasilavrttataip cabhyupagataip,
kusalabhavanasatatyabhiyogataip cabhyupagataIJJ
A separate English translation thereof is omitted here, because the meanin~ ~s
virtually the same as the above-cited part. When these passages are compare?, ~~ is
clear that the sentence hinave~eryapathavrttata1J1 cabhyupagata, atandntasila-
vrttatam cabhyupagatalJl should be interpreted as "abhyupagata of (lit. 'in') vrtta of
hinavejeryapatha" and "abhyupagata of vrtta of (in) atandrjtasila." T~~ word hina
(shabby, bad), corresponding to njhfna in the form~r passage, modifle~ only th~
phrase ve~eryapatha ( appearance and features), while the word atan1nta ~ consi-
stent) likewise modifies only sila (virtous life). The word vrtta ( observmg) i~ ~ere
neither characterized as good (in this case atandrjta) or bad (hina or ml11na).
Hence, sentence (a) should be interpreted as:
acceptance ( abhyupagataip) of observing (keeping) [a lifestyle] ( vrttataip)
with a shabby appearance and bad features (hinave~eryapatha)
(2) The Word V.rtta
For reasons that will become clear below, the word vrtta needs to be examined
further, first by considering its general usage. For example, the phrase bh1k~aka-
vrtta appears twice in the ~ant.ipafala chapter of the BoBh. 9 EDGERTON
(i953:409) interpreted it as meaning "mendicant's mode of life." His interpretation
of vrtta as 'mode of life' seems appropriate. In the Tattvarthapafala, vrtta appears
in the compound vrttaskhaHtasamudacarebhyalJ. 10 Jhe word skhaHta is in the ~B?
used in the sense of 'violation', especially in the Silapafala of the BoBh, and it is
therefore natural to interpret the phrase vrttaskhaHta as "observance and viola-
tion." Hence, v_rtta here means 'observance' or 'a virtuous life that accords with
morality'. Further, it ma7 mean 'precise deed' or 'activity' in general. For exam~le,
in the Balagotrapafala, 1 there is a section explaining the four bases for gathenng
students ( catvad salJlgrahavastunj, si she sh) IZ9Hf~), where the ~ord vrtta
appears in the context of the fourth base called samanarthata (cooperation)._ Here,
the word rather means 'precise deed' than 'observance'. It is equally possible to
interpret vrtta in the above-cited phrase from the Tattvarthapafala as meaning
'precise deed'. , . . .
The word vrtta also appears in the AbhMharmakosa, agam m the meamng
'observation', th~ugh the text is a slightly later work. Verse Sab of the sixth chapter
(kosasthana) explains the start of cultivation as follows:
vrttasthalJ srutacintavan bhavanayaip prayujyate/12
8
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:42).
9
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:194), Durr (1966:133-134).
10
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:42), DUTT (1966:28), TAKAHASHI (2005:93).
11
12
PRADHAN (1967:334).
810 Yasunori SUGAWARA
He who is observant of [a virtuous life] ( vrtta-sthaf;) obtains [the wisdom]
composed of hearing and pondering and makes effort to cultivate.
In Vasubandhu's auto-commentary, the word vrtta is glossed by the word sila, thus:
Satyan Illa dra~.tukama adita eva S11a1J1 pa]ayati/
He who wishes to realize the truth first and foremost keeps the precepts
[of a virtuous life] (sf/a).
In Yasomitra's Vyakhya, vrtta is likewise explained as s11a. 13 Thus, the word vrtta
here means the observance of the moral rule ( sila) or such life style. Again, in verse
lOOab of the fourth chapter, it says:
Bhiksur drkcarito vrtto bhavati/1 4
[Someone capable. of dividing the Sangha would have] to be a monk
( bhik~ul;) whose conduct is admirable ( drkcaritaf;) [and] who keeps mo-
rality ( vrttal;).
In this case, vrtta refers to keeping up a high moral. Though the cited examples
may not suffice to reach a firm conclusion, they do testify that the word vrtta
generally carries such meanings as 'observance', 'morality', 'precise deed', 'keeping
morality'. Returning now to the sentence under investigation, namely mnina-
ve$eryapathavrttabhyupagama in BhavBh 6-3-A, it seems quite clear that it must be
read as meaning "acceptance ( abhyupagama) of observing [a lifestyle] ( vrtta) with a
shabby appearance (nihina-ve$a) and bad features (iryapatha)." Notably, the
adjective nihina (shabby, bad) cannot be seen as modifying vrtta, which would
mean something like "bad observance" or the like.
(3) The Commentary on BhavBh 6-3-A-l
15
The commentary in 6-3-A, however, interprets the phrase mninave$erya-
pathavrtta by dividing it into mninave$a (shabby appearance), nihineryapatha (bad
features), and nihinavrtta (humble condition). It runs as follows (6-3-A-1 ):
(a.b) sirastul}<jamw;<janat kesadigrhivyaiijanapanayanac catmano
vivarJJJJavastrapravaraJJac ca ya vainJpyapratyavek~a, iyaIJJ
mnfnave~abhyupagamapratyavek~a/
(c.d) gatasthitani~aJJJJasayitabha~ite~v ayathe~fapracaratiilp nihatya ca
manaIJJ paraku/e~u bhaik~acaraJJalaIJJ pratyavek~ate, iyaIJJ
nihfneiyapathabhyupagamapratyavek~a/
( e) para/abdhenasaIJJnidhikrtena ca yatrayitapratyavek~fi, <iyaIJJ>
mnfnavrttabhyupagamapratyavek~a/ ebhil; paiicabhir akarail;
prathamasya sthanasya pratyavek~a veditavya/
It is a consideration of the acceptance of having a shabby appearance
(nihfnave~a), namely to consider one's own unsightliness (a) due to
having abandoned the characteristics of a householder, such as having
hair, etc., in that one cuts and shaves off one's hair and beard, and (b) due
to wearing discolored clothes. It is a consideration of the acceptance of
having bad features (nihfneiyapatha), namely (c) to consider that one
cannot do as one wishes when walking, staying, sitting, lying down, or
speaking, and (d) to consider that one has to go to others' houses for food,
13
WOGIHARA (1936:524).
14
PRADHAN (1967:261).
15
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:38).
The Bhavantimayi BhumilJ 811
suppressing one's pride. It is a consideration of_ the acceptan~e of a hum-
ble condition (nihfnav_rtta), namely (e) to consider that one 1s supported
not by one's own share [of food] but by another person's share. The c~n-
sideration of the first stage should be understood through these five
aspects.
The commentator thus interprets the sentence by dividing it into nihinave$a,
nihineryapatha, and nihinavrtta, whereas he gives no explanation for the word vrtta
in the second sentence atandritasilavrttabhyupagama. If the second sentence hke-
wise had been commented upon by dividing it into atandritasila and *atandritavrtta,
the misinterpretation of nihinavrtta and *atandritavrtta would have become
obvious because both meanings are entirely reversed.
Such an interpretation, which divides the compound of the first sentence i~to
nihinave$a, mnineryapatha, and mninavrtta, is impossible in the original meanmg
and the word nihinavrtta is really quite unsuitable. There is thus a discrepancy
between the item and its commentary and it hardly seems possible that the original
author intended such an interpretation. It suggests that the original author and the
commentator are different persons and that there seems to have been a gap in time
between the original author and the commentator.
(4) BhavBh 6-3-A-2
6
The next passage to be examined is BhavBh 6-3-A-2,1 namely the _commentary ~n
sentence (b) concerning the acceptance of observing ( vrtta) a consistent ( atandnta)
virtuous life (sila), where the adjectival modifier atandrita is not divided i~to
atandrita-sila and atandrita-vrtta (the division into five points in the followmg
passage is highly tentatively):
(a) dvividhavastuparityagaprabhavitaIJJ sam_asataf; sv!khY_fi~e _
dharmavinaye pravrajitasf/asamadanaIJJ: matap1(rputradaradas1dasa_-
karmakarapauru~eyamitrfimatyajiiatis~/ohita_dha1:_a~hany~hira1J[~d{kama
parityagaprabhavilaIJJ ca, nrttagftavad!tahas1t~r1¢!t~ranytapan_c~n- . .
ta uddhatyadravasaIJJcagghitasaIJJkrf<jJtasa1J1kilikilay1tav1c1trakri<jaratJpan
tyagaprabhavitaIJJ ca/ , . ,_ . . _ _ _
(b,c) tasya caivaIJJ sf/asa1J1varavrav,asth1tasya si/anpattlf!l arabhya~ma
ca rahasi napavadate, sabrahmacanJJaS ca dharmataya na ngarhante, 1ty
api ayaIJJ vipannasfla it{ na cainaIJJ cod~yantJ! . . _
(d,e) sacet punal; sf/am anen~ c_chi1rfkrtaIJJ bhava_tJ, _tato md~naIJJ
cfisyatma capavadate, sabrahmacanJJas ca dharmataya v1garhan~1, _tatas
tasyas capatter yathadharmapratikaraJJalaya te~u ca sabrahmacanfu
codakew anaghatacittataya ak~ata111 canupahataIJJ cfitmanaIJJ parikar~ata
iti/ ity ebhil; paiicabhir akarair dv1tfya1J1 sthanaip pratyavek~ate/
(a) In short, the keeping of the monk's precepts is characterize_d by
the abandonment of two things in this well-preached dharmavmaya
(teaching and precept): [one is] characterized by the a?andonment of de-
sires related to having/being a mother, father, son, wife, female servant,
male servant, laborer, slave, friend, subject, kinsman, relative, treasure,
grain ' gold ' etc• [The other is] characterized by the •abandonment17of the
pleasures of dance, song, chatter, discussion, and vanous games ...
16
SUGAWARA (forthcoming p.39). .
17
The text here contains the names of various pleasures (games?), namely krf<j1tara-
mitaparicaritauddhatyadravasaipcagghitasa1J1krf<jitasa1J1kiliki/ayita. However, these are dif-
ficult to translate and have been omitted in this translation.
812 Yasunori SUGAWARA
(b,c) If he keeps the precepts and commandments, he will not regret
to himself any violation of the precepts and his peers will not criticize him
justly. In this case, he is not blamed [with the criticism] 'He violated the
precepts'.
( d,e) But if he violates the precepts, he blames himself and his peers
also justly accuse him of his transgression. In this case, he controls him-
self uninjured and unimpaired having regret for his failure according to
the rule and his mind holds no anger against the peers who accused him.
Thus, the second stage should be considered thoroughly through these
five aspects.
As may be observed, this manner of commenting on passage 6-3-A-2 is entirely
different from the above-cited case of the commentary on 6-3-A-1. Hence, the
commentaries on sections 6-3-A-1 and 2 seem rather arbitrary.
"
2. Parallel Passages in BoBh and SrBh
The topics discussed above are also found in BoBh and SrBh.
(1) Parallel Passage in BoBh
In the ~antjpafala chapter of the BoBh, the following explanation is given: 18
bh1k$iikavrttam api saptakaralJl veditavya!J1/
(a) vainlpyabhyupagamal; sirastuJJ{jamwJ</anadibhir
apahrtagrhivya1J1Janataya/
(b) vaivarJJyabhyupagamo vikrtavarJJavastradharaJJataya/
(c) akalpantarakriya sarvalaukikapracare$u yantritaviharataya/1 9
( d) parapratibaddhajlnka krwadikarmantavivaIJitasya paralabdhena
yatrakalpanataya/
(e) yavajjlva paratas civaradiparye$aJJa labdhanfilJl sa1J1mdhikara-
paribhogataya/
(f) yavajjlva!J1 manuwakebhyaf; kamebhya avaraJJakriya, abrahmacarya-
maithunadharmaprativiramaJJataya/20
(g) yavajjlvalJl manuwakebhyo ratikri(jabhya avaraJJakriya nafanartaka-
hasakalasakadisa1J1darsanaprativirama1Jataya mitrasuhrdvayasyais ca
saha hasitakri(jitaramitaparicaritaprativiramaJJataya/21
ity eva1J1riipa1J1 krcchrasa1J1badha!J1 bhik$iikavrttam agamya yad duf;kham
utpadyate, tad api bodhisattva 'dhivasayati/na ca tanmdanalJl viryaip 22
srasayati/
The mendicant's mode of life ( vrtta) should also be known to be seven-
fold. (a) The acceptance of a different appearance [from the house-
holder's] due to having abandoned the characteristics of a householder in
that one cuts and shaves off one's hair and beard. (b) The acceptance of
discolored [clothes] due to wearing the discolored clothes. (c) Situations
in all daily activities against one's own wishes, because one lives [with
various] restrictions. (d) A life that is subject to others, because one who
has abandoned [worldly] deeds, such as farming, etc., [has to] rely on the
support of others' belongings. (e) To ask for clothes and so forth from
other persons as long as one lives, because one does not stock up any
acquisitions. (f) Abstention from manly desire as long as one lives, since
one has abandoned love affairs as being unsuitable for a stoic discipline.
18
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:1944_19), DUTT (1966:133-134), T1579.524b.
19WOGIHARAyantnta,
. D UTT tantnta..
~~ WOGIHARA prativiramaJJataya, DUTT prativivaraJJataya.
Wogihara natanartaka, DUTT nartanaka.
22 • •
DUTT omits lJl.
The BhiivaniimaylBhumliJ 813
(g) Abstention from manly enjoyment as long as one lives, since one has
abandoned the appreciation of dance, musical(?), comedy(?), and
tragedy(?) and since one has abandoned chatter, pl~y, amusement, and
pastimes with friends and acquai?t~nces. The bo<:lh1sattva endures th_e
suffering that arises from such a d1fflcult mode of life ( vrtta) of a mendi-
cant and does not give up on his effort.
This section describes the endurance involved in the life of a monk ( bhikfu).
Sections (a) to (e) are the same as BhavBh 6-3-A-1, while sections (f) and (g)
coincide with the former half of BhavBh 6-3-A-2. Though there are slight diffe-
rences between the two passages concerning the numeration and the exact wording,
their contents correspond to each other.
If the passages are compared, it is evident that the BoBh passage has no struc-
tural problems, whereas BhavBh 6-3-A presents certain problems. First, ~s
described above, there is a conflict between the listed item and the commentary m
BhavBh 6-3-A-1. Secondly, the former and the latter halves of 6-3-A-2 are entirely
different. BhavBh 6-3-A-2 seems to have been composed out of separate contents •
that may have been derived from different sources. Though the text mentions that
there should be five points, it is not clear how these are to be divided on the basis
of the passage in question, since the text is quite unnatural and irregular. Addi-
tionally, the classification found in 6-3-A-2-(1) is different from the description
occurring in BhavBh's fifth segment entitled Pratjpakfabhavana. 23
The philological consequence of this observation that there are irregulaties in
BhavBh 6-3-A-1 & 2 but no irregularities in the parallel passage from BoBh is that
the sentences in BhavBh 6-3-A-1 & 2 must have been borrowed from the BoBh. In
such a scenario, the contents from points (a) to (e) in BoBh were inserted into
BhavBh 6-3-A-1, while the reamining points (f) and (g) were utilized in the
succeeding contents, namely the former half of BhavBh 6-3-A-2. Such an interpo-
lation would account for the irregular and confused structure of these parts of the
BhavBh.
(2) Parallel Passage in SrBh
If the first half of BhavBh 6-3-A-2 stems from the BoBh, where does the latter half
come from? If its source could be identified in any other text, this problem would
be solved, but this has so far not been fully possible. The Silapafala chapter of the
BoBh sometimes contains contents that are similar to the BhavBh, but the
concrete expressions often vary greatly. In the Na1~kramyabhumi of the SrBh, how-
ever, there is a passage regarding silasaipvara (discipline in the form of vows)
which displays some similarity:
tatreryapathadhiJ.th/ina acaral; katha!J1 na Jokotkranto na vinayotkrantal;/
yathapi tad yatra ca1J1kramitavya1J1 yatha ca1J1kramitavya1J1 tatra tatha
camkramyate, yena na lokagarhito bhavati na sat/i!J1 samyaggatan/ilJl
satpuruJiiJJ/ifJ1 sahadharmikaJJfilJl vinayadharaJJfilJl vinayas1kJi~anam
avadyo bhavati garhyasthaniyal;/yatha ca1J1krama eva!J1 sthanalJl mJadya
sa;ya veditavya// 24
23
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:20).
24
SHUKLA (1973:38), SRAVAKABI;IOMI STUDY GROUP (1998:64), Tl579.402b. The
sandhi is sometimes cut, following the SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP.
 814 Yasunori SUGAWARA
In this regard, why does a deed based on a [good] mode of action not
swerve from worldly [moral (or people)] and why does it not swerve from
the discipline ( vinaya)? It is as follows, namely, if someone walks where
he is permitted to walk and walks in the proper fashion of walking, he is
not blamed for this by worldly people, nor is he blamed or criticized by
the sages, those who have proceded in the right manner (samyaggata),
worthy men, those who have received the same teaching, those who hold
the descipline, and those who learn the discipline. The same applies to
staying, sitting, and lying down.
In this passage, it is stated that a practitioner is not an object of blame when he
observes a proper mode of action. In the succeeding part, similar sentences appear
again twice. Thereafter, there is a passage that concerns the practitioner being
blamed:
ma (omitted) atma va me apavadet, sasta va devata va vijna va sabrahma-
• caril}O dharmataya vigarheyul; 25
Lest I should blame myself, and lest my teacher, deity, or learned collea-
gues should justly criticize me.
~ similar though more extended passage occurs later in the first Yogasthana of the
SrBh: 26
kathaip lokam adhipatiip krtvavaraIJiyebhyo dharmebhyas cittaf!} pari-
sodhayati/ ihasya nivara1Je samutpanna utpattJkale va pratyupasthita
evaip bhavati, ahaip ced anutpannanivara1Jam utpadayeyam, sasta me
'pavaded devata api vijna api sabrahmacari1Jo dharmataya vigarheyur iti/
sa lokam evadhipatiip krtva, anutpannaip ca nivara1Jaf!1 notpadayati,
utpannaip c~ prajahati/ evaip lokam adhipatiip krtva, avara1Jiyebhyo
dharmebhyas cittaip parisodhayati/
How can the mind be purified from the obstructive things by means of a
mundane way? In this regard, when an obstacle has arisen, when it
appears, or when it exists, one [should think] as follows: "If I will cause an
obstacle to arise which has not appeared before, the teacher will blame
me and also the deity and learned colleagues will accuse me justly." In
this manner, relying on a mundane way, an obstacle that has not ap-
peared before is prevented from arising and an obstacle that already has
arisen is removed. Thus, the mind is purified from the obstructive things
by means of a mundane way.
In this passage. the sentence sasta me 'pavaded devata api vijiia api sabrahma-
caripo dharmataya vigarheyur ("the teacher will blame me and also the deity and
learned colleagues will accuse me justly") bears a certain similarity to the proble-
matic sentence in BhavBh 6-3-A-2, namely sabrahmacaripas ca dharmataya vi-
garhanti ("his peers also justly accuse him"). However, in view of both the context
and the wording, there are differences between these sentences and it therefore
cannot be established with certainty that the SrBh is the source of the latter half of
BhavBh 6-3-A-2.
At any rate, it seems sure that BhavBh 6-3-A- l and the former half of 6-3-A-2
are revised passages based on the cited sentences from the K$antipafala of the
25
SHUKLA (1973:41), SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (1998:68), Tl579.402c. This
passa?.e is cited several times in !he Xilinyang shengjiaolun (!lil]tm~f)'.§ilff, T1602.512ab).
2
SHUKLA (1973:104-105), SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (1998:160), Tl579.412c.
The Bhavanamayi BhumiiJ 815
BoBh. The latter half of BhavBh 6-3-A-2 seems ~o be loosely based on the cited
parts from the SrBh (or e~e~tuall~ on similar passage in another text). If these
parts of the BhavBh had ongmally mcluded the sentences that seem to have been
derived from the BoBh and the SrBh, the mentioned incongruities in the BhavBh
ought not to have occurred. The sentences therefore appear to be interpolations
inserted during a later revision of the BhavBh passage.
3. Possible Reasons for the Revision
Why would such a revision have been made? This is difficult to know, since the
original text of the BhavBh as it was prior to the revision no longer is extant. It is
possible that the reviser simply thought that these contents from the BoBh were
suitable to explain the phrase nihinave$eryapathav_rttabhyupagama as it originally
occurred in the BhavBh. Another possibility is that there could have been a
problem in the original contents of the BhavBh, which was unsuitable for the
overall teaching of the Ybh, and so the reviser may have decided to transform the
passage. It should here be noted that a subsequent passage of the chapter, viz.
BhavBh 7-1-B-5, which will be discussed below, also seems to have been the
subject of a revision, and both passages happen to concern the topic of sila. It could
therefore be surmised that there could have been a doctrinal problem pertaining to
sila in the original text that was contradictory to the overall system presented in the
YBh. However, the intention for the revision in 7-1-B-5 seems to have been
different, as will be argued later and for this reason the the real reason for the
revision in BhavBh 6-3-A-2 is unclear.
In any event, the revision seems to have been the cause for confusion in the
subsequent textual transmission. First off, it seems to have led to the unsuitable
commentary on the word vrtta. Further, in the Chinese translation, Xuanzang
translated vrtta with the Chinese expression zhongju O'lt~), meaning tools and
implements used by the sangha, and with zishen ju (Jit!lr~), meaning domestic
utensils and implements (or perhaps 'accessories' or 'materials sustaining the body'),
which is utterly strange.27 It is possible that the Sanskrit manuscript that Xuanzang
relied on was corrupt in this passage, as is, e.g., seen in BhavBh 6-3-A-2, where the
word atandrita is wrongly transcribed as tandrita. Such confusions may have arisen
due to the revisions.
27
In the Chinese text of the YBh, the words zhongju (*~), ziju (Ji~, 'requisites'),
and zisheng zhongju (Ji±*~' 'necessities and tools') appear relatively frequently. Of
course, such words also appear in the BoBh (e.g., T1579.51lb 24. 25 , 513a 10 , 520b7 , 536b). In
many cases, the corresponding Sanskrit words are upakaral}a (DUTT, 1966:97, 122) or
pari~kara (DUTT, 1966:161, 162, 167), and clearly not vrtta. Similar attestations with
upakara1Ja (tool, instrument) and pari~kara (domestic utensil) are seen in the Manobhumi
and the Savitarkad1bhrlmi(BHATTACHARYA, 1957:47, 103; T1579.288c, 300c). Likewise, in
another case, zhongju (*~) corresponds to Sanskrit bh:i1Jcfopaskara (implements and
utensils) (DUTT, 1966:83, T1579.506b), a compound that elsewhere (e.g., T1579.509, 513) is
translated with zisheng shfwu (~:1:{ttm, 'necessities and things') or zhrl shfwu (~{ttm,
'various things'). Finally, Xuanzang's zishen ju (Ji%J:l) is also attested in the SrBh
(SHUKLA, 1973:484; T1579.473a), where it corresponds to Sanskrit parivara (surroundings,
retinue). Thus, there is no other attestion in the YBh, where zhongju (*~) or zishen ju
(Ji%~) are seen as translations of Sanskrit vrtta.
816 Yasunori SUGAWARA
4. Which Version is the Basis for the Revision?
From among the several earlier versions of the Bodhjsattvabhumj - namely the
Shanjje Jing ([f{ffJJ;ji_, T1582), the Di'chfJing (t+JJJ!H:4, T1581 ), and the extant text
of the YBh preserved in Sanskrit (BoBh) and in Xuanzang's translation (T1579) -
which is the source on which the revision in BhiivBh depends?
The corresponding passage in the Shanjje Jing (-ffl,~~;4, T1582.986b) reads
somewhat differently from the two other texts:
Acceptance of the hardships of [following] the Dharma [as a monk] is
sevenfold: (a) to abandon the use of bodily adornments, (b) to cut and
shave off one's beard and hair, (c) accepting [the practice of] cutting and
patching together the cloth [for the monk's robe], (d) not being allowed
any independence in all worldly matters but being subjected to the ad-
ministration of others, (e) having to beg for one's livelihood, (f) to be con-
tent with having only few desires since one avoids having an occupation,
(g) to abstain from [interacting with] relatives and the pleasures of the
five senses. These are the acceptance of the hardships of [following] the
Dharma.
Here, the description is kept in a more simple language and the enumeration
differs, although the number of seven items is the same. The first, sixth, and
seventh items in the list differ subtly from the lists given in the DichfJingand Bobh.
Its second item corresponds to the first item in DichfJing and BoBh, while its third
item corresponds loosely to their second item.
The passage in DichfJing (T1581.919b ), on the other hand, is almost the same
as the BoBh:
Observing the mendicant's mode of life ( *bh1kfiikavrttam, bfqju suijje tt:.
£r.1151H-fZ) is sevenfold: (a) the acceptance of an unattractive appearance
due to having abandoned the characteristics of a householder in that one
cuts and shaves off one's hair and beard. (b) having to cut and discolor
one's clothes. (c) To concentrate [only] on what is practiced as the base of
proper mindfulness, since one has abandoned [all] unsuitable teachings
and worldly customs. (d) Having to depend on others for one's livelihood,
since one has abandoned mundane affairs and undertakings. (e) To ask
for clothes [and so forth] from others for as long as one lives, because one
does not stock up any acquisitions. (f) Having to desist from the five
manly sense-pleasures, controlling the senses, avoiding impure behavior.
(g) Avoiding all kinds of worldly pleasures for as long as one lives, such as
singing and music. In these ways and so forth, one should embrace the
hardships of observing the mendicant's mode of life. The bodhisattva
endures the suffering that arises from this, without giving up his effort.
This passage is very close to the text of the BoBh, though there are some slight
differences between them. For example, item (f) of the Dichf Jing, which says
The Bhavanamayj BhumilJ 817
"having to desist from the five manly sense-pleasures, controlling the senses,
avoiding impure behavior" (~fA1i.ti1HfMHNF'J~~F'Ytfi) is reminiscent of a
phrase seen in item (g) of the Shanjje Jing, viz. "to abstain from [interacting with]
relatives and the pleasures of the five senses" (f~JffUJi!~1i.ti1Z~), while it is only
partially similar to the phrasing of item (f) in BoBh, namely "abstention from
manly desire as long as one lives, since one has abandoned love affairs as being
unsuitable for a stoic discipline" (yiivajjivaip miinu~yakebhyafJ kiimebhya iivaraIJa-
krjyii, abrahmacaryamajthunadharmapratjvframaIJalayii). Such an expression also
does not appear in the BhiivBh passage.
Overall, in view of the whole description, the BoBh is closest to the formula-
tion in BhiivBh and therefore seems to have been the version upon which the
revision was interpolated into the BhiivBh.
B. The Case of the Last Part in the BhavBh6-3-B
The BhiivBh 6-3-B includes two short sentences that literally correspond to a
passage in the SrBh. One sentence is about bhoJane miitraJ.iatii (to know the
appropriate quantity of food) and the other refers to rddh1piida (the basis for
having supernatural powers).
1. BhavBh6-3-B
First, the whole section of BhiivBh 6-3-B concerning samiidhi"va§jtfipriiptj (the
attainment of control over concentration, i.e., samadhj). Though the citation is
somewhat long, it is needed for understanding the passage: 28
[A] tasym"tfinj catvfirj sthiiniiny ebhk dviivhpsatyiikiirajf; pratyavekfa-
mii1Jasyajva1J1 yonjsomanasjkfira utpadyate: aham asmy etadartha1J1
hfnaVCfCl)1fipathaV[tfaffilJ1 Cfibhyupagataf;, atandrjfasffavrttaffi1J1 ciibhy-
upagataf;, kusaladharmabhiivaniisiitatyiibh1yogatii1J1 ciibhyupagatal;, kac-
dd aham atas catufprakiiriid duf;khiit padmucyeyetj/ so 'ha1J1
prafjsa1J1khyiiya pratjsa1J1khyiiyiibhyupagamyfipj etfinj trfJJj sthiiniiny,
anufakta eviinena caturvklhena duf;kheniiparjmuktal;/ tan na me pratj-
riipa1J1 syiid, yad aham evam anufakta eva duf;kheniintarii vjffidam iipad-
yeyiipriipya samiidhjvasjtfim jfj/
In him who carefully considers these four stages in terms of these twenty-
two aspects, the following appropriate thought arises: For this purpose, I
have accepted observing [a lifestyle] with a shabby appearance and bad
features, accepted observing a consistent virtuous life, and accepted put-
ting constant effort for the cultivation of good deeds. I should emanci-
pate myself from the four kinds of suffering. Considering carefully in this
manner, I have accepted these three stages. Nevertheless, I am still stuck
with these four sufferings and I have not yet emancipated myself [from
these]. It would not be right if due to still being stuck with these sufferings
I were to loose the wish [to emancipate myself] and not achieve control
over concentration.
[BJ tasyajva1J1 yomsomanas1kiiraprayuktasya ya pravrajyiisa1J1Jnii
srama1JaSaJJ1Jnety ucyate, siisya panpiil)1ate bhiivaniibiihulyayogena/
28
In the following quotation, annotations indicating reading variants have been
omitted. For these, see SUGAWARA (forthcoming:42-44).
818 y asunori SUGA wARA
Such an ascetic attitude [found] in someone who is endowed with an
appropriate mental application is called the attitude of a monk (sramapa-
saipjiia) and it is accomplished by means of repeated cultivation.
[CJ (a) sa tlilp nisrtya yat tad anena Jaukikena margepa samadhipari-
purilabhat klesaprahapa na sak~atkrtaip, tatra prahaparamatam arabhya
satatakari bhavah/ (b) tasyaiva ca prahlabdhasya kusalasya Jaukikasya
margasya punal; punal; samadhivasitapraptaye bhavanaramatam arabhya
s/itatavarttf bhavati/ (C) sraddhais Ca brahmapagrhapatibhilJ satkriya-
mapo vipulenapi labhena Jobhyamano na talp labhasatkaram arabhyab-
hidhyam utpadayatJ; napi ca pare~lil!l labhasatkare/ (d) parais
casraddhail; saipmukhaip vapiparok~af!I va am$/ena kayakarmapani~tena
vakkarmapa samudacaryamapascittaip <na> du~ayati, na vyapannacitto
bhavall/ (e) tr~pamanadr~/yaVJdyavicikitsavkitrasamapattyupaklesasam-
udacaraya ca supasthitasmrtir viharati/ (f) na codiirasamathaprapto 'pi
tenaiva samathamatrakepa krtakrtyatam atmano manyate, na pare~am
a}Iilif!I vyakaroti/
(a) Since he has accomplished concentration [not by means of the supra-
mundane path but] by means of the mundane path, he has not yet rea-
lized (sak~iitkrtaip) the abandonment of the impurities. Therefore, he al-
ways carries a desire for [their] abandonment. (b) He who has attained
the good mundane path always desires cultivation in order to obtain con-
trol over concentration. (c) He who is respected and admired with much
acquisition by the faithful brahmins and householders does not covet
[further] respect and acquisition, much less the respect and acquisitiond
given to others. (d) He does not become angry and has no hatred, even if
he encounters unwanted bodily or verbal behavior by other unfaithful
people in public or private. (e) He settles his mentality well in order to
avoid the various impurities that work against concentration, such as
craving, arrogance, [holding wrong] views, ignorance, suspicion, etc.
(f) Though he has obtained a coarse [level] of tranquility, he does not
think he has fulfilled the work to be done merely with this [level of] tran-
quility and he does not declare it to others.
[D] sa, tatha (a) prahaparamo, (b) bhavanaramo, (c) 'nabh1dhyalur,
(d) avyapannacittal;, (e) samyaksmrto, (f) nirabhimanas ca, itaretarepa
civarepa saiptu~to bhavati/ yatha civarepaivalp pip(japatena sayana-
sanena/
In this way, he is one (a) who has the desire for abandonment, (b) who
desires constant cultivation, (c) who is not covetous, (d) whose mind is
not angry, (e) who has a precise mentality, and (f) who is not conceited
but is satisfied with any [type of] clothes. Just as with clothes, [he is satis-
fied with any type of] food and seat.
[E] sa tatha tu~talJ saiptu~ta evaip saipprajanan paribhwikte: itime jivita-
pari~kara etadarthaip, vavad evasva kavasva sthitave vapanavai iighatso-
paratave brahmacarvanugrahaveti, vistarepa tadyatha bhojane matra-
jnatayam/
He who is thus satisfied eats [food] while rightly knowing the following:
these life-supporting necessities (i.e., the food) - in so far as - are for the
purpose of the body's maintenance and support, for relief of thirst, and
for upholding brahmacazya (stoic discipline) - as [it will be explained] at
length in [the passage dealing with] knowing the appropriate quantity of
food ( bhojane matrajiiata).
[F] sa evaip samyakpratipannalJ samadhivasitam anuprapnoti/ tasyaip
prah$/hitas, tatha parisuddhe citte parvavadate anangane vigatooaklese
The Bhavanamayi BhumilJ 819
vistareIJa vavad amiiivaprapte, sarvabhijnabhinirharayanantaraip prati-
balo bhavatJ; asravak~ayabhinirharaya ca/
He, who practices precisely in this way, achieves control over concentra-
tion. He who reaches this [control over concentration], is then able to
realize all supernatural knowledge ( abhiJiia) and the destruction of bad
influence [from defilement] (asravak~aya), once his mind has become
clean, purified, spotless, free from [even] minor defilements - further and
up to - has achieved extensive immovability.
[G] iyam ucyate samadhivasita/ asya ca samadhivasitarthasyaya vistaro
veditavyal;, yaduta yathanirddiHair akaraiiJInata uttan" nato bhuyal;/
This is called control of concentration. As for the meaning of the control
of concentration, it should be known that this is the detailed [explanation]
through the various aspects that have been described. There is no other
or no further [teaching on this].
The quited segment contains two parallel passages to the SrBh, which have been
underlined. The first is the the sentence in section [E], which explains the purpose
of the food:
yavad evasya kayasya sthitaye yapanayai jighatsoparataye brahma-
caryiinugrahaya
[the necessities of food] - in so far as - are for the purpose of the body's
maintenance and support, for relief of thirst, and for upholding brahma-
carva (stoic discipline)
The second is the sentence in section [F] concerning the basis for achieving
supernatural power (rddhipiida), which says:
parisuddhe citte paryavadate anangape vigatopaklese VJstarepa yavad
aninjyaprapte
once his mind has become clean, purified, spotless, free from [even)
minor defilements - further and up to - has achieved extensive immo-
vability
These two sentences can be located in the SrBh. In both cases, the word yiivat (up
to) is a key indicator of there being a cross-reference.
2. Identification of the Sentences concerning bhojane matraj.iata
(1) The Source Passage
The topic of bhojane miitrajiiatii is first explained at length in the bhojane miitra-
jiiatii section of the Na1~kramyabhT1mj of the first Yogasthiina in the SrBh and then
occurs again in a more concise explanation in the Gotrabhumj of the SrBh's first
Yogasthiina. The concise explanation of the Gotrabhumj is as follows: 29
b~o~ane m_atraJiic:tii katama/ sa _tatha Sfjf!IVftendriyal; (1) pratJsaipkhya-
yaharam aharah, (2) na darparthalfI' (3) na madarthalp na map(ja-
narthaip na vibhu~aparthaf!I, (4) vavad evasva kavasva sthitave (5) vapa-
29
(1973:10), SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (1998:18), Tl579.397b.
SHUKLA
30
Here the text reads na darparthaip, but in the longer explanation of the Nai~kramya-
bhumi the corresponding sentence says na dravarthaip.
820 Yasunori SUGAWARA
navai (6) iighatsoparatave (7) brahmacarvanugrahaveti/ (8) pauraJJa ca
vedanaip prahasyam1; (9) nav/if!l ca notpaday1~yamJ/ (10) yatra ca me
bhaviwati bala1p ca sukhaip canavadyata ca sparsaviharata ca/ iyam
ucyate bhojane matrajiiata/
What is it to know the [right] quantity of food (bhojane matrajiiata)?
Someone whose senses are well guarded (1) eats food while thinking as
follows: [The food] is (2) not [eaten] for acting haughtily, _(3) for acti~g
passionately, for the sake of beauty, or for the sake of gettmg a splendid
appearance. [Rather], in so far as [it is eaten] (4) for the body's mainte-
nance, (5) for [its] support, (6) for the relief for the thirst, and (7) for
[upholding] brahmacarva (stoic discipline), (8) I will abandon the past
sensations and (9) will not cause new sensations to arise. In that case, (10)
I will have a basis for [having] strength and happiness, being faultless, and
an agreeable condition. This is to know the [right J quantity of food.
The underlined sentence is identical to the above-cited sentence from the BhiivBh.
Regrettably, the Sanskrit mal}uscript where the sentence occurs is damaged and
for the critical edition the SRAV AKABHUMI STUDY GROUP therefore had to
reconstruct this sentence into Sanskrit based on the bhojane miitrajii.atii section in
the Nai~kramyabhumj, where bhojane miitrajii.atii is explained in detail. The
accuracy of the restoration is now further proved by the present parallel of the
BhiivBh manuscript. Since the longer bhojane miitrajii.atii section presupposes the
concise explanation of the Gotrabhumi, 31 there are numerous identical words,
phrases, and sentences in the two sections, which made the reconstruction possible.
It seems likely that the above-cited section derives from an Agama scripture, 32 and
the detailed bhojane miitrajii.atii explaination of the Nai~kramyabhumi relies upon
the concise description of the Gotrabhumi. The concise section may therefore be
regarded as a kind of introduction or as a table of the contents for the longer
bhojane miitrajii.atii section. For the present purposes, it thus suffices to compare
the sentence of the BhiivBh with the above-cited concise section of the Gotra-
bhumj, though similar phrases also appear in the Nai~kramyabhumi.
31
The bhojane matrajiiata section of the Nai~kramyabhiimi consists of ten items, which
are same as those found in the concise explanation of the Gotrabhiimi. In the bhojane
miitrajiiatii section, the beginning sentences of each subsection are ~s follows:
(1) kathaip pratisal[lkhvavaharam aharati/(SHUKLA, 1973:74; SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY
GROUP, 1998:116)
(2) na dravartham iti (op.cit.: 85, 130)
(3) na madarthaip na maJJefanarthaip na nbhii~!J.JJ/irtham iti (op.cit.:86, 132)
( 4) vavad evasva kavasva sthitava iti (op.cit.:88, 134)
(5) kathaf!l vapanava aharatJ/(op.cit.:89, 136)
( 6) kathaip ca punar iighatsoparatava aharati/( op.cit.:91, 138)
(7) kathaip brahmacarvanugrahava aharati/(op.cit.:91, 138)
(8) kathaip pauraJJ!J.f!l vedan/if!l prahasvami ity aharatJ/( op.cit.:91, 138)
(9) kathaip nav/if!l vedanaip notpadafiwami ity aharam aharati/( op.cit.:92, 140)
(10) kathaip vatra me bhaviwati balaip ca sukhal[l canavadvata ca sparsaviharata ca ity
aharatJ/( op.cit.:93, 140)
The underlined parts are the original phrases from the Gotrabhiimi. In this way, the
Na1~kramyabhiimi section cites all the words literally from the Gotrabhiimi and explains
these ten topics one by one.
32
The SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (1998:19 n. 2) points to parallel passages in the
Saipyuttanikaya and introduces these.
The Bhavaniimayi BhtJmifJ 821
(2) The Originality of the SrBh
The above-cited passage from the Gotrabhumi contains various contents explai-
ning the purpose of food. Prior to the parallel sentence yiivad eviisya kiiyasya
sthitaye yapaniiyai jighatsoparataye brahmacaryiinugrahiiyetj, there is the phrase
na darpiirthaip na madiirthaip na maIJcfaniirthaip na vibhu~aIJiirthaip. After the
parallel sentence, th.e ras~age. continues with pauriiIJiiJP_ ca vedaniiip prahiisymi,
naviiip ca notpiiday1wam1. It 1s thus clear that the BhavBh excer_pted merely a
single phrase out of the whole explanation on eating given in the SrBh passage in
question. . .
Moreover, the words yiivad eva reqmre further attententlon:
vavad evasya kayasya sthitaye yapanayai jighatsoparataye brahma-
caiyanugrahayeti
In the original context of the Gotrabhumi (and possibly in the Saipyuttanikiiya),
the relative pronoun yiivat ("as far as, up to, in so far as") is significant as an
indicator of the various items that are listed. However, when the sentence was
extracted and cited in the BhiivBh, the phrase yiivad eva was included at the
beginning of the citation, in spite of the fact that yiivat seems to be entirely
meaningless and superfluous in that context. In other words, the sentence must
have been taken from the Gotrabhiimi to the BhavBh without deleting the words
yiivad eva. A similar case is seen in the bhojane miitrajii.atii section of the Nai~-
kramyabhumi, where the phrase yiivad eviisya kiiyasya sthitaye likewise is cited (see
fn. 31 ), even though the words yiivad eva are unnecessary. Such a practice of giving
a literal citation, where a whole phrase is quoted including eventual unnecessary
words, is sometimes seen. It here suggests that the sentence found in the Gotra-
bhumi (and eventually in the Saipyuttanikiiya) is precedent to that of the BhiivBh.
Now, which passage is then the source for the sentence in the BhiivBh? Would
it be the Nai~kramyabhumi or the Saipyuttanikiiya scripture? Surely, the possibility
remains that both the Nai~kramyabhumi and the BhiivBh relied directly on the
same scriptural passage from the Saipyuttanikiiya, but it seems more natural that
the BhiivBh would have depended on the Nai~kramyabhumi as its source. Directly
after this sentence in the BhiivBh, there is an explicit phrase giving an internal
cross-reference to the YBh's bhojane miitrajii.atii section, thus implying the
Nai~kramyabhumi. Further, the BhiivBh contains yet another parallel passage that
corresponds to the SrBh, as will be shown below. Also in view of the age of the
various sources, the SrBh is chronologically closer to the BhiivBh. Hence, the
parallel sentence in the B_,havBh should be considered to be a copy of the corre-
sponding sentence in the SrBh.
(3) The Confusion in the Context of BhavBh 6-3-B
Is the last part of BhiivBh 6-3-B the original form or was it subject to later revision?
That the text is the original form as it stands is difficult to accept, since there are
certain structural problems in the passage. It is therefore probable that this section
was revised at a later stage.
BhiivBh 6-3-B is roughly divided in the following way: 1 [A][B), 2 [C)[D][E), 3
[F), and 4 [G). Among these, the first part (points [A) and [BJ) is a summary of the
contents of the preceding section 6-3-A. Though there is a problem as to whether
these two points were written at once, there is no contextual inconsistency.
Likewise, the last part [G) has no problem, as it is simply a stereotypical statement
822 Yasunori SUGAWARA
that occurs at the end of each chapter or section of the Bh:ivBh. However, the
second part [C][D][E] as well as the third part [F] are problematic.
Let us examine points [C], [D], and [E]. It is explained in [A][B] that a disciple
obtains a desire for the cultivation after having achieved insight into the four stages
by means of twenty-two aspects. These contents are summarized in [F], where it is
added that the disciple attains the basis of the supernatural power. Contextually,
the concrete explanation should therefore be given in [C], [D], and [E]. Point [D] is
a summary of point [C], and these two points are thus closely linked. However,
among the six sub-points found in [C], only the contents of sub-points (a) and (b)
truly belong to the overall context, whereas the other sub-points (c-f) are not
required in the given context. In the last part of [D], the description diverges from
the context in order to explain satisfaction with food, clothing, and seat ( or
dwelling). Further, point [E] explains only the satisfaction with food, which is
chosen from among the three forms of satisfaction mentioned in the last part of
point [D]. The topic thus seems gradually to diverge and [E] thereby seems not to
combine directly with point [F] from a contextual point of view. The above-
mentioned parallel passage and cross-reference are foind in the diverging point [E].
In this manner, it is difficult to consider point [E] to be an integral part of the
original passage given the explained contextual problems. It must therefore be
supposed that Bh:ivBh 6-3-B was subject to later revision, which subtly altered and
interrupted the contextual flow.
(4) The Problem concerning the Sentences
Before and After the Cross-reference
In point [E], there is a cross-reference to the SrBh, saying vistareJJa tadyath:i
bhojane m:itrajiiat:iy:im, "as [it will be explained] at length in [the passage dealing
with] knowing the appropriate quantity of food (bhojane m:itrajiiat:i)." It seems
admissable to think that the parallel sentence cited above was inserted together
with this cross-reference. This suggests that the SrBh and the Bh:ivBh did not
independently rely on a common scriptural source for the parallel sentence, but
instead that the Bh:ivBh quoted the sentence directly from the SrBh, as indicated
by the cross-reference. It can thus be ascertained that it was not only the parallel
sentence but also the cross-reference that were inserted. This is not the usual
pattern of the cross-references or parallels seen in the text.
3. Identification of the Sentences concerning the rddhipada
(1) The Source Passage
Turning now to the above-cited description of rddhip:ida (the base for supernatu-
ral power) in secti9n [FJ
of Bh:ivBh 6-3-B, a parallel is found in the second
Yogasth:ina of the SrBh: 3
kena karaJJena rddhjpada jty ucyate/ aha/ tadyatha yasya padaiJ
Saf!wjdyate so 'bhjkramapratjkramaparakramasamartho bhavatj/ evam
eva yasyade dharmaiJ salpvjdyante, e~a ca samadhjiJ sa1J1ndyate parj-
33
SHUKLA (1973:321), SRAVAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (2007:222), T1579.444ab. In
the following quotation, the Salpdhj is sometimes cut, following the SRAv AKABHOMI
STUDY GROUP'S edition.
The Bhiivaniimayi BhumiiJ 823
piirJJaiJ, sa eva1J1 pansuddhe dtte pal]'.avadate analigaJJe v1'gatopaklese
fiubhiite karmaJJyasthjte anjfifvaprapte, abh1'kramapratjkramapara-
kramasamartho bhavatJ: JokottaraJJalJ1 dharmaJJiiIJ1 praptaye sparsanaya1'/
e~a hj para rddhjiJ para samrddhjiJ, yaduta lokottara dharmal;/ tenocyata
rddhjpada 1W
Why is it called the basis for the supernatural power (rddhjpada, lit. 'the
feet of supernatural power')? If one has feet, one can advance, progress,
and proceed. In the same way, one who possesses this quality (i.e., rddhj-
pada) and has completed meditative concentration (samadh1') can ad-
vance, progress, and proceed to the attainment of supramundane quali-
ties (lokottaraJJalJ1 dharma1Ja1J1), once his mind has become clean, puri-
fied, spotless, free from [even] minor impurities, upright, established in
skill, and has achieved immovability. This indeed is the ultimate rddhj
(supernatural power), the ultimate samrddhj (great success). Therefore,
it is called rddhjpada ('the feet for supernatural power').
The underlined parts are parallel to Bh:ivBh 6-3-B. More detailed explanation
about rddhipada is given in the fourth Yogasth:ina, but the above-cited concise
description seems not to be a mere summary of the fourth Yogasth:ina.
"
(2) The Originality of the SrBh
In Bh:ivBh 6-3-B, the parallel sentence runs:
tasyalp pratjf{hjtas, tatha parHuddhe dtte parvavadate analigaJJe v1'gato-
paklese v1'stare1Ja yavad anhlivaprapte, sarvabhjjnabhjm'rharayanan-
tararp pratjbalo bhavatJ: asravak~ayabh1nkharaya ca/
He who reaches this [control over concentration], is then able to realize
all supernatural knowledge (abhijna) and the destruction of bad influ-
ence [from defilement] (asravak~aya), once his mind has become clean,
purified, spotless, free from [even] minor defilements - further and up
to - has achieved extensive immovability.
The parallel passage in the SrBh is:
sa evalp parjsuddhe dtte pal]'.avadate analigaJJe v1'gatopaklese rfubhiite
karmaJJyasthjte anj.iivaprapte, abhjkramapratjkramaparakramasamartho
bhavatJ: lokottaraJJalp dharmaJJalp praptaye sparsanayaj/
[he] can advance, progress, and proceed to the attainment of supramun-
dane qualities (lokottaraJJalJ1 dharma1Ja1J1), once his mind has become
clean, purified, spotless, free from [even] minor impurities, upright, es-
tablished in skill, and has achieved immovability.
Similar to the parallel passage concerning bhojane m:itrajiiat:i, the Bh:ivBh
sentence is more concise while the SrBh sentence is more detailed. The phrase
vjstareJJa y:ivad :im'fi.jyapr:ipte, meaning "- further and up to - has achieved exten-
sive immovability," is significant. Its meaning becomes clear when the two texts are
compared. VistareJJa y:ivad ("further and up to") means that there is an intentional
omission of the words fiubhrlte karmaJJyasthite (upr~ght, established in skill). Thus,
the sentence in Bh:ivBh derives explicitly from the SrBh. The sentence is borrowed
in the Bh:ivBh, knowingly omitting some words.
Supernatural knowledge ( abhiJ'fi.:i) is explained in detail in the latter half of the
laukikam:irga (mundane path) chapter in the fourth Yogasth:ina of the SrBh, an
explanation which includes rddhip:ida. Though the sixth chapter of the Bh:ivBh
824 Yasunori SUGAWARA
called The Purity of all Mundane Aspects ( sarvakara laukiki visuddhib) also deals
with the laukikamarga, no explanation is given there on this topic of rddhipada or
abhijiia. In the BhavBh, there is only one sentence referring to abhijiia, na~ely the
sentence cited above. The laukikamarga chapters in the BhavBh and the SrBh are
thus different with regard to rddhipada and abhijiia. If the cited sentence is an
interpolation, the word abhijiia would entirely disappear from the BhavBh.
Perhaps the BhavBh originally did not refer to abhijiia or rddhipada and it is thus
possible that a reviser simply wanted to add the sentence referring to abhijiia.
Consequently, nearly all the descriptions in section [F] of BhavBh are doubtful,
except for its very first sentence, sa evalJl samyakpratipannab samadhivasitam
anuprapnoti, "He, who practices precisely in this way, achieves control over
concentration."
C. The Case of BhvBh 7-1-B
Further parallels occur between BhavBh 7-1-B and the fourth Yogasthana of the
SrBh, which will now be examined.
Overall, BhavBh 7-1 is divided into two parts. The first part (7-1-A) deals with
twenty forms of terrifying the mind (cittasa1J1vejana), while the latter part (7-1-B)
explains twenty kinds of steadiness of the mind ( cittasthiti). The latter part, which
is the focus of the present discussion, is further sub-divided into the five categories
of steadying the mind, namely (1) according to penetration into mental concentra-
tion (manasikaraprativedhatas); (2) according to its support (salJlmsrayatas); (3)
according to the senses through which the sense-objects enter ( alalJlbanavatara-
mukhatas); (4) according to comprehension of the requisites (salJlbharapari-
grahatas); and (5) according to comprehension of the methods (upayaparigra-
hatas). This fivefold division probably belongs to the oldest layer of the passage.
However, in view of the contents, description, and structure of these points, the
present content of the five categories does not seem to be original. Rather, it is
clear that BhavBh 7-1 was revised at a later stage in dependence upon the SrBh.
Verily, the extant version of BhaBh 7-1 exhibits many textual problems:
1. Two sentences in BhavBh 7-1, viz. 7-1-B introduction and 7-1-
B-4, imply a revision that depended upon other principal
sources.
2. There is an overall inconsistency in the whole structure of7-1-B.
3. The descriptive manner in 7-1-B differs from other parts of
BhavBh.
4. A stereotypical phrase occurs in 7-1-B (introduction and con-
clusion) that is characteristic of the Adlpmok$iko manaskarab
section in the fourth Yogasthana of the SrBh.
5. The contents of 7-1-B-1 constitute a summary of the Adhimok-
$IKO manaskarab section.
6. There are repetitions in the contents of 7-1-B-2.
7. There is a confusion in the contents and structure of7-1-B-5.
Among these, the most significant aspect to consider for the present purposes is
the fifth point. In order to discuss this problem, it is, however, indispensable first
to introduce the whole Adhimok$iko manaskarab section of the SrBh. Since this
includes a lengthy quotation, the Adhimok$IKO manaskarab section will be intro-
The Bh:Jvanamayi Bhumjf; 825
duced first, followed by a presentation and discussion of the above-cited fifth
problematic point of BhavBh 7-1. The remaining six problematic points will be
discussed briefly at the end.
. Manaskarah. Section
The Adhimo.ksiko ;
in the Lokottaro Margah Chapter of the SrBh: Introduction
The fourth Yogasthana of the SrBh explains the mundane path (laukikamarga)
and the supramundane path (lokottaramarga). Both paths are explained through
seven contemplations (manaskara), namely (1) the contemplation perceiving
characteristics (lak$a1Japratisa1J1vedi [manaskara]), (2) the contemplation lead~ng
to conviction (adhimok$ika [manaskara]), (3) the contemplation engendenng
separation (pravivekya [manaskara]), (4)_ the ~on~emplation comprising _de~igh~
(ratisalJlgrahaka [manaskara]), (5) the i~v~stigatmg coi:iten_iplation (m1ma~sa
[manaskara]), (6) the contemplation attammg the ~ulmmation ~f the pra~tice
(prayogam~/ha [manaskara]), and (7) the contemplation representmg the frmt of
the culmination of the practice (prayogani$/hiiphala [manaskiira]).
34
The fourth Yogasthana of the SrBh has already been introduced and discussed
by Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (1982). He considered that the descriptions given in
the Lokottaramarga section did not derive from scholarly thought but rather were
based on the supernatural experiences of samadhi (mental absorption or medita-
tive concentration). In the present volume, Alexander VON ROSPATT also refers to
this section of the SrBh. At this occasion, I shall not discuss the broader signifi-
cance of the SrBh passage in questJon, but will only examine the relationship
between the parallel passages in the SrBh and the B,havBh. . .
Until today, the passage in question from the SrBh has only been published_ m
the SrBh edition by SHUKLA (1973). SHUKLA's edition, however, is fraught _with
problems and far from satisfactory, and it is therefore in need of many _cor~ectioi:is.
For this reason, a new Sanskrit edition of points [E] to [M] of the Adh1mok$ika
section will be given below. It is not a full critical edition, but it is an improvement
over SHUKLA's edition, in part since the useful corrections suggested by
SCHMITHAUSEN (1982) have been incorporated. The other points of the section
need not be considered for the present purposes, and have therefore not been
included here. An English translation of the full passage is not supplied, but the
portions that are relevant for the comparison with BhavBhwill b~ translated below.
Punction marks, i.e., dap(ja strokes have been freely added or omitted based on my
own judgment and salJldhi alterations before and after a dap(ja have genera_lly been
left as they appear in the manuscript. The divisional numbers inserted mto the
edition are tentative, but may be helpful for later research. The system of annota-
tions is the same as that employed in my edition of the BhavBh (SUGAWARA,
forthcoming).
34
The English translations of the seven contemplations are based on DELEANU
(2006:29-30).
826 Yasunori SUGAWARA
[I] Sanskrit Edition of Points [E] to [M]
of the Adhimoksiko Manaskarah Section
in the Lokottaro .Marga.{1 Chapter ~f the SrBh
[E] (MS 125b2L-4L; SHUKLA, 1973:496w4976 ; D4036.189a2_5; T1579.475a2rb2)
sa evaip sarvvabhavopapattibhyaiJ * cittam udvejayitva * uttrasayitva 35 -dhyasayena
nirvvaJJe 36 'nyatamanyatamenakareJJa praJJidadhati/ tasya dirgharatraip taccittaip 37
nlparataip sabdagandharasaspra~favyaratam 38 acitam upacitaip *39 nipasabdagan-
dharasaspra~favyail;/yenadhyasayenapi nirvvaJJe praJJidadhato, 40 * [SHUKLA p. 497]
na praskandatJ: na prasidati, * na saipti~_thate, * nadhimucyate/+ 41 pratyudavarttate
* manasaip santadhatvanabhila~itataya42 * paritasanam 43 upadaya/+ sa punaiJ pu-
nas taccittam udvejayaty uttrasayati/14 dul;khasatyat samudayasatyad udvejyottra-
sya45 punal; punar adhyasayato nirvvaJJe praJJidadhati/ tathapy asya na praskandati/
[F] (MS 125b4L-b5R; SHUKLA, 1973: p.49h 17 ; D4036.189a5-b 2; T1579.475b 3_11 )
tat kasya hetos;+ tatha hy audariko 46 'smimano 47 'bhisamayaya vibandhakaral;/ sa
manaskaranupravi~faiJ * santaravyantaro varttate/ aham asmi sa1J1srtavan 48 aham
asmi saipsar~syami/49 aham asmi parinirvvasyam1: aham asmi 50 parinirvvaJJaya
kusalan dharmman bhavayami/ aham asmi dul;khaip dul;khatal; * pasyami, samu-
dayaip samudayato, nirodhaip nirodhatal;/ aham asmi margaip margataiJ pasyami/
aham asmi slinyaip slinyato 'praJJihitam apraJJihitatal; * animittam animittatal; pa-
syami/ mamaite dharmmas/+ taddhetos tatpratyayam asya 51 tac cittaip na pra-
skandaty, adhyasayato 'pipraJJihitaip nirvvaJJe 52 ;+
35
MS: cittam udvejayitva/ uttrasya/ utrasayitva. SHUKLA: cittam udvejya I uttrasya I
uttrasayitva. SCMITHAUSEN: udvejayitva uttrasayitva.
36
MS: nirvvaJJe 'nyo (nirvvaJJetya?) 'nyatamanyatamena. SHUKLA: nirvvaJJe 'py 'nya-
tamanyatamena.
37
MS: citram. SHUKLA: cittam.
38
MS: rata~. SHUKLA: rata~.
39
MS: riipaiabdagandharasaspra~{avyaratam acitam upacita1J1/ repeats ( dittography).
40
MS: nirvvaJJalJl pradadhato. SHUKLA: nirvvaJJalJl pradadhate. SCHMITHAUSEN: nir-
waJJe praJJidadhato.
41
MS: nadhimucyato pratyavarttate. SHUKLA: na vimucyate na pratyavarttayati
SCHMITHAUSEN: nadhimucyate/pratyavarttate.
42
MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: anabhila~itataya. SHUKLA: anabh1lak~itataya.
43
MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: paritasanam. SHUKLA: paritamanam.
44
MS: utrasayati, SHUKLA: uttrasayatI:
45
MS: udvejya trasya. SHUKLA: udvejyo[jjtrasya.
46
MS, SCHMIHAUSEN: asyaudariko. SHUKLA: audariko.
47 MS: 'smimano. SHUKLA: 'smimano.
48
MS: asmim samskrtavan. SHUKLA: samsrtavan.
49
In these s~nte~ce;, the word asmima;a ~eems to be explained by aham asmi
50
MS: asmin. SHUKLA: asm1:
51
MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: tatpratyayam asya. SHUKLA: tatpratyayasya.
52
MS: adhyasayaty asayato 'pi pra1Jihita1J1 nirvvaJJe. SHUKLA: adhyasayam vadhya-
sayato 'pi nirvvaJJalJl (ta?). SCHMITHAUSEN: adhyasayato 'pipra1Jihita1J1 nirvvaJJe/, correc-
ted based on the Tibetan and Chinese version.
The Bhavanamayi BhiJmiiJ 827
[G] (MS 125b6L-7M; SHUKLA, ~973:4971s-4987; ~4036.189bz_4; T1579.4'.?b1:-1s) .
'smimanaip 53 vibandhakaraip vibandhakaram 54 1tJ Jaghu laghv eva pra1naya pratJ-
vidhya, svarasanupravrttau manaskaram utsrjya, bahirdha jiieyalambanad vya-
varttya, ma[SHUKLA p. 498]naskara 55 -pravi~fa1J1 manaskaranugataip satyavyava-
caranam56 arabhate/57 sa utpannotpannaip cittaip nirudhyamanam anantarotpan-
nen~ cittena bhajyamanaip pasyati, * pravahanuprabandhayogena/ sa tatha cittena
cittam alambanikaroty ava~fabhate, * yathasya yo 'sau manaskaranupravi~to 'smi-
mano vibandhakaraiJ,58 sa tasyavakasal; * punar nna bhavaty utpattaye59/
[H] (MS 125b7M -126alL;, SHUKL~, _1973:498s-16; D40~6.1~9b4_7; T1579.4}5b~s-:_4) _
tathaprayukto 'yaip yogi yat tasyas c1ttasantatel; anyonyataip navanavatam ay~pa~
yikataip 60 tavatkalikatam itvarapratyupasthayitaii ca 61 paurvvaparyeJJa pasY_afl,
idam 62 asyanityataya[J;}63I + yat tasyas cittasantatel; 64 upadanaskandhanuprav1~fa-
tam pasyati, 1dam 65 asya dul;khatayas I + tatra yac cittaip vyatiriktaip dvitiyaip dhar-
m~a1J166 nopalabhate, * idam asya slinyatayas 67 I+ tatra yat tasya 68 eva cittasanta-
53
MS: so 'smimanalJl (sasmimana1J1?). SHUKLA: ( ta?)smimanalJl. ScHMITHAUSEN: so
'smimanam.
54
MS; nirbandhakaram vibandhakara. SHUKLA: vibandhakaralJl vibandhakara.
55
MS: manaskara, Sh~kla: manaskara.
56
MS: vyavacaraJJam. SHUKLA: vyavacaraJJam.
57
The Chinese text interprets the phrase manaskarapravi~{alJl manaskaranugata1J1well,
as it interprets pravi~{alJl as meaning 'realized'. Concerning the sentence vyavacara(ra)JJ~m
arabhate/, the Tibetan version translates it with rnam par gcod pa. The original text behm?
the Tibetan translation may have read *vyavacchedam instead of vyavacaraJJam. If that 1s
so, the Sanskrit version may have been manaskarapravi~{analJl manaskaranugatanalJl
satyasya vyavacchedam arabhate/. The Tibetan treats this manaskara as the manaskara ~hat
should be abandoned. However, the word satya is in conflict with such an interpretat10n.
The word satya is attested in both the Tibetan ( bden pa) and Chinese texts ( di l?rj¥). Th_e
reading *vyavaccheda is therefore hardly possible. The alternative vyavacaraJJa (investi-
gation), which is attested in the MS, is more suitable.
58
MS: vipak~akaraiJ. SHUKLA: vibandhakaraiJ.
59
MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: punar na bhavaty utpattaye; SHUKLA: punarbhavavyutpattaye.
60
MS, SHUKLA: apayikata1J1. SCHMITHAUSEN:. ayapayikata1J1.
61 MS: pratyupasthayitas ca. SHUKLA: pratyupasthayitaii ca.
62 MS, SHUKLA: pasyatldam.
63
MS: asyanityataya? (MS unclear). SHUKLA: asyanityataya.
64
MS: samtateh. SHUKLA: santateh.
65
MS, SHUKLA: pasyatidam. ·
66
MS: dharmmam. SHUKLA: dharmalJl. SCHMITHAUSEN: vyatiriktalJl dvitfyalJl dhar-
mam reconstructed ~n the basis of the Tibetan and Chinese translations. SCHMITHAUSEN
rest~~ed the word *vyatirikta from Tibetan gshan. However, there is no case in which
Tibetan gshan corresponds to the Sanskrit vyatirikta in YBh, according to the Index to the
Yogacarabhiimi (YOKOYAMA & HIROSAWA, 1996). Though the original Sanskrit word
seems to be different from *vyatirikta, the present text provisionally follows SCHMIT-
HAUSEN's suggestion.
67
MS: asya siinyatayas. SHUKLA: atra siinyatayas.
68
MS, SHUKLA: yasya. SCHMITHAUSEN: yat tasya.
828 Yasunori SUGAWARA
69
tel; pratityasamutpannatam asvatantram pasyatJ; jdam asyanatmataya[J;J7° /
[126a] evarp tfivad 71 duJ;khasatyam avatinp;o bhavatj/
[I] (MS 126a1L-2L; SHUKLA, 1973:499 1. 6 ; D4036.189br190a 2 , T1579.475b 24 -c3)
tasyajvarp bhavatiyam apj me dttasantati!J/ tfJIJfihetuki, trJIJrlfisamudaya, tfJIJfi
aprabhava, t[JIJfipratyaya/ + asya apj dttasantater yo72 mrodhal;, so 'pj santal;/ asya
apj yo mrodhagami margal;, * sa nahyfi1J1ka[J;}73 I + jty evam aparikJ1tamanaskara-
parikJfiyogena suk§mya 74 praj.iaya catvar/75 aryasatyany avatirIJIJO bhavatj/
[J] (MS 126a2L-3R; SHUKLA, 1973:4996.16; D4036.190a2.5 ; T1579.475c3. 11 )
tasyakam asevananvayad bhavananvayat tasyal; praj.iayaJ; 76 samasamalambya-
lambakarpj.ianam 77 utpadyate/
yenasyaudankas casmimano 78 nirvvfiIJfibhkataye vjbandhakaral; samudacara-
tal;79 * prahiyate/ nirvvfiIJe cadhyasayatas80 dttarp pradadhatal; praskandatI/ na
pratyudavarttate 81 * manasarp * padtasanam 82 upadaya/83 adhyasayatas cabhj-
ratirp grhIJfih/ tathabhutasyasya 84 mrdukJfintisahagatarp * samasamalambyalamba-
kaj.ianarp85 tad U§magatam jty ucyate/ yan madhyakJfintJ'padgrhitarp tan mur-
dham86 ity ucyate/ yad adhimatrakJfintI'sarpgrhitarp tan satyanuloma 87 k§fintir jty
ucyate/1
The Bhiivaniimayi Bhumi!J 829
+ [L-i] (MS 1264M-5L; SHUKLA, 1973:49920-5003; D4036.190arb1; T1579.475c 14.18 )
tasya tacdttarp tasmjn samaye nkuddham jva khyfitj/ na ca tan 91 mruddharp bhava-
ty/+ analambanam jva khyatj/ na ca tad analambanarp 92 bhavatj/ tasya tacdttarp
prasantarp vigata[SHUKLA p.500]m ka khyati/+ na ca tad vjgatarp bhavati/ na ca
punas 93 tasmjn 94 samaye madhuraka 95 -m1ddhava§{abdham api, tacdttarp nirud-
dham ka khyatj/na ca tan nkuddharp bhava[j/
[L-ii] (MS 126a5L-5R; SHUKLA, 1973:5004_7; D4036.190b1.3; T1579.475c1s-21)
yat tadekatyanarp mandanrp 96 momuhanam 97 abhjsamayabhjmfinaya 98 bhavatJ;
jdam 99 punas dttam abhjsamayayajva, na drasyedanirp samyaktva *-nyamava-
101
k ra-'ntir bhavjsuatftj/
100
.:.r·
[M] (MS 126a5R-6R; SHUKLA, 1973:5007. 13 ; D4036.190b3.4; T1579.475c21-26)
yadjyamidrsi dttasyavastha bhavatj 102/ tasya tat sarvvapasdmanirvnkalparp dttarp,
yasyanantara purvvavkadte§u satyeJv 103 adhyatmam 104 abhogarp karotj/ te Jaukjkfi
agradhrmal;/ tasmat pareIJasya lokottaram eva dttam utpadyate/ na laukjkarp/+
simfi eJfi lauk1kanarp sarpskaraIJfirp, paryanta e§lls;+ tenocyante laukjkfi agra-
dharmfi jtj/

[K] (MS 1263R-4M; SHUKLA, 1973:499 17. 20 , D4036.190a5. 7, T1579.475c 11 . 14 )

sa evam vibandhakaram asmhnanarp prahaya mrvfiIJe cadhyasayato 'bhkatirp 88
90
parigrhya yo sav uttarottaras dttaparik§YfibhisarpskaraJ; 89 , * tam abhjsarpskararp MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: nirvikalpa1p. SHUKLA: nirvikalpa-.
91
samutsr}ya, anabhjsarpskaratayarp mrv1kalparp 90 dttam upanjkJ1'pati/ MS: tam. SHUKLA,SCHMITHAUSEN: tan.
92
MS, SHUKLA: tad iilambana1p. SCHMITHAUSEN: tad aniilambana1p.
93
MS, SHUKLA: na ca punar. SCHMITHAUSEN: na ca.
69 94
MS, SHUKLA: pasyatidam. MS: tasmim. SHUKLA, SCHMITHAUSEN: tasmin.
70 95
MS: asyiiniitmatiiyii. SHUKLA: asyiiniitmatiiyaiJ. MS, SHUKLA: madhukara. SCHMITHAUSEN: madhuraka. Concerning madhuraka
71
MS: eva1p duf;khatiivad SHUKLA: eva1p tiivad The Tibetan phrase re sh1g corre- (Dengue fever), see ScHMITHAUSEN p.80, note118. To my regret, I could not refer to J.
sponds to Sanskrit tiivad FILLIOZAT's article (Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus, Gedenkschnft fiir Ludw1g
72
MS : c1ttasantate
. yo. SHUKLA: c1ttasanteter
- yo. Alsdorf, 1981, p. 83ff.), which is noted in SCHMITHAUSEN's article.
73 MS, SHUKLA: nairyapika ity. 96
MS: mandiiniiip is added in the margin.
74 MS: siikfmyii? SHUKLA: siik~mayii. 97
MS: momuhiiniim.
75 98
MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: catviiri. SHUKLA: na tiiny MS, SHUKLA: abhisamayiiyiibhimiiniiya. SCHMITHAUSEN: abhisamayiibhimiiniiya.
76
MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: tasyiil; prajiiiiyiiiJ. SHUKLA: tasyiiiJ (without prajiiayiiiJ). The MS is difficult to decipher, but ya seems to be added.
77 99
SHUKLA: samasamalambyiilambakajiiiinam. SCHMITHAUSEN: samasamiilambyiilam- MS, SHUKLA: bhavatida1p. SCMITHAUSEN: bhavati, 1'da1p.
100
bakam jiianam. MS: unclear whether it is ka- or kam. MS: samyaktva1p I nyiimiivakriintir. SHUKLA: samyattva(?)-nyiimavakriintir. SCHMIT-
78
MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: yeniisyauda(?)rikas ~iismimiino. SHUKLA: yenasyaudarika- HAUSEN: samyaktvanyiimiivakriintir.
tviismimiino. 101
In the Tibetan translation, the description on Dengue fever continues on in this
79
MS, SHUKLA: samudiicaratah. SCHMITHAUSEN: samudiiciiratah section. For this reason, the section is very long in Tibetan. The Chinese text is also more
80
MS, SHUKLA: ciidhyiiyatas. S.CHMITHAUSEN: ciidhyiisayatas. .. detailed than the Sanskrit MS, though the Chinese translation seems to have
81
MS: na pratyudiivartate. SHUKLA: pratyudiivartayatI: misunderstood the Dengue fever. The Sanskrit description in the MS is shorter than both
82
MS, SCHMITHAUSEN: paritasanam. SHUKLA: paritamaniim. the translations and it is confused and difficult to understand. The description of Dengue
83
The Tibetan translation is here yangs su gdung ba. However, a similar phrase ap- fever, which was found in the original text may have been omitted at a later stage of the
pears three times in the BhiivBh, where it is translated with yangs su yi chad pa. textual transmission during the copying process, since it is hard to understand. Divisions [L]
84
MS: tathiibhiitiisyasya ( tathiibhiita I syasya ?). SHUKLA: tathiibhiita(l)syiisya. and [M] are therefore in need of being newly edited. In the present context, only the
85
MS: samiisama-. SHUKLA: samasamii-. sentences of the extant Sanskrit MS are given, without any attempt to reconstruct missing
86
MS: miirddhety. SHUKLA: miidham ity. sentence on the basis of the two translations.
87
MS: sadhyiinulomii. SHUKLA: 'madhyiinulomii. Cf. SHUKLA (1973:284, 324) and SRA- 102
There is no corresponding in the Tibetan text. Though there is a corresponding part
vAKABHOMI STUDY GROUP (2007:170, 220). in the Chinese translation, it does not perfectly align with the extant Sanskrit sentence.
88
MS, SHUKLA: ciidhyiisayaratiip. SCHMITHAUSEN: ciidhyiisayato 'bhiratim. Hence, this part is also difficult to edit.
89 103
MS, SHUKLA: parik~ayiibhisa1pskiiraf;. SCHMITHAUSEN: parikwabhisa~skiiraiJ, cor- MS, SHUKLA: satve~v. SCHMITHAUSEN: satye~v.
rected with Tib ( brtag par bya ba) and Chin (U). 104
MS, SHUKLA, Chin: adhyiitmam, Tib: *iitmiinam.
830 Yasunori SUGAWARA
[II] The Prativedhah section in BhavBh 7-1-B-1 and the
Adhimolcyika Secti9n i~ the Lokottaro Margafi Chapter of the
SrBh's Fourth Yogasthiina
As m,entioned above, the Lokottaro MiirgaiJ chapter in the fourth Yogasthiina of
the SrBh explains seven contemplations, and the comparison to be presented here
concerns the second of these, viz. the contemplation leading to conviction
( iidhimokfiko manaskiiralJ). This passage of the text will henceforth be referred to
as "the Adhimokf1"ka section." The Sanskrit text of points [E] to [M] of this section
was presented above. A parallel of this section occurs in the first category
presented in BhiivBh 7-l-B, namely the so-called presentation according to pene-
tration into mental concentration (manas1"kiiraprativedhatas). That passage of the
BhiivBh will hereafter be referred to as "the Prativedha section."
The Prativedha section is divided into two parts, a former and a latter half,
each of which roughly corresponds to the two divisions seen in the Adhimoksika
s~ction. The former half of the Prativedha section is parallel to point [G] o(the
Adhimokfika se~tion, while the latter half corresponds roughly to the first part of
point [J] of the Adhimokf1"ka section.
In both passages, the word manaskiira is used in a rather complex manner
owing to the subject matter of the text. In some sentences, manaskiira is presented
as something to be abandoned, whereas in other sentences it is treated as a method
to be cultivated. Overall in the YBh, manaskiira generally means 'mental concen-
tration', 'mental application', or 'contemplation', when it is used in a positive sense.
The verb manaskaroti is translated accordingly. Yet, ultimately manaskiira is
precisely what should be abandoned. In the case of manaskiira as an obstructive
force, it is tentatively translated here with 'mental activity'. Fundamentally, these
two types of manaskiira are essentially neither different nor contradictory.
Conc~r~ing the spelling of the word manaskiira, the form manasikiira ( manasi-
karotJ.) 1s more popular than manaskiira in the BhiivBh. However, in order to avoid
confusion, I exclusively use the form manaskiira in this paper except for in the
Sanskrit citations.
1. The First Half of the Prativedha section
The first half runs as follows: 105
siinyataprapjhjtammjttaprayogamanasjkaranuprav1~fasya siikJmasamud-
acarjpa};l santaravyantaranuvartHpo 'sm1manasahagatasya dttamm1'tta-
syabhjsam~y~ntarayjkasya s~myakpraHvedhat manas1karat pratjvkfhya ca
ta-!1 manasjka1;asahagataIJ1 CJtfalJl svarasavah1"tayaIJ1 samuts_Ijya, anantara-
mruddhalJl c1tfaIJ1 navotpannena navotpannena manasjkarotj yathiibhii-
tam am'tyadjbhk akaraj};ll
The passage is quite complex, but a rough translation might be:
As the starting point of contemplating emptiness, wishlessness, and the
uncharacterized, entering into what is subtle, one [first] contemplates and
fully understands the character of the mind involved in self-conceit
which obstructs realization either from time to time or in an uninter~
ru~t~d ~as~ion. Hav_ing understood this, the mind involving such mental
act1V1ty 1s m and of itself completely left behind, whereupon one focuses
!OS SUGAWARA (forthcoming:55).
The Bhiivaniimayi Bhumif:1 831
on the mind as it truly is in its various aspects of impermance and so forth,
as [the mind] continuously ceases and arises newly again and again.
This passage agrees with point [G] in the Adhimokfika section cited above, which
may be translated as follows:
[G] Having thoroughly understood with insight and complete ease that
self-conceit, which acts as an obstacle, is indeed an obstacle, [such] men-
tal activity is in and of itself left behind. Having withdrawn [his attention]
from the external sense objects, [the meditator] begins to investigate the
truths [in a thorough manner] which is the starting point and progression
of contemplation. He sees that every [instance of] mind that has arisen
and is coming to an end is immediately followed by another arisen [in-
stance of] mind, in the manner of an uninterrupted flow. He thus focuses
and ascertains the mind by means of the mind, and it is no longer possible
for the obstructive self-conceit, which is [nothing but] the function of
mental activivies, to arise.
A general resemblance between the two passages is here noticeable, as their
contents are nearly the same. Yet, it should be underlined that the phrases
siinyatiipral}ihitanimitta and siintaravyantariinuvartti]Jo do not appear this point [G]
of the Adhimokfika section but rather in the previous point [F], and that the
Prativedha section's expression siintaravyantariinuvartti]Jo takes the form siinta-
ravyantaro varttate in [F]. Further, the phrase manasikiiriinupraviffa appears not
only in the Adhimokfika section's point [G] but also in its point [F]. Almost all the
key-words in the former half of the Prativedha section are found in points [F] and
[G].
2. The Second Half of the Prativedha section
The second half runs as follows: 106
tasya ca manasjkarasyasevananvayad bhavananvayad bahulikaranvayat
samasamalambyalambakajiianam utpadyate/ tasya cabhjsamayavjghna-
karakasyasm1manasya dttavjkJepakarasya prahapac dttajkagiyalJl
sprsatj/ sprJfam me dttajkagiyam/ jtj ca yathabhiitaIJ1 prajanatj manasj-
karotj/ jty ayalJl manas1karapratjvedha};l satyabhisamayaya vedjtavya};ll/
Further, based on an assiduous practice, cultivation, and repeatition of
this contemplation, knowledge arises that the one who focuses and the
focus [of the contemplation] are one and the same. [Thereby], self-
conceit that obstructs realization and distracts the mind is abandoned,
and [the meditator] reaches [the state] of one-pointed mind (dttaikagiya),
[whereby] the meditator correctly understands and concentrates on that
he has reached the one-pointed mind. This is the penetration into medi-
tative contemplation (manas1karapratjvedha) [that is practiced] in order
to realize truth.
This latter half corresponds roughly to the first part of point [J] of the Adhi-
mokfika section cited above:
[J] Further, based on an assiduous practice, cultivation, and repetition of
the insight [generated] by precisely this [contemplation], knowledge ari-
ses that the one who focuses and the focus [of the contemplation] are one
and the same. Thereby, through putting [this] into practice, the coarse
106
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:55).
832 Yasunori SUGAWARA
form of self-conceit [associated] therewith, which hinders [finding] joy in
[seeking for] miviiJJa, is abandoned. Based on the aspiration to [attain]
nirvii[Ja, the mind becomes stable. [His] mind does not revert due to evil
desire. [Rather,] owing to [this] aspiration, [the practitioner] will find joy.
It is evident that the opening part in point [J] corresponds to the latter half of the
Prafjvedha section, though the subsequent part of point [J] does not correspond
fully to the Pratjvedha section. It seems that the AdhhnokJ1ka section was compo-
sed prior to the Prafjvedha section, because it is observed that the various contents
of the Pratjvedha section occur separately in the AdhjmokJ1ka section. The writer
of the Pratjvedha section thus seems to have gathered the miscellaneous elements
from the AdhjmokJjka section and summarized them. The present analysis may,
however, be insufficient to fully establish this thesis, and further arguments will
therefore be given below.
Moreover, it is noteworthy that the cited passages both has the significant
p~rase samasamalambyalambakaj.ianam ( or its non-compounded form seen in the
AdhjmokJ1ka section), meaning "the knowledge that the one who focuses and the
focus [of the contemplation] are one and the same." The BhavBh contains no other
expression that is relevant for 'mind only' philosophy, and this is yet another reason
why the contents of the Prafjvedha section may not be fully original. Similar
phrases appear in the Mahayanasa1pgraha, 107 Td1pSika VIj.iaptJinatratasjddhi, 108
and in the AbhMharmasamuccaya 109 and its bhiiJya. 11°Further, the phrase and
related contents are found in the BoBh, 111 the Mahayanasiitralamkara 112 the
Madhy:intavjbhaga, 113 and the Tdsvabhavankdesa. 114 The correspond~nces for the
phrase are mentioned by NAGAO (1982:49-50), SCHMITHAUSEN (1982), and in the
present article by VON ROSPATT.
3. The Prativedha Section's Dependence
on the Adhimoksika Section
As shown above, the Pratjvedha section is b~sed on point [G] of the Adh1inoks1ka
section, but, in fact, it not only depends on this point but also on two other pass~ges
of the latter text, namely points [F] and [H], which shall now be examined.
(1) The Problem concerning Manaskarato be abandoned
i) The Prativedha Section's Usage
In the YBh, the word manaskara generally refers to the mental contemplation,
concentration, or application, through which a practitioner realizes the truths.
Such a usage also occurs in the Pradvedha section; for example:
LAMOTTE (1973:53, 78).
I07
108
LEVI (1925:43).
109
D4049.92br93a 2, T1605.682c. A corresponding Sanskrit manuscript is, regrettably,
not extant. For a Sanskrit reconstruction, see GOKHALE (1947:13-38, especially 43).
110
TATIA (1976:76).
111
WOGIHARA (1930-1936:41, 212), DUTT (1966:28, 146).
112
LEVI (1907:24).
113
NAGAO (1964:20).
114
YAMAGUCHI (1972:129), MUKHOPADHYAYA (1939:7).
The Bhavanamayi BhilmifJ 833
'.5mimiinasahagatasya cittanimittasyiibhi5amayiintarayikasya samyakprati-
vedhiit manas1kiiriit
One [first] contemplates and fully understands the character of the mind
involved in self-conceit, which obstructs realization.
Here manaskara probably means 'contemplation' or 'concentration' (in the above
English translation put as "contemplates"). The verbal form manaskaroti can be
interpreted in the same way:
sp[,5(am me cittmkiigryam iti ca yathiibhiital]1 prajiiniiti manas1karotJ/
[whereby] the meditator correctly understands and concentrates on that
he has reached the one-pointed [state of] mind.
In one sentence, however, manaskara is used in the sense of something which is to
be abandoned:
tan manasikiirasahagataip cittaip svarasaviihitiiyaip samutsrfya
The mind involving such mental activity is in and of itself completely left
behind.
The intention behind this double connotation of the word is not immediately clear
from the Prativedha section itself.
ii) The Adhimolcyika Section's Usage
A similar double usage also occurs in the Adhjmo~jka section. The regular usage
of manaskara as something to be practiced is seen in many sentences in points [F]
and [G], e.g.:
manaskarapraviJfiiip manaskiiriinugatiilp satyavyavaciiraJJiim iirabhate/
[He] begins the investigation into truth, which is the starting point and
progression of contemplation.
Yet, manaskara as something to be abandoned also appears repeatedly in the point
[G], e.g.:
svarasiinupravrttau manaskiiram utsrfya
[Such] mental activity is in and of itself left behind.
Moreover, the following case is seen in point [G]:
'sau manaskiiriinupraviHo 'smimiino vibandhakaral;
It is no longer possible for the obstructive self-conceit, which is [nothing
but] the function of mental activivies, to arise.
In the phrase manaskaranupraviJ{a, which also occurs in point [F], manaskara is
treated as an obstacle.
iii) Why Manaskara is to be Abandoned
This dual usage of manaskara cannot be understood, unless it is viewed in the 115
context of the AdhjmokJika section. In point [F], it is explained that asm1inana
(self-conceit, the sense of self, the subject of the contemplation) should be
115 For asmimiina, see the detailed explanation and its meaning in connection with sat-
kiiyadrJti in SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:144f.).
834 Yasunori SUGAWARA
eliminated. Moreover, it 1s said that nobody can enter into nirviiIJa as long as
asmimana remains:
[F] What is the reason for that? [It is] because the coarse form of self-
conceit (asmjmfina, the subject of the contemplation) hinders realization.
It operat~s ~s a mental activity (manaskaranupravj~fa) [~oing on] cease-
lessly or m mtervals. "I am the one who has wandered m samsara." 116 "I
am the one who will wander in samsara." "I am the one who will reach
mivfiJJa." "I am the one who will cultivate good qualities in order to reach
njrvfiJJa." "I am the one who sees suffering in terms of [the truth of] suffe-
ring." "I am the one who sees the origin [of suffering] in terms of [the
truth of] the origin [of suffering]." "I am the one who sees the cessation
[of suffering] in terms of [the truth of] the cessation." "I am the one who
sees the path [to the cessation of suffering] in terms of [the truth of] the
path." "I am the one who sees emptiness as emptiness, wishlessness as
wishlessness, and the uncharacterized as the uncharacterized." [Self-
conceit is to take such] things as being personal. Due to this cause and
condition, his mind which is of such a kind does not progress, even if in
terms of [his] motivation there is a wish [to achieve] njrvfiJJa.
Here, asmimiina is expressed as a mental activity (manaskiiriinupravi${a), and since
asmimana needs to be eliminated, it follows that the manaskiira associated
therewith also should be abandoned. This is why it is stated in point [GJ that"[ such J
mental activity is in and of itself left behind" (svarasiinupravrttau manaskaram
utsdya). Further, in point [KJ, it is explained that the contemplating mental activity
(abhisarpskiira) itself must eventually be abandoned in order to attain a state free
from thoughts (nirvikalpa). Such an explanation, however, is not found in the
Prativedha section. It therefore follows that the contents of the Prativedha section
cannot be u_?derstood correctly, if it were not for the corresponding parts [FJ and
[KJ iI: the Adhimok$ika section. Hence, the Prativedha section clearly depends on
the Adhimok$ika section.
iv) Two Kinds of Manaskara, the Pravi~fa and the Anupravi~{a
As discussed above, the word manaskiira is used in two divergent ways in the
BhiivBh, namely to denote a method (mental concentration, application) and to
signify a mental activity that is an obstruction which needs to be eliminated. This
issue may be analyzed further by examining how the word manaskiira is used in
combination with the verbal nouns pravi$/a and anupravi$/a. In the following list,
[BhJ signi~ies. the Prativ~d_h~ sect~on of th~ B~iivBh: while the letters [F), [G], [HJ,
and [OJ md1cate the d1v1s1ons m the Adh1mok$ika section of the SrBh. Four
sentences may be cited where manaskiira or manaskaroti imply a method to be
adopted:
[Bh] anantarankuddhaf!l cittaf!] navotpannena navotpannena manasj-
karotI"yathabhutam amlyadjbh1r akarajJ;I
wh~reupon one fo~uses (manasjkarotI") on the mind as it truly is in its
vanous aspects of 1mpermance and so forth, as [the mind] continuously
ceases and arises newly again and again.
116
In this and the following sentences, the verb asmj ("[I] am") is used. The word is
probably used in order to express the relevant nuance of the term asmjmana, "belief in that
[I] am." It is difficult to get this correlation into the English translation.
The Bhavaniimayi BhumiiJ 835
[Bh J tasya ca manas1karasyasevananvayad bhavananvayad bahulikaran-
vayat
Further, .
based on an assiduous .
practice, cu1t1vat1on,
. .
an d repeat·t·
1 10n of
this contemplation (manasjkara)
[Bh] jty ayaf!} manas1karapratjvedhal; satyabhjsamayaya ved1"tar,y~l;I
This is the penetration into meditative contemplation (manasikara) [that
is practiced] in order to realize truth.
[G] manaskarapravjH/if!l manaskaranugat/if!] satyavyavacaraJJlifl!
[He] begins the inves_tigation into tru!h, which is_ the startmg point
(praVIffa) and progression of contemplat10n (manaskara).
Next, there are five sentences in which manaskiira signifies an obstacle:
[Bh] sunyatapra1Jjhjtfinjmjttaprayogamanasjkariinuprav1ftasya
As the starting point (anupraVIffa) of contemplating (manas1kara) empti-
ness, wishlessness, and the uncharacterized
[Bh] tan manas1karasahagataf!} citta1P _svarasavah~tay/if!l. sa_mutsgya .
the mind involving such mental act1V1ty (manasjkara) 1s m and of itself
completely left behind
[F] sa manaskaranupravj~fa
It operates (anupravj~fa) as a mental activity (manaskara)
[G] svarasanupravrttau manaskaram utsr}ya .
[such] mental activity (manaskara) is in and of itself left behmd
[G] 'sau manaskaranupraviHo 'smjmfinC? vjbandhakar~J; . . .
it is no longer possible for the obstructive self-conceit, which 1s [nothmg
but] the function (anupravj~ta) of mental activivies (manaskara), to arise.
Finally, two sentences may be cited, wherein forms of the word vi~fa occur in other
usages:
[HJ tasyas cittasantatel; upadanaskandhanupravj~tataf!} pas.ratj
[He] sees the mind-stream's involvement (anupravi~fata) with the appro-
priating aggregates
[0] da u1fulyasannjsrayasanm·nf{af!J ..
what is fixed (sannjvJffa) in the body in the form of depravities
It may be noticed that in the above groups of examples, the word pravi~fa (starting
point, entry) is only used in the case where manaskiira denotes a method, whereas
the word anupravi$/a (starting point, operation, function) occurs in the cases where
manaskara signifies an obstruction. The latter usage may be somewhat similar to
how the word anuprav1~fatii (involvement) and sannivi$/a (what is fixed) are used
in the two final examples. 117 Overall, it seems that the word pravi~ta carries a sense
117 It should, however, be noted that the related form anupravesa found in BhavBh
page 11 (SUGAWARA, forthcoming) means "to realize'' or "to comprehend". Moreover,
anupraviHa can also mean "to realize", as seen in the BoBh (WOGIH1;RA, 1930-1936:4~;
DUTT, 1966:28). Likewise, anupravesa in phrase asallak~aJJ/inupravesopayalak~aJJa as 1t
occurs in the Madhyantavibhiigabhawa (NAGAO, 1964:19) may be used in the same sense.
Thus, there are subtle differences between the usages of this word in each work and a strict
distinction is not always possible.
 836 y asunori SUGA w ARA
of 'comprehension', whereas anupraviJ/a and similar forms mean 'entered' or
'functioned'. It seems that the two meanings of manaskiira are combined differently
with these words in the BhiivBh and the SrBh, but this observation cannot be
asserted with certainty for the BhiivBh, since there is only a single occurrence of
anuprav1~/a and none of prav1~ta in the BhiivBh.
(2) The Phrase Siinyataprapihitanimitta-
prayogamanasila1ranupravi~ta
i) Siinyataprm;iihitanimitta
The first half of the Prativedha section, commences with the phrase:
sunyatapraIJihitanimittaprayogamanasikaranupravi~fasya
As the starting point of contemplating emptiness, wishlessness, and the
uncharacterized ...
This phrase siinyatiipra1J1nitiinimitta appears quite unexpectedly at the beginning
with this part. In the preceding passage, there is no prior reference to this triad
consisting of emptiness (siinyatii), wishlessness (apraJJihita), and the uncharacte-
rized (animitta), i.e. the three entrances to liberation (triJJi vimokJamukhiini, siin
jietu6 men ~ ~~fl3tFi), and its accidental occurrence is thus surprising.
What is its significance? In fact, it is related to the Adhimoksika section which
is evident when compared to its point [F], which was translated.above. Thlt point
speaks about self-conceit (asmimiina) and how it is to be eliminated, and siinyatii,
apraJJihita, and animitta are used as examples to clarify this process. It thus comes
up at the beginning of point [G], being based on the exposition given in [F]. In the
Prativedha section, however, there is no apparent reason for its mention. Hence, it
is again evident that points [F] and [G] of the AdhimokJika section form a basis for
the Prativedha section.
ii) The Meaning of the Phrase Siinyataprm;iihitanimitta
Why, then, is siinyatiipraJJihitiinimitta mentioned in this context? As is clarified in
point [F] of the AdhimokJika section, the phrase is described together with the
term abhisamaya (realization, full comprehension) and the catviiri iiryasafyiini(the
four noble truths). The context is thus the safyiibhisamaya, the realization of truth.
Safyiibhisamaya is explained shortly in the, LakJaJJapratisaipvedi manaskiiral;
section in the Lokottaramiirga chapter of the SrBh, where the four noble truths in
their sixteen aspects are presented. The topic is taken up again and given further
comment in the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi Subsequently, the problem of the vipari-
JJiima (transformation) is explained, whose exegesis also is found in the Laksana-
Pfatisaipvedi section. Both passages of the V[niscayasaipgrahaJJi refer back t~ the
SrBh by saying "as already explained in the SrBh." 118 Thereafter, the relationship
between the sixteen aspects (iikiira) and siinyatiipraJJihitiinimitta is expounded as
follows: 119
From among these sixteen aspects ( akara), which correspond to the prac-
tice of emptiness (silnyata)? The answer is two [aspects, namely] the two
118
119
D4038.zhi.66b 5 , T1579.604c; D4038.zhi.67a4 , T1579.605a.
D4038.zhi.68a 2_4 , T1579.605b.
The Bhavanamayi Bhumi!J 837
latter [aspects from among the four aspects] relating to the truth of suffe-
ring ( du!Jkhasatya). Which correspond to the practice of wishlessness
(apra1J1hita)? The answer is six [aspects, namely] the two former [aspects]
relating to the truth of suffering and all [four] aspects relating to the truth
of the origin [of sufferings] (samudayasatya). Which correspond to the
practice of the uncharacterized ( animitta)? All [four aspects] relating to
the truth of the cessation [of suffering] (nirodhasatya). Which constitute
the pure cause characterized by practice? [These are] all [four aspects]
relating to the truth of the path (margasatya).
Clearly, these additional explanations found in the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJl ~re based
upon the LakJaJJapratisaipvedi and the AdhimokJ1ko sections from the SrBh. The
exegesis interpret the phrase siinyatiipra1J1"hitiinimitta to imply the sixteen aspects
through which the practitioner realizes ( abhisamaya) the four noble truths ( catviiri
aryasafyiini). Similar correlation of the sixteen aspects to the three entrances to
liberation are found in the earlier literature, such as the *MahiivibhiiJii (Da
, 'h-J'
p1pos a un +EEiFl,',r~A)120
/\..t:1::/gc1::Y~~ .
In the case of the AdhimokJika section's point [F], it may be supposed that the
phrase siinyatiipraJJI"hitiinimitta indicates the sixteen aspects, because it appears
together with the related expression safyiibhisamaya. The Prativedha section,
however, does not justify why it introduces these terms. Surely, the Prativedha
section also deals with the topic of safyiibhisamaya and an expression including the
word abhisamaya also occurs, namely abhisamayiintariiyika ('which obstructs
realization'). Hence, it is difficult to see that the phrase siinyatiipra1J1"hitiinimitta in
that context should also indicate the sixteen aspects, and from this fact, it must
again be concluded that the description given in the Prativedha section was based
on the AdhimokJika section.
(3) Anityadibhir Akarai/;1
In the Prativedha section, there is the phrase anifyiidibhir iikiirail;, meaning "by
means of the aspects such as impermanency and so forth." In this case, the meaning
is relatively clear from the context, though the passage offers no further explana-
tion about it. Yet, an explanation is indeed found in point [HJ of the AdhimokJ1ka
section. There it is said that duf;khasafya (the truth of suffering) is inspected
through four iikiiras (aspects), namely anifyatii (impermanence), duf;khatii
(misery), siinyatii (emptiness), and aniitmatii (no substantiality). For example, the
explanation of anifyatii is (the Sanskrit text is cited above):
The yogin, who applies himself in such a manner, looks at the former and
later [moments] of the stream of mind and sees their otherness, their
newness, coming and going, being present only so shortly. This is its im-
permanence.
Hence, in this case also, the Prativedha section presupposes the AdhimokJika
section.
(4) Summary
To sum up the findings so far, it was argued that the first half of the Prativedha
section corresponds to point [G] of the AdhimokJika section, while the second half
°
12
For example, T1545.538c-539b, where several kinds of such correspondences are
explained.

838 Yasunori SUGAWARA
corresponds t~ poin! [J]. The key-terms of the first half are not only found in point
[G] but also m pomt [F]. Some of the phrases of the first half are based on
desc~iptions gh:en in points [F], [H],_ and [K]. Hence, it was argued that the
Prat~vedha section presuppose_s the Adhimok$ika section, and that it indeed is
nothmg but a summary of the Adhimok$ika section from the SrBh. The second half
o[ th~ Prattvedha s.ection wa~ written on t~e basis of points [F], [G], and [H] of the
Adh1mo_k$ika sect1onc a~d 1t ~as es!abhshed that point [G] is the core part,
concludn~g that the Adh1mok$ika section has priority over the Prativedha section.
Overall, It may be concluded that the whole Prativedha section constitutes a
synopsis of points [F] to [J] of the Adhimok$ika section.
4. The Difference between the two Sections
T_hough these ~o sections resemble to each other, their contents are subtly
different. Two different patterns may be observed. The first is that the Prativedha
section constitutes a partial summary of parts of the Adhimoksika section. The
other is a pattern of intentional change. · ( cittaikagrya) .
. (1) The Parts that are not summarized in the Prativedha Section
GIVen the summary c~aracter of the (rativedha section, the slight differences
betw~en th~ two sections become evident from a comparison, for - as also
mentioned II.l the present article by VON ROSPATT - there are verily differences
betw~en. the1r contents. On the one hand, the Prativedha section ends with a
de~cnption of th~ eradicati~n of citt~ and the attainment of cittaikagrata ( one-
pom!edr.iess of mmd)_. In .the mtroduc!1on of BhavBh 7-l-B, it is added that thereby
saryra~h1s~maya.(reahz~t1on of truth) 1s accomplished directly without interruption.
The 1"dh1mok$i!a se~tion, on t~e other h~nd, is dif[erent. After point [G] being
what 1s summanze~ m. the Prativedha section, the Adhimok$ika sections explains
~oncretely the real~zat1on of the truths in its points [H] and [I]. Then, point [J]
mtroduces the notion of samasamalambyalambakarp jiiana (the knowledge that
the one who focuses and th~ focus [of the contemplation] are one and the same),
~hereup?n the degrees of U$Illa (heat), miirdha (peak), and k$iinti (endurance),
1.e., the first three of the four wholesome roots ( catvari kusalamiilani si shangen iz:g
~f~), are .succ~ssively ~nt.roduce~ and are interpreted in terms 'of this jiiana.
Moreover,. 11_1 P?mt [_K], 1t 1s explam.ed that the elimination of the contemplating
mental. ~ctlVlty itself 1s necessary. Pomt [L] presents the mysterious mental state of
tranqmhty, wh~reupon saryrabhisamaya (the realization of truth) is laid forth, in the
co~text of wh~ch the terms la_u~1ka, agradhar1:1a.{1 (the highest worldly quality),
bemg the last 1te1? of the c~tvan kusalamiilan!, and lokottra (the supramundane)
aprear. The Prativedha section does not contams any parts corresponding to these
pomts.
Thus, although the ~rativedha section is a summary, it does not summarize all
the contents of the_ 1dhiij10k$i!~ ~ecti~n. The Prativedha section gives no
refe_rence to the cat:7an kusalamulam section, and this is a curious aspect of the
B_ha~Bh. I~ the editor of the Prativedha section had summarized the entire
Adh1mok$1~a section, including its divisions [J] and [M], he would also have had to
make menti.on of the catvari kusalamiilani. Given the BhavBh's omission of such
reference~, it m~y be c~ncluded that the editor finished his summary with the first
half of pomt [J] m the Adhimok$ika section.
The Bhavanamayi BhiimiiJ 839
(2) Citta and Asmimana
In the Adhimok$ika section, as shown above, the object to be abandoned is
consistently asmimana, while it is not always the case in the Prativedha section. The
Prativedha section says:
tan manasikarasahagataf!] cittaf!] svarasaviihitiiyaf!] samutsrjya
The mind involving such mental activity is in and of itself completely left
behind.
In this sentence, the object to be abandoned is not asmimana but rather "mental
activity involving self-conceit" ( asmimanasahagatarp cittarp). However, in the
second half, the following phrase is found:
tasya cabhisamayavighnakarakasyasmimanasya cittavikJepakarasya pra-
haIJ;iC cittaikagryaf!] Sp[Safi
[Thereby], self-conceit that obstructs realization and distracts the mind is
abandoned, and [the meditator] reaches [the state] of one-pointed mind
In this sentence, what is to be abandoned is definitely asmimana. Here, the word
citta is used to explain the asmimana, namely in the expression cittavik$epakara
(that distracts the mind). This description is same as point [J] in the Adhimok$ika
section, and likewise as point [F], where asmimana is defined as abhisamayaya
vibandhakara.{1 (that which hinders realization).
It thus seems that is some confusion in the Prativedha section. Its second half is
same as point [J], but its first half is subtly different from point [G]. In view of the
contents, this may be just a slight difference, but in view of the text itself, it is a
significant difference. The author or reviser seems to have copied and summarized
the second half, following point [J] without modification. When he composed the
first half, however, he probably changed its contents slightly, because it discusses
the topic of the momentary character of the mind. Hence, the author/editor of the
BhavBh appears to be different from that of the Adhimok$ika section. It may
though be too early to draw such a conclusion, since only a single explicit diffe-
rence has been uncovered so far.
(3) The Disappearance of Citta
In thePrativedha section, it says:
anantaraniruddhaf!J cittaf!] navotpannena navotpannena manasikaroti
yathabhutam anityiid1bhir akarai/
whereupon one focuses on the mind as it truly is in its various aspects of
impermance and so forth, as [the mind] continuously ceases and arises
newly again and again.
In point [G] of the Adhimok$IKa section, there is a similar sentence:
sa utpannotpannaf!] cittaf!] nirudhyamanam anantarotpannena cittena
bhajyamanaJ!l pasyati, pravahanuprabandhayogena/
He sees that every [instance of] mind that has arisen and is coming to an
end is immediately followed by another arisen [instance of] mind, in the
manner of an uninterrupted flow.
Though these two sentences correspond to each other, it seems that their contents
are slightly different. On the one hand, in the Prativedha section, the topic at this
 840 Yasunori SUGAWARA
point is the abandonment of citta, as shown in the above-cited sentence explaining
impermanence and the momentary character of the mind. In the Adhjmok~1ka
section, on the other hand, the cited sentence is placed in the context of 'mind only'
thought (strictly speaking, as it is not VijnaptJmatra thought). Prior to the cited
sentence, the passage speaks of "withdrawing from the external sense objects," and
after the cited sentence it is said that the practitioner "focuses and ascertains the
mind by means of the mind." How should the cited sentence be explained in a
'mind only' context? The meaning of two parallel sentences is probably the same,
but their purposes, contexts, and intentions seem to differ.
The problem might, however, not be so simple. In the subsequent point [H],
the momentary character of citta is explained in detail without any reference to
issues that could be interpreted as indicating 'mind only' thought. Thus, when
points [G] and [H] are viewed as whole, the 'mind only' phrases surrounding the
cited sentence seem to go against the context. If this is so, it suggests that the
Adhjmok~1ka section itself )Vas subject to revision at a later stage. In such a
scenario, it means that the SrBh contains elements that must be seen as posterior
to p~rts of the BoBh, given the philosophically more developed elements seen in
the SrBh, though it remains uncertain how this issue might be explained.
(4) Summary
Though it is difficult to reach a firm conclusion with regard to this matter, it is clear
that the contents of the first half of the Pratkedha section are subtly different from
both the second half as well as point [G] of the Adh1mok~jka section. As has been
shown, the PraHvedha section consists of the two parts that roughly correspond
respectively points [G] and [J] of the Adhjmok~1ka section, and the Adhjmok~1ka
section must have been composed prior to the Pratjvedha section, as the latter is a
kind of summary of the former. Further, since the Prafjvedha section displays
certain inconsistencies and confusions, its author or reviser is probably different
from the author of the Adhjmok~jka section.
[III] The Problem concerning the Whole Section 7-1-B
The previous segment discussed the similarities and differences between the
PraHvedha and the Adh1mok~1ka section. The present segment examines BhavBh
7-1-B and argues that the whole passage must have been transformed by later
revision. The redactory issues pertaining to BhavBh 7-l-A will be discussed in a
future publication.
1. The Problems Occurring in BhavBh 7-1-B
(1) The Problem regarding References to Other Literature
There are two sentences in BhavBh7-l-B that imply that this section depends upon
other principal literature. These are found in 7-1-B Introduction and 7-1-B-4. In
the introduction of 7-1-B, five conditions are shown, through which the disciple
attains mental steadiness. Having listed the five factors, the text says:
841
The Bhavanamayi Bhiimil;
tanj khalv etanj paiica kiiraJJanj satyabh1samayapratJ_:tomo_panj~afam
arabhy~ vedjtavyan_1: nanulo_mop~nj~~dam/ yathiiPff dhanakaraJJapurva-
1
mrddesatas tu praMomopam~anmrdeso_ c!ra~tavyaJ;I
It should be known that these five condit10ns are, m fact, [here] present~d
in the reverse order with regard to the realization of truth and not m
[their] progressive order. l_'he presentatio1: of the reverse ?rder can b~
seen in the earlier explanation that was mamly concerned with the condi-
tions.
The key-phrase is yathapradhanakara1;apiirvanh:ddesatas, w_h!ch ~ea~s _"in the
earlier explanation that was mainly concerned with the c?nd1t1on~. This 1s ~ote-
worthy, since such contents do not appear in the precedmg part m the BhavBh.
Again, at the end of BhavBh7-l-B-4, it says:
jty ayarp sarpbharo vedjtavyas dttasthjtaye pradhanasaipbharamargadhj-
karatah/122 .
This accumulation for [developing] steadine_ss of mmd should be kno_wn
as [it has been explained] in the chapter havmg the path of accumulation
as its main [topic].
Here the phrase pradhanasaipbharamargadhjkaratafJ, "in the chapter. having the
path of accumulation as its main [topic]," is a cross-reference. Thu~, m_bo~~ the
cited examples, it seems natural to suppose the existence of ~ precedmg s1gmflcant
literature, which - as will be argued below - seems to be the SrBh.
(2) Confusion concerning the Struc~ure o~ Bha~Bh 7-1-B
At the beginning of each section, the BhavBh gives a hst of 1t~ms th~t ar~ then
discussed in the succeeding commentary. Usually, the numb_er of 1~ems fits ~1th the
number stated in the list. In section 7-1-B, it is stated twice m th~ 1~tr_oductI~n and
the conclusion that there are twenty items in this section, but_ 1t 1s 11:1poss1ble to
count twenty items in this part. The section gene~ally does.not hst the items one by
one, but instead described them in a summanzed fashion, except two shorter
passages displaying some sort of structur~, namel~ 7-1-B-2 and a part of 7~ l-B-5.
The section is therefore problematic and its style differs from the other sections. It
seems that the whole section 7-B was revised or rewritten at a later stage, and
perhaps as a result of deletion, addition, and/o revision, the structure of the twenty
items was lost.
(3) The Descriptive Style in the 7-1-B . . .
In general the BhavBh avoids difficult technical terms and teaches daily ethics m
relatively ;imple terms. The text thus has the character ~f being a fu?damental and
preliminary text. However, the descriptive style in section 7- ~ -B d1f~er~ from the
other parts. 7-1-B-1 (the Prafjvedha sectio~) _refers to the s?'teen akaras. F~om
among these, only anjtya (impermanence) 1s mtr?duc_ed, while the rests are J1:st
implied by the word adi, meaning "and so forth." L1kew1se, the term skandhakausa-
Jya (expertise in the skandhas) is mentioned in 7-1-B-5, wherea~ the_ other four
standard types of expertise (kausalya) are not note?. T_hey are om1tt~d m the _same
way with adi Though smrtyupasthanas (the apphcatlon. of mentah~) _are mtro-
duced in the 7-1-B-3, their concrete contents are not wntten. The diction of the
121
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:54).
122
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:58).
 842 Yasunori SUGAWARA
other parts of the BhavBh is much plainer, whereas the style of 7-1-B is that of a
description in which specific elements are skipped.
(4) A Stereotypical Phrase in 7-1-B
i) na pratyudavarttate miinasarp paritasanam upadaya in 7-1-B
In the introductory and concluding parts of section 7-1-B, the phrase na pratyuda-
varttate manasam paritasanam upadaya (his mind does not revert due to evil desire)
123
appears. The i~troductory part runs: 124
tasya taccittam evaip nirvitsahagataiiJ sajiiiimanasikiirail; ebhil; paiica-
sthiinagatair vi0satyiikiirail; suparikarmakrtam/ aparail; paiicabhil;
karaJJair viipsatyiikiiraparigrhitaiiJ (r~JJiik~aye nirodhe nirviiJJe tvarita-
tvaritaip saiptI~fhate/ na pratyudiivarttate miinasaip paritasanam upiidiiya,
atha kas tarhi <ma> iitmii/
His mind, which has been very well-prepared by means of these five
stages and twenty types of knowledgeable contemplation associated with
123
This idiom is found three times in the BhiivBh, namely on pp. 21, 53, and 60
(SUGAWARA, forthcoming). In the MS, the form paritasanii (pp. 21, 60) is seen twice and
paritasana once (p. 53), namely in the present passage. Though it may be better to emend
paritsana to pari(asanii, the form given in the MS has been adopted. The readings
appearing in the SrBh (the third and fourth Yogasthiinas) are consistently paritasanii. In
SHUKLA's edition, however, it is always erred to paritamanii, although paritasana(ii) is the
correct reading. Cf. EDGERTON (1953:324).
124
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:53). Concerning the meaning of the word paritamana or
paritamanii, it is usually translated into Chinese withy6ulil (?I/Ji) or y6uch6u (?ff~), both
meaning "sorrow". In the present passage, it is just translated with the first of these
characters, i.e., you (?I), likewise meaning "sorrow". The Tibetan translations yi chad pa or
yangs su gdung ba reflect the same connotation. EDGERTON (1953:324 s.v.), however,
interpreted it differently. H.e thought that the word originally stemmed from the verbal root
tr~ "to thirst", but that it later was misunderstood to be a derivation from the verbal root
tras "to tremble, to fear." Agreeing with his interpretation, I translates it with "evil desire".
In the present passage, the form of the word has been emended into the optative form. The
meaning of the term is, however, l}Ot so easy to decide. An explanation for the term is given
in the third Yogasthiina of the SrBh, listing four conformations of hindrances (iivaraJJa-
svabhiiva), from among which the passage occurs in the section on the purification of the
hindrances (iivaraJJavisuddhi) (SHUKLA, 1973:398; T1579.457b). Paritasanii is said to be
the first hindrance among the four, and is explained as follows: tatra paritasanii ya nai~-
kramyapravivekyaprayuktasya kli~fii utkaJJ.thiiratil; sprhaJJii daurmanasyam upiiyiisaiJ
(SHUKLA, 1973:399; T1579.457b ). Translation: "Among these, paritasanii is tainted longing,
dissatisfaction, coveting, dejectedness, [and] irritation for those who strive to renounce
[worldly life] and be solitary." This definition includes terms that are related to trsas well as
tras. Likewise, in the succeeding part, its meaning is not especially concerned ~ith tr~, and
in the case of the YBh it is therefore difficult to assert that the verbal root of the word is trs.
Rahter, paritasanii seems to have meanings derived from tr~ as well as tras in the YBh, with
words related to trasbeing in majority. Probably, the confusion pointed out by EDGERTON
arose in an earlier age and the YBh thus continues such a confused exegetical tradition of
this term. In conclusion, paritasanii in the SrBh is not limited to the meaning 'evil desire',
but it generally means an unsuitable mental condition, which including what may be called
'evil desire'. In the current passage (T1579.457b), Xuanzang (::t*) translated the word
with qieruo ('[~~~), meaning "fright and weakness." His translation is, strictly speaking, not
literal but perhaps suitable to the context.
The Bhavanamayi Bhumjj; 843
weariness, quickly comes to dwell in the end of craving, cessation, nirva9a,
due to five other conditions that are subsumed under twenty types. [His]
mind does not revert due to evil desire, since [he thinks] "What Self do I
have?"
. par t says: 1~
The cone1u d mg
yadii casyaibhil; paiicabh(lJ _karaJJair eb~1r v1°Ipsat.yakiir~il; parigrhitais
citta tr~JJiik~aye mrodhe mrvaJJe susaipsth1ta bhavatI, na casya punal;_pra_-
tyudiivarttate miinasaip paritasaniim upiidiiya, atha kas tarh1 ma atma,
sahasiivasthiiniic cetaso 'bhisamitasatya ity ucyate/
And when he has come fully to dwell in the end of craving, cessation,
nirval)a, by means of these five con~litio~s as~ociated wi_th tw~nty types,
[his] mind does not revert due to evil deslfe, smce [he thmks] What Self
do I have?" Given his mind's powerful abiding, he is called "one who has
realized truth."
These two quite similar passages appear at the beginning and the end of BhavBh 7-
l -B. Moreover, the phrase na pratyudavarttate manasalp paritasanam upadaya
also appears a third time in the BhavBh, namely in the fifth segment called Prati-
uavana.-126
pak "{,a b.i.-
ii) na pratyudavarttate miinasarp paritasanam upadaya
in the Adhimoksika section
The phrase reappears in point [J] of the Adhimok~1"ka section in the SrBh:
Thereby, through putting !this] i_nto l?ractice,. th~ co~rs~ form ?f self-
conceit [associated] therewith, which hmders [fmdmg] JOY m [seekmg for]
mrviina is abandoned. Based on the aspiration to [attain] nirviiJJa, the
mind· b~comes stable. [His] mind does not revert due to evil desire.
[Rather,] owing to [this] aspiration, [the practitioner] will find joy.
Likewise, a similar phrase occurs in point [E]:
pratyudiivarttate miinasaip siintadhiitvanabhila~itatayii paritasaniim upii-
diiya/ . . .
Since he does not desire the state of peace, [his] mmd reverts due to evil
desire.
There is thus a correspondance between the Adimok~ika section and BhavBh 7-l,
and it seems that point [J] of the Adhimok~ika section constitutes the source f~r
the parallel. In point [J], the sentence fits well into the overal~ context, wherea~ m
all three cases of the BhavBh the sentence occurs suddenly without much relation
to the preceding and succeeding sentences.
iii) na pratyudavarttate miinasarp in the Savitarkadibhiimi
A similar usage also exists in the Savitarkadibhum1: Here, it is, however, not na
pratyudavarttate manasalp paritasanam upadaya, but only pratyudavarttate mana-
salp, and its meaning is a little different:
125
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:60).
126
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:21).
 844 Yasunori SUGAWARA
ken_a kiirapen~ bodhisattvasya k[Jl}apa1!Ja!J1 vyan;jokayato vijiiiiniit praty-
udavartate manasa1p, na tv anyebhyo 'ngabhyafJ/ -7
When the Bodhisattva observes [dependent origination] during the dark
half [of the night of his enlightenment], why does [his] mind turn back
from [the link] of consciousness and not from one of the other [twelve]
links [of dependent origination]?
This sentence concerns the manner in which the Bodhisattva observed Pratitya-
samutpada in its reverse order during his enlightenment under the Bodhi-tree, as
described in the NagarasTltra. The question is raised why the Bodhisattva's inspec-
tion of dependent origination goes precisely until the link of consciousness and
turns back from there, and not from one of the other links of dependent origina-
tion. A similar passage is found in the VastpsaipgrahaJJi. 128
The uses of the phrase seen in the SrBh and the BhavBh do, however, not
correspond to its usage in the Savitarkadibhumi The possibility remains that the
expression seen in the Savitarkadibhumi (and the Nagarasutra, etc.) may have
been the origin for the phrase employed in the SrBh and the BhavBh, but it is
regrettably unclear whether the expression na pratyudavarttate manasaip pari-
tasanam upadaya has anything to do with how the expression pradyudvartate
manasaip is used in the context of the inspection of Pratityasamutpada in the
Savirtarkadibhumi Disregarding the partial occurrence in the Savirtarkadibhumi,
it may at least be established that the same phrase appears commonly in the SrBh
and the BhavBh, and that its usage in the SrBh seems more natural and may
therefore be the source for its occurrence in the BhavBh.
(5) The Repetition of BhavBh7-1-B-2
In BhavBh 7-l-B-2, it is said that saipnisraya (support) is the way to attain
cittasthiti (steadiness of the mind). This saipnisraya is nothing but samadhi and it
is explained through a subdivision into samatha (tranquility), pragraha (exertion),
upek~a (equanimity), samadhi (concentration), samadhisthiti (remaining in con-
centration), and samadhivyutthana (exiting the concentration). Yet, the same divi-
sion is mentioned again in another context in 7-2-B-1. The repetition is not contra-
dictory but appears a little peculiar and may have arisen due to a revision.
(6) An Inconsistency in BhavBh 7-1-B-5
The most remarkable case is BhavBh 7-l-B-5, where at first two items for
discussion are mentioned, but in the following passage they are not treated, since a
different topic is exclusively dealt with. Since this is a short section, it will be
129
quoted in full. The two items are mentioned at the beginning:
tasya tathiisaipbhiiriivasthitasya yogamanasikiiraprayogiiya dvau prayogo-
piiyau bhavatal;/ katamau dvau/ (a) svayam eva siltriididharmoddesam
iigamya manasikiiriinvayiit skandhiidivastukausalyaip/ (b) paragurilpa-
desaip ciigamya kiilena kiilam avaviidiinusiisanlip parigrahiiya guru-
saipnisrayaiJ, tadyathii siistur iiciiryasyopiidhyiiyasya viii
127
BHATTACHARYA (1957:230).
128
D4039.250b, T1579.829b. These expositions found in the *Savitarkiidibhilmiand the
Vastusaipgrahaplhave been discussed by several scholars in view of the formation of the
notion of iilayavijiiiina; see SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:214-219) with further references.
129
SUGAWARA (forthcoming:59).
The Bhavanamayi Bhumil; 845
For those who are thus steady in the requisites, there two preparatory
methods as a preparation for yoga and contemplation. What are they? (a)
From one's own side, [to possess] expertise in the real entities, such as the
aggregates (skandha) and so forth, derived from contemplation based on
the exposition of the teachings [given] in the siltras and so forth; and (b)
from the side of others, to obtain instruction from a guru, namely to rely
on a guru, such as an instructor (siistr), master (iiciirya), or pre~eptor
( upiidhyiiya), in order to receive instruction and teaching from time to
time.
130
The commentary on these items runs as follows:
samyakprayogamanasikiiras trtlya upiiyo vedit~vy~ip/ tatra;,;~IP -~amya1!-
prayogamanasikiiral;, samyakprayoga ucya~e S1!fm ar_the s17an~uddhil;,
tasyii manasikiiral;/ tasya tiim iitmanal; ~ilansuddhiip m_anasiku_rvaro
'vipratisiiral;/ avipratisiiripal; priimodya!J1 v1starepa yiivac c1ttasamadhib/
tasmiit samyakprayogamanas1kiiro 'pi cittasthitaya upiiya ity ucyate/ evam
upiiyatas tvaritaip cittasthitir veditavyii/
Application to the proper preparatory effort should be understood as a
third method. With regard to this, application to the proper preparatory
effort is as follows. Proper preparatory effort is here employed in the
sense of [upholding] a pure discipline, and [application to the proper
preparatory effort thus means] application to that. Since one applies one-
self to such a pure discipline, one is without regret. Since one is without
regret, there is joy, and so forth up to meditative concentration ?f the
mind. For this reason, application to the proper preparatory effort 1s also
called the method for steadiying the mind. In this way, steadiying the
mind should immediately be understood from the [word] method.
This commentary provides no explanation of the two preparatory methods listed in
the first passage. Rather, without notice, the author begins to describe a third
method. What has happened here? If the original author had intended to describe
three methods, he would have mentioned all three at the outset. Instead, he only
mentioned two, without referencing the third. In view of the passage's broader
context, the third item also differs from the other members. Moreover, the the
usage of the expression ucyate (employed, literally 'said' or 'spoken') is rather
unusual and appears nowhere else in the text. 131 Hence, the commentary gives the
impression of having been composed after the first passage, in which case the
commentator seems to be different from the author of the first passage. At least, it
132
seems problematic to accept that the entire passage was written all at once.
2. Analysis of BhavBh 7-1-B
As shown in the preceding segment, there are thus various problems with the
passage BhavBh 7-l-B, which seem to indicate various processes of revision. It has
130
Ibid.
131
See the index to the Sanskrit text by YOKOYAMA & HIROSAWA (1996).
132
However, it should be noted that Professor Noritoshi ARAMAKI during the
Yogiiciirabhilmi conference in Seoul 2008 objected to my interpretation of this passage and
argued that he does not find that it exhibits the kind of structural problem raised here and
that it therefore displays little or no evidence of interpolation. If ARAMAKI's view is
accepted, the only reason the third method stands out from the two former methods would
be for the sake of emphasis, in which case the style of the passage may be possible as it
stands.

846 Yasunori SUGAWARA
been demonstrated that BhavBh 7-1-B-l, i.e., the PratJ°vedha section, constitutes a
summary of the AdhjmokJ1ka section of the SrBh. Moreover, it has been argued
that there are other indications throughout segment 7-1-B as a whole that suggest
later modifications of the text. To delve further into this problem, it will now be
examined how and why such a revision might have taken place.
(1) The Reverse Order
To reiterate, the overall structure of section BhavBh 7-1-B is that it explained the
process of steadying the mind ( dttasthjtJ) through five groups:
1. manasjkarapratJ°vedhataiJ (according to penetration into mental concentra-
tion)
2. smpnj§rayatal; ( according to support)
3. iilambaniivatiiramukhatal; ( according to the senses through which the sense-
objects enter)
4. Salpbharapadgrahatal; ( according to comprehension of the requisites)
5. upayapangrahatal; ( according to comprehension of the methods)
The text states that these five groups are arranged in their reverse order. Yet, from
merely seeing the list, it remains unclear why this would constitute a reverse order.
This only becomes clear from the subsequent commentary.
Thus, starting from the last item, the commentary explains that comprehension
of the methods means to study by oneself and to learn from a teacher. As men-
tioned above, the commentary also adds a third method, namely to apply oneself to
a pure discipline (silavj§uddhj). These, it is said, constitute the ways to attain
meditative concentration (samiidhj). The fourth item, the requisites, signifies what
needs to be practiced once the practitioner upholds a pure discipline. The third
item deals with gaining control over the senses (jnddyasalpvara). The second item,
t~e support, is the practice of samiidhj itself. This equivalence also pertains to the
SrBh, where the word 'support' (salpnjsraya) likewise is used to connote samiidhi
Finally, the first item, the penetration into mental concentration (manasjkarapra{j-
vedha) provides a summary of the Adh1mokJjka section of the Srbh. Hence, the
word manaskiira or manasjkara here signifies the adhjmokJ.iko manaskaral; (men-
tal concentration endowed with confidence) through which the practitioner is said
to achieve realization of truth (satyiibhjsamaya).
This structure of the chapter becomes evident by following the commentary. As
argued above, the fifth item displays a structural incoherence in that a third
method, namely upholding a pure discipline (silaVJsuddhj), seems to have been
added to the originally listed two methods of gaining knowledge and relying on a
teacher. The reason why the element of upholding a pure discipline may have been
might be explained, if it is considered that a redactor attempted to rework the
overall passage to make it fit with such a reverse presentation of the path. In that
case, the redactor added the method of pure discipline in the fifth item, since this
would be considered a necessary pressupposition for viewing the passage as a
general presentation of the path to be cultivated. Further, he viewed the word
manaskara occyrring in the first item as representing the adh1mokJjko manaskaral;
taught i.!1 the SrBh and consequently added a summary of the AdhjmokJ1ka section
of the SrBh into the presentation of the first item, thereby transforming the whole
passage into a reversed exposition of the path. In case, the redactor, who inserted
the Adhjmo#jka section summary into the commentary on the first item and
The Bhavanamayi BhiJmjiJ 847
added the extra method in the commentary to the fifth item, would have to be the
same person. It seems that such an explanation would account for the various
structural inconsistencies that have been discussed here.
(2) Traces of the Revision
The question may !low be raised whether BhavBh 7-1-B was originally written
on the basis of the SrBh or whether it was revised latter. As has been demonstrated,
there are subtle structural irregularities in 7-1-B-1 (the Pratkedha section) as well
as in 7-1-B-5. The two methods listed in the opening part of 7-1-B-5 would be
unnecessary, if the section really was intended to be an explanation of pure
discipline (silavisuddhj). Rather, the two methods seem to go against the reverse
order of the segment, though the reviser seems to have chosen to add the third
method without deleting the original two methods. The opening sentence of 7-1-B-
5 says:
tasya tathiisal[lbhiiravasthjtasya yogamanas1kiiraprayogiiya dvau prayogo-
piiyau bhavata]JI
For those who are thus steady in the requisites, there two preparatory
methods as a preparation for yoga and contemplation.
Elsewhere, the text declares that the fourth requisite (salpbhiira) is the presupposi-
tion for the fifth method ( upiiya). Hence, it becomes evident that this section was
originally not written in the reverse order but in due order. Thus, Similar to the
other cases confirmed above, namely sections 6-3-A-l, 6-3-A-2, and 6-3-B, the
present section also shows structural confusion. Through this analysis, it is
therefore clear that this section was the subject of later revised.
(3) The Principal Literature
What is the basic literature that served as the basis for the revision of this section?
In other words, what is the principal literature referred to in BhiivBh 7-1-B? When
the section is read in the reverse order, pure discipline constitutes the foundation
for all the remaining points and its aim is satyiibl/samaya. The similar literature
constructed along these lines is nothing but the SrBh, which is also the source of
the summary found in 7-1-B-1; viz. pratJ°vedha section.
It is well known that the SrBh explains the requisites (salpbhiira) in great detail.
In the SrBh's Gotrabhumj chapter, the principal conditions along with twelve sub-
conditions for attaining nfrviiJJa are laid out, and these are called the requisites.
Among them, silasalpvara (pure discipline) is the fifth, while restrain of the senses
(jndrjyasalpvara) is the sixth. To treat samiidhj as a support (salpmsraya) i~ ex-
plained in the final, twelfth topic. This reflects the general sequence of the SrBh.
As for the term manaskiira, it is also treated in the second and the third Yoga-
sthana chapters, but the kind of manaskiira concerned here is that of the fourth
Yogasthiina, namely the seven types of manaskiira, especially the iidhjmokJ1ko
manaskiiral; (mental concentration endowed with confidence), which is closely
related to realization of truth (satyiibhjsama;;a). The reverse order of BhiivBh 7-1-
B concords with the structure seen in the SrBh. Therefore, the literature that is
referred to in the introduction and the fourth subsection of7-1-B must be the SrBh,
and it may thus be concluded that this section of BhiivBh was revised on the basis
of the SrBh.
848 Yasunori SUGAWARA
(4) The Revison and the Edition
There is yet another problem. As is widely known, there are many cross-references
in the YBh, and they are usually given with concrete names of the Bhtlmi in
qyestion. In the case of the BhfivBh, a cross-reference is explicitly made to the
SrBh in the section 6-1. However, the SrBh is not explicitly mentioned in the
problematic cases that have been examined here. Yet, an implicit cross-reference
does appear in the last part of BhiivBh 6-3-B, where a concise sentence is cited
from the Gotrabhumi of the SrBh, referring to bhojane mfitrajiiatfi (knowing the
precise quantity offood): 133
vistareJJa tadyatha bho/ane matra/iiatayam/
as [it will be explained] at length in [the passage on] knowing the appro-
priate quantity of food
Here the indication of the cross-reference is merely in the form of the phrase
bhojane mfitrajiiatfiyfim, "in [the passage on] knowing the appropriate quantity of
food," but it is clear tJiat it suggests the bhojane mfitrajiiatfi section of the Nm~-
kramyabhtlmi in the SrBh.
A similar scenario applies to the cases analyzed above. In the BhiivBh, there
are thus some references that imply the SrBh but which do not mention its name
explicitly and it is notable that such suggestions are only found in the doubtful
places, which seem to have been revised.
How should this be interpreted? This problem is difficult to solve, but perhaps
it was the case that the revisions were made at a different time from when the
cross-references were added. However, this is not fully clear at the present stage of
research and needs to be examined further. It is fraught with complexity to
perfectly identify the parts that have been revised, since - e.g. in the case of the
BhiivBh - not only the above-mentioned sections but indeed the whole BhiivBh
seems more or less to have been the subject of revision. Nevertheless, it at least
seems certain that the above-mentioned cases were revised later.
3. Summary
In the above an~lysis is was shown that the Pr~tivedha section (BhiivBh 7-1-B-1) is
based on the Adhimok§1ka section of the SrBh, viz. the second section of the
Lokottaramfirga chapter in the fourth Yogasthiina of the SrBh. The Prativedha
s~ction consists of two parts. The first half accords with point [G] of the
Adhimok§1ka section, whereas the second corresponds roughly to point [J]. There
are many parallel passages and similar expressions between these sections. In the
Prativedha section, there are several phrases that are impossible to comprehend, if
one does not consult the corresponding explanations given in the Adhimoksika
section. Hence, ~t was concluded that the Prativedha section is nothing b~t a
summary of the Adhimok§ika section.
Further, it was demonstrated that there are a number of inconsistencies in the
Prativedha section. For example, it was mentioned that what is to be abandoned in
the first half of the Prativedha section is the mind ( citta), whereas in the second
h~lf it is the belief in a self or self-conceit (asmimfina). The latter concurs with the
Adhimok§ika section. Thus, the first half of the Prativedha section differs from the
Adhimok§1ka section on this point, which led to the argument that the author or
133
SUGAWARA(forthcoming:44).
The Bhiivaniimayi Bhiimi!J 849
reviser of the Prativedha section may be different from the author of the
Adhimok§ika section.
Finally, concerning revisions, it was shown that there are various problems in
BhiivBh 7-l-B that seem to imply subsequent revison. In particular, the structure of
BhiivBh 7- l -B-5 is curious. The passage does not identify the twenty items that are
said to be there in the introduction to 7-1-B. Hence, it seems that the entire section
7-1-B was the subject to some form of revision, which led to these irregularities.
Further, it was argued that it is possible that every part in the whole BhiivBh was
revised to some degree, though it remains very difficult to identify the revised parts
exactly.
Conclusion
After presenting an overview of the BhiivBh, this paper has examined four passa-
ges, viz. BhiivBh 6-3-A-l, 6-3-A-2, 6-3-B, 7-1-B, in terms of their contents and
structure. In all these cases, parallel passages and similar contents were found in
the SrBh or the BoBh. The analysis also revealed discrepancies in structure and
contents, suggesting that the BhiivBh is based upon the SrBh and the BoBh, since
the parallel passages in these texts do not exhibit corresponding problems. It is
possible that the BhiivBh originally was written as an independent work, and when
joined with the other works to form the YBh, it may have been subject to revision
based on the .5rBh and the BoBh. This may imply that the SrBh and the BoBh were
considered the most central parts of the Maull BhtlmiiJ. Further study on this
matter is though needed.
Concerning the author or reviser, there seem to be various possibilities. It is
likely that the original author of the BhiivBh is not identical to the author of the
SrBh, since the texts express different interpretations of similar topics. Further, it is
also not likely that the the reviser of the BhiivBh is identical with the author of the
SrBh, because there are clear differences between the SrBh and the parts of the
BhiivBh that seem to have been revised. It thus seems that the original author of
the BhiivBh, its reviser, and the author of the SrBh must be considered three
different individuals.
850 Yasunori SUGAWARA
Abbreviations
BhiiBh Bhiivaniimayi Bhumil;.
BoBh Bodhisattvabhumi
Chin Chinese.
D Sde-dge edition of the Tibetan tnpifaka.
MS Sanskrit Manuscript of the BhiivBh in the Yogiiciirabhumi manuscript.
SrBh Sriivakabhumi
T Taisho Shinshu Daiz6ky6 (:*:IE*Jr1Jrf :*:~;r&), the Sino-Japanese Tripitaka,
published in Tokyo, 1922-1932, in 100 volumes.
Tib Tibetan.
YBh Yogiiciirabh um1:
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Remarks on the BhavanamayiBhiimilJ
and Its Treatment of Practice
Alexander VON ROSPATT
The Bhavaniimayi Bhilm1'fi (BhavBh) forms part of the main section of the
Yogacarabhumjsastra (or Yogacarabhumifor short), that is, it i~ a mauli bhumil;,
more precisely the twelfth mauli bhilm1'fi. It follows upon the Srutamayi Bhumil;
and the O'ntiimayi Bhilm1'fi, with which it may be viewed in unison according to the
threefold scheme of knowledge gained from hearing, reflecting, and contemplation,
i.e. srutamayi prajiiii, cintiimayi prajiia and bhiivanamayi prajiia. It precedes the
Sriivakabhumi (SrBh) with which it is closely related. The Sanskrit text is preserved
as part (folios 139a-153a) of the Yogiiciirabhilmi manuscript discovered and
microfilmed by Rahul SATy1KIFYAYANA in 1938 in Tibet. It has not yet been
published, but SUGAWARA Yasunori has edited the Sanskrit text and collated it
with the Tibetan and Chinese translation as part of a Ph.D. thesis at Hamburg
University. SUGAWARA has also contributed a paper to the present volume that
deals in detail with the formation of the BhavBh and its relationship to other parts
of the Yogiiciirabhilmi My present paper is more modest in scope. I will make
some general remarks on the BhavBh and then deal in more detail with what I
regard to be the principal agenda of the BhavBh, namely the mapping of obstacles
and their antidotes, and of techniques and factors to be fostered on the path of
practice. To illustrate this, I will show how listening to the dharma and receiving
personal instruction is listed at various junctures of the path as an important form
of practice. I will then deal with one specific obstacle, namely the lingering sense of
self (asmimana) that besets the advanced practitioner and prevents him from
plunging into the first realization of the four noble truths (satyabhisamaya). I will
present the terse passage laying out the appropriate antidote, namely the self-
reflexive penetration of the acts of contemplation (manasikaraprativedha)
undertaken by the meditator, and the knowledge it generates, namely the so-called
samasamalambyalambakajiiana that is grounded in turning each perceiving act of
cognition ( alambaka) into the object ( iilambya) of the immediately following act of
cognition, so that each cognitive event functions in turn equally (samasama) as
subject and object. In a further step, I will compare this passage to the correspon-
ding section in the SrBh and show how there are subtle but significant differences.
I am (yet again) immensely grateful to Prof. SCHMITHAUSEN for reading through this paper
with meticulous care, making helpful suggestions and drawing my attention to a number of
errors. I am also indebted to Dr. SUGAwARA Yasunori for sharing his excellent draft
edition of the Bhiivaniimayi Bhrlmil; with me. I have benefited from reading this text with
my graduate students at Berkeley. Among them, I am especially thankful to Daniel STUART,
who provided me with detailed feedback on the present paper. I have also received
feedback from other colleagues and would like to thank notably Prof. Stefan BAUMS for his
help in the final stage of submitting this paper for publication.
Remarks on the Bhavanamayi Bhumil; 853
I will subsequently make the same point by comparing how the two bhilmis treat
the conditions that need to be met to allow for the practice of Buddhism. Finally, I
will return to my discussion of the BhavBh's principal agenda and show, as a
further example of its structure, how food features as a recurrent theme along the
path.
Like the SrBh the BhavBh's orientation is clearly Sravakayanist. It teaches how to
become an arhant and obtain nirviiJJa, first with remainders in this life, and then
without remainders upon death when the adept is freed. once and for all from the
cycle of rebirth. The path to achieve this is standard Yogacara: an initial realization
of the four noble truths (satyiibhisamaya) signals the path of seeing (darsana-
marga) and the attainment of the trainee-level liberation (saik$avimukti), which
turns the adept into a noble hearer, an aryasravaka. It is brought about by the
cultivation of insight ( vipasyanii) that is grounded in calmness (samatha), but it
requires no deeper state of absorption than the preliminary stage (siimantaka)
bordering on the first dhyiina, 1 a state the BhavBh apparently equates with the
"fixation of the mind" ( cittasthiti). 2 In the course of the subsequent path of
cultivation ( bhiivaniimarga), this insight into the four noble truths is cultivated and
deepened until also all latent defilements (anusaya) have been eradicated in their
entirety, a state that translates into the complete and ultimate liberation ( vimukti-
paripilri) characteristic of the non-trainee (asaik$a). Be it noted that also in the
treatment of the bhavaniimiirga I do not find any clear indication that the
attainment of the maula dhyiina (i.e. one of the four dhyiinas) would be a prere-
quisite for final liberation. 3
The path sketched here is given in a nutshell in the third section of the BhavBh
(140br14la 1), entitled "turning towards nirviiJJa"(nirviiJJapramukhatii). It identi-
fies ten dharmas that orient and propel the practitioner towards nirviiJJa, starting
with the firm convictions (saippratyaya), based on knowledge gained from hearing
( srutamayiprajiia), that 1) the path and its fruit really exist, that 2) they are worthy,
and that 3) they are realizable; it continues with 4) meditative seclusion and 5) the
entry into the knowledge based on reflection ( cintamayajiianiinupravesa), followed
by 6) the constant application to contemplation ( bhiivana) and 7) the resultant
deepened understanding that saipsiira is imperfect and nirviiJJa worthy; and it
1
BhiivBh 149b 1 allows for the supramundane realization of the truths (satyiibhisamaya)
by an adept who has only achieved the "obtainment of meditative concentration" (samiidhi-
liibha), which in 145a3 is defined as "obtaining the preliminary stage bordering on the first
dhyiina (prathamadhyiinasiimantaka/iibha), and who has not "completed samiidhi"
(samiidhipariprlri), that is, attained to a mau/a dhyiina, i.e one of the four principal me-
ditative states of absorption (cf. 145b 2), let alone achieved mastery over the practice of
samiidhi ( samiidhivasitii), which would allow him to enter and exit such states at will.
Likewise, BhiivBh 150b5-15la 1 allows for the practice of "expanding delight in meditation"
(samiidhiratibahulikiira) by an iiiyasriivaka who has only obtained the samiidhi of the
siimantaka stage of the first dhyiina.
2
Cf. the compound samyakcittasthitisamiidhiliibha in BhiivBh 145a2, and see also
BhiivBh 149bi-150a2 •
3
BhavBh 152a2 states that in the final stage the "learner's samiidhi completes
cultivation by reaching up to the vajra-like (samiidhi)" (saik!jah samiidhil; vajropama-
paiyantagamaniid bhiivaniipariprlri!p gacchati), where all k/esas and anusayas are de-
stroyed and final liberation is obtained, but it does not specify that this samiidhi has to
correspond to a maula dhyiina.
854 Alexander VON RoSPATT
culminates in 8) the darsanamarga with the gnosis of the noble truths ( satyabhi-
samaya), and in 9) the subsequent practice of the bhavanamarga as well as 10) the
resultant complete supramundane liberation of the non-trainee, the asaik$a, as the
tenth dharma, which leads to entry into miva.{lawithout remainders upon death.
In the BhavBh's treatment of the path of liberation, I do not detect any ele-
ments that would reflect the bodhisattva ideal. Nor are there any allusions that
would point to a Mahayanistic conception of reality. The concept of emptiness
(sunyata) is evoked only once in the compound sunyatapra.{11nitanimittaprayoga-
manasikara, where it occurs in the standard combination with the other two gates
to nirva.{la, namely wishlessness (apra.{lihita) and signlessness (animitta) as a form
of contemplation conducive towards the realization of the four noble truths. Nor is
there a passage in the BhavBh - and this includes the section dealing with the
samasamalambyalambakajiiana - that could be interpreted as an allusion to an
idealistic conception of reality. Finally, there is in the BhavBh also no indication of
the concept of the alayavijiiana, a form of subliminal consciousness often known in
English as store-house consciousness because it carries karmic impressions. All this,
of course, does not mean that the BhavBh would have been oblivious of the
Mahayana. By contrast, besides its familiarity with the Bodhisattvabhumi, which it
cites more than once, it mentions vaipulya when it gives a comprehensive list of the
genres that constitute the formalized teachings of the Buddha (saI[Jketikadharma).
While the precise re,ferent of the term vaipulya has been variable, it can be safely
presumed that the SrBh's unequivocal equation of this genre with the literature
propounding the bodhisattva path4 holds good for the BhavBh, too, which there-
fore acknowledges this path to be an authentic teaching of the Buddha.
The BhavBh covers all stages of the path, starting with the conditions for the
cultivation of practice (yogabhavanapada), continuing with the foundation for the
cultivation of practice (yogabhavanopani$at) and the subsequent cultivation of
practice (yogabhavana), and ending with its result ( bhavanaphala), namely the
comprehensive, unsurpassed worldly purification (sarvakara niruttara laukiki
visuddhilJ) and the comprehensive supramundane purification (sarvakara Joko-
ttara visuddhilJ). While the BhavBh covers all stages of the sravaka's path, it does
so from one particular angle, namely that of the cultivation of practice. It offers
absolutely no doctrinal teachings or discussions of controversial issues. By contrast,
it clearly presupposes a detailed and correct knowledge of the Buddha's teachings
and does not make it its business to provide this. One way to account for this is to
view the BhavBh in conjunction with the immediately preceding Srutamayi
BhumifJ and Cintamayi BhumifJ as a correlative part that presupposes the content
of these two bhumis.
Maybe more surprisingly, with the exception of the aforementioned generation
of the samasamalambyalambakajiiana that I will return to below, the BhavBh also
does not offer any instructions on how to engage in meditative practice. (I use this
expression in a broad sense that is meant to encompass any form of contempla-
tive/concentrative practice, be they more analytical or absorptive.) Rather, the
4 5
Cf. the definition of vaipulya given by SrBh 138 14ff for the corresponding passage:
"What is vaipulya? Where the path of the bodhisattvas is taught, [leading to] unsurpassed,
perfect awakening and the realization of the ten powers ( bala) and of unobstructed
knowledge, that is called vaipulya. ( vaipulymp katamat / yatra bodhisattvanaip margo
desyate 'nuttarayai samyaksaipbodhaye dasabalanavarapajiianasamudagamaya / idam
ucyate vaipulyam / /).
Remarks on the Bhavanamayi Bhilmi!J 855
BhavBh again presuppose~ detailed knowledge of such matters. More precisely, as
various references to the SrBh and the Samahita Bhumil;i suggest, it takes detailed
knowledge of these parts of the Yogacarabhumi and the meditation techniques
taught there for granted. 5 For instance, while the contemplation of impermanence
and the other aspects ( akara) of the first noble truth is laid out in the SrBh over
more then twenty pages (in SHUKLA's edition), the BhavBh has the simple phrase
"he contemplates (the object) as it really is under the aspects of (being) imperma-
116
nent, etc.
Instead of dealing with doctrinal points or meditation techniques per se, it is
the BhavBh's agenda to list the (often recurring) obstacles and challenges the
adept has to cope with during the various stages of the path, and to mention (but
not explicate) what the practitioner has to do, besides overcoming these obstacles,
in order to progress, be it cultivating certain forms of practice or behavior,
fostering particular attitudes, and so on. This particular perspective with its em-
phasis on negative factors and obstacles continues right to the end. Thus the attain-
ment of arhant-hood is defined negatively by the absence of ten defects ( do$a)
(152a5-b 3), and this includes such prominent obstacles as not restraining the sense
organs (indriyasaI[Jvarado$a), indulging in blissful meditational states (sukha-
viharasvadado$a), and negligence (pramadado$a), as well as faulty speech, reflec-
tion, and seeking brought about by wrong views particular to the non-Buddhists
( asaddf${isamutthapita vagvitarkai$aJJado$fiS trayalJ ).
In its treatment, the BhavBh does not aim to provide a comprehensive abhi-
dharma-style analysis of the factors at stake (knowledge of which it again takes for
granted). Nor does it provide precise and detailed instructions on how to tackle the
obstacles and difficulties the practitioner encounters, or on how to foster the
positive factors that it lists. Rather, concrete knowledge of how to deal with these
matters is again presupposed, and at most the BhavBh names the appropriate
antidote (pratipak$a) to particular obstacles. Instead, what our text does provide,
and this seems to be its principal purpose, is a listing of the sets of concrete issues
and concerns relevant at particular junctures of the path. Its original contribution
is, therefore, not the systematic treatment of these issues - as mentioned, the
BhavBh merely lists them without providing any details or analysis - but an
overview of their occurrences that lays out at which stages of practice and in which
contexts they become relevant. This brings with it that many points recur again and
again, simply because they continue to be relevant as the practitioner advances.
There is, of course, nothing new in the realization that obstacles are not over-
come once and for all but continue to trouble the practitioner as he progresses
along the path. However, unlike other parts of the YBh, the BhavBh foregrounds
their recurrence and in the process sheds light on the down-to-earth reality of a
practitioner's quest, on the sometimes banal but very real challenges he again and
again has to cope with. This link with actual practice is reinforced by the fact that
the BhavBh does not restrict itself to such standard items as the five hindrances
(nivaraJJa), but also mentions concrete situations. For instance, the text mentions
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN and other scholars have shown that the Yogacarabhiimi is
not a coherent work by a single author (Asanga) but the result of a complex and drawn out
process of compilation uniting a body of material that reflects different stages of develop-
ment and is not always homogenous. Hence, the question poses itself how its constituent
parts are related to each other.
6
BhavBh 149a3 : manasikarotiyathabhiitam anityadibhir akaraiiJ.
 856 Alexander VON ROS PA TT
the sexual desire for one's wife or the attachment to one's family among obstacles
standing in the householder's way of renunciation; or it lists the need to attend
sarpgha meetings (see below) and other distractions of monastic life as factors that
hinder the advanced adept in his pursuit of solitary meditation.
The tendency to mention particular points and concerns again and again is
reinforced by the structure of the BhavBh, which offers more than a simple linear
treatment of the path. Rather, in its first two parts (sthana) it deals with the path's
prerequisites and covers from different angles the basis and fundamentals of
practice. This approach continues in the next sthana, which again does not cover a
particular segment of the path but deals with obstructions encountered at all stages
of the path, that is, by the (potential) beginner, i.e. the householder, by the
renunciant, and by the advanced practitioner engaged in solitary meditation. Also
in other contexts when the BhavBh deals with particular topics, its treatment may
span the whole path, or large parts of it. I have already mentioned above that the
enumeration of the ten dharmas that orient and propel the practitioner towards
nirvapa, which entails the summary of the entire path including entry into nirvapa
without remainder. Similarly, the BhavBh covers much of the path when it deals
with the ten factors that bring about "the ripening of the understanding that is
conducive towards liberation" ( vimuktiparipacinyal; prajiiayal; paripakal;). The
same happens again in a later part when listing the twelve obstacles that obstruct
the cultivation of the notion that the body is impure ( asubhasarpjiiabhavana).
Moreover, when dealing with the mastery of absorptive meditation (samadhi-
vasita) and with the realization of the noble truths (satyabhisamaya), the BhavBh
does not only mention the immediately relevant practices but also lists circumstan-
tial factors that are only indirectly relevant at these two stages. For instance, in the
former case (i.e., regarding samadhivasita) it refers to the need to suffer the
deprivations of renunciation, and the concomitant abandonment of family, friends
and kin, and of material goods, and of such forms of entertainment as songs,
dances, etc. (145bs - 146a2); and in the latter case (i.e., in the part dealing with the
first realization of satyabhisamaya), it mentions, for example, the need to over-
come regard _for alms-food (pipgapata), and seating and bedding (sayanasana)
(149b3). In this way the BhavBh treats particular issues, even when they are not of
immediate relevance to the practice under consideration, because they form the
basis in which the practice should be grounded. This approach, too, entails that
certain points and factors are mentioned repeatedly in the BhavBh.
A good example for the foregoing is the repeated emphasis on listening to the holy
~harma and receiving oral instructions. Our text refers to this theme already in the
first part ( bhavanapadasthana) when it mentions recourse to the formal teachings
of the Buddha (sarpketika saddharma) and to personal instruction (avavadanusa-
sani) as a prerequisite needed for cultivating the thirty-seven factors conducive to
a~~kening ( bodhipakwa dharma) and realizing the fruits of ascetic practice
(sramawaphala) (l39bst). In the next part (sthana) of the BhavBh, which is
dedicated to th~ _basis for the cultivation of practice (yogabhavanopanifat), the
process of receivmg the holy dharma and learning through instruction plays a
particularly prominent role. The first of the three sections (aiiga) making up this
part (sthana) is even dedicated entirely to this theme, which it treats as "the
accomplishment of listening to the holy dharma" (saddharmasravapasarppat).
However, in typical fashion, instead of offering its own treatment of this topic, the
text only summarizes the Bodhisattvabhumi's categorization in the shortest
Remarks on the Bhavanamayi BhiimiiJ 857
possible way, and otherwise refers to that bhumi's treatment of this subject under
twenty-four (right teaching) and sixteen (right listening) aspects without listing
these aspects or reproducing other details.
The BhavBh returns to the same theme already in the next section (aiiga)
dealing with the aforementioned ten dharmas that orient the practitioner towards
the attainment of nirvapa (nirvapapramukha). Here the text highlights the process
of learning by mentioning the benefits ( anusarpsa) of listening to the teaching on
this topic. It specifies that the disciple does not only benefit himself, but also
pleases the instructor if he_ listens ~ith_ the appropriate attitude and if later, when
practicing, he comes to achieve reahzatlon (141a1_4).
The importance of receiving teaching features even more prominently in the
subsequent section (141a5_b 2), which concludes the second sthana. It lists the
factors that bring about "the ripening of the understanding that is conducive
towards liberation" ( vimuktiparipacinyaJ; prajiiayaJ; paripakal;). It starts with the
need for good friends (sanmitra) in order to bring about 1) the "will to realize the
true nature that needs to be known" (jiieyatattvavabodhaya cchandal;). In this
context it also lists 2) the ability to tolerate criticism from one's peers ( vacana-
ksamata). The mentioned will is to generate 3) the desire to listen to teaching
(srotukamata), which in turn should lead to 4) inquisitiveness (pariprcchata) and
the resultant 5) learning of new things (asrutaprlrvasyarthasya sravapam). By
constantly, again and again listening (punal; punal; sravapasatatyat), 6) the
practitioner's understanding will be purified and his doubts laid to rest. After the
proper absorption of the Buddhist teaching by way of listening has been set forth in
this way, the BhavBh continues, in a much more cursory manner, with the
remaining process inclining the mind towards the destruction of negative factors
and the purification of the mind.
The need to listen to the dharma and receive instruction is also a recurrent
theme in the subsequent sthana dedicated to the cultivation of practice (yoga-
bhavana), though it does not feature quite as prominently. This sthana treats the
ten obstasles ( vipakfa) and their antidotes (pratipakfa) (which occur in the same
form in SrBh 2681z-270 14 as sikfav11oma and sikfanuloma dharmas). The first
obstacle is the aforementioned sexual desire for one's wife (svadaragato maithuna-
pratisarpyukto ragal;) (BhavBh 142a1), which has as its counteragent the cultivation
of the notion that the body is impure ( asubhasarpjiiabhavana). This antidotal
cultivation is dealt with in characteristic form, namely by providing no content or
other details except for listing twelve further hindrances ( vipakfa) that obstruct its
practice. 7 These vipakfas include lack of expertise in contemplation of practice
7
The BhavBh treats only three of the ten pratipakfas ('antidotes') enumerated in the
third sthana as antidotes to the ten obstacles ( vipakfa) that form this sthana's subject of the
first order. It does so by listing the factors obstructing the practice of these three
pra{jpakfas. In the other seven cases, it only mentions the pratipakfawithout providing any
further details. The reason for this might be that the obstacles ( vipakfa) to which the ten
pra[jpakfas relate are classified as pertaining to the state of a householder (agarikavastha)
(pratipakfa 1-2), to renunciation (pravrajyavastha) (pratipakfa 3-6), and "to contemplation
of the practice of withdrawal by one who is solitary" (praviviktasya pratisa!f1layanayoga-
manas1karavastha) (pratipakfa 7-10). The BhavBh treats the first pratipakfa of each of the
three groups, namely the cultivation of the notion that the body is impure ( asubha-
Salpjiiabhavana) relating to the householder, the cultivation that regards the impermanent
as entailing suffering ( anitye dufikhasa!f1Jiiabhavana) relating to the renunciant, and the
cultivation of the notion of light ( alokasalpjiiabhavana) relating to the solitary practitioner.
858 Alexander VON ROSPATT
(yogamanasikflrflkusalatfl) that "follows from not being eager to listen and ( as a
consequence) not being inquisitive" (asusruJflm aparjprcchflm flgamya) (142b 5 -a 1).
When dealing with the third vipakJa, namely laziness and indolence ( alasyakau-
sidya) in applying oneself constantly to the cultivation of wholesome dharmas
(kusaladharmabhavanflsfltatyflbhiyoga) (142a 3), the BhavBh mentions six obstruc-
tions to the practice of its antidote, namely the contemplation that regards the
impermanent as entailing suffering ( anitye dul;khasaipjiiflbhflvanfl). Among these
six obstructions, the BhavBh lists not being constant in one's eagerness to listen to
teachers and to approach and question them (gurususrilJopasaipkramaJJa-
panjycchflsv asfltatakflritfl) (143a4 ). Related to this, it also mentions the lack of
trust in teachers as an obstacle that prevents constant practice (guruJu vai-
sraddhyaip yad vaisraddhyam flgamyflsfltat[yjakflri bhavati) (143a4 ).
The BhavBh also returns to the need for instruction in the next and final sthflna,
entitled "the fruit of cultivation" ( bhflvanflphala), which is dedicated to the first
realization of the four truths and the subsequent bhflvanflmflrga resulting in final
liberation. The first of the two sections (aliga) of this sthflna deals, again through
the lens of obstacles, with the ability to enter samfldhi (samfldhilflbha), that is to
attain the stage immediately preceding the first dhyflna (prathamadhyflnasflman-
taka) (145a2t), and then to bring samfldhi to fulfillment (samfldhiparipuri) by
entering one of the main (maula) dhyflnas and finally to master absorptive
meditation (samadhivasitfl), which allows entry into and exit from these dhyflnas at
will. To start with, there is a bipartite list of twenty obstacles that hinder initial
entry into samfldhi (144a5 -145a 1). It starts with 1) ascetic companions that lack the
will for abandoning/exertion (prahflJJavicchandakasabrahmacflrisahflyadoJa), and 2)
continues with faults of teachers who teach the means of samfldhi (samfldhyupflyo-
padesakflcfliyadoJa), and not grasping the teaching (agrahaJJadoJa) 3) because of
inattention due to lacking desire to listen to the means for realizing samfldhi
(samfldhyupflyasrotukflmatflm flrabhya mandacchandasya cittavikJepfldi), or 4)
due dimwittedness from stupidity (ja<fatvfln mandabuddhitvfld). It concludes that
even if the prior obstacles are not operative and the practitioner does have the
intellect to grasp the teaching, there is yet the danger that 5) he may be driven by
the preponderance of desire for fame and recognition (labhasatkflrasprhabflhulya-
doJa). Although the list's second segment of fifteen items obstructing the attain-
ment of samfldhi is not dominated by the need to receive instruction properly, it,
too, gives space to this concern and mentions as obstacles a) not accepting teaching
because of pride and hostility, presumably regarding the teacher, whom one either
finds inferior or dislikes (mflnflghfltadoJfld upadesflgrahaJJadoJaiJ ), b) imagining
things that are at odds with the teaching (upadesaviparitakalpanfldoJa), and c)
forgetting the teaching that one has received (saippramoJadoJa).
Also the subsequent step, namely to bring the practice of absorptive meditation
to fulfillment (samfldhiparipuri) and advance from the sflmantaka stage of the first
dhyflna to the realization of the main (maula) dhyflnas, gives space to the impor-
tance of receiving individual teaching. As "the practitioner is absorbed in medita-
tion with dharma as its object, he rises from time to time (from this meditative state)
and questions and interrogates in order to hear the holy dharma regarding the
It does so by listing the obstacles encountered in turn when practicing these antidotes
(pratipak~a). In each case the listed obstacles are not specific to only the given pratipak~a,
but are of more general relevance. This may be the reason why there is no separate
treatment of each antidote.
Remarks on the Bhavanamayi Bhumjj; 859
8
erfection of samfldhi, thereby quickening his understanding." This will allow him
fO
enter the main dhyflnas and master the practice of samatha and vipasyanfl
meditation.
The treatment of the next and final preparatory step before progressing to the
realization of the four truths (satyabhisamaya), namely the mastery of samfldhi
(samadhivasita)_ that allo"'.s th~ adept _to enter and leave these_ ~tates of deep
absorption at will, makes hkew1se mention of the process of rece1vmg and absor-
bing the teaching. It teaches that the practice _includes "enjoy~ng _from tim~ to time
the offerings that others have given out of faith by one who 1s firmly dedicated to
good practice as a result of studying, discussing the content, and ascertaining (the
9
truth of) the teaching."
The subsequent section of the fourth sthflna concluding the BhavBh - it treats
the first realization of the four truths and the subsequent bhavanflmflrga resulting
in liberation - also highlights the continued need to receive teaching. It contains a
passage that deals with five major factors leading to satyabhisamaya. Among them,
it lists the acquisition of means ( upflyaparigraha), which includes one's own
engagement with the Buddha's teaching and personal instruction received from a
teacher. More precisely, it mentions, on the one hand, "expertness with regard to
such items ( vastu) as the skandhas, which follows from reflection based on one's
own recourse to the formal teachings of the Buddha as found in the sutras and so
on." 10 And, as corollary, it mentions, on the other hand, "reliance upon teachers
(guru), such as instructors (sflstr), masters (flcfliya) and preceptors (upadhyflya)"
(parigrahflya gurusaipnisrayaJ;, tadyathfl sflstur flcfliyasyopadhyflyasya vfl) from
whom one from time to time receives personal teachings ( avavfldflnusflsani)
(150a1).
Finally, the need for instruction also forms part of the treatment dedicated to
the bhflvanflmflrga. Dealing with the obstacles that the noble srflvaka has to
negotiate at this phase, the text mentions as "defect pertaining to the practice of
vipasyanfl not listening to others (teaching) the good dharma conducive to vjpas-
11
yanfl, because one considers oneself already knowledgeable." The benefit of
receiving teaching also features under another aspect of practice mapped onto the
bhflvanflmflrga, namely the generation of joy (pramodya). Besides reflecting on the
values of the three jewels and rejoicing in one's own spiritual accomplishments,
"the practitioner arouses gladness by recollecting gratefully the help received from
his supportive teacher, which is instrumental in doing away with suffering and
12
obtaining happiness."
I have shown in some detail how the BhavBh returns repeatedly to the issue of
listening to the holy dharma and receiving instruction in different contexts and at
8
BhavBh 145b1 : sa tatha dharmanimittanusari samapadya vyutthaya k~iprabhijiiatayai
samadhiparipiirim arabhya saddharmasrotukamatam upadaya ka/ena kalaip pariprcchati
pantrasnikaroti
BhavBh 146a4t: kalena ka/am uddesasvadhyayasaipkathyaviniscayakusafapak~apra-
yuktasya paratal; sraddhadeyaparibhogal;.
10 BhavBh 149b -150a : svayam eva siitradidharmoddesam agamya manasikaranvayat
5 1
skandhadivastukausalyaip. ,
11
BhavBh 150b 3: vijiiatvatmasaipgrahat parato vipasyananukiilasaddharmasraval}aip
vipaS[_anaiigavaigul}yaip.
1
BhavBh 151blf: krtajiiataip carabhyopakaril}al; sastur upakaranusmrtimanasikarato
'pi pramodyam utpadayati yaduta sahetukadu!Jkhapakar~aip sahetukasukhopasaipharaip
carabhya.
 860 Alexander VON ROSPATT
different stages of the path. It is of course no surprise that recourse to the Buddha's
teachings and to personal instruction is of relevance at all junctures of the path
right until the attainment of final liberation. Even so, it is instructive to learn of
precise contexts and situations ( their enumeration is clearly not meant to be
exhaustive) in which the reception of teaching features as a prominent concern,
and of possible obstacles to this reception such as pride, hostility, lack of trust in
teachers, forgetfulness, or the mistaken belief to know it all. This sheds particular
light on this theme - light that to my mind reflects something of the reality of
practice on the ground - and it is this light that constitutes the particular contribu-
tion of the BhavBh, rather than a comprehensive treatment of the right way of
"listening" to the holy dharma, which the BhavBh takes for granted and does not
provide.
This being said, the BhavBh's contribution cannot be reduced to the mapping of
obstacles and their antidotes onto the path. Rather, in some instances it also differs
importantly in its treatment of the material that it derives either directly or
indirectly from other bhumis. In order to illustrate this, I want to deal in the
following with one particular obstacle, namely the lingering sense of self ( asmi-
mana)13 and the intimately related, existential fear about what will become of
oneself in the state of extinction, 14 which beset the advanced practitioner and
prevent his mind from stabilizing and plunging into the realization of the four
noble truths (satyabhisamaya) and from embracing nirvaJJa. Reflecting the crucial
importance of this moment - it transforms the practitioner into a noble listener
13
The presence of this lingering sense of self engaging in practice is expressed in SrBh
4979-16 in the following way: "I myself have transmigrated and I myself am to transmigrate. I
myself will enter complete extinction. I myself cultivate wholesome dharmas for the
attainment of complete extinction. I myself view suffering as suffering, the origin (of
suffering) as origin, the cessation (of suffering) as cessation. I myself view the path
(resulting in this cessation) as path. I myself view the empty as empty, the wishless as
wishless, the signless as signless. Mine these dharmas are." (aham asmj saipsrtavan, aham
asmi saipsadwami aham asmj parinjrvvasyami aham asmi parinirvviil}iiya kusalan
dharman bhavayam1: aham asmj dufJkhaip dufJkhatafJ pasyamj, samudayaip samudayato,
mrodhaip nkodhatafJ. aham asmj margaip margatalJ pasyami aham asmi sunyaip sunyato,
'pral}jhitam apral}jhjtatafJ, animittam ammjttataf; pasyam1: mamaite dharmafJ.) A canonical
precursor (to which Daniel STUART drew my attention) can be found in the Paficattaya-
suttaip of the Majjh1ma Nikaya (II 237), where the perception "I myself am calm, I myself
am extinguished, I myself am without clinging" is identified as the final form of clinging that
separates the nearly realized practitioner from the attainment of liberation through
complete non-clinging (yaii ca kho ayam ayasma - 'santo 'ham asmj, nibbuto 'ham asmj,
anupadano 'ham asmi' fj samanupassati tad api 1massa bhoto samanassa brahmanassa
upadanam akkhayafj). · ·
14
Cf. BhavBh 148b4t: "... for five reasons .... (the practitioner) fixes quicker and
quicker upon the exhaustion of thirst, cessation, mrvapa, and does not turn back his mind in
terror (thinking) 'what then will in that situation become of myself?' For which five rea-
sons? [1] Because of the penetration of (the meditator's) acts of contemplation (manasi-
karapra{jvedha), immediately upon which without interval he descends into perfection and
faultlessness, realizes the (four noble) truths and touches the noble vision of knowledge."
( ... paiicabhjlJ karal}ak ... t[Jl}tikJaye njrodhe nkvape tvaritatvan·taip saiptjJ{hate, na praty-
udavarttate manasaip padtasanam upadaya 'athas kas tarhy atma?' ... katamaih paficabhil;
karapaif;. manasjkarapra(jvedhato yasya manasjkaraprafjvedhasyanantaraip sahitam eva
samyaktvaip nyamam avakramatjsatyany abhisamagacchatj sprsaty iil)'aipjfianadarsanaip).
Remarks on the Bhavanamayi BhiJmjiJ 861
( aryasravaka), corresponding to the stream winner (sotapanna) in the Theravada
tradition, who is certain to become an arhant - this is the sole instance where the
BhavBh outlines a particular meditative technique (rather than merely mentioning
it), namely the self-reflective analysis of the process of contemplation (manasi-
karaprativedha), which is to generate the aforementioned samasamalambyalam-
bakajfiana and overcome the obstructing innate sense of self. More precisely, the
elimination of this sense is achieved by making the preceding act of analysis the
object of the current analysis, thereby realizing (jiiana) that each act of analysis
(alambaka) is itself as ~ts object ~alam':y~) impermane?t, unsati~fac~ory, and he~ce
selfless. This mode of mtrospectlon ehmmates the basis for the 11lus1on of a subject
that engages in analysis and replaces it by the correct understanding of the activity
of analysis, namely that it consists in nothing but a series of impersonal acts of
analysis that themselves are each as impermanent and selfless as their object, the
immediately preceding act of analysis. This elimination of the asmimana hindering
transmundane realization (abhisamayavighnakaraka) and distracting the mind
( cittavik~epakara) allows the mind to become one-pointed ( cittaikagryaip sprsati).
In continuation of the method employed to eliminate asmimana, the state of one-
pointedness is then objectified in turn (spr~taip me cittaikagryam iti ca yatha-
bhutaip prajanati manasikaroti). 15
This technique is found in largely the same form and with the same function in
the SrBh. While the BhavBh is much terser and compresses the complex technique
into one convoluted sentence ( quoted in n. 15) that needs unpacking, th~ wording
is closely related and leaves no doubt that the BhavBh draws upon the SrBh or a
common third source. However, the BhavBh differs in an important detail insofar
as here the acquisition of the samasamalambyalambakajiiana and the concomitant
15
BhavBh 149a2 _4 : "He correctly penetrates and contemplates as meditation object
(minjtta) the thought engaged in the contemplation applied to emptiness, wishlessness, and
the state free of a mental object (i.e., the three doors to nirvapa). (This thought) is in a
subtle state and proceeds with or without interruption; it is accompanied by the conceit 'I
am' and (hence) forms an obstacle to gnosis. Penetrating the thought accompanied by this
contemplation (i.e., the contemplation applied to emptiness, wishlessness, and the state
free of a mental object) in this way and letting go of it as it perpetuates itself spontaneously
(and thereby eludes its objectification), he contemplates with a newly and newly arisen
(mind, that is, act of cognition) upon the (immediately preceding) mental act, which has
perished without interval (after its origination). (He does so by viewing it) as it truly is
under the aspects of 'impermanent' and so on. And, as a consequence of the application to
this concentration, and as a consequence of its cultivation, and as a consequence of doing
this more and more, the knowledge arises in which the object and the subject are the same.
By the (resultant) destruction of the conceit 'I am,' which forms an obstacle to gnosis and
makes the mind distracted, he touches one-pointedness of mind; and he realizes and
analyzes correctly 'one-pointedness of mind has been touched by me.' This penetration of
contemplation is known as conducive towards the gnosis of the truths (satyabhisamaya)."
( sunyataprapihjtanjmittaprayogamanasjkaranupravjJfasya silkJmasamudacaripafJ santara-
vyanataranuvartti[noJ 'sm1manasahagatasya cittanimittasyabhjsamayantarayikasya samyak-
prativedhat manasjkarat pratjvidhya ca tanmanasikarasahagataip cittaip svarasavahitayaip
samutsrjyanantaraniruddhaip cittaip navotpannena navotpannena manasikarotj yatha-
bhutam anityadibhk akarajlJ. tasya ca manasikarasyasevananvayad bhavananvayad
bahulikaranvayat samasamalambyalambakajfianam utpadyate. tasya cabhjsamayavighna-
karakasyasmimanasya cittavjkJepakarasya prahapac cittaikiigl)'aip sprsatj, spfffaip me
cittaikiigl)'am jfj ca yathabhutaip prajanatj manasjkaroti jty ayaip manasikaraprativedhafJ
satyabhisamayaya veditavyafJ).
862 Alexander VON ROSPA TT
one-pointedness of mind is the last step separating the practitioner from the first
transmundane insight into the four truths (satyabhisamaya) and the attainment of
the darsanamarga. As the passage cited in n. 14 puts it: "Immediately upon
penetrating the acts of contemplation (manasikaraprativedhatal;)," in the
mentioned way, "without interval the practitioner descends into perfection and
faultlessness, realizes the (four noble) truths and touches the noble vision of
knowledge." This is in marked contrast to the SrBh (499 17ft). Here the practitioner
first employs the same technique of introspection to eliminate his asmimana and
generate the samasamalambyalambakajiiana, thereby ensuring that his mind does
not turn away from nirviiIJa because of existential fear. 16 However, unlike in the
BhavBh, he does not immediately upon this plunge into the realization of the four
noble truths (satyabhisamaya). Rather there is an intervening phase where he
brings all mental activities (abhisaf!Jskara) to a total standstill. This amounts to a
mental state free from conceptualizations and discursiveness (nirvikalpa). 17 In this
state, "his mind appears as if it has ceased but it actually has not; it appears as if
without object, but it actually is not; it appears as if it has been set to rest and done
away with, but it actually has not. It is not the case that at this time [the mind] has
16
See SrBh 497 18 -498 7 and 499 6_11 : "The (yogin) lightly and easily penetrates with
insight the conceit 'I am' that functions as obstacle, (recognizing it) to be functioning as
obstacle. He lets go off mental activity as it perpetuates itself spontaneously (and thereby
eludes its objectification), turns away from the external object of knowledge and
undertakes the contemplation of the truths engaging with his mental activity (as object) and
following it. He views the newly and newly arisen thought as it is being suppressed as being
dislodged by the immediately subsequently arisen thought because of the operation of
concatenation within the (mental) stream. In this way (the yogin) with thought makes
thought an object and rests upon it, so that this delusion 'I am,' which had taken possession
of (his) mental activity and functioned as obstacle, does not have the opportunity to arise
with him again .... As a consequence of his application to this insight in this way, and as a
consequence of its cultivation, and as a consequence of doing this more and more, the
knowledge in which the object and the subject are the same arises. By this (knowledge) his
gross delusion 'I am,' which obstructs delighting in nirviipa, is eliminated as it occurs. And
with complete commitment he sets his thought upon nirviipa and moves forward, (and) his
mind does not turn back in terror." (sa tv asmimiina!p vibandhakara!p vibandhakara iti
laghu laghv eva prajnayii pratividhya, svarasiinupravrttau manaskiiram utsrfya, bahirdhii
jneyiilambaniid vyiivarttya, manaskiirapraviHiif!l manaskiiriinugatiim satyavyavaciirapii!p
iirabhate. sa utpannotpanna!p citta!p nirudhyamiinam anantarotpannenacittena bhajya-
miina!p pasyatipraviihiinuprabandhayogena. sa tathii cittena cittam iilambanikaroty avaffa-
bhate, yathiisya yo 'sau manaskiiriinupran~to 'smimiino vibandhakaraf; sa tasyiivakiisaf;
punar nna bhavaty utpattaye. . .. tasyaivam iisevaniinvayiid bhiivaniinvayiit <bahuli-
kiiriinvayiit> tasyiif; prajiiiiyii/J samasamiila!pbyiilambaka!p jniinam utpadyate, yeniisyau-
diirikas ciismimiino nirviipiibhirataye vibandhakaral; samudiiciiratal; prahiyate. nirviipe
ciidhyiisayatas citta!p pra <pi?>dadhatal; praskandati, na pratyudiivarttate miinasa!p
paritasaniim upiidiiya.) The Sanskrit text of the SrBh provided here and in the subsequent
notes incorporates Prof. SCHMITHAUSEN's extensive emendations of SHUKLA's edition,
which he has generously shared with me.
17
SrBh 499 17_20 : "Having in this way abandoned the delusion 'I am,' which is functioning
as an obstacle, and having with complete commitment embraced delight in nirviipa, he
abandons the very mental activity that successively examines thought, and casts his thought
into a state free of mental activity (so that it) is free of conceptualizations (nirvikalpa)." (sa
evam vibandhakaram asmimiina!p prahiiya nirvviipe ciidhyiisay<to 'bhi>rati!p parigrhya yo
'siiv uttarottaras cittaparikfiibhisa!pskiiraf; tam abhisa!pskiira!p samutsrjya anabhisa!pskiira-
tiiyii!p nirvika/pa!p cittam upanikf1pati).
Remarks on the Bhavanamayi Bhtlmil; 863
become enveloped by the sleepiness of the dengue fever; rather, this is a state 18
of
translucent tranqwlity (where the mind is) in ne!ther hifh nor in jaw spirits." Only
fter having emerged from this lofty absorption, which the SrBh is careful to
~haracterize as still mundane (laukika) (5009_13), the practitioner directs his mind
again towards the noble truths and now attains to their supramundane realization
and hence the darsanamarga (SOOu-5011). ,
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN, who has dealt with this crucial SrBh passage in
detail, 19 has argued that this objectless state of utter tranquility preceding
satyabhisamaya may correspond phenomenologically to the . t~~nscendent~l
liberating experience of the Mahayana. He concedes the possibihty that, this
passage on the state of untainted tranquility may have ?een ~nserted i~to the SrBh
in an inclusivistic vein, in order to incorporate the hberatmg expenence of the
Mahayanists, while relegating it to a soteriologically inferior position as an element
ancillary to the realization of the truths. But SCHMITHAUSEN also urges not to
assess this as a purely scholastic move, but to view it also as a position that reflects
genuine exper~ence. 20 It is noteworthy that the BhavBh at this point does _n_ot
replicate the SrBh and its inclusion of_ a _phase of c~mplete. m~ntal tranqmhty
intervening between the removal of asm1mana and the first reahzation of the, noble
truths. This is clearly a deliberate departure from the scheme found in the SrBh -
indeed, it seems the strong wording anantaraf!J sahitam eva ("without interval,
immediately connected") serves specifically to rule out the intervention of a non-
discursive phase of absorption. It indicates that for the BhavBh a sta~e of utter
absorption in which all ordinary mental activities have come to a standstill does not
form an integral part of the process of liberation. As for the mention of the one-
pointedness of mind ( cittaikagrya) that the practitioner "t_o~ches" as a result ~f the
aforesaid practice, this state does allow for content, for it mcludes, as mentioned
above, the discursive realization of its own one-pointedness, and hence is treated as
forming part of the "penetration of acts of contemplation" (manasikaraprativedha).
18 SrBh 499 -500 : tasya tac citta!p tasmin samaye niruddham iva khyiiti, na ca ta!p
20 3
niruddham bhavati aniilambanam iva khyiiti, na ca tad <an>iilambanarp bhavati tasya tac
citta!p pr;siinta!p vigatam iva khyatJ; na ca tad vigata!p bhavati_na ca pun~s tasmi!p samaye
madhurakamiddhiivastabdham api <bhavati>, ... The Sansknt manuscnpt has a lacunae
here but the Tibeta~·(Peking vol. 110, wi 230a7) and Chinese (T1579.475crn) translation
pres~rve the lost consecutive phrase, which I have included in my translation in italics.
(Peking vol. 110, wi 230a7: rnampar gsal zhing zhi gnaskyi rnampa las mi mth°--!!1j dma' ba
(so Derge. Peking: mi dga' ba) kho na yin no. T1579.475crn: Ol~:5tBJ§ ~~ffiff~~
ftg:fj'o
19 See SCHMITHAUSEN (1982:79ff.). A convenient English-language summary of the
arguments made in this article and relevant for the present discussion can be found in
SCHMITHAUSEN'S more recent paper (2007). ,
20 SCHMITHAUSEN (1982:83f.): "Sure, one gains the impression that the SrBh attempts
to subsume the mystical transcendental experience of the Mahayana in its Hinaya~is!ic
version of the path of liberation, just as conversely other parts of the Yogacarabhiim1 ~11:'1
to integrate and subordinate a Hinayanistic perspective into their essenti::tllY Mahayamstic
concept of liberating experience. This is not to say, however, that the SrBh's attempt to
incorporate the Mahayanistic transcendental experience into its Hinayanistic path must
have been a purely speculative move .... (Rather) I find it difficult to doubt that the passage
points to a real, lived experience, given the characteristics of_ thi_s state ?f 'mental p~ace,'
and particularly given the all but stereotypical phraseology with its mamfold compansons
and its employment of near-synonymous expressions to capture (this experience)." Note
that this is my free rendering of the German original.
 864 Alexander VON RosPATT
In other words, it is clear that cittaikiigrya does not correspond to a contentless
mental state beyond dichotomization, but is simply a focused state of mind that
eliminates the distractedness of the mind ( cittavik~epa) brought about by the
conceit 'I am,' and thereby allows for the unhindered analysis of mental acts, which
in turn triggers the ensuing entry into satyiibhisamaya. One might conclude on this
basis that the SrBh's inclusion of such a state was motivated by scholastic consi-
derations, i.e., the desire to incorporate and relegate the Mahayanistic form of
liberating gnosis, and pace SCHMITHAUSEN not because it reflected real expe-
rience on the ground. However, the BhavBh's elimination of an intervening state of
non-discursive calmness may itself be viewed as a scholastic move to streamline the
process of gnosis and rid it of suspect elements that served no clear soteriological
function in terms of the Sravaka path. Ultimately, the BhavBh simply reflects a
more conservative stance that did not allow for such a state. Hence, its testimony
does not allow us to settle whether the SrBh's inclusion of a non-discursive raptness
was solely a calculated scholastic move, or whether it also reflected genuine
21
experience. Even though the evidence of the BhavBh is not conclusive, its
deviation from the SrBh here is clearly significant. This goes to show that the
BhavBh does not only map material culled form other bhrlmis onto the path of
liberation, but that it also deviates in its interpretation of these materials in
interesting and meaningful ways.
21
In a later stratum of Yogacara texts than represented by the Sr3vakabhiim1; the
samasam3Jamby3Jambakajfi3na serves to overcome the erroneous dichotomy of an
apprehending subject (gr8haka) and an apprehended object (gr3hya). This allows for the
penetration of the true nature of phenomena, which instead of the realization of the four
noble truths signals the darsanam8rga in this tradition. (See, for example, AsaiJ.ga's
Abhidharmasamuccayabh8wa [76 19 : darsanam3rgo laukik3gradharm8nantaraip nirvikalpa-
samathavipasyan3Jakfapo veditavyaiJ. samasam3Jamby3Jambakajfi3nam api tad iti tena
gr3hyagr3hak3bh8vatathat8prativedh8t.] and his Mah3y3nasaipgraha [edition LAMOTTE, p.
535.s: byang chub sems dpa' de'i dmigs par bya ba dang I dmigs par byed pa mnyam pas
mnyam pa 'i ye shes rnam par mi rtog pa 'byung ste I de ltar na byang chub sems spa' 'di
yongs su grub pa 'i ngo bo nyid la zhugs pa yin no //], as well as Sthiramati's Triipsik8-
vijiiaptibh8wa on Triipsik8 26 [p. 43: samasam3Jamby3Jambakaip nirvikalpaip Jokottaraip
jii8nam utpadyate, gr3hyagr3hak8bhiniveS8nusay3iJ prahiyante svacittadharmat3y3fi ca
cittam avasthitam bhavati]) Though these texts reflect a more advanced stage in the
development of Yogacara doctrine than found in the SrBh, I find it possible that the
samasam3Jamby3Jambaka;fi3nam already had a similar thrust at an earlier stage of
development as found in the SrBh. To repeat, in this text (and in the BhavBh) this
knowledge is triggered by objectifying each thought moment as an act of concentration that
is unmasked by the immediately subsequent thought moment as impermanent and so on.
Although this is not spelled out in the SrBh or BhavBh, I find it conceivable that the
sustained application to and cultivation of this practice, with its treatment of thought as
both perceiving subject and perceived object, was found already in a Sravakayana context
to give rise to a cognition in which subject and object truly coalesce, destroying the notion
of a distinct self and transcending the dichotomizing mind by replacing it with a rapt state
of undifferentiated oneness. Note that both the BhavBh and SrBh emphasize that it is sus-
tained practice that brings forth the samasam3Jamby3Jambaka;fi3na. Also, note that the
SrBh characterizes the state of mental tranquility following upon the samasam3Jamby3-
lambakajfi3na as nirvikalpa, an attribute which in later Y ogacara works becomes standard
when qualifying the Mahayanistic insight into true reality. However, in the SrBh nirvikalpa
has not yet assumed its specific technical Mahayanistic meaning, and hence this charac-
terization carries less weight than might appear.
Remarks on the Bhavan/imayi BhiJmjj; 865
I would like to illustrate this point by a further example and turn to the
BbavBh's treatment of the five conditions that need to be met by an individual
( atmasaippat), in addition to the five e~ternal co~ditions ( b~h~~saippat), in order
to be in a position to follow the Buddhist path with the poss1b1hty of success. The
first condition called nikiiyasaippat refers to the need to be human. While the
formulation in the SrBh includes men and women, the near-identical formulation
in the BhavBh deviates by omitting stris ca ("and a woman"), which effectively
precludes women. 22 Though only_ coi:isisting in _the omission ?f two ak~~ras, I
presume that this divergence (which 1s attested m both the C~mes~ and Tibetan
translation) is significant and not merely the result of an accident m the textual
transmission. To be sure, it is also possible that the original formulation did
preclude women ( and hence introduced the gender issue in the first place), and
that the reading adopted in the SrBh is a modification with stris ca added on, so as
to allow for women. Even if so, I conjecture that the BhavBh would have been
familiar with this modification and that it would have taken the deliberate liberty
not to follow the SrBh in this instance.
There is no difference in the treatment of the second and third condition -
namely 2) to be born in the middle lands ( or in the realm of the nobles) among the
right people and not among "barbarians" (mleccha, dasyu), 23 and 3) to have a body
that is not defective physically or mentally24 - which are set forth in closely
matching wording. By contrast, there is again some gifference in the treatment of
the fourth ( or fifth according to the sequence of the SrBh) condition, namely to be
free from the karmic obstruction that results from having committed one of the
five cardinal sins leading to a rebirth in hell immediately after the present existence
(iinantarya), viz. killing one's mother, or father or an arhant, causing a schis~ in
the saipgha, or shedding the Tathagata's blood with bad intentions.25 The SrBh
22
SrBh 53ff ( = (I)-A-11-4-b-(1)-i; Ms-2a1L): tatra manufyatvaip katamatlyathapihaika-
tyo manuw8JJ8Ip sabh3gat8Y81P praty3j3to bhavati I purufas ca purufendriyepa samanv8-
gatal; stris ca I idam ucyate manuwatvam II BhavBh 139a4r: nik3yasabh3gasaippat katam8.
yath8piha1katyo manuwefu praty3jato bhavati, purufas ca bhavatJ; purufendriyena sam-
anv8f[atah.
BhivBh 139a5r, desasaippat katam8. yath8pihaikatyo manuwefv eva praty3j3yam3no
madhyefu janapadefu praty3j3to bhavati, na pratyantikefu yatr3gatis catasrJJ81P parfad8Ip
bh1kfubhikfunyup3sakop8sik8n8m, yatra punar gatis cataSflJ81P parfad8m adasyufv
amlecchesu tatra tatra praty3j3to bhavati, yatra gatir 81J181J8Ip samyaggat8n8Ip samyak-
pratipan~8n8Ip satpuruf8JJ8m. SrBh 58ff ( = (I)-A-11-4-b-(1)-ii; Ms.2a1R): 81J18Yatane praty-
8)8tiiJ katam8 I yath8pihaikatyo madhyefu janapadefu praty8j8to bhavatJ; piirvavad Y!vad
yatra gatil; satpuruf8JJ8m I iyam ucyate 81J18Yatane praty8j8til; II. With piirvavad, the SrBh
refers back to a passage pertaining to the Gotrabhumi (D. dzi 2b6f: de la mi khom par skyes
pa gang zhe na I smras pa I gang du 'khor bzhi bo rnams dang I dam pa rnams dang I yang
dag par song ba rnams dang I skyes bu dam pa rnams mi 'gro ba 'i mtha' 'khob kyi mi rkun
ma rnams dang I kla klo rnams su skyes pa yin te I de ni mi khom par skyes pa zhes bya o#).
24
BhavBh 139a6 -b 1: asrayasaippat katam8. yath8pihaikatyo madhye~ api janapadefu
praty3j3yam3no na cakfurv1kalo bhavati, na srotravikalal;, n8py anyatam3nyatam3iJga-
pratyaiJgavikalaiJ. ajacjo 'necjamiikaiJ, pratibalal; subh8fitadurbh#it8n8m dharm8n8m
artham 3jfi3tum. SrBh 61ff ( = (I)-A-11-4-b-(1)-iii; Ms-2a2L): indriyair ankalat8 katam8 I
yath8pihaikatyo Jacjo bhavaty anecjaka iti vistaraiJ I aiJgapratyaJig3vikalo v8 yadriipep3iJga-
pratyaJig3vaikalyena srotr8vaikaly8dikena bhavyaiJ kusalapakfasamud3gam3ya I idam
ucyate indriy3vaikalyam II
25
BhavBh 139b 1: karm3n3varapasaippat katam8. yath8piha1katyenasrayasaippannen8-
pi pafic3n3m 3nanta1J181J8m anyatam3nyatamad 3nantaIJ1aip naiva krtaip bhavati na
866 Alexander VON ROSPATT
specifies that it is "in this very life" ( drJta eva dharme) that those who have
committed one of these five sins "become unfit for the generation of the noble path
that leads to parinirvaJJa" (abhavyo bhavati parinirva]Jayaryamargasyotpattaye).
The BhavBh, by contrast, only hints in the corresponding passage at the restriction
that an anantarya crime disqualifies a practitioner for this life alone. 26 Moreover,
this limitation is missing entirely further down in the text, when the BhavBh
instructs the practitioner, in order to stir his mind into action, to consider, inter alia,
that the five sins "with immediate retribution do not allow for a bridge" that would
connect to monastic renunciation (pravrajya) and the subsequent fruits of
practice. 27 By not spelling out clearly that the commitment of an anantarya sin
disqualifies for this life alone, the BhavBh hints that the adverse consequences of
such a crime last into the distant future, and thereby ensures that they are viewed
with due terror. If a deliberate choice, this was to improve upon the formulation of
the SrBh, which, while technically correct, may have been perceived to be lacking
in emotive impact. , engage in practice. A good example for this treatment is found in the aforemen-
There is one further detail in which the BhavBh differs here from the Srbh,
namely by having the non-obstruction of anantarya karma precede rather than
follow upon the karmically conditioned possession of faith and inclination towards
the realm of Buddhism, 28 as is the case in the SrBh. This modified sequence makes
more sense, as the five conditions to be met by an individual build upon each other.
The question of right faith and aspiration does not pose itself when someone has
disqualified himself already as the perpetrator of an anantarya crime, and hence
should only be considered after it has been ascertained that no such sin has been
committed in this life.
These further examples drawn from the BhavBh's treatment of the conditions
necessary for the practice of Buddhism shall suffice to show that the BhavBh does
not simply duplicate the material of the SrBh, but also deviates in significant
kan'taf!}, yasya krtatvad ayam abhajanabhuta eva syad aryadharmapratilabhayaibhir eva
skandhaiiJ. Srbh 613ft ( = I 12) (I)-A-11-4-b-(1)-v; Ms.2a4L): aparivrttakarmantata katama/
yena paiicaniim anantaryapaf!l karmapaf!l, tadyatha ma(rvadhat pi(rvadhad arhadvadhat
saf!}ghabhedat tathagatasyantike du~{acittarudhirotpadad anyatamanyatamad anantaryaf!]
karma dr~fa eva dharme na krtaf!} bhavati nadhyacaritam iyam ucyate 'parivrtta-
karmantateti I imam· paiicanantaryapi karmapi krtopacitani dr~fa eva dharme parivartya-
bhavyo bhavati parinirvapayaryamargasyotpattaye I tasmad etani parivrttakarmantatety
ucyate//.
26
It does so by saying that "these very skandhas" (i.e., of this life) become unfit for re-
ception of the noble dharma (cf. the text in the preceding note).
27
BhavBh 148a3f: vyavadanavisaf!]yogadinavaiJ paiicavidho dra~{avyaiJ. ... grhapak~e
canantaryanaf!J karmapaf!l setvakarapata ... ity ebhiiJ paiicabhir akarair vyavadanavisaf!1-
yogadinavaf!1 atmanaf!J samanupasyan manasam udvejayati
28
BhavBh 139bu: adhimuktyanavarapasaf!Jpat katama. yathapihaikatyo 'samanvagato
'py anantaryaiiJ karmabhiiJ, na kadayatanadhimukto bhavati na kadayatanabhiprasannaiJ,
yaduta vicitre~u devayatane~u vicitre~u ca tirthyayatane~u. tathagatasasanasviiyatanagatena
prasadeniisya paribhavita purvajanmasaf!}tatiiJ, tena ca hetuna {ena pratyayenasyaitarhi
tasminn evaryayatane prasadasahagato 'dhimok~aiJ Saf!lll~fhate. SrBh 66ff ( =(l)-A-11-4-b-
(1)-iv; Ms.2a3L): ayatanagataiJ prasadaiJ katamaiJ I yathapihaikatyena tathagatapravedite
dharmavinaye sraddha pratilabdha bhavati cetasaiJ prasadaiJ I ayam ucyate ayatanagataiJ
prasadaiJ I tatrayatanaf!} tathagatapravedito dharmavinayaiJ sarve~af!} laukikalokottarapaf!l
sukladharmapam utpattaye I ya punar atra sraddha tena purvaligamenadhipatyena sa
ayatanagataiJ prasadaiJIsarvaklesamalakalu~yapanayanat //.
Remarks on the Bhavaniimayi Bhumj/; 867
details. Though the deviations of the BhavBh from the SrBh and other parts of the
Yogacarabhumi are significant, the principal contribution of our bhumi to the
Yogacarabhumi does not consist in this, but in its identification and correlation of
obstacles and salutary factors with particular stages of the path to emancipation.
To repeat, the focus is not on the treatment of these obstacles or factors per se, but
to chart their often repeated occurrences on the path of liberation. As a further
example to illustrate this I would like to return to the theme of food (ahara)
already touched upon above. It first features in the BhavBh as an external
prerequisite ( bahyasaippat) for the practice of Buddhism, namely in form of the
aforementioned need to have dedicated lay supporters who provide alms food and
other requisites for practice. 29 Thereafter, the theme of nourishment recurs more
than once, often with the text warning against indulging in food lest the overfed
body become unfit for the practice of meditation, but occasionally also stressing
the need of nourishment to maintain a body that is in good health in order to
tioned third sthana dedicated to the ten antidotes (pratipakJa) counteracting the
matching ten obstacles ( vipakJa) to practice (yogabhavana). The text first sets
forth the need for the renunciant to collect alms so as to maintain the body (kaya-
sthiti) and assure its stength ( bala) and fitness (kalyata) to engage continuously in
the cultivation of wholesome dharmas (kusaladharmabhavanasatatyabhiyoga). It
then warns against the "craving for taste" (rasaraga) as an obstacle ( vipakJa), and
enjoins as an antidote (pratipakJa) the cultivation of the notion of food as
disgusting (ahare pratikulasa1pjiiabhavana"') (142a4-b 2). Shortly afterwards, when
dealing with potential obstacles faced by the practitioner cultivating the aforemen-
tioned notion that the body is impure ( asubhasaipjiiabhavana), the text lists "not
knowing the right measure when ea tin~ ( amatrajiiata), which renders the body un-
fit" for meditation (kayakarma]Jyata). 3 The same problem of disabling the body by
overeating is mentioned again (in slightly rephrased form) a little further on, this
time as an obstacle to cultivating the notion that has as its object the light of the
dharma (dharmalokalambana-alokasaipjiiabhavana) (143b 3). In the subsequent
section (aliga) dedicated to the comprehensive, unsurpassed worldly purification
(sarvakara niruttara laukikivisuddhiiJ), the fault of being hard to satiate (duJpoJa-
durbharatasaiptuJfidoJa) and the consequent fault of being distracted by manifold
activities ( vicitravyaparadoJa), presumably undertaken in order to procure nou-
29
BhavBh 139b6 -140a2 : "What is the fulfillment of the condition of favorable suste-
nance? The devout brahman householders know that a mode of life conducive towards the
enjoyment of dharma is (possible) by way of the four means for this enjoyment being made
present. With the (aspiration) 'may there be for one who is yoked to the enjoyment of
dharma not be the cessation of the enjoyment of dharma because of a lack of the enjoy-
ment of sustenance' they care (for such practitioners) by way of (providing) abundantly the
(four) equipments, namely robes, alms food (and bowls), bedding and stools, and medicine
against illness." (anulomilwpakarapasaf!Jpat katama. yathapi tad ebhis caturbhir dharma-
Saf!lbhogakarapaiiJ pratyupasthitair dharmasaf!Jbhogaya pravrttJ°Ip viditva sraddha brahma-
pagrhapatayo 'ma bhud asya dharmasaf!Jbhogaya prayuktasyami~asaf!Jbhogavaikalyad
dharmasaf!lbhogajyanir' iti te 'syatyarthaf!l pivarapip<;fapatasayanasanaglanapratyayabhai-
~ajyapan~karaiiJ pratyanukampante.) Cf. SrBh 810ff ( = (I)-A-11-4-b-(2)-v; Ms.2b2R):
parataiJ pratyanukampa katama I para ucyante dayakadiinapatayah te yani tasyanulomikani
jivitopakarapani tail; pratyanukampante, yaduta civarapip<;fapatasayanasanaglanapratya-
yabha1~ajyapari~karair, iyam ucyate parataiJ pratyanukampa //.
30
BhavBh 143a1: bhojane ciimatrajiiatam agamya kayiikarmapyatii.
868 Alexander VON ROSPATT
rishment, feature among the obstacles to entry into meditative absorption
(samiidhilabha) (144b2). A little bit down in the same list "unbalanced eating and
the consequent heaviness and unfitness for meditation" occur as further obstacle. 31
When treating the mastery of absorptive meditation (samadhivasita) towards the
end of the same aliga, begging for alms at other families (parakulefu bha1kfa-
cara1Jalii) features as a humbling practice, and the ban on storing food obtained
from others is mentioned as a further depravation in this context (145b 5 -146a 1).
More importantly, at this stage the BhavBh also inserts a passage on the need not
to be beguiled by alms-food (and robes, and seating and bedding), but to bring the
understanding to bear that these requisites are merely there to sustain the body,
stop hunger, and benefit practice.32 Again, instead of providing more details, the
BhavBh alludes to the treatment of the knowledge of measure in food ( bhojane
miitrajiiatii) elsewhere. With this, the BhavBh probably refers to the SrBh, where
this subject is treated at considerable length. 33 The aforementioned passage
treating five major factors leading to satyiibhisamaya includes a closely matching
passage that again warns not to be enticed by alms-food (and seating and bedding),
but to overcome one's regard for such possessions (liibhasatkiira). 34 Similarly, when
listing the obstacles the practitioner has to face on the bhiivaniimiirga after his first
realization of the noble truths, the BhavBh lists among the seven obstacles relating
to behavior outside meditation ( ciiragata) attaching great importance to food
( bhojane gurukatii) when abiding by way of alms-food (piIJ<japatikatvena viha-
ratal;).35 This follows upon the obstacle mentioned first (and included in the
citation of the preceding note), namely the need to attend meetings dedicated to
affairs of the salpgha that force the practitioner who does not live in isolation to
again and again interrupt his practice. Clearly, abiding by way of alms-food, which
is one of the ascetic practices ( dhutiiliga) monks take voluntarily upon themselves,
features here as an alternative for living in a monastic community, which is a
constant source of distraction but apparently offers the advantage that food is
~~ Bh~vBh 144b4: bkafk~Jyava1~amyanaimittikaiJ kiiyagauraviikarmaJJyado~fJ.
BhavBh 147a3r: 1taretare1Ja civareJJa sa!ptu~/o bhavati yathii civareJJaiva!p piJJ{ja-
piitena sayaniisanena. sa tathii tu~/aiJ sa!ptu~/a eva!p sa!pprajiinam panbhwikte. itime jivita-
pari~kiirii etadartha!p, yiivad eviisya kiiyasya sthitaye yiipaniiyai jighatsoparataye brahma-
caryiinugr<fhiiyeti vistareJJa tadyathii bhojane miitrajiiatiiyiim.
33
Cf. SrBh 104ff ( = (I)-A-11-4-b-(7)): bhojane miitrajiiatii katamii Isa tathii saJPvrten-
driyaiJ pratisa!pkhyiiyiihiiram iiharati, na d[ravjiirtha!p (edition: darpiirthaip), na madiir-
tha!p na maJJ{janiirtha!p na nbhu~aJJiirtha!p, yiivad eviisya kiiyasya sthitaye yiipaniiyai
jighatsoparataye brahmacaryiinugrahiiya iti I pauriiJJii!p ca vedanii!p prahiisyiimi, navii!p ca
notpiidayi_syiimi/yiitrii ca me bhavi_syati,baia!p ca sukha!p ciinavadyatii ca sparsavihiiratii ca
I iyam ucyate bhojane miitrajiiatii II SrBh pp. 73-97 offers a detailed treatment of this
passage. It treats the knowledge of measure in food ( bhojane miitrajiiata") in that context as
a re1uisite (sa!pbhiira) for the sik~iimarga.
4
BhavBh 149b3 : sacet punar itaretareJJa piJJ{japiitena sayaniisanena sa!ptu~/aiJ, utpan-
notpanna!p liibhasatkiiram abh1bhavati
35
BhavBh 150a4r: (An obstacle relating to conduct) for the noble listener who lives in a
(monastic) community is the meeting of that community whenever affairs of the sa!pgha
come up, for which he again and again has to abandon the constant application to
wholesome practice (i.e., solitary meditation). But if instead he lives (solitarily) by collec-
ting alms, the weight attached to nourishment (becomes an obstacle relating to conduct).
( iiryasriivakasya gaJJe sa!pnivasata utpannotpanne~u sa!pghakaraJJiye~u vihiiya vihiiya
kusalapak~am abhik~JJa!p gaJJaSa!pnipiitafJ. piJJ{japiitikatvena vii punar viharato bhojane
gurukatii).
Remarks on the Bhavanamayi Bhiimil; 869
provided and hence not a concern. 36 It is noteworthy that the necessity to attend to
the demands of the laity, including performing rituals on their behalf, does not
feature as a further distraction that monks living in a monastic setup have to suffer.
This omission is suggestive given that catering for the laity's needs tends to be a
prominent and time-consuming duty in both Theravada and Mahayana communi-
ties. On the other hand, it would be precarious to conclude on such a slender basis
that ministering to the laity played only a minor role in the monastic milieu
underlying the Yogiiciirabhtlmi
It is remarkable that the issue of food and the disruption of practice by salpgha
meetings are discussed as part of the treatment of the bhiivaniimiirga that follows
upon the obtainment of the first supramundane realization of the noble truth. 37
Instead of describing in detail how the practitioner should reenact and deepen this
first realization so as to do away also with all latent defilements, the text takes
knowledge of these matters for granted and instead focuses on the obstacles he
may face, and the positive attitudes and sentiments he should cultivate. Among the
seven obstructions that relate to conduct more generally ( ciiragata), it not only
mentions the distraction of salpgha meetings and the concern for food, but also
other down-to-earth issues, namely delight (iiriimatii) in dealing with robes and
alms bowls etc., 38 "delight in sleeping at night" (riitriviharagatasya nidriiriimatii)
(150a5 -b1), "delight in impure stories about kings, thieves, etc., during the day"
(150b1) ( divaviharagatasya rajacoriid1sa1J1kliffakathiiriimatii) (150b 1), and finally
reluctance to move away from one's home area and part with company. 39
I find this list particularly interesting because it occurs at a very advanced stage
of practice after the first supramundane realization of the first noble truth. It
portrays the iiryasravaka - this is the explicit wording used by the BhavBh in this
context - as human and fallible, susceptible as he is to cravings and attachments, to
delight in company and entertainment, and so on. To my mind, this bears out that
the BhavBh does not provide an idealizing path-account that is purely theoretical
and entirely divorced from real practice. On the contrary, to portray a highly
advanced practitioner who is close to the threshold of becoming an arhant as
susceptible to common cravings and likings only makes sense if this reflects a
genuine concern that is ultimately based in real-life experiences on the ground. To
be sure, I am not claiming that this has anything to do with the personal expe-
36
In accordance with this interpretation, I understand ubhayatra in the immediately
following phrase ( ubhayatra civarapiitriidikarmetikaraJJiyaprayuktasya vii tadiiriimatii) to
mean "in both situations," i.e., whether living in a monastic community or on one's own on
alms food. For the translation of this phrase see n. 38.
37
BhavBh 147b 1 identifies these obstacles as pertaining to a practictioner who already
has realized the four noble truths (abhisamitasatyasyiintara).
38
BhavBh 150a5 : "In both cases (i.e. whether living in a monastic community or living
alone but as a result interacting with lay supporters) for someone engaged with what is to
be done regarding the correct action relating to robes, alms bowl, etc., delight in them (is an
obstacle relating to conduct)." ( ubhayatra civarapiitriidikarmetikaraJJiyaprayuktasya vii
tadiiriimatii). The delight may not only refer to the objects of concern, i.e., the robes, alms
bowl, etc., but also to the pleasure of fussing over them.
39
Our text (150a 5 ) also mentions as an obstacle relating to conduct "delight in
explanation when engaged in self-study" (sviidhyiiyaprayuktasya bhiiwiiriimatii). Does this
intriguing obstacle refer to delight in commentatorial literature, or is this about the
proclivity to expound texts to others instead of persevering with private study, or is this
more generally about engaging in conversation instead of studying?
870 Alexander VON ROS PA TT
riences of the author or compiler. Rather, I want to suggest that the obstacles that
the BhavBh summarizes and systematizes in a scholastic manner are real, that
practitioners do indeed encounter them, and that hence they bear some witness to
the difficulties that may arise on the arduous path of practice. To my mind, this
bears out that that even though Buddhist texts treating meditative practice are in
many ways scholastic treatises, there is yet at least a tenuous link that connects
these texts, however indirectly, with genuine practice. To repeat, the BhavBh
seems to be a poignant example for this. The way it foregrounds common and
seemingly banal obstacles and temptations and does not hesitate to assign them to
advanced and partially realized practitioners makes little sense if the scholastic
tradition simply imagined them. By contrast, this treatment makes a lot of sense, if
the text captures something of the difficulties and challenges that practitioners
really did encounter.
Remarks on the Bhiivaniimayi Bhfimjp 871
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Abhidharmasamuccayabhawa. Edition by Namthal TATIA, Patna: K.P. Jayaswal, 1976.
Bhavanamayi BhumiiJ (BhavBh). The Sanskrit text is preserved as part (folios 139a-153a)
of the Yogacarabhumi manuscript discovered and microfilmed by R. Sarµkrcya-
yana in 1938 in Tibet. The folio and line numbers given in my citations refer to this
manuscript. I have used SUGAWARA Yasunori's unpublished edition of the San-
skrit text ( cf. his contribution to this volume), and I have also had recourse to pho-
tos of the relevant folios of the manuscript.
Mahayanasmpgraha. Etienne LAMOTTE, La somme du Grand Vehicule d'AsaJiga
(Mahayanasarpgraha), Louvain-la-Neuve: Universite de Louvain, Institut orien-
taliste, 1973.
Sravakabhumi (Srbh):
Sravakabhumi, The First Chapter, Revised Sanskrit Text and Japanese Translation, ed.
Sravakabhumi Study Group (The Institute for Comprehensive Studies of Bud-
dhism, Taisho University), Tokyo 1998 (Taisho University Sogo Bukkyo Kenyujo,
4).
Sravakabhumi, The Second Chapter with Asamahita bhumil;, Srutamayi phumil;,
Cintamayi bhumil;, Revised Sanskrit Text and Japanese Translation, ed. Sravaka-
bhiimi Study Group (The Institute for Comprehensive Studies of Buddhism,
Taisho University), Tokyo 2007 (Taisho Daigaku Sogobukkyo Kenyujo, 18).
For the remaining two chapters:
Karunesha SHUKLA (ed.), Sravakabhumi ofAcaiya AsaJiga, Patna: K.P. Jayaswal.
The text on pages 497-501 has been emended with the help of an unpublished syn-
optic edition that Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN has prepared for this section. Some of
these emendations have previously been published in SCHMITHAUSEN (1982).
Trirpsikavijnaptibhawa. Sylvain LEVI, Deux traites de Vasubandhu: Vimsatika (la
vingtaine) accompagnee d'une explication en prose et Trimsika (la trentaine),
Paris: H. Champion: 1925.
Secondary Sources
SCHMITHAUSEN, Lambert (1982): "Versenkungspraxis und erlosende Erfahrung in der
Sravakabhiimi" in Epiphanie des Heils, edited by Gerhard OBERHAMMER, Vienna,
pp. 59-85.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1983): "The Darsanamarga Section of the Abhidharmasam-
uccaya and its Interpretation by Tibetan Commentators (With Special Reference
to Bu ston Rin chen grub)" in Contributions on Tibetan and Buddhist Religion
and Philosophy, edited by Ernst STEINKELLNER & Helmut TAUSCHER, Vienna,
vol. 2, pp. 259-274.
- - - - - - - - - - (2007): "Aspects of Liberating Practice in Early Yogacara" in
Journal of the International College for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies [Tokyo],
Vol. XI, pp. 213-244.

The Chapter on Right Conduct
in the Bodhisattvabhiimi
Michael ZIMMERMANN
Introduction
The tenth chapter of the Sanskrit text of the Bodhisattvabhzlmi, the Silapafala
( Chapter on Right Conduct), is still lacking a comprehensive and detailed study.
Mark TATZ, in the 1980s, had the whole chapter translated into English with the
Tibetan translation serving as the main point of reference, while also looking into
the editions of Nalinaksha DUTT and Unrai WOGIHARA for the Sanskrit (TATZ,
1986). He did, however, not consider the existing Chinese translations of the
chapter, of which there are several, and thus had to restrict his approach to the
"late" text as it stands today represented by its Inda-Tibetan versions. For his
project such an approach was perfectly fitting, given the main focus of his study was
directed to the question of how the Chapter on Right Conduct had been received
by the Tibetan tradition and, in particular, directed to Tsang kha pa's Byang chub
sems dpa 'i tshul khrims kyi rnam bshad byang chub gzhung lam, which functions as
a kind of commentary on the Silapa/ala itself and represents one of its important
Inda-Tibetan exegetic traditions. Already in the first half of the 20th century, some
central parts of the Chapter on Right Conduct had been translated into German
by Ernst LEUMANN (1933-1936). His interest, however, was less on the exact
content and the comprehensive structure of the chapter than rather on the
parallels he had identified in what he called "Das nordarische (sakische) Lehr-
gedicht des Buddhismus," 1 a text in the Khotanese language that in parts runs
parallel to the Bodhisattvabhumi. There is also a translation of the Chapter on
Right Conduct into modern Japanese published in three fascicles between 1989
and 1991 by FUJITA Kokan (1989; 1990; 1991). Both of these latter two translations
are based on Sanskrit manuscripts of the Bodhisattvabhumi. 2 Extremely useful for
the study of the chapter on sila has further proven the excellent multilingual
edition of the text by HADANO Hakuyii (1993), wherein each sentence has been
arranged synoptically with the Sanskrit, the Tibetan and several of the Chinese
translations.
The Position and Structure of the Silapafala
The tenth chapter on sila (right conduct), as a part of the Sanskrit Bodhisattva-
bhzlm1; is found between the chapters on generosity ( dana, 9th) and patience (kfiinti,
11th), which with effort (vizya, lih), meditation (dhyana, 13th), and wisdom (praj.ia,
14th) form the set of the six well-known perfections (paramita), all of them
discussed individually in their respective chapter. It is easily understandable why
1 3 See 1245_8• All references to the Sanskrit text of the Bodhisattvabhumi are with re-
Meaning, "The North-Aryan (Sakan) Didactic Poem of Buddhism."
2
For the Sanskrit manuscripts, see the article by DELHEY in this volume.
The Chapter on Right Conduct 873
the Chapter on Right Conduct drew particular interest among Buddhist thinkers
and practitioners in later centuries. One of t~e ~easons for that is? most likely, the
overall practical content of the chapter and its importance as a kmd of manual of
conduct that specifies, sometimes in surprising detail, what kind of behavior the
bodhisattva should avoid and what he is encouraged to do. Another reason, how-
ever, grows out of the fact that the chapter is seen as a manife~tation of the new
spirit of ethics that unde~lies a~d even constitutes ~uch of what 1s at the very heart
of Mahayana Buddhism m India. When the complier(s) of the chapter state(s) (at
the end of 2.4.3; see below) that they have tried to put together from diverse
Buddhist scriptures formulations regarding the moral training (sikfiipadani) for
the bodhisattva, being at the center of this new Mahayanist spirit, in order to create
a condensed and comprehensive set of rules ( bodhisattvapi/akamatrka) on which
he could base himself, they reveal what they had in mind for their proj~ct. This
3
proclamation, however, is an understatement. We will_ so~n.see tha~ the Silapafala
is more than a simple collection of moral rules. While 1t 1s certamly one of the
chapter's most prominent features to draw from a range of Buddhist scriptures and
to excerpt from them what ·seemed to be relevant for a new canon of Mahayana
moral tenets, I think it was just as much the compiler's intention to present these
points in a structurally innovative form.
As far as I can see, the threefold division of sila into "the right conduct of self-
discipline" (saipvarasila), "the right conduct of accumulati~g beneficial acti?ns"
(kusaladharmsaipgrahakasila), and "the right c?nduct of actmg fo~ the benefi~ of
sentient beings" (sattvarthakriyasila; or: "the nght conduct of canng for sentient
beings," sattvanugrahakaip silam), as it is put forward in the chapter, is a new
creation of the compiler(s) - at least, I have not been able to find hints that such a
structure has its origin in an earlier work, provided that such a work has come
down to us at all. The arrangement of the material thus illustrates the compilers'
new vision of categories of moral behavior. It soon became a rather common
division, which, as it seems, henceforth could not be ignored when reflecting on the
demands of the bodhisattva's right conduct.
Let me now, based on the Sanskrit text, proceed to summarize the main struc-
ture of the chapter before heading into a more detailed discussion of some specific
issues.
Structure of the Chapter on Right Conduct (silapafa}a)
0. Introduction (95,_9)
Ninefold sila of the bodhisattva: (1) right coduct with respect to its essence (svabhiiva-
s11a), (2) right conduct in all its aspects (sarvasila), (3) right conduct of difficult acts
( du$karasila), ( 4) right conduct in all directions ( sarvatomukhaIJJ silam), (5) right con-
duct of the good person (satpuru$aSila), (6) right conduct in all different aspects
( sarviikiiraIJJ silam), (7) right conduct directed to petitioners in distress ( vighiitiirthi-
kasila), (8) right conduct leading to happiness here and in the afterlife (ihamutra-
sukhaIJJ silam), (9) purified right conduct ( visuddhaip silam)
1. Right conduct with respect to its essence (svabhiivaiila) (9510-965)
Comprises: correctly receiving the codes of right conduct from some other person
(parataiJ samyaksamiidiinataiJ); a very purified motivation (suvisuddhiisayatayii);
spect to the edition by DUTT (1978).
874 Michael ZIMMERMANN
correcting transgressions ( vyatikrantau4 pratyapattya); being mindful with full atten-
tion that transgressions may not occur ( avyatikramaya adarajatasyopasthitasmrfjtaya)
2. Right conduct in all its aspects (sarvaslla) (96 6-126 10):
Comprises both kinds of sila for the bodhisattva: being a householder (grhipak~agata)
or having gone forth (pravrajitapak~agata); is threefold: right conduct of self-discipline
(sarpvarasila) (2.1.1), right conduct of accumulating beneficial actions (kusaladharma-
sarpgrahakasila) (2.1.2), right conduct of acting for the benefit of sentient beings (sat-
tvarthakriyasila) (or: right conduct of caring for sentient beings (sattvanugrahakarp
silam)) (2.1.3)
2.1 Definition of the three categories of sarvaslla (96s-97 25 )
2.1.1 sarpvarasila: taking upon oneself the self-discipline consisting in formal disci-
plinary rules (pratimok~asarpvarasamadana)
2.1.2 kusaladharmasarpgrahakasila: after having taken the vow, the bodhisattva
strives for anything beneficial (kusala); directs it to the great awakening (maha-
bodhi)
2.1.3 sattvanugrahakarp silam: has eleven manifestations (akara); for details see
below
2.2 Accomplishing the three sllas (97 26 - l 05 6 )
2.2.1 Based on sarpvarasila, the bodhisattva trains and realizes it structured into ten
parts (anga)
2.2.2 Based on kusaladharmasarpgrahakasila, the bodhisattva trains and realizes it in
its ten manifestations ( akara): dana, sila, k~anti, virya, dhyana, and pancakaral;
prajnal;
2.2.3 Based on sattvarthakriyasI1a, the bodhisattva trains and realizes it in its eleven
manifestations ( akara)
2.3 How ceremonially to take the bodhisattva vow ( bodhisattvasllasmpvara) (l05r 108 11 )
2.4 Specifying aspects of training and potential transgressions (108 1r 12410)
To be proclaimed before the ceremony
2.4.1 Four major transgressions of the bodhisattva (parajayikasthaniyadharma)
(1) to praise oneself and belittle others
(2) to refuse to give goods to the needy and not to teach those who have asked for
teaching
(3) not to control one's anger towards others
(4) to reject the teachings for the bodhisattva (bodhisattvap1jaka) and to adopt
and enjoy other teachings
2.4.2 Circumstances under which the bodhisattva ruins his bodhisattva vow: a major
transgression is committed (1) in case it is done repeatedly and with excessive
involvement (adhimatraparyavasthanasamucara), or (2) if the bodhisattva
gives up the aspiration for complete awakening (samyaksarpbodhi)
2.4.3 Discussion of more than 40 transgressions ( apatti) in detail; discussion of the
circumstances which mark each transgression as defiled (kli~fa) or undefiled
(akli~fa)
4
DUTT's edition reads vyatikrantail;. The manuscript has vyatikrantau.
The Chapter on Right Conduct 875
2.5 Confession of transgressions (124 10-125s)
Formula and circumstances
2.6 Summary (1259_14)
Nothing counts as a transgression per se; transgressions more likely grow out of aver-
sion ( dve~a) than out of desire ( raga); whenever the bodhisattva acts based on affec-
tion ( anunaya) and love (prema), there can be no transgression
2.7 Reference to the Vastusmpgrahapi(l251s-16)
Referring to a differentiation of transgressions into weak, medium and excessive
2.8 The three perfections (smppattJ) (1251r1261)
The bodhisattva who keeps his disciplinary code realizes three perfections: the perfec-
tion of practice (prayogasarppatti), the perfection of motivation (asayasarppatti), the
perfection of beneficial results from former causes (purvahetusarppatti)
2.9 Other forms of slla (126s-10)
All other forms of sila treated here should be seen as parts (pravibhaga) of sarvasila
3. Right conduct of difficult acts ( du~araslla) (12611-20)
is threefold: (1) the bodhisattva gives up material wealth and power to take the vow; (2)
he does not let go of the vow even under very difficult circumstances; (3) he is mindful
and conscientious so that no transgression can take place
4. Right conduct in all directions (sarvatomukhmp sllam) (12621-127 6)
is fourfold: right conduct taken upon onself (samattarp silam), right conduct possessed
inherently (prakrtisila), repeatedly trained right conduct (abhyastarp silam), right
conduct which makes use of strategies ( upayayuktaip silam)
5. Right conduct of the good person (satpuru~a) (12h10)
is fivefold
6. Right conduct in all different aspects (sarvakarmp sllam) (12711-20)
is sixfold, sevenfold, or thirteenfold
7. Right conduct directed to petitioners in distress ( vighatarthikasila) (1272r 128s)
is eightfold: formulation of the Golden Rule
8. Right conduct leading to happiness here and in the afterlife (ihamutrasukhmp sllam)
(1286-13)
is ninefold
9. Purified right conduct ( visuddhmp sllam) (12814-26)
is tenfold
10. Results ( 12827-129 7 )
The practice of sila leads to awakening; before awakening the bodhisattva will attain
five benefits
876 Michael ZIMMERMANN
11. Praise (129s-19)
All nine categories of sila (1.-9.) are included in the three categories of sarvasila
(2.1.1.-2.1.3) that accomplish the three fields of activity of the bodhisattva: pacification
of the mind ( dttasthitJ"), maturation of the Buddha qualities ( buddhadharmaparipaka),
maturation of sentient beings ( sattvaparipaka)
As is evident from the length the various sections of the chapter have, sarvasila
holds the most prominent position. It covers 31 of the 34 pages in DUTT'S edition -
90% of the section. Its importance is confirmed by the final section in chapter (11.),
which states that all nine categories of sila are contained in sarvasila, so it is beyond
doubt that the author thought of this section as the core of the chapter. The other
sections of the chapter, based on the classification of sila in nine categories (just as
is the case with the surrounding six chapters on the other five paramitas and the
Saipgrahavastupafala), are arranged by the principle of the rising numbers of their
subcategories. They carry little new information and evoke the impression of
artificiality and "empty" scholasticism.
The Eleven Manifestations of sattvanugrahaklllJl sllam
Turning our attention now to this core section on sarvasila, a more detailed
analysis of the compositional structure of the section reveals a surprising fact: the
group of the eleven manifestations that constitute sattvanugrahakaip silam listed in
2.1.3 ( =A), appears later on in the chapter a second and a third time. They are
mentioned under 2.2.3 ( = B) in the discussion of how to realize this third main kind
of right conduct, and they appear again, at that point negatively formulated, as a
set (but not marked as such) in the last part of the discussion of more than 40
transgressions to be proclaimed during the bodhisattva-vow ceremony in 2.4.3
( =C). It is with these lists of eleven points I would like to deal for much of the
remaining part of this paper.
Let me first give a short overview of the eleven manifestations of the sattvanu-
grahakaip silam as they appear in the Sanskrit text of A (979_25 ), the first of the
three passages in our text where they occur (DUTT, 1978: 97 10_25):
1. Helping sentient beings in beneficial matters; taking care of them in
situations of suffering, such as illness (sattvakrtyew arthopasaiphiteJu [ vi-
citreJu] sahayibhavafJ I sattvanam utpannotpanneJu vyadhyadidufJkheJu
glanopasthanadikaiJ sahayibhavaiJ /)
2. Showing the rules pertaining to worldly and otherworldly matters by
explaining the appropriate means and teaching the dharma ( tatha lau-
kikalokottareJv artheJU dharmadesanapiirvaka upayopadesapiirvakas Ca
nyayopadesaiJ I)
3. Returning assistance to those from whom the bodhisattva has experien-
ced help by being grateful and supporting them ( upakariJu ca sattveJu
krtajiiatam anurakJato 'nuriipa [pratyupakara-] pratyupasthanam /)
4. Protecting sentient beings from manifold dangers such as lions, tigers,
kings, robbers, water, and fire ( vividhebhyas ca siiphavyaghrarajacauro-
dakagnyad1kebhyo vicitrebhyo bhayasthanebhyo sattvanam arakJa I)
5. Dispelling worries about property and relatives (bhogajiiativyasaneJu
sokavinodana !)
6. Providing those with all commodities who are bereft of them ( upakaral}a-
vighatiJu sattveJu sarvopakaral}opasaipharaiJ I)
7. Attracting followers with the dharma by offering oneself as a right refuge
(nyayapatitafJ (?) samyalinisrayadanato dharmel}a gal}aparikarJal}a I)
The Chapter on Right Conduct 877
8. Serving the wishes ( of others) by approachi1_1g them in t?e course of time
with greetings and convers~tJons, by accepting food,. drink, etc., by regu-
larly operating worldly business, by coming and going when called for;
summed up: (serving them but) avoiding all form_s of conduct !hat_ are not
beneficial or unpleasant ( alapanasaiplapanapratJsammodanaiiJ kalenopa-
samkramal}ataya parato bhojanapanadi [prati]grahato Jauk1karthanu-
vyavaharataiJ (sic.) ahiitasyagama_nag_ama11,a~ak samasataiJ_ sarvanartho-
pasaiphitamanapasamudacarapar_wa1Jan~1s c1ttan_uvartanata_l)
9. Delighting (others) by proclaiming the1r real v1rtues, be 1t secretly_ or
openly ( bhutais ca gul}aiiJ sal!JpraharJal}ata I rahaiJ prakasa0 vodbhava-
natam upadaya I)
10. With affection, a mental disposition which aims at the benefit (of othc:rs ),
and a mind turned inwards, (the bodhisattva performs) acts of coercion,
rebukes, punishes, and banishes, just as much as it is (n~cessary) in o_rder
to turn (others) away from a state which is baneful ( akusala) and to d1rect
(them) to a state which is be~eficial (~u_sala) (s_nigd~en~ hitadhyasay~nu-
gatenantargatamanasena mgrahaknya avasadana va da1J<;j_akarma11u-
pradanaip va pravasana va yavad evakusalasthanat vyutthapya kusale
sthane sanniyojanartham I) . .
11. And with the display of hells and other (shocking) realms of existences
right in front of their eyes (created) by his supernatural power, he intimi-
dates them (and) thereby (makes them move away) f~om baneful (modes
of behaviors); in order to have them accept the teac?ings of the buddhas,
he bends (their will), appeases them, and causes the1r amazement (rddh1-
balena ca narakadigatipratyakJaip sandarsanataya 'kusalad udvejana
buddhasasanavataraya cavaijana toJalJa vismapana I)
It is not absolutely clear whether I have set the divisions between the eleven points
as they were intended. The Sanskrit version here leaves room for interpretatio~. As
can be seen in the synoptic edition (HADANO, 1993), some of the Chmese
translations partly subsume under the same point what appear to be two diffe~ent
issues in the Sanskrit; at other occasions, the Chinese versions split into two pomts
what goes as one point in the Sanskrit. The Tibetan translation usually accords
closely with the Sanskrit. What also seems to be clearly discernible is the tendency
of the eleven points to become more Mahayanist towards the end of the enumera-
tion. Here particularly the last two items would hardly find a place in the more
traditional moral precepts for the non-Mahayanist practitioner.
However that may be, a kind of commentary on this listing under A is - as was
mentioned above - found under 2.2.3 ( = B). Each of the eleven items there is
illustrated in some more detail, in some instances rather shortly such as in the case
of 4., where the Sanskrit simply explains in B that the bodhisattva protects
frightened sentient beings from fears and dangers in respect to wild animals, the
king, thieves, enemies, overlords, [loss of] one's means of livelihood, defamation,
and demons (101 16_19), whereas for example in the case of 8., i.e., "serving the
wishes of others," the explanations are excessively long (10215-10321 ). These
explanations not only describe how the bodhisattva has to behave according to
rules of respect and politeness but also include a long treatment of the need to
violate these rules whenever the bodhisattva can thereby improve another being's
situation, even at the cost of causing (temporary) pain and unhappiness. The main
call in the description here is for the "relocation" of the individual towards whom
the bodhisattva's activity is directed from a situation which is termed akusala, i.e.,
'baneful' for his moral and spiritual development, to a situation that is kusala, i.e.,
good or beneficial, an important aspect which links it closely to point 10. in our list
A.
 878 Michael ZIMMERMANN
It is far from clear how these two listings (A and B) of the eleven manifesta-
tions are related. The division of the content into eleven topics does not always
seem to be the same; some of the comments in B refer to very particular aspects of
the items in A; others mention ideas, which are not expressed at all in A. It is, in my
opinion, hardly imaginable that B was created as a systematic commentary on A by
the same author. I would rather guess that the two sets have been imported from
two different sources which both deal with a very similar group of eleven items
without, however, being directly related to each other. Given that this List of
Eleven seems to have been available in quite different lengths and styles, I assume
that it should be found somewhere in the sources from which the compiler(s) of the
Bodhjsattvabhumj drew parts of their material. So far, I have, however, not been
able to locate any list which could be termed a prototype. 5
The whole situation becomes even more puzzling once we realize that in the
long discussion of the more than 40 transgressions in 2.4.3 we again find our set of
eleven manifestations of sattvanugrahakaip sf/am ( =C). This time, they appear at
the end of 2.4.3, negatively formulated as transgressions. The whole approach in
this section is rather casuistic and aims at providing the bodhisattva with specific
details for the question of under which circumstances the violation of the code of
behavior can or cannot be classified a "transgression" ( apatH), leading to a
differentiation between "defiled transgression" (kH$/apatti{1), "undefiled transgres-
sion" ( akJj$_tapatti{1), and "non-transgression" ( anapatH). To give an example of the
way the issue is handled: On the topic of gratitude (3.), it is stated (122 1. 6) that if
the bodhisattva is not grateful towards those sentient beings from whom he has
received help, and with a malicious intention (aghatadtta) does not return their
favor, then this will constitute a serious transgression (k/J~fapattil;), whereas
supposed the bodhisattva does not return it due to sloth and laziness, that will only
count as a light transgression (akH$/apattjJ;). Does he, however, make an effort and
still cannot repay his gratitude because it is beyond his abilities, this will be a non-
transgression. The same will hold true if the bodhisattva by not returning the favor
wants to teach the other person a (beneficial) lesson or in case the other side
refuses his assistance.
Without going into a detailed discussion of how exactly the Group of Eleven in
C differs in its content from how the items are presented in A and B, it is quite
obvious that, once again, we have to do with a reworking of the same basic eleven
points, arranged in the same sequence as above, 6 however with some major
inconsistencies in the understanding of what the prohibitions are about and with
some subtopics of the single points mentioned in the previous sections conspicu-
ously missing. The differences among the various Chinese translations here are
rather confusing. I have yet to find a convincing model that could explain this
5 find aspects that would be expected to be part of sattvarthakriyasfla found under
In: e.g., T1534, t~e San juzri Jing y6ub6 tfshe (= JlJEJ~~1EtrJE*, 1 fasc.), a
translation of a text attnbuted to Vasubandhu and rendered into Chinese by Pimuzhlxian
(m § ~{UJ)_ in 541 CE, we find the list of the eleven :lk:lras of the third category of sila (~
jl,iffliJ5<.1.:f:!JG prisa she zhongshenp jfe, *sattv:lnugrahakaip silam), which in its sequence
differs from what we have in the Silapafala (T1534.363a 2 i-b 9 ). However, I think that this list
ultimately derives from the Bodhisattvabhiimf given that it is embedded in the threefold
structure of sila just as it is in the Silapafala itself It is more likely that, in this case, we have
to deal with irregularities in the transmission of the list, possibly diverse oral traditions on
which the lists are respectively based.
6
Again, not all the Chinese versions follow the same sequence.
The Chapter on Right Conduct 879
diversity. As above, I would tend to assume that this formulation of the eleven
prohibitions based on the sattvanugrahakaip sf/am is not what one would expect to
find in the same text if it were supposed that it was an author's aim to strive for
consistency with respect to the repeated illustration of the same categories. I would
therefore guess that the compiler has taken this formulation of the Set of Eleven
from a source which more or less refers to the same eleven points seen in A and B
but without directly resulting from these two lists, or - approaching the issue from
the opposite direction - without a strong likelihood that this very list of transgres-
sions served as a model based on which the passages in· A and B could have been
composed in direct dependency.
The position of this Set of Eleven at the end of the enumeration of the trans-
gressions in C, however, makes perfect sense, given that that category of sf/a to
which the eleven members belong, ranges as the last of the three sf/a-categories. It
is nonetheless not evident that the first two thirds of the list of transgressions can
be allotted clearly to the first two categories respectively, i.e., under saipvarasfla
and kusaladharmasaipgrahakasfla. While some of the elements of these two
categories (mentioned in sections 2.1.1 and 2.2.2 above) appear sporadically (and
of course negatively) formulated in the list of transgressions, all in all there seems
to be no consistency, and the kind of strong link between A, B, and C in the
category sattvanugrahakaip sf/am, which would suggest that the Group of Eleven
functioned as a more established set, is clearly missing in case of the other two
categories. This actually strengthens my suggestion that 2.1, 2.2, and 2.4.3 did not
come into existence at the hands of a single author, but that their origins have to be
found in separate textual, possibly oral, transmissions.
In terms of its compositional history, the picture that emerges for the Chapter
on Right Conduct is thus quite representative for the whole of the Bodhisattva-
bhumj: for a large part, the compiler has combined elements from diverse
scriptural traditions. And it is not always that he has given the needed scrutiny and
care to adjust the individual elements to their parallels in other passages of his text.
At the same time, however, these passages have been rearranged in a creative
manner giving way to a new look at things which, at the time, was truly innovative.
The Three Main Categories of sarvaslla
If we now turn to the question of what agenda the compiler of the Sflapafala might
have had, I think it is safe to say that his understanding of the term sf/a went
beyond traditional definitions that limit it primarily to aspects of self-discipline.
The Sflapafala is based on a much broader field of what sf/a signifies and includes
both spiritual and emotional training as well as the appeal to actively engage in the
welfare of other living beings. The elements of the three basic categories of sf/a as
they appear in the chapter are, of course, not mutually exclusive and one can easily
the topic of kusaladharmasaipgrahakasfla. This probably depends on whether one
is to focus one's attention on the beneficial result for the individual to whom the act
is directed ( = sattvarthakriyasfla) or on oneself to whom results accrue through the
given activity, whereby one's own progress along the spiritual path is nourished ( =
kusaladharmasaipgrahakasfla).
Why then has the author decided to structure his moral universe according to
these three distinct categories of sf/a? To be sure, the last two categories follow the
differentiation between one's own benefit (svartha) and the benefit of others
(parartha), and as such - differing from what we find in the regulations of the
 880 Michael ZIMMERMANN
Vinaya - they follow a different model of (ethical) rating, a model whose main
focus is not the compliance with societal norms for religious communities or other
regulations primarily in place to keep the appearance of the Buddhist order pure in
the eyes of the public. In the Chapter on Rjght Conduct, we have to do with a
dominantly soteriologically oriented evaluation of activities and practices which,
with its category of sattviirthakriyasila, grants clear priority to their beneficial effect
on other living beings.
The first category, saf!Jvarasila, corresponds in this scheme to the traditional
pnWmok$a rules, a central and old part of the Vinaya regulations (though different
in its content from the traditional set). A possible assumption is that the introduc-
tion of saf!Jvarasila as a main category of sila reveals that one of the author's aims
was to create a kind of comprehenske manual for those followers who did not want
to undergo ordination as monks or nuns, and thus would not have to be acquainted
with the rules of the Vinaya itself. In contrast to the monks and nuns whose status
would anyway be constituted and determined by one or the other of the Vinaya
sets, for the lay followers the saf!Jvarasila category with its specifications would
function similarly but with the difference that the emphasis on the motivation for
what they do would always be the most decisive factor. The differentiation into
three categories of sila thus seems to be especially (but not exclusively) directed to
Buddhists who wanted to remain laymen and laywomen and who longed for a
canon of rules that would let them train and live as bodhisattvas.
The Different Meanings of kuiala
Let me round up this paper with some remarks on the term kusala, 'beneficial'. It is
true that, among the three main categories of sarvasila discussed above, the term
kusala- as Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN points out in his contribution to this volume -
appears exclusively in the name of the second sila-category, i.e., kusaladharma-
saf!]griihakasila. I do not think, however, that the author aimed at restricting the
use of the term to this second category. Rather, we see that the term plays a vital
role in many descriptions under the third category of sattviirthakriyiisila as well. It
appears to me that whenever the term is used in the second category (kusala-
dharmasaf!]griihakasila), kusala implies the beneficial aspect of the act for the
practitioner himself. If something in this sense is kusala, it is, in soteriological
terms, "positively charged" and, putting the particular dharma into practice in-
creases one's own spiritual and moral degree of perfection. The accumulation of
kusaladharmas thus implies the appropriation of benefit and, in this sense, kusala
denotes less a potential than something like a real power inherent to the respective
dharma.
The third category of sila, on the other hand, deals primarily with the results of
actions on others and how they can be lifted from a state of akusala ('baneful'), i.e.,
a state in which it is difficult for them to have spiritual and moral growth, to a state
which is kusala, i.e., a state that favors spiritual and moral progress. In other words,
while the term kusala in the second category (kusaladharmasaf!]griihakasila)
denotes the positive soteriological value of the action itself, its usage in the
sattviirthakriyiisila category does not touch on the act itself and thus has a
somewhat profane touch. It is rather the result of the deed in terms of its potential
soteriological benefit for the individual to whom it is directed. In extreme cases, as
they are also discussed in the chapter (see 2.4.3 ), the act itself thus turns into a kind
of "soteriologically uncharged" tool in reference to the agent, when, e.g., the
bodhisattva has to kill a potential mass murderer in order to prevent him from a
The Chapter on Right Conduct 881
fatal regress on that person's own soteriological path and eons of existences in the
hells. That the bodhisattva here potentially has to break with one of the most
fundamental principles on which Buddhist ethical life has traditionally been
based - the commitment to nonviolence (ahjf!Jsii) - matters little. 7 It is the result
the bodhisattva's action carries in respect to the other being (and of course the
bodhisattva's motiva[jon for getting the action done) that is decisive. In less
pretentious words: the term kusala here denotes no inherent positive quality as we
have had it before, but simply describes the situation as it is relevant for the other
individual. This situation can be good (kusala) or bad (akusala) for this individual.
Kusala serves in this case just to characterize the quality of the external circum-
stances this person finds himself or herself in. They are "good," if they encourage
the person to actively follow the Buddhist path. They are "bad," if they prevent him
or her from engaging with the dharma.
Skill in Means: upayakauialya
It is interesting to observe that under this third category of sila, i.e., sattviirtha-
kriyiisila, the compounds upiiyakausalya and upiiyakusala make a prominent
appearance. As I have just outlined, whereas kusala under the second category of
sila marks the practice or act itself as beneficial, under the third category kusala
does not denote the act but refers primarily to the external situation for the
individual to whom the action is directed. Looking at this point a bit closer, it does
not seem to be a pure coincidence that the term upiiyakausalya was chosen in
order to express what upiiyakausalya primarily stands for: the skill (kausalya) of
the bodhisattva when it comes to choose and apply strategies for the spiritual
advancement of other sentient beings - strategies which will put them in good
(kusala) external circumstances for their religious practice. Further, in order to
know what is "good" for a person you have to have the appropriate skill. Here both
meanings of kusala, i.e., "good, wholesome, beneficial for the other" and "skillful"
come together under the third category of sila. It seems that we have a play of
words with two meanings of the term kusala, both of them being distinctively
different from how we encountered the term in the second category of sila, viz. in
the term kusaladharma. Whereas the idea of "skill in means" is a topic deeply
weaved into the whole section on sattviirthakriyiisila, it does not at all appear under
the second category. This could indeed reflect a relatively early state of develop-
ment in the formational history of the concept of sila. I imagine that once the
concept of upiiyakausalya was firmly established and identified particularly with
more advanced spiritual beings, we would see it range under the kusaladharma
7
According to the narrative-like descriptions in which such scenarios are discussed, the
case is, however, not that simple: the bodhisattva, who is driven by compassion, is well
aware of the danger for his own moral purity. And it is expressly stated that he is mentally
prepared to accept the karmic consequences for this violation of ahiipsa. This is important
as it is made clear that the whole situation is not really portrayed right from the beginning
as constituting a kind of automatic process which would guarantee the bodhisattva right
from the beginning a maximum of merit ( even when in the end it does!). I agree, by the way,
with SCHMITHAUSEN's argument that the sequence of seven actions which are by their very
nature objectionable (prakrtisavadya) in section 2.4.3,, such as killing, stealing, and sexual
intercourse, is probably a later insertion into the Silapafala. I am, however, less sure
whether the Upayakausalyasiitra can be the source for the passage which deals with killing
(cp. SCHMITHAUSEN, 2007:435f.).
882 Michael ZIMMERMANN
category as well, given that its employment would - as a kind of automatism - also
have beneficial results for the "skilful person" himself. But speculations like this are
a different project, which will directly lead to more fundamental inquiries into the
general history of ethics in Mahayana Buddhism.
The Chapter on Right Conduct 883
Bibliography
DUTT, Nalinaksha (ed.) (1978): BodhisattvabhiimiJ:i, Being the XVth Section of Asailga-
pada's YogacarabhiimiJ:i, Patna: KP. Jayaswal Research Institute.
FUJITA, K6ka!1 (/JiEB ::Y(;Jt) (1989): ( ~l\i:tt!tJ1:x:£) fD~(I) ["A Japanese Translation of
the Silapa{ala in the Bodhisattvabhiimi (I)"], in K6yasan Daigaku rons6 (r'i=a!llrrl!
j;:~llifi)[Journal ofKoyasan University], vol. 24, pp. 31-51.
(1990): ( ~l\i:tfu:JtZrPr::r) fD~(II) ["A Japanese Translation
----o-=-f-=th_e_S-z1-:-:1a_,p_a_{a-:J.:-a-=--in-,the Bodhisattvabhiimi(II)"], in K6yasan Daigaku rons6 (r'i=a!llr
r1J:*:~ll1mfi)[ Journal ofK6yasan Universitjj, vol. 25,.pp. 55-86.
----:-::---z--:-----:---:-- (1991): ( ~l\i:tfu:JtZrPr::r) fD~(III) ["A Japanese Translation
of the Silapa{ala in the Bodhisattvabhiimi (III)"], in K6yasan Daigaku rons6 (r\=a
!If rl!:*:~ll1mfi)[ Journal ofKoyasan Universitjj, vol. 26, pp. 21-30.
HADANO, Hakuyii (~~EB!IHB) (ed.) (1993): Yuga shiji ran bosatsuji(ij;]{;/JD§ffl:tfulli ~l\i:tfu)
(Bodhisattvabhiimi· Comparative Edition of Tibetan, Sanskrit and Chinese with
the Tibetan Commentaries of Rgya-mtsho sprin and Yon-tan J:iod), Publications
of the Institute of Tibetan Buddhist Textual Studies 2.1, Kyoto: H6z6kan.
LEUMANN, Ernst (1933-1936): Das nordarische (sakische) Lehrgedicht des Buddhismus,
edited and posthumously published by Manu LEUMANN, Abhandlungen fiir die
Kunde des Morgenlandes 20.1-3, Leipzig: Deutsche Morgenlandische Gesell-
schaft, Brockhaus (in commission).
SCHMITHAUSEN, Lambert (2007): "Zur Frage, ob ein Bodhisattva unter bestimmten
Voraussetzungen in einer neutralen Geisteshaltung (avyakrta-citta) toten darf" in
Jndica et Tibetica, Festschrift filr Michael Hahn, edited by Konrad KLAUS & Jens-
Uwe HARTMANN, Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde, Heft
66, Vienna: Arbeitskreis fur Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien, Universitat
Wien, pp. 423-440.
TATZ, Mark (trans.) (1986): Asanga's Chapter on Ethics with the Commental)' of Tsong-
Kha-Pa, The Basic Path to Awakening, The Complete Bodhisattva, Lewiston,
N.Y.: Edwin Mellen Press.
WOGIHARA, Unrai (~JJJ'{~*) (ed.) (1930): Bodhisattvabhiimi, A Statement of Whole
Course of the Bodhisattva (Being Fifteenth Section of Yogacarabhiim1), Tokyo:
Sanshusha.

Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhiimi
Quest for and Liberation through the Thing-In-Itself
Florin DELEANU
The textual history of the Yogacara tradition begins with the Sravakabhumi, an
exposition of the theory and praxis of the spiritual path along lines common to a
few Northern Sravakayana schools, most notably the Sarvastivada. In less than a
century from the conclusion of its formation, this work became part of the
Yogacarabhumi, a monumental encyclopedic treatise which laid the foundations of
a brand-new Mahayana tradition - the school of meditation adepts (yogacara),
mainly known for its theory on consciousness ( vij.ianavada). 1 According to it, our
common representation ( vij.iaptI) of the world is the only (matra) entity actually
existing. And to make things worse, its workings distort the possibility of a true
insight into Reality ( tathata). Though far from being spelled out in all its details,
the first clearly identifiable statement of this new view is found in the
Saipdhinirmocanasutra, a scripture which seems to have been independently
compiled but was later incorporated into the Yogacarabhumi
What made this new school, with part of its roots strongly anchored in an or-
thodox Sravakayana tradition, develop a totally new outlook? Obviously, the
answer is not simple, and the origins of this novel perspective are complex. From
the standpoint of the textual history, however, one could reasonably argue that
what lies between the traditional views of the Sravakabhumi and the revolutionary
ideas presented in the Saipdhinirmocanasutra are the Bodhisattvabhumi and the
earlier parts of the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi The former is a treatise ( or rather
anthology) dedicated to the philosophy and practice of the ideal Mahayana
virtuoso ( bodhisattva) treading along the messianic path of liberating all sentient
beings and of perfecting himself for the attainment of the Awakening. 2 Like the
This paper represents a revised version of my presentation at the 3rd Geumgang Interna-
tional Conference for Buddhist Studies, 'The Yogacarabhiimi and the Yogacaras' held in
Seoul, 13-14 October 2008. I should like to express my sincerest gratitude to the organizers
of the Conference, especially to Professor Dr Sungdoo AHN and Dr Changhwan PARK, for
kindly inviting me and offering me this unique opportunity. My warmest thanks are also
due to Professor Dr. Ulrich Timme KRAGH for his tireless editorial efforts and kind under-
standing.
1
Originally, the word yogacara appears to have been a pan-Buddhist term referring to
meditation practitioners in general, whether adepts or beginners, without implying a
precise scholastic affiliation. We owe Jonathan SILK (2000) the best and most comprehen-
sive examination of this term and its historical background.
2
As well as 'herself, one may and should add retrospectively. Like many other tradi-
tional Indian texts, the Bodhisattvabhiimi employs only masculine forms ('he', 'his', etc.)
when speaking of practitioners and bodhisattvas. Seen from the paradigm of our age, the
Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhumi 885
Sravakabhumi, this text also became part of the Yogacarabhumi The Viniscaya-
saipgrahaJJi is the auto-commentarial portion of the Yogacarabhumi, which glosses
and elaborates upon terms and subjects in the preceding (and most likely, earlier)
parts of the text.
3
.
It is tempting to refer to the Bodhisattvabhumi as a 'missing link'. 'Link' it is but
'missing' would be an overstatement. Modern scholars, mainly in Japan, have
examined many of its philosophical and philological facets. Nevertheless, to the
best of my knowledge, a systematic examination of the meditative practices in the
Bodhisattvabhumi has not been undertaken so far. 4 The present paper attempts to
fill in this gap, albeit in a very limited fashion and scope.
5
usage can be taken as sexist. One should, however, be fair and ·add that there are also texts
which refer to female meditators (see, for instance, the examples analyzed in SILK, 2000)
and that the monastic order of nuns likewise attests to the fact that women were not barred
from spiritual praxis.
The fact that I also use sometimes only masculine forms to refer to meditators
(especially in the English translation) should be understood as an attempt to stay close to
the grammatical conventions of the traditional Indian texts. It reflects in no way a sexist
assumption that the techniques and philosophy described here are not accessible to women,
an assumption which was anyway alien to many of the Buddhist sources in spite of their
failure to express it in clear lexical forms.
3
The entire text of the Yogacarabhiimi has survived only in Chinese and Tibetan
translations. Roughly speaking, the two versions are quite similar, though structurally, they
show some differences. The Chinese translation, which structurally seems to reflect more
faithfully the Sanskrit original, consists of five main parts: (1) Ben di fen (;zfs:::l:jg;t; Sanskrit,
* Maulyo bhiimayaf;) (which also includes the texts of the Sravakabhiimi and the Bodhi-
sattvabhiimi); (2) She jueze fen (filf~fl;t; ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi) (which cites most of the
Saipdhinirmocanasiitra); (3) She shi fen (tilff5t; * Vyakhyasaipgraha]Ji); (4) She yimen
fen (fil~F~;t; ParyayasaipgrahaJJi); and (5) She shi fen (tilJJ;t; VastusaipgrahaJJi). For
a more detailed discussion of the structure of the Yogacarabhiimi as well as the recon-
struction of the original Sanskrit titles of the five main parts, see DELEANU (2006.1:43-50).
4
We are indebted to the Japanese scholars for numerous references to and some
detailed discussions of various aspects of the spiritual cultivation and the bodhisattva's path
in the Bodhisattvabhiim1; the majority of which will be mentioned in the notes below.
However, as far as I know, there is no contribution in Japanese (or, for that matter, in any
other modern language) dedicated solely to the topic of meditation in the Bodhisattva-
bhiimi
Contributions relevant to the subject are much more limited in the secondary sources
published in Western languages. I shall mention here only the most significant ones.
DAYAL (1932:278-283), discusses the abodes and stages of the bodhisattva's path in the
Bodhisattvabhiimi in the wider context of this topic in Mahayana literature. DEMIEVILLE's
(1957) "Le chapitre de la Bodhisattvabhiimi sur la Perfection du Dhyana" is an annotated
translation into French of the Chapter on the Dhyanaparamita. Although it contains very
useful annotations and insightful remarks, this is not an analysis of dhyana in the whole text
of the Bodhisattvabhiimi, let alone a survey of all the meditative practices - a topic much
more complex than the exposition in the Dhyanapa{ala. DE JONG (1987:168-170) makes
fairly detailed philological observations on the term pragraha, closely related to vipasyana,
in the Bodhisattvabhiim1: MAITHRIMURTHI (1999) represents an excellent study of the four
immeasurables (apramaJJa) in the early and middle Buddhist tradition, also containing one
section dedicated to the Bodhisattvabhiimi (pp. 233-255) and a critical Sanskrit edition as
well as a German translation of relevant portions (pp. 305-327). SAKUMA's (1990.1:59-70;
11:149-152) examination of the asrayaparivrtti theory, which has important consequences
for the spiritual cultivation in general, touches upon the Bodhisattvabhiimi, too, and also
886 Florin DELEANU
Before embarking upon this task, a few introductory remarks about the date of
our main scriptural protagonists might be useful. The whole discussion is, however,
far from easy. First and foremost, this is because the picture at which we can
glimpse after more than a millennia and a half is uninvitingly hazy. Most of what I
(or for that matter, arguably any student of Buddhist history) can say is bound to
be highly conjectural and frequently controversial. For the present purposes, it will
suffice to sum up some of the main hypotheses, which I believe to be the most
plausible and are partly based upon or shared with some of the most prestigious
experts in this field. 6
Traditionally, the Chinese sources attribute the Yogiiciirabhiimi to Bodhisattva
Maitreya. The Tibetan translation and historiography, on the other hand, ascribes
the text to Asailga. However, to many modern students of history, the present
author included, the text does not appear to be the work of a single person. Neither
does it look like an opus of a team of scholar-monks working according to a plan
and within the span of several years. It rather seems to be a conglomerate which
grew out gradually over a long period, very probably stretching for more than one
century.
edits and renders into German relevant passages. ARAMAKI (2000:45-46) makes various
references to the spiritual cultivation described in the Bodhisattvabhumi and its historical
development, especially to the four types of investigation ( catasra!J paiye~apiifJ). The
catasra!J paiye~apiifJ are also briefly mentioned in SCHMITHAUSEN (1969a:820, n. 45), in
the context of the textual history of Yogacara literature. Actually the most detailed
treatment of these investigations is found in the Tattviirthapa!ala, and further biblio-
graphical information related to this important chapter in the Bodhisattvabhumi as well as
its meditative practices will be found in the notes below.
In this context, mention should also be made of the meditative practices in the
Viniscayasaipgrahapi We owe to SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:242-244) and, more recently and
in detail, to SCHMirHAUSEN (2007:232-235) very insightful discussions of some meditative
practices in the Viniscayasaipgrahapi Fundamental contributions to the study of this part
of the Yogiiciirabhumi, also containing many relevant references to the spiritual praxis,
have recently been brought by KRAMER (2005) and TAKAHASHI (2005a) (see also note 16
below).
5
Time and space limitations do not allow me to embark upon a full discussion of the
subject, which in its earnest, would doubtless require at least one monograph. I must also
stress the fact that a detailed treatment of the spiritual cultivation in the Bodhisattvabhumi,
as actually in most Mahayana sources, cannot be undertaken without paying full attention
to the bodhisattva's salvific activity. The latter is closely interwoven with the bodhisattva's
meditative training and gradual progression on the spiritual ladder. Unfortunately, this
facet of the meditative progress could not be sufficiently dealt with here. In spite of the said
limitations, I do hope, however, that the paper will at least succeed in sketching the main
contours of the subject and shed some light upon the historical background.
6
I discuss the textual history and dating of the Yogiiciirabhumi in more detail in
DELEANU (2006, especially 1:147-247). All necessary bibliographical references are also
found there. Here I limit myself to noting that many of my hypotheses are based upon or
inspired from the work of Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (see mainly SCHMITHAUSEN 1969a;
1987: especially 13-14, 183-185; SCHMITHAUSEN 2000). It must be said, however, that the
dating itself (see below) largely relies upon my own conjectural views, and I alone am to be
held responsible for whatever mistakes it may contain. (How delightfully easy it is to make
such bold statements in an age like ours when one is not burnt at the stake or, to be more in
tune with my own historical background, impaled on a pike for them! - or at least, so I
hope ... )
Meditative Practices in the Bodhi5attvabhiimi 887
Can we pinpoint this period in concrete historical terms? As with the vast
majority of the traditional Indian works, if mathematical precision is required, the
answer must be, I am afraid, negative. But if more flexible criteria of conjecture are
allowed, the following hypothe~is may not be completely off the mark. I think it is
fairly safe to surmise that the Sriivakabhiimi and the Bodhisattvabhiimi appear to
represent the earliest s,trata of the Yogiiciirabhiimi The beginnings of the for-
mation process of the Sriivakabhiimi might be tentatively placed around 200 C.E.
It most likely reached its final stages in the second half of the 3rd century. The
compilati<~_n of the Bodhisattvabhiimi probably commenced a few decades later
than the Sriivakabhiimi and was very likely more or less finished by the end of the
3rd century. There seems to be a reasonaby large amount of agreement amongst the
Buddhist scholars that the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra seems to have been compiled in
the first half of the 4th century. Its incorporation into the Yogiiciirabhiimi may have
therefore taken place sometime after ca 350. I surmise that in its broad lines, the
compilation process of the entire Yogiiciirabhiimi (to which Asailga may have
participated as one of its redactors and/or late authors?) may have come to an end
in the second half of the 4th century, probably around 370-380.
I. The Concept of Reality in the Bodhisattvabhiimi:
The Ontology of the Thing-In-Itself
Although the Bodhisattvabhiimi seems to have been compiled in circles close to or
at least, familiar with the Sriivakayiina tradition, its basic Weltanschauung is
unmistakably Mahayanist. 7 To be more precise, many of its central concepts and
philosophical premises come from the Prajiiiipiiramitii literature. The Bodhi-
sattvabhiimi belongs, however, to a new phase in the history of the Great Vehicle,
a phase in which the intention to bring more light upon the Prajiiiipiiramitii tenets
often resulted not only in refinements and elaborations but also in unique
creations and opening new venues of thought. Whether its authors were aware of
this or not, the Bodhisattvabhiimi is one of those texts clearly reflecting the latter
tendency. One of its main themes is the attempt to re-define and explore the
concept of emptiness (siinyatii) in more positive terms which would dispel any
misunderstandings, especially the possibility of its being misconstrued along nihilist
lines. 8 Let us see how the Chapter on Reality ( Tattviirthapa/ala )9 defines its notion
of 'rightly grasped emptiness' (sugrhitii siinyatii): 10
7
My (highly hypothetical!) views concerning the background of the formation of the
Bodhisattvabhumi are set forth in DELEANU (2006.1:162-167). ·
8
One of the major misunderstandings envisaged by the Bodhisattvabhumi authors are
the mistaken views on emptiness which deny the existence of the 'thing-in-itself. As we
shall see later, the thing-in-itself is identified with the Supreme Reality. The upholder of
such wrong views is described as follows: "denying the thing[-in-itself], he rejects [literally,
'destroys'] [its existence altogether] saying "nothing exists in any way"." Bodhisattvabhumi
(WOGIHARA, 1936:45 18_19 ; Durr, 1978:31 1_2 ): vastv apavadamiino nasayati sarvepa sarvaip
nastiti Such a mistake, we are told, comes from the failure to understand the actual
meaning of emptiness preached by the Mahayana sutras. The text continues: "Hence there
are some who having heard scriptures belonging to the Great Vehicle, which are difficult to
comprehend, abstruse, related to emptiness, [and] preached with an intended meaning, due
to lack of understanding as to the sense of the [teaching] expounded in accordance with
reality, imagining [things] in an inappropriate way, by mere reasoning improperly applied,
have such views, such theories as "All is just mere designation, this is the Truth, and he who
888 Florin DELEANU
But in what way is emptiness wrongly grasped? There are some recluses
or brahmins who do not accept that of which something is empty, nor do
regards [reality] in this way regards [it] correctly"." Bodhisattvabhiimi (WOGIHARA, 1936:
46 7. 13 ; DUTT, 1978:31 11 . 15 ; cf. D4037.26a2.4; T1579.488b 28 -c3): Ato ya ekatya durvijiieyan
siitrantan mahayanapratisa!pyuktan gambhiran siinyatapratisa!pyuktan abhiprayikartha-
niriipitan srutva yathabhiita!p bha~itasyartham avijiiayayoniso vikalpyayogavihitena tarka-
matrake]Jaiva!pd[~fayo bhavanty eva!pvadinaiJ: ''Prajiiaptimatram eva sarvam, etac ca
tattvam, yas caiva!p pasyati sa samyak pasyatiti. Here and below, the punctuation of the
citations from the Sanskrit and Chinese originals belongs to me. As much as possible, I
have tried to apply the rules of modern punctuation, though sometimes compromises for
accommodating sandhi in Sanskrit sources and specific marks such as , in Chinese texts
had to be made. One additional word on my style of translating into English: I have
attempted to be as faithful to the original as intelligibility in the target language allows. I do
not know whether I have succeeded, but I hope that my renderings are intelligible and not
too literal. At any rate, I have tried to stay away from the temptation of embellishing the
style or adjusting it to modern standards. Though occasionally rather clumsy (not too often,
I would dare hope!), I trust that such a style will better convey the intention of the authors
and/or editors of the Bodhisattvabhiimi
9 12 Kath alp punar durgrhita bhavati srlnyata? YalJ kascic chramaJJO va brahmaJJO va tac
This is the one of the most important chapters in the Bodhisattvabhiimi and definitely
its most philosophical one. Naturally, it has received much more attention than any other
part of the text. Partial translations, discussions, and references to the chapter are found in
many studies, especially authored by Japanese scholars. Most of these will be mentioned
below. Here it will suffice to refer to the main translations. We have an excellent critical
edition of the Sanskrit text and annotated Japanese translation by TAKAHASHI Koichi
(2005a). There is also a complete translation of the chapter into English, accompanied by
Introduction, Commentary, and Notes, by Janice Dean WILLIS (1979). Unfortunately, the
translation is not always reliable and frequently quite free. The best rendering into a
Western language, albeit partial, remains FRAUWALLNER's (1969:270-279) translation into
German. Mention should also be made of UI Hakuju (1961), which contains numerous
fragments of the Sanskrit text, including excerpts from the Tattvartha-pafala, rendered into
Japanese.
10
The ideas expressed in this passage actually laid the foundations of the siinyata
dialectics in the Yogacara-Vijiianavada school and also had a strong impact on the
Tathagatagarbha tradition. This is seen in texts such as the Abhidharmasamuccayabhawa
(p. 40, II. 10-18), the Madhyantavibhagabhawa (Ch. I, Verse 1 and Commentary, pp. 17-18)
(Vasubandhu, p. 18, II. 4-6, actually cites almost verbatim the last part of the fragment cited
below (beginning with yatra nasti) and identifies it as the character of emptiness (siinyata-
lak~aJJa); cf. Madhyantavibhagabhawafika p. 14, I. 10-p. 15, I. 3), the Madhyantavibhaga-
bhawafika (pp. 10-15), the Ratnagotravibhaga (Ch. I, verses 154-155; commentary, pp. 76-
77), etc.
On the interpretation of emptiness in the Yogacara-Vijiianavada, see SEYFORT
RUEGG (1969:319-346; also discussing Tathagatagarbha texts and related developments of
the siinyata concept in Tibetan Buddhism); MUKAI (1974, 1976); Mizuo (1983a, 1983b);
HOTORI (1982, 1984b); NAGAO (1991:51-60). (The latter study is a seminal contribution,
which served as the basis for many of the other articles listed above. It is entitled "'What
Remains" in Siinyata: A Yogacara Interpretation of Emptiness' and was first published in
English in Minoru KIYOTA, ed., Mahayana Buddhist Meditation: Theory and Practice,
1978. This actually represents a revised and enlarged version of the author's article
n
'Amareru mono [What Remains]' #: Q tJ <l), first published in 1968.
There are also pertinent remarks on the topic in SKILLING (1997:350-351; 359). WOOD
(1994:7-8) briefly presents the differences in the way the Madhyamikas and the Vijiiana-
vadins interpreted emptiness. Cf. also bibliographical references on vastu and catasraiJ
parye~aJJaiJ in the notes below.
Meditative Practices in the Bodhi5attvabhumi 889
they accept that which is empty. The [emptiness conceived of] in such a
way is called emptiness wrongly grasped. Why? For [the concept of] emp-
tiness holds good only as long as 11 that of which something is [said to be]
empty does not exist, but on the other hand, that which is empty _exists. ~f,
however all [elements involved in this relation] were non-existent, m
what re;pect, what would be empty, [and] of "".hat? Verily some~hing
being empty of [it]self [can]not hold good. Thus 1s, therefore, emptmess
wrongly grasped.
But [then] in what way is empt\ness rightly gra_sp~d?_ [If] one regards that
something is empty of that which does not exist m 1~ and correctly c~m~-
prehends that what remain_s the~e does actually ~x1st h~re, then !his 1s
called penetration of emptmess m accordance with reahty and without
12
distortion.
For the Bodhisattvabhllmi authors, 'what remains there' and 'actually exists' is the
13
'[real] thing' (vastu) or the 'thing-in-itself (vastumatra). The passage above con-
11 This is a rather free rendering of the Sanskrit ablative, but I fear that a more literal
translation would have made the English sentence too difficult to follow. In the sentence
below, the ablative is also freely rendered as a conditional clause. _
ca necchatiyena siinya!p, tad api necchati yat siinya!p. Iya!p eva!priipa durgrhita siinyatety
ucyate. Tat kasya hetoiJ? Yena hi siinyaf!l,_ tad asa~~havat, yac ~a su1_1ya!p, tad sadbha~ac
chiinyata yujyeta. Sarvabhiiviic ca kutra kif!l kena sunyaip bhaVJwatJ? Na ca tena tasa1va
sunyata yujyate. Tasm~d eva!p durgrhita siiny~ta bhavat1:,_KathaIJ_1_ ca punaiJ :ug(hita
siinyatii bhavati? Yatas ca yad yatra na bhavatJ, tad tena sunya!p 1tJ samanupasyatJ, yat
punar atravasi~faf!l bhavatJ; tad sad iha~tfti yat~a~hiita!p prajanati, iyam ucyate
sunytavakrantir yathabhiita aviparita. (Bodh1sattvabhum1 WOGIHARA ed. 47s.zo; DUTT ed.
326 _14 ; TAKAHASHI 2005a:101, §§ 5.4.1.-5.4.2). Cf. the Tibetan translation of the passag~ at
D4037.26b 3_6 , and Xuanzang's Chinese rendering at T1579.488c2r489az. For translations
into modern languages, cf. FRAUWALLNER (1969:278-279); SEYFORT RUEGG (1969:322-
323); UI (1961:46-47); WILLIS ([1979] 2002:162-163); HOTORI (1984b:55-56); TAKAHASHI
(2005a:166, § 5.4.1-§ 5.4.2); etc.
It should be mentioned here that the roots of this view can be traced back to early
canonical texts. The direct source of the passage seems to be a siitra which has also survived
in the Pali Canon under the title of Cii/asuiiiiatasutta (MN IIl.104-109). See MUKAI (1974,
1983); MIZUO (1983a, 1983b ); HOTORI (1984b ); SOMA (1985:9); NAGAO (1991:55);
SKILLING (1997:350-351); etc. For more details, see DELEANU (2006, vol. 1:163-164).
13 FRAUWALLNER (1969:279) translates vastumatra as Ding an sich. SCHMITHAUSEN
(1969b:108) renders the term as das Wirkliche als solches or das bloBe Wirkliche. Other
translations include, for example, la simple chose reelle (SEYFORT RUEGG, 1969:323), 'the
given thing only' (WILLIS, [1979] 2002:155), tannaru jibutsu 1j:§.IJ:'Q-!Jf?7] (TAKAHASHI,
2005a: 166-167), etc.
I prefer the rendering 'thing-in-itself, as actually suggested by FRAUWALLNER. The
translation is, I think, both philologically and philosophically possible. This does not mean,
of course, that such a translation of vastu implies the whole range of philosophical
connotations carried by the concept of Ding an sich in the Kantian philosophy. Kant
believes that 'objects in themselves are quite unknown to us, and that what we call outer
objects are nothing but mere representations of our sensibility' (Kritik der reinen Vernunft,
p. 46; here cited in the English translation of Norman KEMP SMITH, p. 74). The German
philosopher also states that 'though we cannot know these objects as things in themselves,
we must yet be in position at least to think them as things in themselves' (S. XXIV; p. 27).
From the perspective of the Bodhisattvabhiimi authors, it is true that vastu remains
unknown to the ordinary person (prthagjana), but the bodhisattvas who have reached
advanced stages of spiritual cultivation, not to mention the Buddhas, come to know the
890 Florin DELEANU
eludes that the ascetic rightly grasping emptiness 'knows in accordance with reality
both the existing thing-in-itself and the mere designation (praj.iaptimiitra) [con-
structed] with respect to the thing-in-itself'. 14
The Bodhisattvabhiimi uses the term vastu in a dichotomous way. 15 One mea-
ning is that of 'thing' incorrectly reflected and actually distorted by designations
(praj.iapti), i.e., ordinary linguistic conventions viewed as epistemologically mis-
leading.16 This 'thing' results from and perpetuates the proliferation (prapa.ica) of
'thing-in-itself' as it really is (yathabhiitam). This process is an, if not the, essential part of
the training for and experience of Awakening.
BUESCHER (2008:192-200) discusses in much more detail the parallelism between
vastumatra and the Kantian Ding an sich as well as some Hegelian interpretations.
It is interesting to note here that the term vastumatra is also used in Advaita-Vedanta
(see SCHMITHAUSEN, 1969:108).
14 [... ] yathabhiita!p prajanati yad uta vastumatra!p ca vidyamana!p vastumatre ca
prajiiapamatra!p (Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 48 1_2; DUTT ed. 3218_19). Cf. D4037.
27a1; T1579.489a6_8.
15 Vastu is a key term for the philosophy and spiritual praxis of the Bodhisattvabhiimi
The term and its place in the history of early Yogacara has been the subject of many studies,
most of them authored by Japanese scholars. Though the list is far from exhaustive, here
are some relevant articles: ARAMAKI (1976b:25-31) (examining the role of the dual
understanding of vastu in the formation of the doctrine of three natures [ trividhal;
svabhaval;] = '['1~); HOTORI (1982:33-34); HOTORI (1983) (pointing out that the
Bodhisattvabhiimi ideas on the nature of reality influenced the relevant views in the
Sa!pdhinirmocanasiitra); HOTORI (1984a); HOTORI (1984b ); SOMA (1985:5-10) (see also pp.
12-15 for a comparision of the concepts of vastu in the Bodhisattvabhiimi and tathagata-
garbha in the Ratnagotravibhaga); IKEDA (1996a)(especially pp. 6-9, discussing how the
vastu dialectics in the Bodhisattvabhiimi contributed to the formation of the theory of the
three natures); IKEDA 1996b; TAKAHASHI (2001a, 2001b); MOTOMURA (2005)(on vastu
and nimitta in the Bodhisattvabhiimi and the Bodhisattvabhiimiviniscaya ad Tattvartha-
pafala); KRAMER (2005:52-60)(focusing on the Tattvarthapafala and its role in the forma-
tion of the theory of the five categories [paiicavastu] in the Viniscayasa!pgrahal}i); TAKA-
HASHI (2005a:18-33)(a detailed and excellent analysis of the subject); etc. Actually, the
concept of vastu in the Bodhisattvabhiimi and its developments in the Viniscayasa!p-
grahal}i, i.e., the paiicavastu theory, is the subject of two outstanding monographs, both
accompanied by critical editions and annotated translations: KRAMER (2005) and
TAKAHASHI (2005a).
16 The Bodhisattvabhiimi distinguishes between two types of truth, i.e., the truth
established on the basis ofworld[ly criteria] (lokaprasiddha!p tattvam) and the truth estab-
lished on the basis of correct reasoning (yuktiprasiddha!p tattvam) (Bodhisattvabhiimi
WOGIHARA ed. 37, 8-38, 1; DUTT ed. 25,8_21 ). The correct reasoning (yukti) refers to what
most Buddhist schools of that period accepted as valid means of cognition: direct per-
ception (pratyak~a), logical inference ( anumana), and the tradition of the Trustworthy ( ap-
tifgama), to wit, scriptural authority. (On the term yukti, which is similarly construed in the
Sravakabhiim1; see DELEANU, 2006, vol. 11:494-495, n. 74.) In the definition of the former
category of truth (after all, hardly worth its name ... ), we read that it denotes the 'uniformity
of the views of all the worldly [persons] referring to a certain thing, [views] due to an
understanding based upon agreement, convention, [generally accepted] acquaintance, and
tradition' (Lauldkanii!p sarve~iif!l yasmi!p vastuni sa!pketasa!pVftisa!pstavanagamapra-
vi~faya buddhya darsanatulyata bhavatJ) (Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 37g_ 10; DUTT
ed. 25g_9; TAKAHASHI,2005a:85-86, §§ 2.2.1-2.2.2.).
Meditative Practices in the Bodhjsattvabhiimj 891
mental constructions ( vikapa), 17 which are the source of defilements (saipklesa)
and ultimately the trigger of the cycle of rebirth (saipsiira) and its ensuing suffering
(dul;kha). 18 T~e other sense of vastu is that of t~e objective basis_ (~sraya) rhic?
1
remains (avasiJta) after all conceptual constructions have been ehmmated. This
'entity', called 'thing-in-itself', is identified with the inexpressible Ultimate Reality
20
( tathatii) and is cognisable only to the highly trained bodhisattvas:
By means of the profoundly penetrating cognition concerning the
essencelessness of phenomena, the bodhisattva does correctly know that
all phenomena have an inexpressible nature and [therefore] does not
mentally construct [/imagine] any phenomena in any way whatsoever.
[What he does] is nothing but Fn~uitiv~jY] grasping. the thi~g-in-itself
[which is no other than] the Reality Itself. And [m domg so,] It does not
occur to him, 'this is the thing-in-itself or this is the Reality itself', but
[what] the bodhisattva [does is] to practice [focused c:mly] on [his] object
[/goal]. 22 Practicing [focused only] on the supreme ob1ect [/goal], through
17 See BodhisattvabhiimiWOGIHARA ed. 5221-532; DUTT ed. 364_11; TAKAHASHI (2005a:
174, § 8.4) as well as Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 55 10_15 ; DUTT ed. 3724-38,2; TAKA-
HASHI (2005a:114, § 10.2; in the latter passage, see mainly the phrase tadalambanasya
prapaiicapatitasya vastunal; 'of the thing belonging to [literally, 'having fallen into']
proliferation which has this [mental construction] as its support'). The Bodhisattvabhiimi
often qualifies vikalpa as the 'erroneous construction' (mithyavikalpa) and classifies it into
eight types, i.e., a~faviddho mithyavikalpa, whose detailed discussion constitutes an impor-
tant topic of the Tattvarthapafala.
18 See Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 556-8; DUTT ed. 3723-24; TAKAHASHI (2005a:
114, § 10.1): Tasmac ca punar mithyavikalpat sa!pklesal;. Sa!pklesat sa!psiirasaJPsrtiiJ.
Sa!psiirasaJPsrtel; sa!psiiranugata!p jatiaravyadhimaraIJiidika!p dul;kha!p pravartate.
19
See Bodhisattvabhiimi W OGIHARA ed. 4720-486 ; DUTT ed. 3215-22; TAKAHASHI (2005a:
101-102, § 5.4.2).
2°Cf. also SCHMITHAUSEN (1969b:108). SCHMITAHUSEN (1969b:105-109) also dedica-
tes a detailed and illuminating note on the usage of the term tathata in Buddhist literature
in general and the Viniscayasa!pgrahaIJi in particular.
21 The meaning of the Sanskrit phrase nanyatra is 'not otherwise but', 'rather', etc. See
Sanskrit- W6rterbuch der buddhistischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden, Fascicle II, p. 89,
s.v. anyatra # 4: (nach einer Negation.) vielmehr, sondern. Cf. EDGERTON ([1953] 1985,
vol. II, s.v. anyatra (2) 'except'). Cf. also TAKAHASHI's Japanese translation of this passage
(2005:120): suru hoka nai T 0{-llilJ.' l ,.
22 The meaning of artha in this context seems to be that of 'object [of practice]'. This
could refer to the contemplation and direct perception of the thing-in-itself = the Reality
without conceptualizing it, as actually stated in this passage. Xuanzang seems to construe
the sentence in this way (see note 25 below). But artha could also mean 'object' [of practice]
in a wider sense, comprising the salvific goal ( artha) of the bodhisattva's messianic career.
Actually, the passage immediately following the fragment cited above speaks of the result
of the vision described here: the bodhisattva obtains the supreme equanimity (paramam
upek~am pratilabhate) and this allows him to engage unflinchingly in his salvific activities
without ever becoming tired or arrogant. Similarly, the 'supreme object' in the next
sentence of the passage quoted here may refer not only to the Absolute Reality ( tathata) as
an object of contemplative practice and/or permanent state of mind but also to the
Mahayanist ultimate goal of leading all sentient beings to Awakening. TAKAHASHI
(2005a:160) translates artha as taish6 5(1~ 'object'. WILLIS' rendering of the sentence arthe
tu sa bodhisattvas carati as 'in clear understanding the bodhisattva courses' ([1979]
2002:155) is rather mystifying.
892 Florin DELEANU
transcendent wisdom, 23 he correctly regards all phenomena as being
identical with the Reality. 24
The passage clearly illustrates not only the basic philosophy underlying the
BodhjsattvabhzJmj but also its spiritual agenda, which is actually translated into
various techniques of meditation and reflection. 25
23
Here and below I render the praJiili as 'transcendent wisdom'. I am aware that the
word 'transcendent' may evoke various (including inappropriate!) philosophical connota-
tions, but in contexts like the one above, it seems to me that the term is a possible, and even
necessary, qualification accompanying 'wisdom'. The latter may be sufficient in rendering
the meaning of praJiili in its more general sense, as often construed in Abhidharmic
treatises (cf. Abhklharmakosabhliwa 5422 : praJiili dharmapravicayaiJ, "praJiili is the discern-
ment [/comprehension] of phenomena [/factors]"). In Mahayana literature, especially in
texts like ours as well as in the PraJiilipliramitli sutras, the sense of praJiili is, however, much
stronger and deeper. I have, therefore, used the epithet 'transcendent', which I construe in
the sense given by the Oxford Dictionary of English (s.v.): 'beyond or above the range of
normal or physical human experience'. I assume that no matter how one translates the word
praJiili, most students of Buddhism would agree that the praJiili attained by a bodhisattva,
especially in his/her higher stages of training, is something more than the average worldly
wisdom accessible to ordinary human beings.
24
Sa khalu bodhisattvas tena diirlinupraviffena dharmanairlitmyaJiilinena nirabhillipya-
svabhlivatliip sarvadharmliIJliip yathlibhiitaip viditvli na kaipc1a dharmarp kathaipcit
kalpayatJ: Nlinyatra vastumlitraip grhIJliti tathatlimlitraip. Na clisyaivaip bhavati: "vastu-
mlitraip vaitat tathatlimlitraip ve(v 1;< 1) arthe tu sa bodhisattvas carati. Arthe parame caraip
sarvadharmliips tayli tathatayli samasamlin yathlibhiitarp praJiiayli pasyati. (Bodhisattva
bhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 411s-21; DUTT ed. 289.14; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:92, § 4.7.). Cf.
D4037.23ar23b2 and T1579.487b18-22· The latter reads: 32'..Mf~ili EEtrni~A i!~tt'& ' D~
~-i:;7Jz! J!lti§ Elti Mff3;0B , ~~Yi! Bz.:'Y'foll PJ~5tJ3U "lll!f>ZJtJJ , lll!f>Z~PD"
O
~f'f~~ "lit~lllJJ , ~lll~PD", {Elfin~~ PD~~ili fiMJ~t!x: , -JJ~~-1:;7]1! zi:s:~zi:s:
0 0
~' .[;)~PD~ PDWW~ Xuanzang probably added an explanatory phrase, i.e., lf:t~lll
0
JJ ' ~lll~PD 'this is only the thing, this is only the Reality', in order to clarify the sense of
the following sentence, i.e., the bodhisattva's practicing (what in Chinese is literally
rendered as) 'meaning' ~ ( = artha ). The Tibetan rendering byang chub sems dpa' de don
ni spyod par byed do (D4037.23b 1) follows the Sanskrit faithfully.
(I) The WOGIHARA ed. reads: vastumlitrarp tat tathatlimlitraip ceti (apparently follo-
wing the Cambridge MS). The Durr ed. has: vastumlitraip vii eitat tathatlimlitraip caiti.
This is based on the Patna MS, but caiti appears to be DUTT's addition or decipherment.
According to TAKAHASHI (2005a:92, n. 22), the Patna MS is illegible here. On the other
hand, the Nepalese MS and the Kyoto MS read: veO,: I follow here the latter, with some
sandhi emendations as suggested by TAKAHASHI. (Note that the priority given to sandhi
rules here requires some compromises in my usage of modern punctuation; a consistent
application of the latter would have resulted into vii" itJ; arthe.)
25
See also the following passage which shows that the correct understanding of the
Reality is conceived as a form of the realization of the rightly grasped emptiness. 'And [the
ascetic] correctly understands the Reality, the fact that [its] essence is inexpressible. This is
called emptiness rightly grasped, rightly penetrated through correct transcendent wisdom'
(yathlibhiitliip ca tathatliip nirabhil/ipyasvabhlivatliip yathlibhiitarp praJlinliti. iyam ucyate
sugrhitli siinyatli samyakpraJiiayli supratividdheti) (Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 485_6;
Durr ed. 3221-22). (Cf. D4037.27a 2.3; T1579.489a9.11 .) The Durr ed. reads with the Patna
MS (folio 32b 4): yathlibhiitaii ca tathatliip. The Bodhisattvabhiimi Nepalese MS photo-
graphed by the Nepalese-German Manuscript Cataloguing Project (No 3-681) has the same
reading (folio 22a4R). (I am most grateful to Professor Dr Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN for his
kindly checking this manuscript reading for me.) WOGIHARA's reading yathlibhiitaii ca
Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhumi 893
II. The Four Investigations and the Four Correct Cognitions:
The Cornerstone of the Epistemology of the Thing-In-Itself
Though not expressly linked to such technical terms as dhyana or samadh1; the so-
called 'four investigations' ( catasraiJ parye~apafJ) and the 'four thorough cognitions
in conformity with reality', or simply, 'four correct cognitions' ( catvarj yatha-
bhzltaparjjiiananj) are one of the most original contributions of the Bodh1sattva-
bhzJmj and one with lasting effects in the history of the Y ogacara-Vijfianavada
tradition. 26 They represent fundamental strategies of reflection and can also be
tathatlim seems, however, to be the correct one. It is supported the Chinese PDW~PD.
Tibetan· yang dag pa Ji Jta ba de bzhin ny1a probably renders a similar reading (although a
wording like *yang dag pa Ji Jta baJ_ for the attributive usage of yathlibhiitaip would have
been clearer). A reading like yathlibhiitaii ca tathatliip would raise semantical problems for
the sentence. We have one adverbial yathlibhiitaip before praJlinlitJ; and the presence of a
second yathlibhiitarp would hardly make sense. Also note that the Chinese translation
suggests a different wording for the last part of the sentence: PD~i51% '[g!f;iZ~~ ' D~~i!
'1'1 ~g.[;)lE~ PJ.>'[giffi~ (T1579.489a 12-11).
26 The four investigations and the four correct cognitions are the unique creation of the
Bodhisattvabhiimi, but some hints which may have influenced their formation can be
traced back to the Srlivakabhiimi. As pointed out by TAKAHASHI (2005b:24-25, n. 1), there
are certain common elements between the examination (paryefanli) of the six aspects (fa(j
vastiini) as well as the threefold realization ( trivdham avabodham) in the latter text
(Srlivakabhiimi 368-370) and the four investigations and the four correct cognitions in the
Bodhisattvabhiim1: TAKAHASHI's remarks are actually based upon a suggestion by K.
SHUKLA (1973:370, n. 1). On the six aspects (fa(j vastiini) in the Srlivakabhiim1; with
relevant passages edited, translated and annotated, see DELEANU (2006, vol. 11:447-449),
etc.
In the Yogliclirabhiim1; the four investigations and the four correct cognitions also
appear listed in the Srutimayibhiimi. The Sanskrit text of this passage has been edited in
SCHMITHAUSEN (2000a:248, §§ B.06-07) ( = Ch. T1579.345b25-C1), I surmise that the
Srutimayibhiimi is chronologically later than the Bodhisattvabhiim1; and that the set of
investigations and cognitions was borrowed by the former from the latter. Besides, the
entire Srutimayibhiimi passage in which the four investigations and four cognitions occur
seems to contain many other late interpolations (see SCHMITHAUSEN, 2000a). This could
be an indication that the passage may actually be an accretion probably dating to the very
late phases of compilation of the Yogliclirabhiimi.
The four investigations and the four correct cognitions had a comparatively strong and
lasting influence on quite a few basic Yogacara texts. See for example, Xianyang shengjiao
Jun T1602.507cw508a 23 ; 516c21 . 22, 519c23 .27 ; Mahliylinasiitrlilaipklira Ch. XIX, Verses 47-48,
p. 168, I. 18-p. 169, I. 2; Abhidharmasamuccayabhlifya pp. 99-100, §§ 126-127,; Mahliylina-
saipgraha Ch. III, Ver. 16 (LAMOTTE ed., Tome I, p. 55) (citing the Mahliylinasiitrli-
larpklira); and * VIjiiaptimlitrlis1adhi T1585.49b 1_8.
The four investigations and the four correct cognitions have been the subject of several
studies dedicated to the Bodhisattvabhiimi in particular or more generally to early
Yogacara-Vijfianavada. Here are some of the most important ones: ARAMAKI (1976b,
especially pp. 18-19, 23-25); HAYASHIMA (1982, esp. 165-167); HOTORI (1982, esp. pp. 36-
38); ARAMAKI (2000, esp. 45-46); ARAMAKI (2002, esp. pp. 10-13); MIKOGAMI (2002);
TAKAHASHI (2005a, esp. pp. 30-31); TAKAHASHI (2005b, the most lucid analysis of the
subject). See also SCHMITHAUSEN (1969a:820, n. 45); SUEKI (1979). Complete translations
of the exposition of the four investigations and the four correct cognitions are found in
WILLIS ([1979] 2002:170-172) and TAKAHASHI (2005a:175-177, a very good rendering into
modern Japanese).
894 Florin DELEANU
regarded as contemplative techniques, or at least as underlying epistemic presup-
positions for the bodhisattva's meditation. There is no doubt that the authors of the
Bodhjsattvabhumj considered them extremely important and more than mere
doctrinal statements. The four investigations are declared to be amongst the
practices conducive to Awakening ( bodhjpak~yacarya), together with the familiar
set of thirty-seven factors leading to Awakening (saptatn"ipsad bodhjpakffa
dharmal;) 27 - quite a daring addition to this long-established list with canonical
roots. 28 Furthermore, as we shall see below, the mastery of the four investigations
plays a crucial role at a very high stage on the bodhisattva's path of spiritual
cultivation.
The most detailed exposition of the four investifations and the four correct
cognitions is found in the same Chapter on Reality.2 The former set includes the
investigation of the name (namaparye~m;a), the investigation of the thing
( vastuparye~aJJa), the investigation of the designation of essence (svabhavapra-
jiiaptjparye~aJJa), and the investigation of the designation of distinctions ( vise~a-
prajiiaptJparyefaJJa). 30 The first two terms are defined as follows:
The investigation of the name is that [by means ofj which the bodhisattva
looks at names as only names [or: nothing but names] [i.e., mere linguistic
conventions].In the [same] way, the view concerning things as only things
[or: things-in-themselves] is the investigation of the thing. 31
The remaining two investigations are explained in a similar manner. Then the
passage concludes with the following assertion:
He [i.e., the bodhisattva] looks at the characteristic[ s] of the name and of
the thing either as being separated or as being conjoined. 32 And he rea-
27 Bodhjsattvabhiimj WOGIHARA ed. 371 . ; DUTT ed. 256 _ . Cf. D4037.19lb ;
18 22 15 17
T1579.566a4_7.
28 The Bodhjsattvabhiimj has a whole chapter dedicated to the 'Factors Leading to
Awakening' (Bodhjpakwapafala) (WOGIHARAed. 250-284; DUTTed. 171-192). The chap-
ter deals with many aspects of the bodhisattva's praxis and salvific activity, but the tradi-
tional saptatrj1p§ad bodh1pakwa dharmaiJ are only briefly treated (Bodhjsattvabhiimj
WOGIHARA ed. 259r260 10), and the readers/audience are referred to the Sravakabhiimj for
a detailed exposition of the topic (see note 58 below). On the saptatd1psad bodh1pakwa
dharmal; in the Yogacarabhiim1; see OZAWA (1975). For a comprehensive study of the
thirty-seven factors conducive to Awakening, especially in the Pali tradition, see GETHIN
(2001).
29
Bodh1sattvabhiimj WOGIHARA ed. 53r553; DUTT ed. 361r3720; TAKAHASHI (2005a:
111-114, Section 9). Cf. D4037.29a5-30b7; T1579.490brc 15 .
30 The Sanskrit term prajiiaptj can also be construed as 'postulation'. Cf. Xuanzang's
translation jja/i ,ffli}'[, which literally means 'provisionally establish[ing]', as well as TAKA-
HASHI's (2005a:175-177) rendering of the word into modern Japanese as kasetsu {N~
'hypothesis' or 'assumption'.
31
Tatra namapa1ye~a1Jii yad bodhjsattvo namnj namamatra1p pasyati Eva1p vastunj
vastumatradarsana1p vastuparye~aJJii. (Bodhjsattvabhiimj WOGIHARA ed. 53 9_11 ; DUTT
ed. 3616-1?)·
32
The words anus/j~fa and anusle~a (in the next sentence) are Buddhist Sanskrit Hybrid
terms. According to EDGERTON ([1953] 1985, s.v. anusHHa 'clinging to, leaning on'), the
finite forms of anu-v sh~ are unrecorded. Their meaning is, however, not difficult to
v
determine. Most probably, the prefix anu- reinforces the sense of §jj~ 'to adhere, to cling,
Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhumi 895
lizes that the designation of the essence and the designation of distinc-
tions are based upon [arbitrarily] conjoining the name and the thing. 33
The practice of the four investigations results in four corresponding cognitions.
They include the correct cognition resulting from the investigation of the name
(namaj~a1Jfigata1p yath~bhutaparjjfianam), the corr~ct ~ogniti?~_resulting from the
investigation of the thmg ( vastvefaJJagata!p yathabhutapan;nanam), the correct
cognition resulting from the investigation of the designation of the ess~i_ice
(svabhavaprajiiaptJ:efaJJ~gat~!p yathabhut~parj_(iianam~, ~nd _the co~:ect co~~11Ion
resulting from the mvestigation of the des1gnat10n of d1stmctions ( v1sefapra;napty-
efanagata!p yathabhutaparijiianam). 34 The explanation of these cognitions is quite
detailed, and for the present purposes, it will suffice to cite here only the definition
of the first one.
What is the correct cognition resulting from the investigation of the name?
Having examined the name as being just a name, 35 the bodhisattva does
thus cognize the name as it is in reality. A certain name is established
with reference to a thing with a certain meaning for the very purpose of
conceivin~ [/perceiving] [it], of understanding [it], of attributing [it quali-
ties, etc.]. 6If [for instance,] the name 'matter' (riipa) is not established
to unite', etc. (see MONIER-WILLIAMS, [1899] 1986, s.v.). Both Tibetan 'brel ba (D4037.30a1)
'to combine' and Chinese he -@j- (T1579.490b 12) 'to unite' support the sense suggested above.
33 Sa namavastuno bhjnnaii ca lak~aJJaip pasyaty anusH~faii ca. Namavastvanusle~a-
samnnj§rjta1p ca svabhavaprajiiaptJ°Ip vj§e~aprajiiapdii ca pratjvjdhyati (Bodhjsattvabhiimj
WOGIHARA ed. 5314-16; DUTT ed. 361s-20).
34 The word Qagataip in nama1~a1Jiigata1p yathabhiitaparijiianam, vastve~a1Jagata1p
yathiibhiitaparijiianam, etc., can be construed in two ways: (1) correct cognition 'coming
from, generated by' the investigation of the name, etc. This seems to be Xuanzang's
2 understanding: @:}c'JiJr§ f tzD'ff9&, $@:Y[l,pfr§ f tzD'ff9&, etc.; (2) correct cognition 'having
attained/reached' the [purpose of practicing/state of perfect?] investigation of the name, etc.
Tibetan mjng tshol bar gyur pa yang dag pa jj /ta ba bzhjn du yangs su shes pa, dgos po tshol
bar gvur pa yang dag pa jj /ta ba bzhjn du yangs su shes pa, etc. translates agata with gyur pa
'having become' (a rendering also used in other sources; see CHANDRA, [1959] 1971:s.v.).
This appears to suggest the second interpretation, but it is not excluded that it may simply
be a calque translation of the Sanskrit term. I find the first way of construing the compound
more natural.
35 The literal rendering of niimnj niimamiitratiiip paryewa is 'having examined with
regard to the name the fact that it is only a name'.
36 I render the sentence rather freely. A more literal translation would sound as follows:
'Such-and-such a name is established with reference to a thing with such-and-such a
meaning verily to the extent that [this is] for the purpose of ideation, for the purpose of
viewing, for the purpose of attribution.'
Here I translate sa1pjiia as 'conceiving [/perceiving]'. Usually, I prefer the rendering
'ideation' because its usage in Buddhist literature goes beyond our modern concept of
'perception'. Abhjdharmakosabhawa 1015_16 defines sa1pjiiii as 'having the nature of
grasping characteristics' (sa1p1nii mmjttodgrahanatm1kii). Examples of it include not only
colors like 'blue', etc., but also more abstract notions such as 'friend' and 'foe'. My rendering
above as 'conceiving [/perceiving]' seems, however, more appropriate for our context. The
purport of the passage is clear: 'ideation' is linguistically conditioned and the arbitrary links
which we make in our daily usage of the language pervert our perceptions and conceptions.
Another word needing an explanation is upaciira, which I translate as 'attribution'.
The term is employed in Indian logic with the general sense of 'to be in use' and with a more
896 Florin DELEANU
with reference to the thing which is conceived [/perceived] as matter, etc.,
no one [can] thus conceive of that thing as having the name 'matter'. Not
[being able to] conceive [/perceive], [people] would not become attached
[to things] due to [their] superimposition [of values, etc.]. Not becoming
attached, [people] would not [try to] express [things]. 37
The arbitrariness of the linguistic sign, a matter of fact for any student of lan-
guage, is for the authors of the Bodhjsattvabhfimj the main culprit of ignorance
and ultimately of human suffering. Their condemnation of language is double.
'Naming', a process upon which our basic cognitive functions are based, is not only
an act of beclouding the antic purity of the thing-in-itself. 'Naming' is equally and
inevitably 'coveting', and in Buddhist perspective, the latter is the unmistakable
trigger of the chain of rebirths. From the viewpoint of our text, the only way of
putting an end to the salpsiiric tragedy is to refrain from making use of language as
well as its ensuing ideations, at least in any real attempt to grasp the essence of the
reality. This frees the bodhisattva's spiritual quest from the distorting shackles of
relying upon language and conceptualization. Eventually, it leads to a genuine,
unmediated grasp of the thing-in-itself, equaled, as we have seen, to the Supreme
Reality-the sine qua non epistemic condition for attaining the Awakening. The
blueprint for deepening the insights set forth by the four investigations and the
four correct cognitions is no other than the samiidhj repertoire.
III. Samadhi: The Recipe for Realizing the Thing-In-Itself
No doubt, the Bodhjsattvabhfimj belongs to a spiritual tradition which regards the
diversified perception of reality, based upon and produced by language, as the
greatest epistemic obstacle to Awakening. The Reality and the state of experien-
cing It presumably is a trans-linguistic locus of perfect uniformity. And in order to
attain It, the bodhisattva must undergo a long spiritual process of obliterating
ideations. Such a view, mainly associated with mystic trends and experiences, is
certainly not limited to Buddhism and can be found in many cultures and ages. To
be sure, not all Buddhist schools and strains would subscribe to this spirituality.
Yet, there is little doubt that such ideas and practices have a long history going
back to the earliest strata of Buddhism.
In the Tattviirthapafala, we find clear instructions on how this spiritual process
should be carried out. The Bodhjsattvabhfimj (WOGIHARA ed. 49w507 ; DUTT ed.
33 22 -34u; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:104-105, § 6.2.3.1.) first cites a canonical fragment,
which has parallels in both the Pali Aiigut(aranjkaya (AN V.324-326) and the
Chinese Salpyuktiigama (T99.235c-236b; T100.430c-431a). It teaches the meditator
that all ideations (salJJ.iiia), e.g., that of earth, water, space, or anything which
specific nuance of 'using something by attributing it some false qualities' (see NAKAMURA,
1983:207, s.v.). The latter appears to be the meaning in the passage here.
37
Namai~apagatarp yathabhutaparijiianarp katamat? Sa khalu bodhisattva namni
namamatratarp paiyewa tan namaivarp yathabhutarp parijanati Itidarp nama, ity
arthavastuni vyavasthapyate yavad eva sarpjiiartharp df~/yartham upacaratharp. Yadi
rupadisarpjiiake vastuni rupam iti nama na vyavasthapyate, na kascit tad vastu rupam ity
evaif1 sarpjaniyat. Asarpjanarp samaropato nabhiniveset. Anabhinivesan nabhilapet.
(Bodhisattvabhumi WOGIHARA ed. 5321-541; DUTT ed. 3625-371; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:112, §
9.3.2.1) (I follow here the text established by TAKAHASHI, but due to my use of modern
punctuation, the citation contains some minor sandhi differences.) Cf. D4037.30a3. 5; and
T1579.490b16-22·
Meditative Practices in the BodhisattvabhiJmi 897
38
might serve as a c?ntemplati~e obje~t, should ~e eliminated ( vjbhiita). Then the
Bodhjsattvabhum1 sets forth its own mterpretatlon:
Concerning the thing which [is conceived by means of the] ideation C?f
earth, etc., such a name, a convention, a design~tion like 'earth', etc._, 1s
called ideation of earth, etc. And furthermore, this represents a supenm-
position or a reduction concerning the th~n_g which_ [is concei~ed by
means of the] ideation of earth, etc. Perce1vmg a thmg [as] havmg an
essence which consists of that [earth, etc.] is a superimposition. And per-
ceiving [a thing in such a way as] to annihilate the thing-in-itself, [i.e.,] the
39
Supreme Truth, is called a reductionist ideation.
The obliteration of the ideative processes should become the basic framework
underlying all meditative techniques associated with the traditional path of
cultivation.
The path of practice40 shall be correctly followed in order to41eliminate
that [ideation]. Through understandi~g, !horC?ughly exercis~d ~pon all
objects of knowledge, [and] by [keepmg m ~md only] the 1~t:atlo~z1hat
the ideations of all phenomena [are nothmg but] adventitious, you
should thus repeatedly remove any ideation [conducive to] the prolifera-
tion directed at all phenomena and should consistently dwell on the
thing[-in-itself] by a non-conceptualizing mental state which is focused on
grasping only the object [perceived] without any characteristics. Thus you
will obtain the concentration [stemming] from the lineage of [those P:ac-
ticing] the pure contemplation of t?e _Tathagata's _Supre_me Cogmtlon.
[Even] when you practice [the meditation on] the 1mpunty, you sho~ld
not relinquish this mental orientation. [Likewise_, ~ve~] when yo~ practice
[the meditation on] friendliness, dependent ongmation, analysis of ele-
38 The canonical sources of the passage as well as the roots of this tradition in the
Bodhisattvabhumi are pointed out and discussed by HoroRI (1984a:90-92; ODANI, 2000:
231-235; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:169, n. 33, see also pp. 169-170 for the Japanese translation of
the Bodhisattvabhumi fragment). Cf. also WILLIS ([1979] 2002:122-125).
Furthermore, HorORI (1984a:92) shows that the meditative practice of elimination
( vibhavanl) is also stressed in the Sravakabhumi (see pp. 395-396). ·- . _
39 Prthivyadisarpjiiake vastuni ya prthivity evamadika namasarpketapra;naptiiJ, sa
prthivyfidisarpjiiety ucyate. Sa punaJ;< 1) prthivyadisarpjiiake vastuni samaropika cal?avadika
ca. Tanmayasvabhavavastugrahika samaropika. Vastumatraparamarthanasagrahika capa-
vadiki2l sarpjiiety ucyate. (WOGIHARA ed. 509.13 ; Durr ed. 3412-16; TAKAHASHI, 2005a:106,
§ 6.2.3.12).
<1J WOGIHARA ed. omits prthivyad1sa1!]jiiety ucyate sa punaiJ, probably because the
Cambridge MS is illegible here. The reading is contained in all the other MSS. See
TAKAHASHI (2005a:106, n. 6).
(2)WOGIHARAed. and Cambridge MS omit ca.
40 Or: 'path of preliminary practice' (?). In quite a few contexts, prayoga simply means
'practice', being virtually identical with yoga. In the Bodh1sattvabhumi itself (~OGIHARA
ed. 81 18_21 ; DUTT ed. 58 19_21 ), prayoga is defined in very general terms as contmuous and
arduous practice in various types of training (sik~apade~u). It is true that in its more
technical, Abhidharmic sense, prayogamargaiJ should be rendered as 'the path of prelimi-
nary practice' (e.g. Abhidharmakosabhawa 320 14 ), but in the context above, it is rather
unclear whether the stricter meaning of 'preliminary' is present or not.
41 Literally, 'well-investigated'.
42 Literally, 'by the ideation of adventitious[ ness] directed at the ideations of all
phenomena'.

898 Florin DELEANU
men ts, mindfulness of breathing, the first absorption [and so on] up to
the station of neither ideation nor non-ideation [as well as] the bodhi-
sattva's countless meditations, supernatural faculties, contemplations,
and attainments, you should not relinquish precisely this mental orienta-
tion.43
The three contemplations ( trayal; samiidhayaJ;), an old canonical set of praxis
raised to new heights in Mahayana Buddhism, are likewise tailored to suit the
Bodhjsattvabhumj emphasis on the thing-in-itself rather than on a non-committing
or non-substantialist view like much of the Prajiiaparamita philosophy: 44
43 Tasya vjbhavaya pra(!)ogamargal; samyak parjgrhito bhavjwati Sa tvam eval!} sarva-
jneyasuvicarjtaya buddhya I) sarvadharmasal!}jnasv agal!}tukasal!}jnaya sarvadharme~u
2 all characteristics [brought about by] conceptual prohferat10n ( v1k~Ipa-
sarvaprapan~as~l!}tam apa1:iyapaniya nh:ikalpena < l cetasa n!rnhn/!~ena~~hama~ragraha_-
JJapravrttenasmm J vastum bahulal!} vjhara. Eval!} te tathagata1nanansuddh1samadh1-
gotract4) dttasyajkagrata< 5l pratJlabdha bhavjwati Sa tval!] saced asubhal!} manasjkaro~j,
enal!} manasjkaral!} ma rjndwasi Sacen majtrim jdal!]pratyayatapratityasamutpadal!}
dhatuprabhedam anapanasmrftjl!} prathamal!} dhyanal!} vjstareJJa yavan najva-
saipjnanasaIJ1}nayatanam<6l apramaJJabodhjsattvadhyanabhijnasamadhjsamapattir manasj-
karo~j, etam eva manasjkaral!} ma nndwasi (WoGIHARA ed. 396 12_25 ; Durr ed. 273 16 _25 ).
Cf. D4037.203b 2_5 ; T1579.572a3_14 . Parts of the same passage are translated into Japanese in
HOTORI (1984a:91-92).
(t) Durr ed. adds eval!} te after buddhya.
(ZJ Durr ed. reads njrvjkareJJa. See, however, the Tibetan rendering rnam par mj rtogs
pa'j sems (D4037. 203b 2) and the Chinese translation ~:B-5:JU (... ) ZiLJ' (T
1579.572a6).
3
< l WOGIHARA ed. reads tasmjn. Tibetan reads here de (D4073.203b 3), while the
0 existent, the bodhisattva does not generate any desire or lack of desire.
Chinese renders it as llt (T1579.572a 7). Both readings, i.e., WOGIHARA ed. and
Durr ed., are possible, but I adopt here the latter.
(4) WOGIHARA ed. reads jnana
0 0
•
5
< ) The Chinese rendering has ~1:tU{J'-~'!'1 * av1parita dttasyajkagrata. Tibetan reads
together with the Sanskrit original, without any trace of something like *avjJJarita.
6 0
< ) Durr ed. reads: sal!}jiiayanam.
44
The set of meditative techniques known as the three contemplations or the con-
templation triad (samadh1traya) or the three gates of liberation ( trfJJj vjmok~amukham) are
already seen in the early Canon. They also discussed in the Abhidharma literature, and
come to enjoy a very important role in Mahayana Buddhism, especially in the Prajna-
paramjta sutras. A brief but excellent introduction to the three contemplations is found in
LAMOTTE (1944-1980, vol. III:1213-1215). The understanding of the praxis in Pra1na-
paramjta literature does not seem to differ fundamentally from the canonical sources. The
definitions given in the Pancavjl!}satjsahasdka 208 16 _22 , for instance, are quite similar to
those found in the Chinese translation of the Ekottaragama tj-fl6J13"*,fil (T125.630b) (cf.
LAMOTTE, 1944-1980, vol. III:1213). Their role in the bodhisattva's spiritual training is,
however, much more strongly emphasized, and in quite a few contexts, they seem to be the
central praxis leading to Awakening (e.g., Pancavjl!}satJsahasrjka 58-9; cf. T223.224Cz3_z4; cf.
also DELEANU, [2000) 2005). They may actually have been amongst the few samadhjs, a
term ubiquitous in most of the Mahayana scriptures, which actually denoted concrete
manners of meditative practice.
The Bodh1sattvabhumj is no exception to the hyperbolic usage of the term samadhi
They reach astronomic figures, especially as the bodhisattva climbs the spiritual ladder
towards Buddhahood. However, with the notable exception of the samadhjtraya and few
other contemplations, it seems ( at least to me) that even in those cases when concrete
samadhj names are mentioned, they represent nothing more than rhetoric enumerations of
doctrinal slogans, i.e., states of mind which the bodhisattva should and could attain.
Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhiimi 899
What is the bodhisattva's contemplation of emptiness (siinyata-
samadhj)? Here, 45 the bodhisattva's stable state (stf:jtj) ?~ mind loo~ing
at the thing[-in-itself) in its inexpressible essence (mrabhjfapyasvabhava),
which is free from the essence consisting in all [kinds of) verbal expres-
sions, is called his contemplation of emptiness. . . _ .
What is the desireless contemplation (apra1Jjh1taiJ samadhjiJ)? Here,
the bodhisattva's stable mental state observing this very thing[-in-itself)
which has an inexpressible essence [but nonetheless becomes] corrupted
with variegated defects on account of coming unde_r the_ sw~y of th~ de_-
filement and suffering springing up from wrong imagmatlon (n:1thya-
v1kalpa), [this mental state] consisting in lack of desire for s_uch a thmg [to
be grasped) in the future is called his desireless contemplation.
What is the signless contemplation (ammjttaiJ samadhjiJ)? Here, the
bodhisattva's stable mental state which appropriately (yathabhiitam)
brings peace [to his mind) and focuses his attention aft~r ha".ing re1?1oved
prapanca) [adventitious to] the very thing[-in-it_self) whose essence is m-
expressible, this is called his signless contemplation.
Why, furthermore, are only these three contempl~tions postulated,
not [others] beyond these, not a larger number than this? B~cause there
are two [ontological categories, to w\1:) existence and non-e_xistence. 1:he
conditioned as well as the non-condit10ned [factors] are existent, [while]
the Self and what pertains to the Self are non-existent. The desireless
contemplation has been established because [the bodhisattva] [does) not
[feel any] desire and [is filled with) abhorren_ce when [it comes) to the
conditioned [factors). The signless contemplat10n, o_n the oth~r han?, h!'ls
been established because [the bodhisattva feels] desire, [a desire which is]
included in the right [/admissible] delight, for Nirvana [which is a) non-
conditioned [factor). Moreover, regarding the thing.which is actually_in-
However, since [such a thing) is actually inexistent, this must be known as
such. And the contemplation of emptiness should be understood as refer-
ring to this [way of) viewing [the reality).
Therefore, the bodhisattva thus applies his efforts t~ these th_ree con-
templations. And thus he correctly comprehends their establishment.
And he also correctly comprehends other aspects [related to] the three
contemplations through the process of right es!ablishment_ a~d the ~ro-
cess of spiritual cultivation, [aspects] which the disciples [1.e.,
46
Sravakayana followers] practice and accomplish.
45 I construe jha as meaning 'here [ = in this work/context)'. The definition given to the
three contemplations in the Bodhjsattvabhumj is quite unique, and the authors may h~ve
wished to stress that 'here, in this work' this is how they understand these terms and praxis.
46 Tatra katamo bodhjsattvasya siinyatasamadhjiJ? Iha bodhjsattvasya sarvabhjjapatma-
kena svabhavena vkahjtal!} mrabhjfapyasvabhaval!} vastu pasyatal; ya dttasya sthjHfJ, ayam
asyocyate siinyatasamadhjiJ.
ApraJJjhjtaiJ samadhjiJ katamal;? Iha bodhjsattvasya tad eva nkabhjfapyasvabhaval!}
vastu mjthyavjkalpasamutthapjtena klesena dul;khena ca parjgrhitatvad anekado~adu~{al!]
samanupasyato yayatya!p tatrapraIJMhanapiirvaka dttasthH1"fJ, ayam asyapraJJjhjtaiJ sama-
dhk jty ucyate.
AnjmHtah< 1J samadhjh katamah? Iha bodhjsattvasya tad eva njrabhjjapyasvabhaval!}
vastu sarvavikalpaprapa.icanjm1tta"ny apaniya yathabhiital!] santato manasjkurvato ya
dttasthjHiJ, ayam asyocyate ammHtaiJ samadhjiJ. .
Kasmat punar e~iim eva trayii]Jiil!] samiidhiniil!] prajiiaptk bhavatj, niita utta~1, n_ato_
bhiiyal;? Dvayam jdal!} sac casac ca. Tatr_a s~I!]skrtam !~a1!_1skrtall; ca ~a.t. Asa~ a~ma va
atmiyal!} vii. Tatra sal!}skrte saty apraJJidhanataiJ pratjkulyato f!ra1?jh1tasamad~1?'~va-
sthanal!]. Asal!]skrte punar njrvfiJJe pra1J1dhanatal; samyagabh1rat1graha1Jato mm1tta-
 900 Florin DELEANU
It would be wrong, however, to present that the bodhisattva's meditative trai-
ning as consisting merely in a process of cognitive refinement ultimately leading to
the f~ll realization of the thing-in-itself. The Bodhisattvabhiimi is strongly
committed to the Mahayana agenda of universal salvation, and this spirit per-
meates even the apparently self-centred praxis of contemplation. This stance is
best reflected in the treatment of the perfection of meditation.
IV. The Perfection of Meditation:
Vita Contemplativa and Beyond
The main interest of the Chapter on Meditation (Dhyiinapa/ala) 47 lays not so much
in technical details but rather in revealing the place occupied by the perfection of
meditation ( dhyiinapfiramitii) in the bodhisattva's messianic career. 48 Like many
other Mahayana scriptures, the attitude towards meditative praxis is dual. On the
one hand, the bodhisattva is supposed to become fully conversant with the
traditional repertoire of yogic exercises. On the other hand, becoming too much of
an adept may easily lead to the betrayal of the bodhisattvic vows of universal
salvation. Meditating too much not only keeps the bodhisattva away from his/her
salvific task but it also gives him/her an excessive dose of spiritual efficiency. Put in
the bodhisattva's hands (or rather minds!), meditation can bring the Awakening
much too early - a possibility beyond doubt, yet one which is not to be courted by a
sa!?iidh!vyavasthiinalp. Yat punar etad asad eva vastu, tatra bodhisattvena na prapidhiinalp
nap1;ap1dhiina1!1 kar~piyam. Api tu tad asad ity eva yathiibhtltalp draf.tavya!Jl. Tac ca
darsanam adhikrtya stlnyatiisamiidhivyavasthiinalp veditavyaip.
Evaip hi bodhisattva efu tn~u samiidh1~u yogalp karoti. Evaip ca vyavasthiinalp
yathiibhutalp prajiiniiti. Tadanyiikiiriin api trinsamiidhin yathiibhutavyavasthiinanayapra-
vesena bhiivaniinayapravesena Ca yathiibhtltalp prajiiniiti, yefU sriivakiifJ sikfante samud-
iigacchanti ca. (Bodhisattvabhumi WOGIHARA ed. 276r2774; DUTT ed. 187wl888). Cf.
D4037.145bs-146a6 and T1579.543c7-28 . Parts of this passage have been translated into
Japanese in ARAMAKI (1976b:19-20) and HORIUCHI (2004:59-60).
(l) DUTT ed. reads: animittah.
Let us note that the order of the three contemplations differs from the classical list, i.e.,
stlnyatiisamiidhil;, iinimittal; samiidhiiJ, and aprapihital; samiidhiiJ, which is seen in
canonic~! sources and such sutras as the Paiicaviipsatisiihasrikii 208 16 _22 , etc. The placement
of the _s1?nless conte_mplation ( iinimittaiJ samiidhiiJ) after the desireless contemplation
(aprapih1taiJ samiidhiiJ) seems to be characteristic of the Northern, mainly Sarvastivadin
Abhidharma treatises. See, for instance, *Abhidharmamrtarasa (T1553.975c 1_9) (cf. VA~
DEN BROECK, 1977:187-188; LAMOTTE, 1944-1980, vol. III:1214-1215), Samiihitii BhumiiJ
140-1~3 ( = T1579.337a-c); etc. (I am grateful to Dr. Martin DELHEY for kindly drawing my
attention to the latter source).
47
The Chapter is found at Bodhisattvabhumi WOGIHARA ed. 207-211; DUTT ed. 143-
145. Cf. Bsam gtan gyi le'u in the Tibetan translation (D4037.llla 1-113a5) and Jinglii pin
~jJ:i8"r:1 in Xuanzang's Chinese rendering (T1579.527b-528b). The chapter has been
translated into French by DEMIEVILLE ([1957] 1973).
48
Tec?nically, ~ik~ the other five perfections described in Part I (Adhiirayogasthiina) of
the B__o~h1sattvabhum1, the dhyiinapiiramitii is analyzed from the viewpoint of nine aspects
(navakaram). Some of them appear to be mere theoretical classifications and clarifications.
I focus here only upon the most distinctive features of the perfection of meditation in the
overall progression of the bodhisattva on the spiritual path.
Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhumi 901
follower of the Great Vehicle. This basic Mahayana dilemma is also reflected in
49
the Bodhisattvabhiimi
Although the perfection of meditation is declared to be a fundamental practice
50
upon which ~wakening is based, ~he aut~ors/editor~ of the B?dhi~attvabhiimi ~re
quick to pomt out _that dhy~na 1s not ~ust_ a pass1v_e exercise . am~ed at selfish
cultivation. Dhyiina 1s categonzed as meditation for bhssful dwelhng m the present
life ( dff/adharmasukhavihiirfiya dhyiinam), meditation for triggering the qualities
[necessary for] the bodhisattva's concentration ( bodhisattvasamadhigw;anirharfiya
dhyanam), and meditation for [ accomplishing] acts for the benefit of [all] sentient
beings (sattvfirthakriyfiyai dhyiinam).51 The last two categories, with their obvious
Mahayanist flavor, are peculiar to the Bodhisattvabhiim1: It must be added, how-
ever, that these categories do not seem to refer to special methods. 52 They rather
49 On this bodhisattvic dilemma, see SCHMITHAUSEJ\ (2000b ), DELEANU ([2000] 2005),
etc.
50 See, for instance, the following passage occurring at the end of this chapter: "Thus is
the immeasurable meditation [engendering] the fruit of the Great Awakening of the
bodhisattvas. Based upon it, having fully accomplished the perfection of meditation, the
bodhisattvas [thus] awakened [in the past], will [thus] awaken [in the future], and are [thus]
awakening [in the present] to the Unsurpassed, Perfect, Complete Awakening." (Ity etad
dhyiinam aprameyalp bodhisattviiniilp mahiibodhiphala!Jl yad asritya bodhisattva dhyiina-
piiramitiilp pariptliyiinuttariilp samyaksaipbodhim abhisaipbuddhavantaiJ abhisaip-
bhotsyante abhisaipbudhyante ca.) (Bodhisattvabht1m1; WOGIHARA ed. 211 4_8 ; DUTT ed.
145 23 _25 ). One is tempted here to follow the conjectural emendation suggested by
DEMIEVILLE ([1957] 1973:319 n. 12), according to which we should add udayiim 'producing'
after mahiibodhiphalaip. (DEMIEVILLE spells udiiyiim, but I assume this to be a typo.) In
favour of this emendation, the French scholar adduces the parallel occurrence at the end of
the Chapter on [the Perfection of] Forbearance (~iintipafala): kfiintilp vipuliiip apramii-
pii!p mahiibodhiphalodayiilp (Bodhisattvabhumi, WOGIHARA ed. 198 28-199 1; Durr ed.
137i- 2, the latter spelling: mahiibodhiphalo[dayiiip}). One can also add here that the
Tibetan byang chub chen po'i 'brus bur gyur pa (D4037.113a4) and Chinese ~gf~~il)i X~
tl*(T1579.528b 22 ) (my underlining) would equally support a reading which contains a
word like 'producing' or 'effecting'. However, the reading given by the two Sanskrit editions,
elliptic as it may be, is not impossible: "the immeasurable meditation [which eventually
becomesJ the fruit of the Great Awakening of the bodhisattvas." Actually, a similar reading
is found at the end of the Chapter on [the Perfection of] Vigour ( Viiyapafala): bodhisattvii-
niilp viiyalp mahiibodhiphalaip (WOGIHARA ed. 206 17 ; DUTT ed. 142 17_18 ).
Concerning this passage, we should also notice that Xuanzang's Chinese translation
adds an extra word "[the bodhisattvas] quickly awakened, will [quickly] awaken, and are
[quickly] awakening" (~*8§1 ' &'§ff • ~§ff (T1579.528b 24)(my underlining). It is
O
difficult to ascertain whether this reflects a different manuscript reading used by Xuanzang
or is an explanatory addition by the Chinese master and/or his team of editors and
assistants.
Last but not least, I should like to add that though my remark concerning the
importance of meditation on the path to Awakening does not diminish, it should be noted
that similar statements are made about such perfections as forbearance and vigour (see
WOGIHARAed. 19827-1992; Durred. 1371-3, and WOGIHARAed. 20616-20; Durr ed. 14217-19
respectively).
51 BodhisattvabhtlmiWOGIHARAed. 2079-2089; DuTTed.1439-1444.
52 Some types of meditative practices, otherwise well known from canonical sources,
are mentioned in relation with the bodhisattvasamiidhigupanirhiiriiya dhyiinam, but
nothing unique to this category is described here.
 902 Florin DELEANU
appear to stress the importance of relating one's meditative accomplishments to
the ideals of the Greater Vehicle. For example, sattvarthakriyayai dhyanam
includes eleven acts performed for the sake of all living beings. Thus, the bodhi-
sattva, presumably fortified by his/her praxis of meditation, eliminates the suffering
of those in pain ( dul;kham apanayati duiJkhitanalJl), 53 teaches the [correct] method
[of Buddhism] (nyayam upadisat1), protects sentient beings from terror
( bhayebhyo rakJah), provides with means of subsistence those who lack them
( upakaraIJavikalanam upakaraIJopasalphiiralp karoti), etc. The only clear link
between such acts and dhyana appears to be the fact that the altruistic deeds are
said to rely on meditation ( dhyanalJl nisritya). We are not told, however, exactly
what kind of techniques the bodhisattva employs for each of the eleven acts.
One way in which the traditional methods could directly help the bodhisattva in
his noble endeavor is their potentiality of engendering supernatural powers.
Amongst the various classifications in the Dhyanapafala, we actually find such
categories as meditation for the generation of magical creations (nirmHanirmii]Jiiya
dhyanam), meditation for triggering the qualities [necessary for] the powers of
supernatural faculties ( abhij.iaprabhavaguIJanirharaya dhyanam), meditation
which serves as the support for the magical formulae making effective the allevia-
tion of such calamities as poison, thunderbolt, violent fever, daemonic possession,
etc. ( viJiisaniviJamajvarabhutagrahadyupadravasa1J1samakanii1J1 siddhaye mantra-
IJiim adhiJfhiiyakalp dhyanam), 54 and so on.
53
Both the WOGIHARA ed. and DUTT ed. end the sentence after apanayatj, and read
duf;khitaniim with the next sentence. However, as also pointed out by DEMIEVILLE ([1957]
1973:305, n. 5), this is unnatural and is not supported by Xuanzang's rendering (n~~'fs::[g
~g,~~Jf'fs).
54
Bodhisattvabhumi WOGIHARA ed. 209 18.20; Durr ed. 14426.27 . As also argued by
DEMIEVILLE ([1957] 1973:316, n. 3), the reading 2 VJ~amajvara 2 (actually the reading found
in the Cambridge MS and the Patna MS) is preferable to 2 vi~a-jvara 2 , the emendation
suggested by WOGIHARA (p. 209, n. 1). The compound vi~amajvara, which denotes a type of
fever, is attested in traditional medical treatises such as the Carakasaiphita (Sutrasthiina
II.31 = SHARMA ed., vol. I, p. 17; see also related commentarial materials in ibid., vol. IV,
pp. 68-69), the Susruta, etc. The term is rendered by P. SHARMA, the editor and translator
of the Carakasaiphita, as 'intermittent fever' (vol. I, p. 17) or 'destroying intermittent fever'
(vol. II, p. 811). BbTHLINK and Rom ([1855-1875] 1990, vol. VI:1247), on the basis of
Susruta 1.179; 1.188; etc., render the compound as unregelmiissiges Heber. MONIER-
WILLIAMS ([1988] 1986:996, s.v.), also referring to the Susruta, registers the word as
'irregular (chronic) fever'. The Tibetan rendering of our passage has rims drag po
(D4037.112a7), most probably in the sense of 'noxious epidemic' (see ZHANG, Yisun (ed.),
1993, vol. 11:2704, s.v.). Xuanzang's translation dure $~ (T1579.528a20 ) could be
construed as two separate words, i.e., 'poison and fever', but it is more likely that the two
characters were used here as a binome. Its literal meaning is 'poisonous fever', but the
binome is attested in a variety of sources in the sense of 'terrible/violent fever' (see Lu6,
Zhufeng (ed.), 1990-1994, vol. VII:826b, s.v.). The latter sense is actually quite close to
'destroying intermittent fever', i.e., one of the translations suggested by SHARMA for
vi~amajvara. It is not excluded that the Bodhisattvabhumi authors may have understood
the word as strictly referring to the particular type of intermittent fever described in the
Carakasaiphita, Susruta, etc., but a more general sense of 'violent fever', as suggested by the
Chinese rendering, is not to be ruled out. Provisionally, I have opted for the latter in my
translation above.
Meditative Practices in the Bodhjsattvabhumj 903
For the bodhisattva, the concentration and/or contemplative states brought
about by dhyana could also provide the basis for composing correct philosophical
treatises, hymns, and doctrinal lists, etc. ( aviparitasastrakavyamatrkambandha-
vyavasthanaya saddharmacirasthitJkatayai dhyanam) (Bodhisattvabhumi Worn-
HARA ed. 210 10 . 11 ; Dutt ed. 145 10.11). Apparently, meditation can even assist in the
acquisition of such worldly skills as writing, calculation, and (why not? ... ) making
55
everyday goods like seats, shoes, etc.
As intimated above, the Chapter on Meditation gives very scanty information
on the concrete techniques practiced by the bodhisattva. When it does, it is more
likely to make hints at methods like the four immeasurables (Bodhisattvabhumi
WOGIHARA ed. 2093. 5; DUTT ed. 144 17), obviously in tune with the authors'
intention to stress here the altruistic dimension of the meditative training. 56 We
should not be, however, too harsh with their treatment of the subject. The
Dhyanapafala serves well its aim of dealing with meditation as a bodhisattvic
activity conceived on a much larger scale than a yogic manual. And roughly
speaking, the Bodhisattvabhumi is not very generous with details about the actual
way in which meditation was practiced. We must remember that our text took
shape in an age in which such detailed instructions were more likely to be given by
the master orally and directly to the disciple rather than being committed to
writing.
We know, however, from other references, part of which are presented in this
paper, that the authors of our text had a clear vision on how spiritual training must
be carried out. Apart from its unique meditative methods and reflective strategies,
the Bodhisattvabhumi also refers to traditional techniques such as the meditation
on the impure, mindfulness of breathing, etc. 57 Furthermore, as far as details
concerning traditional practices are concerned, the authors also mak~ use of other
materials, canonical or post-canonical. Amongst the latter, the Sravakabhumi
seems to have been their main source. This is unmistakably indicated by several
direct references to this treatise. 58 Such a situation can be better understood if one
55 Laukikaniiip silpakarmasthiinanam arthopasaiphitiiniiip sattvanugrahakiiJJiiip hpi-
gaJJananyasanasaipkhyiimudriidiniiip mancapifhacchattropanahiidiniiip ca vicitriiJJiiip vivi-
dhanam bhiincjopaskarii1Jiim anupravartakaip dhyiinam. (Bodhisattvabhumi WOGIHARA
ed. 21011-15; Durr ed. 14511.14). Cf. the Chinese translation: D~~tttrsi Il5:~t~ ~g1:51 ~tJJ
liJ/Efi:a:~'I'~ f_i,fliJ , ~ , iijUJ.!t , lil:EP , Bt!fil , iJ&:11j , PD~~~ f_lf_l~55U ~~11t~ ~g
~i§{1f~nl (T1579.528b8. 10)
O
56 For a detailed discussion of these techniques in the Bodhisattvabhum1; see MAITHRI-
MURrHI (1999:233-255; cf. also pp. 305-327).
57 See Bodhisattvabhumi WoGIHARA ed. 396 . ; Durr ed. 273 . 5cited above.
12 25 16 2
58 For example, the thirty-seven factors of Awakening are not explained in detail.
Instead we are told that these are to be understood differently in accordance to the
principles (naya) of Sravakayana, on the one hand, and those of Mahayana, on the other.
As to the former the Bodhisattvabhumi adds, it must be known as expounded in the
Sriivakabhumi: Tatra sravakanayena yathiibhutaip prajanati tadyathii Sravakabhumau
sarvaip yathanirdi~faip veditavyam. (Bodhisattvabhumi WOGIHARA ed. 259 13 . 15 ; cf. the
Chinese translation T1579.539c5.6). The passage already appears in Dharmak~ema's Chine-
se translation of the Bodhisattvabhumi: VM*nil!PD1!f~D , PDVMtfilpfrlffi; (T1581. 0
929c23 _24 ). In the Sriivakabhumi (288 19 ff.), we actually find a very detailed treatment of the
thirty-seven factors of Awakening. (Cf. also SHIMIZU, 1997).
Another example is that of the category of persons dominated by sensual passion
(riigacarita). The Bodhisattvabhumi says that such persons should practice the meditation
 904 Florin DELEANU
assumes, as I do, that the Bodhisattvabhtlmi took shape in circles closely asso-
ciated with or under the influence of the Sravakabhtlmi community. 59
V. The Path of Spiritual Cultivation:
The Bodhisattva's Long and Winding Road towards Awakening
How does the bodhisattva's meditative path progress? The answer is far from
simple. If one expects a well-organized model like the Abhidharmic abhi-
samayavada, then the Bodhisattvabhtlmi is not exactly the place to look for it. Part
of the reason stems from the situation touched upon in the preceding section:
much of the actual training took place under the direct guidance of the master and
many details did not survive as written documents. To this, we can add the fact that
there is not one single model but a few of them. Another factor is, I believe, the
textual history of the Bodhisattvabht1m1; which does not seem to be the work of a
single author. The proto-Bodhisattvabhtlmi was probably a collection of various
teachings and practices regarded as the foundation ( bhtlmi) of the bodhisattva's
spiritual quest, but these were not systematically arranged like many of the
60
Abhidharma treatises. I conjecture that this ur-text contained most or large parts
on the impure (asubfra) as explained in detail in the Sravakabhumi: ragacan"tanam asubha
vistarepa tadyatha Sravakabhumau. (BodhisattvabhumiWOGIHARA ed. 3892_3; for Xuan-
zang'~ Chinese rendering, see T1579.570a6_7; cf. also Dharmak~ema's translation: :~rW:B.::r::
ifJJrE~tzo§:F:!f!j:tg Tl581.956c20.21). This seems to refer to passages like Sravakabhumi
O
2023 ff. and 41114 ff. which indeed deal in detail with the meditation on the impure .
~ pieces of evidence pointing towards a stratigraphjcal compilation of the Bodh1sattvabhum1.
See DELEANU (2006, vol. I:162-167).
60 O
, I think that the primary sense of bhumi in titles of the Bodhisattvabhumi and the
Sravakabhumi, especially in the early phases of their textual history, must have been that of
'foundation', 'source' rather than 'stage'. The latter is certainly one of the meanings of the
word, a meaning which is more prominent in such works like the Dasabhumikasutra. We
must note, however, that as shown by ITO (1968; 1970), even in the Dasabhumikasutra, one
of t?e basic senses of bhumi was that of akara 'a rich source of anything, place of origin'
(ITO, 1968:134). The meaning of 'foundation' in the title of the Yogacarabhumi is also
attested in later commentarial works like the *Y ogacarabhumivyakhya (T1580.884c 25 _26 )
(see DELEANU, 2006, vol. I:48, n. 3). Similarly, in his SutralarpkaravrttibhaJya, the Yoga-
cara e~egete Sthiramati (ca. 510-570) glosses upon the term pancavidha yogabhumil;
(occurnng at Mahayanasutralarpkara 65 1if.), usually construed as 'five types of stages of
spiritual practice', as follows: "The[se] five types of factors are called 'foundations of
spir~t~al practi~e' (yogabhum1) due to [their] being the basis (* asraya) and the ground
(* mdana; *adh1Hhana?) of the cultivation (* bhavana) of spiritual practice (yoga)." See
D4034.l89a4.5: chos rnam pa Inga rnal 'byor bsgom pa'i rten dang gzhir gyur pas na rnal
'byor gyi sa zhes bya o //. The polysemy of the word bhumi is undeniable, and it is not
excluded that even in the same context, more than one denotation or connotation may have
been _present. It seems ~o me, ho~e~er, more n~tural to construe the original meaning of
the titles of the Bodh1sattvabhum1 and the Sravakabhumi as 'The Foundation of the
Bodhisattva['s Path]' and 'The Foundation of the Disciple['s Path]'. Yet, it is true that things
ma~ have become more complicated once the two texts became part of the 'mega-opus'
which the Yogacarabhumi is. But even in the latter, bhumi has not a straightforward,
0
unequivocal meaning of 'step' on a ladder of spiritual progression. In other words, there is
no implication that the yogi must first practice according to the Sravakayana, then follow
the Pratyekabuddha's path of training, and then engage in the bodhisattvic course of salvific
activity and spiritual cultivation. If there is a sense of bhumi as 'level' in context of the titles
of the textual units making up the Yogacarabhumi, then it must be one of hierarchical
Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhtlmi 905
of what today survives as Adharayogasthan_a, Par_t O~e- of the Bodhisattv~bhtlmi
The other two main parts of our text, 1.e., /~-dha[ianudharll!_ayo!fasthana ~nd
Adharanif/hayogasthana, seem to be later add1t1ons. In the Adharayogasthana,
evaluation of religious ideals from the perspective of the Great Vehicl~: Sravakayana, the
lowest Vehicle, is placed first; this _is _followed b~ the path ~f the Sol!ta~ Buddhas; and
finally the Mahayana course of praxis is set forth m the B0dh1sattv_abhum1. (I fe~l now t~at.
my translation in DELEANU 2006 [vol. I, p. 13 and passim] of the title of the Sravakabhum1
as 'The Disciples' Level' should be corrected in the light of the above discussion or at least
presented in more nuanced terms.) . . _ .
61 I am not the first one to advocate a gradual format10n of the B0dh1sattvabhum1.
More than 30 years ago, the German scholar Gustav ROTH (1977:409-410) argued that Part
I, i.e., Adharayogasthana, appears to be the earliest stratu1? ?f the text. A~M~ (2000:40
n. 4; 44; 59-60) also regards the Bodhisattvabhumi as consistmg of sev~ral histonc_al !ayers.
The Japanese scholar apparently considers that different strata exist even withm the
Tattvarathapa.tala, the central philosophical chapter of the text (id., p. 44). A~AKI does
not elaborate upon his hypothesis, but the lines which he suggests are certamly worth
pursuing. A careful analysis ?f the Bodhisattvabhumi may ~eveal subtl~r distinctions of
different strata within the Adharayogasthana (and theoretically spea~mg, maybe even
within Part II, i.e., Adharanudharmayogasthana, and Part III, i.e., AdharaniJ.thayoga-
sthana).
A complete account of the formation of the Bodhisattvabhumi is, however, much more
complex and cannot be attempted here. Apart from the pertinen~ reasons adduced_ by
ROTH (1977:409-410), there are two other aspects which! s~ould hke to ad~ as poss~bl~
First, the model of six paramitas central in the Adharayogasthana, on thf: one hand, vs the
scheme of ten perfections in the Adharanudharmayogasthana and the AdharaniJ.thayoga-
sthana, on the other, seems to indicate different dates in the history of the text. The
Adharayogasthana discusses the six perfections in detail, each being_ treated in a separate
chapter. On the other hand, in the Viharapa.fala (a chapter of the Adharanudharmayoga-
sthana), we see the phrase dasaparamitapram'!_khaiJ (Bodhisattvabhumi WOGIHARA ed.
3479), and the Caryapa.fala (a chapter of the AdharaniJfhayogasthana) clearly spells o~t
what these ten perfections are: Tatra Ja.t ca purvanirdiJ.taiJ paramita upayakausalaparam1ta
ca prapidhanaparamita ca balaparamita ca jnanaparamita ~a itima dasa paramita
abhisamasya paramitacaryety ucyate. (WoGIHARA ed. 371 4.7). It is true that as showed by
SHIMIZU (1986:77-81), the content of the additional four perfections ~hich make u~ the
dasaparamita model is already suggested or briefly expounded in _the A_dharayog_asthana. I
think however that this detail does not invalidate my hy.pothesis. It is not so important
whether the c~ntent of the four extra perfections, or for that matter the dasaparamita
model itself was known to the authors of the Adharayogasthana or not. Most likely, it was,
but the issu~ here is that they did not consider this model to be the most important one.
Had they regarded it as more authoritative than the classical six~paramita mod~!, th~)'._
would have dedicated separate chapters for each of the ten perfections. The ten-param1ta
model must have been adopted later, and one of the reasons probably was the introduction
of the complex vihara-based path and the need to have more pe!fections co~respondi~g,_
whenever possible, to each major stage. (On the paramita-theory m the B0dh1sattvabhum1
in general and its influence on later Y ogacara texts, see SHIMIZlj, 1987.) _
The second aspect which may point to the fact that the Adharanudharmayogasthana
and the AdharaniJfhayogasthana may be chronologicall~ later is_ t~e large number ?f
references which one finds in them to Part I of the B0dh1sattvabhum1. The readers (or m
the beginning, probably the audience) are frequently referred to the Adharayogasthana for
the main exposition of the matter in question. Such cross~referenc~s may suggest t_hat the
last two parts came into being as a sort of a large appendix collectmg further details, new
 906 Florin DELEANU
the only clear map of the bodhisattva's progression is the hierarchical set of the six
perfections (paramita), but this is only a very general outline known to any
62
Mahayana follower. I venture to surmise that one of the chief reasons for the
addition of the last two parts of the Bodhisattvabhumi was the need to offer a
more detailed exposition of the spiritual path. In doing so, the authors and/or
editors of the Adharanudharmayogasthana and AdharaniJfhayogasthana may have
collected various materials available in their community. This actually resulted in
two models: the twelve (or thirteen) abodes (dvadasa bodhisattvaviharah) 63 and
the seven stages (sapta bodhisattvabhumayal;). 64 The former model, which is the
arrangements, and additional clarifications of topics and doctrines, some of which had
already been treated in the Adharayogasthana. See, for instance, the numerous lists of
concepts in the Caiyapafala, which is part of the AdharaniJfhayogasthana, introduced or
accompanied by the compound piirvanirdiJ{a 'explained above' (BodhisattvabhiimiWOGI-
HARA ed. 3715; 3712,; etc.). One can also add in this context that the Caiyapafala gives
further technical elucidations about the ten perfections ( dasaparamita) such as the three
reasons for their being placed in the order set forth in the Bodhisattvabhiimi (WOGIHARA
ed. 37210-37317), their relation to the three trainings ( tisral; sikJa) (WOGIHARA ed. 373 18_24 ),
etc.
I must stress once again that the issue of the formation of the Bodhisattvabhiimi is too
intricate to be dealt with in a few lines. One additional aspect which further complicates the
picture is that the text has survived not only in the Sanskrit original as well as in the Tibetan
translation and Xuanzang's Chinese rendering. We also have two earlier Chinese
translations done in the first half of the 5th century by Dharmak~ema and Gu1;avarman
respectively. These versions suggest that the text may have also circulated independently
even after its inclusion into the Yogacarabhiim1: Furthermore, they do not always agree
with the extant Sanskrit original as well as with the Tibetan translation and Xuanzang's
rendering. Though not completely different recensions, they may represent versions
reflecting earlier stages in the development of the Bodhisattvabhiimi To make things
worse, as with many other renderings into Chinese, one has to keep in mind and if possible,
carefully check whether the translators and/or their teams of scholar-monks added their
own interpretations, editorial arrangements, etc. I briefly discuss the problem in DELEANU
(2006, vol. 1:183-184; 199-200; 230, n. 191). Apart from the relevant bibliographical data
found in DELEANU (2006), I should like to add here some further studies dedicated to this
problem: TSUCHIHASHI (1951), NAITO (1962), OKIMOTO (1973), SUEKI (1979), and SUEKI
(1980).
62
There is a mention of the six stages (bhiimi) of the bodhisattava's path (Bodhi-
sattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 842r85 7; Durr ed. 592r60 7) as well as an attempt to connect
the ten types of bodhisattva to various bhiimis (WOGIHARA ed. 298w299 14; Durr ed.
202,s-203s). These are, however, too brief to qualify as a guide for the bodhisattva's
progression. Cf. SHIMIZU (1986:67-68).
63
The thirteenth stage results from the addition of the final step, or rather result, of the
bodisattvic
64
path: the Tathagata abode ( tathagatavihara)(see below for more details).
This model comprises the following stages: (1) stage of [entrance into the
bodhisattva] lineage (gotrabhiim1), (2) stage of the practice of conviction [or: practice of
zealous application] (adhimukticaiyabhiim1), (3) stage of the pure resolve (suddhadhya-
sayabhiimi), (4) stage of practice and virtuous behavior (caiyapratipattibhiim1), (5) stage
of [attaining] certainty [or: of [becoming] well-established] (niyata bhiimil;), ( 6) stage of the
practice of certainty (niyatacaiyabhiim1), and (7) stage of attaining the culmination [of the
bodhisattva's path] (niJfhagamanabhiimi). The Bodhisattvabhiimi devotes one chapter en-
titled Bhiimipafala, rather brief, to the exposition of the seven stages (see WOGIHARA ed.
367-370; Durr ed. 253-255; cf. Tibetan translation: Sa'i le'u at D4037.189bi-191a3; Xuan-
zang's Chinese rendering: Di pin tif2lfb at T1579.564c-566c ).
Meditative Practices in the Bodhisattvabhumi 907
main one and is dealt ""'.ith in great.er detail,. seems to re~res~nt the origin~!
contribution of the Bodh1sattvabhum1, though 1t was clearly mspired from and 1s
65
explicitly collated with the Dasabhumikas~tra. ••
How does meditation relate to the thirteen-abode path? References to spm-
tual cultivation, whether actual indications of meditative praxis or hyperbolic lists
of banner-waving samadhis, are spread all along the bodhisattva's path towards
Awakening. However, obtaining a clear and continuous picture of how the yogic
progression unfolds is far ~rom easy, ~nd the following pre~enta.t~on .shou!d. be
taken with quite a few grams of salt m order to make its s1mphflcat1ons d1ge-
st1'bl e.'66
After the preparatory stages of (1) the abode of [entrance into the bodhisattva]
lineage (gotravihara) and (2) the abode of the practice of conviction (adhimukti-
cazyavihara), the bodhisattva attains (3) the joyful abode_ (pramud~t~vihara)
marked by the crucial act of taking the great resolve of Awakenmg ( bodh1c1tta). (4)
This is followed by the abode [of the practice directed] at moral training ( adhi-
silavihara). 67 (5) The abode [of the practice directed] at the mind (adhicittavihara)
Many of the technical terms occurring in the above names would need further lexi-
cological and doctrinal clarification, but here I limit myself to a few remarks on adhimukti
of the second stage, i.e., adhimukticaiyabhiimi The word is clearly polysemic encom-
passing both the dynamic process of 'zealous application', more often than not of a spiritual
nature, and attaining the state of 'conviction'. For a more detailed discussion, see DELEANU
(1996, vol. 2:471-473, n. 15; cf. also EDGERTON, [1953] 1985, vol. II, s.v.; DAYAL, [1932]
1978:53-54; etc.). Though below I usually render the term as 'conviction', it should be
remembered that its semantic range is much wider.
65 There is a great deal of overlapping between these two models, and the authors
and/or redactors of the Bodhisattvabhiimi are clearly aware of this and try establish a
pattern of correspondence between the two (WOGIHARA ed. 3671.16; Durr ed. 2563.13).
Why both models were necessary is not perfectly clear. They seem to represent two
different traditions. The bhiimi-model probably reflects an early and authoritative
Prajiiaparamita tradition, which the Bodhisattvabhiimi authors/editors may have felt
somehow obliged or necessary to keep. As argued above, the 12/13 vihara-pattern is in all
likelihood the contribution of the Bodhisattvabhiimi itself, which, however, developed
under the influence of the Dasabhiimikasiitra. The Bodhisattvabhiimi makes very clear its .
indebtedness to the latter and frequently refers to it when drawing parallels between its
own 12/13 vihara-path and the 10-bhiimi model of the Dasabhiimikasiitra. See, for example,
yas ca Dasabhiimike siitre dasa bodhisattvabhiimayal; (BodhisattvabhiimiWOGIHARA ed.
33221 .22 ); yatha Dasabhiimike vimalayarp bhiimau (WOGIHARA ed. 33424); tadyatha Dasa-
bhiimike prabhakaiyarp bhiimau (WOGIHARA ed. 338 17); etc. .
On the 7 bhiimi- and 12/13 nnara-models in the Bodhisattvabhiimi (as well as their
relations to the Dasabhiimikasiitra), see DAYAL (1932 [1978]:278-283); SAKAMOTO (1939);
HIRAKAWA (1989:546-550); SHIMIZU (1986; 1989; 1993), etc. On the problem of the stages
of bodhisattvic path in general, see DAYAL (1932 [1978]:270-291); ARAMAKI (1983);
HIRAKAWA (1989:399-564), etc.
66 The Bodhisattvabhiimi itself first offers an overview of the entire path (WOGIHARA
ed. 318 10-3223; Durr ed. 218 4-220 21 ; cf. D4037.164br166b5; T1579.553a20-553c29), on which
my presentation above mainly relies. Our text then proceeds by treating each of the abodes
in great detail. Some of the aspects described in the latter treatment will also be touched
upon in my discussion below.
67 The prefix adhi- in adhisila, adhicitta, and adhiprajna can be construed either as
'superior' or as 'with reference to'. The Sravakabhiimi explains the compound in both ways
(see DELEANU 2006, vol. 1:38-39, n. 27). The meaning adhisilavihara could, therefore, be
908 Florin DELEANU
is described as the stage at which the bodhisattva practices the mundane medita-
tions, contemplations, and attainments (laukjkadhyiinasamiidhjsamiipatt1) (Bodhj-
sattvabhumj WOGIHARA ed. 3205 _7; DUTT ed. 21912-14). (6) In the abode [of the
practice directed] at the transcendent wisdom connected to the factors conducive
to Awakening ( bodhjpak~apradsaipyukto 'dh1praj.iavjharal;), the bodhisattva,
relying on the mundane meditative attainments, cultivates 'the thirty-seven factors
leading to Awakening, beginning with the correct applications of mindfulness'
( samyaksmrtyupasthiiniidiniiip saptatrjipsad bodhjpak~iiJJiiip) ( Bodhjsattvabhumj
WOGIHARA ed. 3208_12; DUTT ed. 219 14_17 ). (7) These are the foundation of the next
stage, the abode [of the practice directed] at the transcendent wisdom connected to
the Truths (satyaprafjsaipyukto 'dhjpraj.iavmiiraJ;), during which the bodhisattva
mainly strives to realize the Four Noble Truths (Bodh1sattvabhumj WOGIHARA ed.
320 12_15; DUTT ed. 2191 8_19). (8) The Noble Truths are likewise the focus of the
eighth stage, i.e., the abode [of the practice directed] at the transcendent wisdom
connected to the generation and cessation of the dependent origination (pratitya-
samutpiidapravrttjnjvrttjpratjsaipyukto 'dhjpraj.ianhiiraiJ). 68 At this level, the
bodhisattva gains full understanding of the cause of suffering and its cessation. (9)
The next stage, the signless abode of the uninterrupted functioning of the path
accompanied by effort and mental orientation (siibhjsaipskiiral; siibhogo njs-
chMramiirgaviihano nknjmjtto vjharaiJ), 69 is described as being 'the abode atten-
ded by the cultivation of the non-conceptualizing transcendent wisdom [directed
at] the Ultimate Reality in [or: with regard to] all phenomena' (sarvadharme~u
tathatanjrv1"kalpapraj.iiibhiivaniisahagato vjharal;) (Bodhjsattvabhumj WOGIHARA
ed. 320 19_24 ; DUTT ed. 219 23 _26 ). (10) Because of his intense cultivation of this non-
diversified state lacking any characteristics (nkminJttasya vjharasya bhiivanii-
biihulyiit), the bodhisattva comes to dwell in a stage called the signless abode of the
uninterrupted functioning of the path without effort and mental orientation
( anabhjsaipskiiro 'niibhogamiirgaviihano nkminjtto vjharal;) ( Bodhjsattvabhumj
WOGIHARA ed. 32024-321z; DUTT ed. 21927 -2202). (11) Based upon the utterly pure
and unmovable samiidhj of the transcendent wisdom (supansuddhaip mscalaip
praj.iiisamiidhjip njsdtya), the bodhisattva attains the abode of the thorough
cognitions (pratjsaipvMvjhara), in which he gains complete mastery over the
preaching tools indispensable to his/her salvific prowess (Bodhjsattvabhumj
WOGIHARA ed. 321 3_7; DUTT ed. 2203_5). (12) In the abode of the supreme
completion (paramal; parjm~panno bodhjsattvavjharal;), the bodhisattva finally
reaches the full Awakening (Bodh1sattvabhumj WOGIHARA ed. 32h 13 ; DUTT ed.
either 'the abode of the superior [training in] morality' or 'the abode [of the training
directed] at morality'. I adopt the latter rendering here.
68
In the section dedicated to its detailed description, the stage is simply called the
'abode [of the practice directed] at the transcendent wisdom connected to the dependent
origination' (pratityasamutpiidapratjsa!J1yukto 'dhjprajiian"hiiraiJ) ( Bodhjsattvabhumj Wo-
GIHARA ed. 343 ff.).
69
The word . njschk/ra can also mean 'flawless, perfect'. The words nNchk/ra-
0 0
miirgaviihana as well as aniibhogamiirgaviihana (in the name of the next abode, i.e.,
anabhjsaIJ1skiiro 'niibhoifamiirgaviihano nknjm1"tto n"haraiJ) may have been influenced by
the terminology of the Sriivakabhiimi In one of its classifications of manaskiira, it uses the
terms njschjdraviihana and aniibhogaviihana (Sriivakabhumj366u_ 19 ) (cf. DELEANU, 2006,
vol. 1:259).
Meditative Practices in the BodhisattvabhtJmi 909
2206_9 ). (13) And the state enjoyed by the Fully Awakened One is cailed the
Tathagata abode ( tathiigatavjhara).
It seems that the middle parts of this path, i.e., stages (4) to (8), reflect canoni-
cal and Abhidharmic models. Not only are they structured according to the
tripartite division of the spiritual training (tjsral; §jk~iil;), to wit, morality (sila),
mind (=meditation) (dtta), and transcendent wisdom (praj.ia"), the latter being
allotted here three distinct vjharas. The idea of practicing mundane meditations,
followed by the 'the thirty-seven factors conducive to Awakening, beginning with
the correct applications of mindfulness', and then by the realization of the Four
Truths may also echo the Abhidharmic model of placing the smrtyupasthiinfinj as
the main praxis for attaining the four wholesome roots (kusalamiila) leading to
penetration (nkvedhabhiig{ya). The latter, together with path of vision (darsana-
miirga) and path of cultivation ( bhiivaniimiirga), have the Noble Truths as their
main object just like part of the adh1praj.iavjhara training.
We must not forget, however, that even when the similarities with the
Sravakayana path and techniques are conspicuous, their basic interpretation is
consistently Mahayanist and the bodhisattva must be fully engaged in his salvific
activity throughout all abodes. 7°Furthemore, at almost all levels, traditional yogic
methods appear interspersed with meditative techniques peculiar to the Great
Vehicle in general and the Bodhjsattvabhumj in particular. And the higher the
bodhisattva moves on the ladders of his inner pilgrimage, the more dominant the
typically Mahayanist practices become.
Crucial for the full realization of the ultimate spiritual ideals seem to be stages
(8) to (10). It is actually in the abode [of the practice directed] at the transcendent
wisdom connected to the dependent origination that the bodhisattva attains full
comprehension of the ten kinds of uniformity of phenomena[/Reality] ( dasa
dharmasamatiil;). These modes of the non-diversified state of the Ultimate Reality
include the signless uniformity of the essence [seen from the perspective] of the
Supreme Truth in regard to all phenomena (sarvadharme~u piiramiirth1"kasya satal;
svabhiivasya mrnjmjttasamatayii), the characterless uniformity of the linguistic
expression, the [mental] activity 71 and the image ( abhjJapiibhjsaipskiirapra{j-
bhiisasyiilak~aJJasamatayii), etc. (Bodhjsattvabhfimj WOGIHARA ed. 3432r3449;
DUTT ed. 234 27-235 9), etc. (Note the quasi-Vijfi.anavadin tones of the latter type of
uniformity!) It is also at this stage that after having thoroughly examined all kinds
of dependent origination, the bodhisattva activates the three contemplations
( trayaiJ samiidhayaiJ). 72 This causes all ideations of self and others, doer and
70 In this context, it is also important to note that the Bodhjsattvabhumj often stresses
the qualitative superiority of the samiidhjs practiced by the bodhisattva. The latter's
meditative attainments far surpass the similar contemplative techniques and states which
the disciples (sriivaka) and solitary Buddhas (pratyekabuddha) can reach. See, for instance,
Bodhjsattvabhumj WOGIHARA ed. 348u-13 (cf. T1579.560b1-2).
71 This is how I tentatively render abh1sa1!]skiira here. See also U1's (1961:344) transla-
tion: shjj Js!,'['!E 'thought'. Note, however, that Xuanzang renders it as zaozuo .\§{']=: 'creation'
(T1579.559a26 ). The term abhjsal!}skiira in Buddhism is polysemic, and translations sugge-
sting both ways of construing it are attested (see NAKAMURA 1981, s.v.; a sense like the one
registered at p. 767c would be the closest to the meaning which I conjecture here).
72
The three samiidhjs are also mentioned at other stages, but it is in this abode that
they seem to be fully activated. They are either referred to as three samiidhjs or the triad of
the Liberation-Gates ( vjmokfamukhatraya) (see Bodh1sattvabhumj WoGIHARA ed. 34414).
 910 Florin DELEANU
experiencer, existence and non-existence to cease their functioning ( tato nidanaip
casyatmaparakarakavedakabhavabhavasaipJnal; na pravartante) ( Bodhisattva-
bhumi WOGIHARA ed. 34415-16; DUTT ed. 23513_14).
Judging from the numerous references to the three samadhis, they continue to
be the center of the spiritual praxis at the next stage, too. The bodhisattva is now
able to show firm acceptance of the Truth of non-arising ( anutpattikadharma-
k~antyavabl1asitam) (Bodhisattvabhumi WOGIHARA ed. 348 18 _19; DUTT ed. 238 1).
And though dwelling in the Absolute, he would not attain the Nirvanic Cessation -
indeed a true bodhisattvic miracle beyond comprehension. 73
In the signless abode of the uninterrupted functioning of the path without
effort and mental orientation, the bodhisattva fully attains the ultimate acceptance
of the Truth of non-arising by means of the four investigations and the four correct
74
cognitions. The bodhisattva's training in these techniques apparently commences
quite early, at the second stage of the path, i.e., the abode of the practice of
conviction (adhimukticaryavihara). However, the cognitions are not obtained in a
75
pure form before the tenth abode. Having gained perfect mastery over them, the
attachment brought by wrong mental constructions is entirely removed, and the
bodhisattva ascertains that all defilements have ceased and will never arise again. 76
VI. The Bodhisattvabhiimi: Its Spritual Legacy
To be sure, the Bodhisattvabhumi contains none of the most representative
doctrines of the full-fledged Yogacara-Vijiianavada system. 77 Nonetheless, this text
constitutes a major, if not indispensable, step before the great leap made by the
78
Saipdhininnocanasutra. Its merciless condemnation of language and the accom-
panying ideative processes as the main source of obscuring the Reality further
prepared the ground for declaring the mind, after all the locus of language, to be
the principal culprit in deceiving us. And since the entities presupposed by the
common usage of language are false, they could be regarded as non-existent.
73
Idaip ciisyiityadbhutaip karmiicintyaip, yad bhiitakoflvihiireJJa ca viharati na ca
niro~haip siik~~tka:oti. (Bo_dhisattvabhiimi WOGIHA~ ed. 34~23 -3491; ?u.TT ed. 2~84_5).
Ihasthas canutpattike~u dharme~u paramaip bodh1sattvak~anhm suVJsuddhiim
labhate. Sii punaf; katamii? Catasrbhil; paiye~aJJiibhir ayaip bodhisattva/i sarvadharmiiqi
paiye~ya yadii caturbhir eva yathiibhiitaparijiiiinaif; parijaniiti. (Bodhisattvabhiimi Worn-
HARA ed. 35025-3514; DUTT ed. 23913_15).
75
Catviiri ca yathiibhiitaparijiiiiniini tiiny adhimukticaiyavihiiram upiidiiya yiivat
siibhoganirnimittiid vihiiriin na suvisuddhiini bhavanti. (Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed.
35110-12; DUTT ed. 23919-21)
76
Tada sarvamithyiivikalpiibhinivesesv apanitesu sarvadharmiiniim drste ca dharme
sarvasaipldesiinutpattyanukiilatiiip pasy;ti. Saippa~iiye ca sarveJJ; s~rv;qi niravase~ato
'nutpattiip pasyat1; te~iim eva piirvamithyiivikalpiibhinivesahetusamutpanniiniiip dharmii-
JJiiip. (Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 351 4_8; DUTT ed. 239 15_18)
77
This is already pointed out in SCHMITHAUSEN (1969a:823, n. 53). See also ARAMAKI
(1976b:17); etc.
78
We must add here that between the Bodhisattvabhiimi and the Samdhinirmocana-
siitra lie the earlier parts of the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJf. This was suggested by SCHMIT-
HAUSEN (1976:238-244), and has been brilliantly analyzed in a series of recent contributions
by the young Japanese scholar TAKAHASHI Koichi (see especially 2005a and 2006).
Unfortunately, time limitations do not allow me to explore here this intermediate junction
in the history of Yogacara philosophy. See also SCHMITHAUSEN (2005:232-235) for an
excellent discussion of some aspects of the spiritual path in the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJf.
Meditative Practices in the Bodhimttvabhiimi 911
Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:239; 243-244) aptly describes the basic phi-
79
losophical stance of the Bodhisattvabhumi as 'nominalistic'. This nominalism
unmistakably added a new steppingstone on the road towards the birth of the
Representation-only doctrine.80 Declaring the ordinary man's world to be created
by erroneous mental constructions (mithyavikalpo balanal!J [... ] lokanirvartakal;) 81
82
is not idealism in the strictest sense of the term. Yet it undoubtedly further
develops the illusionist tendency inherited from the Prajiiaparamita tradition.
The epistemic distrust of language is also a Prajiiaparamita theme, 83 and this
was better articulated and refined in the Bodhisattvabhumi theory and praxis of
the four investigations, which was to have a lasting influence upon the literature of
the Yogacara-Vijiianavada school. As far as ordinary people (prthagjana) are
concerned, the world which they see and reflect in their language is inaccurate and
ultimately illusory. In this sense, one could say (and later the full-fledged Vijiiana-
vadins would clearly conclude) that in the case of ordinary man, the only thing
which actually exists is his mind Though the Bodhisattvabhumi authors do not use
such terms or descriptions, it seems that an incipient idea of 'mind-only' was, so to
speak, almost on the tip of their tongues. .
The influence of the Bodhisattvabhumi is not limited to the genesis of the
vijiiaptimatrata concept. As argued by Noritoshi ARAMAKI, 84 the text also played a
crucial role in the birth of the doctrine of the threefold nature ( trividhal; sva-
bhaval;). The similarities between the mental construction ( vikalpa) in our text and
the falsely imagined nature (parikalpitasvabhava) in the later Yogacara-
Vijiianavada philosophy are obvious. Yet, it must be added and admitted that the
former is basically a continuation of a Prajiiaparamita tenet. What the Bodhisattva-
bhumi contributed in a more unique and decisive way was its theory and praxis of
the 'thing-in-itself, equaled to the Supreme Reality, which ultimately led to the
idea of the absolute nature (ni.;,pannasvabhava). The vehement stress and rare
clarity of its vastumatra doctrine has no precedence in Mahayana literature, and
this line of thought did inaugurate a hermeneutic framework which the Yogacara-
Vijiianavada fully embraced.
79 As pointed out in SCHMITHAUSEN (1976:239), the Bodhisattvabhiimi also used the
term prajiiaptimiitra 'mere denominations' with regard to finite entities (giving as example
the occurrence at Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARAed. 43 27 ). See also WOGIHARAed. 481-2,
cited above.
80
The origins and proto-history of the vijiiaptimiitratii doctrine are quite complex. I
have briefly presented a general picture as well as relevant secondary sources in DELEANU
(2006, vol. 1:174).
81 Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 55 _; DUTT ed. 37 _ ; TAKAHASHI (2005a:114,
45 21 22
§10.1). cf. T49o.c16-19: m~,a~If:tlZ.9tzoW~1'fJ5JT~ti5Z, ::ffIJWt& f£1'f ;\fi'.J~:B-55u,, ijg
0 0
5:. =~ijg,M\~f;lJfffi:tlt~~&~:tltFa~ (my underlining).
0
82 See also the notion of abhiliipiibhisaipskiirapratibhiisasyiilak~aJJasamatayii "charac-
terless uniformity of the linguistic expression, the [mental] activity, and the image" at
Bodhisattvabhiimi WOGIHARA ed. 343 2r3449; DUTT ed. 2342r235 9, referred to in Section
Vabove.
83 See HAYASHIMA (1982:165-168).
84 See especially ARAMAKI (1978a) and (1976b, mainly pp. 17-25, examining the role of
the Bodhisattvabhiimi). See also ARAMAKI (2002). I must, however, add that although
ARAMAKI's studies contain many insightful observations, there are a number of details for
which I would hypothesize rather different scenarios.
912 Florin DELEANU Meditative Practices in the Bodhi5attvabhumi 913

Last but not least, its meditative ideals of attaining the 'uniformity of pheno- Other Chinese translations are referred to occasionally,
mena' ( dharmasamatiil;), i.e., a non-conceptualized state far from our maddening also on the basis of the Taisho Canon.
'world' of language, conceptualization, and diversification, most probably contri- For Tibetan translation, see Rnal 'byor spod pa 'i sa las
buted to the Yogacara-Vijiianavada formulation of the Awakening experience as a Byang chub sems dpa 'i sa, the Tibetan translation as
found in the Sde dge Canon ( = D), Bundle Wi, Tohoku
transcendence of the duality of object and subject. 85 No doubt, the idea of 'uni-
Catalogue Number 4037.
formity' is, once again, a Prajiiaparamita motif, but in the hands of the Bodhj- A modern reproduction is found in TAKASAKI, et al (eds.).
sattvabhumj authors, it gained new dimensions. 86 The identification of the signless Carakasaf!Jhita see SHARMA ed.
abode of the uninterrupted functioning of the path without effort and mental CrJlasuiiiiatasutta in Majjhimanikaya No 121, see PTS ed.
orientation with the attainment of the thing-in-itself by means of the four investiga- D:isabhrlmikasrltra see RAHDER ed. and KONDO ed.
tions and the four cognitions means that 'uniformity' is more than a simple Ekottaragama t~-~i:iJJ3'*~ TNo 125.
meditative exercise. It is an epistemologically relevant act of penetrating into the Madhyantavibhagabhawa see NAGAO ed.
Supreme Reality which also effects the complete elimination of defilements. 87 Madhyantavibhagabhawafika see y AMAGUCHI ed.
MahayanasaI[lgraha see LAMOTTE ed.
Mahayanasr1tralaf!1kara see LEVI ed.
Paiicavif!Jsatisahasrika see DUTT ed. (1938).
Bibliography Ratnagotravibhaga see JOHNSTON ed.
Samahita BhrlmiiJ see DELHEY (2002).
·
Pnmary Sources 88 Saf!1dhinirmocanasr1tra see LAMOTTE ed.
Abhidharmakosabhawa see PRADHAN ed. Saf!]yuktagama ff~i:iJJ3'*-fil, T No 99 and 5:/U§f~J3'*-fil, T No 100.
*Abhidharmamrtarasa ~1U!i:ifffO*-§iiff, T No 1553. Sravakabhrlmi see SHUKLA ed.
Abhidharmasamuccaya see TATIAed. Abhidharmasamuccayabhawa. T Taisho Canon, see TAKAKUSU and WATANABE eds.
Abhidharmasamuccayabhawa see TATIA ed. *Vijiiaptimatrasiddhi Jt<rJigj§/ij, T No 1585.
Aiiguttaranikaya see PTS ed. Xiiinyang shengjiao Jun ~,.llJ'JlHffj/Jiiff ( *Aryadesanavikhyapanasastra I *Sasanapra-
A~fasahasrikaprajiiaparamita see VAIDYA ed. kasanasastra), T No 1602.
Bodhisattvabhrlmi For Sanskrit editions, see WOGIHARA ed. and DUTT ed.
(1978). Secondary Sources89
For Chinese translation, see mainly Xuanzang's version ARAMAKI, Noritoshi O'i'Ur:51:W.H~)(1976a): "Sansh6-setsu noto I" c=ti~/- H-)) in
found in the Taisho Canon ( = T), Vol. 30, No 1579. Toyo gakujutsu kenkyrJ (.*]'F-±¥:filtriiffyt) 15.1, pp. 18-36.
- - - - - - - - - - (1976b): "Sansh6-setsu noto II" (.='[:Cf~/- H=n in
Toyo gakujutsu kenkyrJ (*~±¥:fitriiffJt) 15.2, pp. 17-34.
85 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1983): "Juji shi&o no seiritsu to tenkai" (+:ttg,~,JJ(cl)Jt<::V:.
See, for example, Mahayanasrltralaf!lkara Vl.7-8. Cf. SCHMITHAUSEN (2007:70).
t ~00) in HIRAKAWAAkira (4'Jl [.l;l:;), KA.JIYAMA Yuichi(tt0..!ftt-), and TAKA-
86
See, for instance, A~fasahasrikaprajiiaparamita 259 4 : 'due to the uniformity of all
phenomena, the perfection of transcendent wisdom [shares the same] uniformity' ( sarva-
SAKI Jikido (r'e/JUnu@.@:)( eds.), Koza Daijo bukky6 Vol III: Kegon shiso
{l.l'J.. 3 'JJ!l:!':t~,JJ(), Tokyo: Shunjusha.
(~~**
dharmasamataya prajiiaparamitasamataya).
87 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2000): "Toward an Understanding of the VIjiiaptimatra-
It thus appears that the BodhisattvabhrJmi philosophy and meditative praxis,
ta" in Jonathan SILK (ed.), Wisdom, Compassion, and the Search for Understand-
centered upon the thing-in-itself ( vastumatra), left more traces in the development of what
ing: The Buddhist Studies Legacy of Gadjin M Nagao, Honolulu: University of
may, prima faciae, seem to be quite different from the theory of Representation-only Hawai'i Press.
( vijiiaptimatra). It is interesting to note here that though in a totally different historical
--------,-,-~-,-:----,,-- (2002): "Miroku ronsho ni okeru "komo funbetsu" no kigen
background, Fichte's idealism partly developed in an attempt to explain Kant's Ding an sich.
ni tsuite" (5iF1P1Jaiiff~,s: }5 it 1;J '~-§§:53'5:JU J ,s:~11llHS:--:) l, -C) in Bukkyogaku se-
I hope to explore this parallelism (which should, however, be understood in very broad
mina ({~l'J..~-lz ~ j- - )75, pp 1-28.
terms!) in a future contribution.
88 BOTHLINK, Otto & Rudolf ROTH ([1855-1875] 1990): Sanskrit-W6rterbuch, 7 vols, Delhi:
I only list the titles of the traditional sources followed by either the Taisho Canon
Motilal Banarsidas Publishers.
( =T) number or the editor's name of the modern edition(s) consulted for this study. Full
VAN DEN BROECK, Jose (tr.)(1977): La saveurde l'Immortel (A-p'i-t'an Kan Lu Wei Lun):
bibliographical data of the latter as well as partial editions and translations are found under
La version chinoise de l'Amrtarasa de Gho~aka, Louvain: lnstitut Orientaliste
the section of Modern Works below. For the Pali sources, whose titles have been abbre-
Louvain-la-Neuve.
viated according to the widely accepted system detailed in the Epiglomena to vol. I of A
BUESCHER, Hartmut (2008): The Inception of Yogacara-Vijiianavada, Wien: Verlag der
Critical Pali Dictionaiy, I have employed the PTS editions. The references to the Sanskrit
Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
sources, whose titles are given in full, contain the page number which is followed, more
CHANDRA, Lokesh ([1959] 1971): Tibetan-Sanskrit Dictionaiy, Kyoto: Rinsen Book Co.
often than not, by the line number written in subscript. In references to Sanskrit texts, I also
employ Roman numerals (standing for the chapter number), followed by a dot and Arabic
89
numeral (which indicates the verse number in the respective chapter). As far as the When two dates appear after the author's name, the first one, which is inserted
references to Chinese and Tibet texts, I follow the general conventions adopted for the between square brackets, refers to the original edition of the book or article; the second
present volume. date indicates the reprint which has been consulted for the present study.
914 Florin DELEANU
DAYAL, Har ([1932] 1978): The Bodh1sattva Doctrine in Buddh1st Sanskn"t Literature,
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
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_ _ _ _ _ _ (2006): The Chapter on the Mundane Path (Laukikamiirga) in the Sriiva-
kabhrJmi: A Trilingual Edition (Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese), Annotated Transla-
tion, and Intraductoiy Study, volumes 1-11, Tokyo: The International Institute of
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_ _ _ _ _ _ _ (ed.)(1978): Bodh1sattvabhumi, Patna: KP. Jayaswal Research Institute.
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GETHIN, R.M.L. (2001 ): The Buddh1st Path to Awakening. Oxford: Oneworld.
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~)(eds.), Koza Daij6 bukky6, vol. VIII, Yuishiki shis6 (~ffi!*::k*1L¥3l 8 lll~,'G',
;*Jt), Tokyo: Shunju-sha.
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shukyosei" (~tzo t 5t53U- 1 Jw{JJO§ilff~J\i:f:Jg J ,-:Ji Q ffef3l'l:1) in Bukky6gaku (1~
~~) 18, pp. 45-67.
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hikaku WO tsujite" ( lf'fR!1iiL§ilffdl ,s:B[tQ-=.-=.113K- li"p3"Jirl:f:fildl cCl)tc~~.®L::
-C - ) in Inda tetsugaku bukky6gaku kenkyu ( 1 / ~'flr*{L~*tiff~) 11, pp.
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seiritsu i~en no shisoteki tachiba wo megutte" (ft}{Jmfii* ( YogacaraQ) Cl) Fo5~
,8 - lli&iJ&-fJt~J:'z:J;)JfJ Cl) }Et~B"JJ:'z::f:~ ~ I!}) ('-:) -C -) in Tetsugaku nenp6 (flr
~4¥~) 41, pp. 25-53.
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1933]: Taisho shinshu daiz6ky6 (:kIEf.Rni:kiUfil), popular edition 1991, 85 vols.,
Tokyo: Taisho shinshu daizokyo kankokai.
TAKASAKI, Jikido (r°§JITT~f[l[~), Zuiho YAMAGUCHI (r1JD:f/MJI\.), and Noriaki HAKAMAYA
(*frlli'iaB)(eds.)(1980): sDe dge Tibetan Tripi{aka bsTan IJgyur- preserved at
the Faculty of Letters University of Tokyo (T ;t,.fft&-r"" 'Y ~ :kiUI §i¥BiElR'€l'G),
Sems tsam (Ul~-€l'G) vol. VII, Tokyo: Sekai seiten kanko kyokai.
TAKEMURA, Makio (f'Tf1!J3<:~)(1995): Yuishiki sansh6-setsu no kenkyii (Ul~='[i.~O)uff
§t), Tokyo: Shunjiisha.

Alayavij.iana as Keystone Dharma
The Alaya Treatise of the Yogacarabhiimi
Willliam s. wALDRON
The Alaya Treatise - an abbreviation of SCHMITHAUSEN's longer term for one
short section of the Yogiiciirabhiimi- ViniJcayasalpgrahaIJi - is remarkable for its
presentation of iilayavijiiiina. Neither its earliest mention, nor its lengthiest
exposition, what the Alaya Treatise provides rather is the most systematically
Abhidharmic treatment of iilayavijiiiina in Indian Yogacara literature. The
Treatise analyzes iilayavijiiiina in terms of standard Abhidharma categories - its
cognitive objects ( iilambana), associated mental factors ( caitta), and simultaneous
(sahabhii) and reciprocal conditions (anyonyapratyaya) - while placing all this in
the larger context of the ongoing perpetuation (prav_rtt1) and eventual cessation
(nivrttJ) of iilayavijiiiina as a salpsiiric process. 2
The significance of treating iilayavijiiiina in such thoroughly Abhidharmic
terms, in effect the significance of the Alaya Treatise itself, is not patently obvious.
It can only be appreciated in its larger historical and doctrinal context, i.e., in
relation to problems that contemporaneous Abhidharma schools faced in trying to
explain the continuity of salpsiiric existence, particularly the continuity of karmic
potential and the latent afflictions as well as the gradual nature of the path to
liberation, solely in terms of momentary factors ( dharmas ). Since iilayavijiiiina is
thought to participate in both temporal dimensions - the momentary, dharmic
dimension as well as one's continuing salpsiiric existence - it could be seen as the
keystone dharma, the dharma that bridges the Abhidharmic analyses of mind in
terms of momentary dharmas, on the one hand, with the wider, indispensible
dimension of salpsiiric existence (and its cessation), on the other.
With this new dharma in place, the Alaya Treatise of the Yogiiciirabhiimi is
able to develop a dynamic model of mind whose explanatory power is larger than
the sum of its parts, providing a more thoroughly-going constructivist theory of
cognition than Indian Buddhist thought had hitherto seen.
To demonstrate these twin theses - that the iilayavijiiiina in the Alaya Treatise
both responds to and yet transcends its originating Abhidharmic context - we need
1
See SCHMITHAUSEN (1987.I:10). In SCHMITHAUSEN's usage, the Alayavijiiiina Trea-
tise includes the short Proof Portion as well as the Pravrtti and Nivrtti Portions. Since we
will not discuss the Proof Portion, 'Alaya Treatise' will refer here only to these latter two
portions.
2 Since this portion of the Yogiicarabhumi is extant only in Tibetan and Chinese, all
the Sanskrit terms are reconstructions, based mostly on HAKAMAYA (1979) and
ScHMITHAUSEN (1987). We have therefore dispensed with the usual asterisk for
reconstructions.
Alayavijiiana as Keystone Dharma 923
to examine the text in some detail, first its overall structure, then its specific
content. Only then might we comment on the dharmic nature of iilayavijiiiina.
Alayavij.iana as Core Component of Smpsaric Existence:
The Alaya Treatise as a whole
The larger, salpsiiricrole that iilayavijiiiina plays in the Alaya Treatise is evident in
its basic structure. The first and larger part of the Treatise, the Pravrtti Portion,3
depicts how iilayavijiiiina arises with and is perpetuated (pravrtti) by various
conditions, i.e., with its own cognitive objects and associated mental factors, and by
other simultaneous and mutually conditioning influences. In this respect, iilaya-
vijiiiina represents the continuity of the mental stream ( cittasantiina) as the
essential element of salpsiiric existence, corresponding to that aspect of cognitive
awareness ( vijiiiina) which earlier Buddhist traditions also considered to persist
uninterruptedly from one lifetime to another for as long as salpsiira lasts. Con-
versely, the second part of the text, the Nivrtti Portion,4 discusses the eventual
cessation (nivrtti) of iilayavijiiiina far along the Buddhist path; this, too, corre-
sponds to the cessation of vijiiiina posited by other schools. In sum, the perpetua-
tion and cessation of the form of vijiiiina that Y ogacarins came to call 'iiiaya' is
effectively equated in the Alaya Treatise with the perpetuation and cessation of
salpsiiric existence itself. Alayavijiiiina represents salpsiiric existence par excellence.
But how does the Alaya Treatise reconcile this continuing, salpsiiric aspect of
alayavijiiiina with the standard Abhidharmic analyses of mind exclusively in terms
of momentary factors? For, insofar as iilayavijiiiina is a form of vijiiiina it ought - in
Abhidharmic terms - only occur from moment to moment in dependence upon
equally momentary causal factors. The Pravrtti Portion of the Treatise sets out to
answer this question in specifically Abhidharmic terms. And in doing so it
constructs a new model of mind, one that also provides at the same time a strongly
constructivist theory of cognition.
Alayavij.iana as Keystone Dharma
for the Yogacara Theory of Cognition: The Prav{tti Portion
The Pravrtti Portion is divided into four sections, each of which explains how
iilayavijiiina arises (or is perpetuated; pravrtti) in conjunction with specific
concomitant or causal conditions. Alayavijiiiina arises 1) with its own cognitive
objects (iilambana); 2) in relation to the mental factors with which it is conjoined
or associated (salpprayoga); 3) through its mutual conditioning relationship
(anyonyapratyayatii) with other forms of cognitive awareness (pravrttivijiiiina); and
4) with mental processes that arise simultaneously (sahabhii) with it. Together,
these constitute, in systematic Abhidharmic terms, the causal conditions that
influence the continual arising, the perpetuation, of the form of cognitive aware-
ness that Yogacarins call 'iilaya' vijiiana, the 'home' or 'store-house' consciousness. 5
3
Pravrtti Portion: D4038.zhi.3br7a 1; T1579.580ar58la 24 ; T1584.1019a29-1020a 13 • We
have follo~ed the outline from HAKAMAYA (1979), with some slight modification, for ease
of reference both to his and SCHMITHAUSEN's work (1987).
4 Nivrtti Portion: D4038.zhi. 7a -8b ; T1579 .58 la -582a3; T1584.1020a 13-C3.
1 7 24
5
Al;ya is a nominal form composed of the prefix ii, "near to, towards" plus the verbal
root Ii, "to cling or press closely, stick or adhere to, to lie, recline, alight or settle upon, hide
924 William S. wALDRON
1. The first section sets forth the various 'objects' (alambana) with which alaya-
vijiiana arises (alambanapravrttivyavasthana). 6
Briefly, iilayavijfiiina arises by means of a twofold objective support:
(1) by the perception of the inner substratum (adhyiitmam upiidiina-
vijiiapti); and
(2) by the perception of the external, shared world whose aspects are not
clearly delineated ( bahirdhii-aparicchinniikiira-bhiijana-vijiiapti). 7
This section begins describing the cognitive dimension of alayavijiiana, that is,
alayavijiiana as a form of cognitive awareness ( vijiiana) in its own right. Accor-
dingly, it follows the traditional formulation for the arising of a moment of
cognitive awareness, i.e., it arises or occurs in dependence upon various conditions.
As with earlier Buddhist analyses of mind, alayavijiiana here is not a cognitive
faculty that actively cognizes objects, nor is it the subject of cognition as opposed to
its object. In standard Abhidharmic modes of analyzing cognitive processes,
vijiiana is a resultant dharma ( vipaka) that automatically arises when specific
objects impinge upon their correlative faculties. For example, when a round red
object impinges upon an unimpaired visual faculty (which is not color-blind),
triggering a conceptual schema concerning round objects, then a mental cognitive
awareness that one 'sees a red ball' also occurs. This awareness is the result of the
interaction of that object with its correlative faculties. The awareness itself is
neither the faculty nor the agent of those cognitive processes. It doesn't act, it
arises.
Similarly, Y ogacarins maintain that another mode of cognitive awareness
( vijiiana), which they call 'alaya,' occurs with the coming together of the "percep-
tion of the external shared world" and the "inner substratum." In what sense,
though, are these conditions correlative to each other? First, the text explains that
the inner substratum (adhyatman-upadana) is twofold, it consists of: 1) the
"material sense faculties along with their bases" (sadhi$fhanam indriyanlpam), as
well as 2) the "impressions of attachment to the falsely discriminated" (parikalpita-
svabhava-abhinive$a-vasana). 8 That is, the 'inner' conditions that correlate with a
perception of the "external shared world" are all the sense faculties as well as the
various cognitive predispositions to partition the world into discrete and apparent-
ly real entities, i.e., the "falsely discriminated." Thus, based upon these full bodily
processes accompanied by cognitive schemas, a mode of awareness arises with an
indistinct perception of the external world as its object. And since humans as a
species have similar faculties and similar predispositions that enable similar
perceptions, this 'world' that we indistinctly perceive is largely similar or 'shared'
( bhajanaloka). As the text states, "the continuous, uninterrupted perception of the
continuity of the shared world [is] based upon that very alayaVIjiiana which has the
or cower down in, disappear, vanish." It has the derivative senses of 'home,' 'base,' or 'store,'
alonf wit~ the affective se_nse of 'clinging.' No English word combines all these.
Section 1: D4038.zhI.3br4b2; T1579.580a 2. 28 ; T1584.1019a 29-b 16.
7
D4038.zhi.3b 7• (l.b )A mdor bsdu na kun gzhi rnam par shes pa ni dmigs pa rnam pa
gnyjs kyis Jug ste I nang gi Jen pa rnam par rig pa dang I phyj rol gyi snod rnam pa yangs su
ma chad pa rnam par rig pas so. This passage is paralleled in the Triipsikiibhawa (LEVI,
1925:195t.): iilayavijfiiinaip dvidhii pravartate/ adhyiitmam upiidiinavijiiaptito bahirdhii
'paricchinniikiirabhiijanavijiiaptitas ca.
8 13
D4038.zhi.3br4a1. (l.b)A.l. de la nang gi Jen pa ni kun brtags pa'i ngo bo nyid la
mngon par zhen pa 'i bag chags dang rten dang dbang po 'igzugs so.
Alayavijfitina as Keystone Dharma 925
9
inner substratum as an object." 'External' perception depends upon 'inner'
capacities. . . for t h e ansmg
As a condition .. - - (.1.e., 'a-1.ambanapravrtt1.) , h owever,
. . of a-1.ayavJJnana
this object is both effectively outside our immediate awareness and yet more or less
constant. First, the text says these objects are "subtle" (siik$ma), "difficult to
10
discern" (du$pariccheda), "not clearly delineated" (apariccinnakara); they are, in
short, subliminal. This subliminal perception of the surrounding, shared world is
11
also continuous: it is "always there, not sometimes this and sometimes that." That
is our faculties and cognitive predispositions are always engaged with "the external,
shared world whose aspects are not delineated" in such a way as to continuously
give rise to forms of subliminal awareness. For example, we are continuously aware,
albeit only vaguely, of our bodies in relation to the surrounding world, a sense we
now call proprioception. Since we always exist in relation to an 'external' world,
alaya awareness is said to "continuously arise in a stream of moments," although,
12
the text warns, this does not mean that "it is singular ( ekatva) or eternal." Like a
stream, it is a process that occurs uninterruptedly as long as its enabling conditions
persist.
In sum, this section outlines a mode of subliminal cognitive awareness ( alaya-
vijiiana) that continuously occurs in dependence upon the interaction between our
embodied sensory and mental faculties and the surrounding world - a world whose
aspects are, however, not clearly discernible. In this analysis of "the arising of
alayavijiiana by means of its objects," the text closely follows the basic mode of
Abhidharmic analysis: alayavijiiana arises moment to moment in dependence upon
the concomitance of specific, correlative conditions, the same kind of conditions
that give rise to other, more standard forms of cognitive awareness ( vijiiana). The
main departure from standard models so far is that these processes are subliminal,
"hard to discern."
2. The second section of the Alaya Treatise13 further describes the cognitive
aspects of alayavijiiana by noting the equally subliminal mental factors that are
associated with (salJlprayoga) this subliminal awareness. This prominently includes
the list of mental factors ( caitta) that are thought to characterize each and every
· moment of conscious mind (citta) in the Yogacara system (citta-salJlprayukta-
sarvatraga): attention (manaskara), sensation or contact (sparsa), feeling ( vedana),
apperception ( salJljiia) and intention ( cetana). 14 Only here, as we might expect, the
mental processes accompanying alayavijiiana are also said to be "subtle and hard to
9
D4038.zhi.4a1_2 • (l.b )A.2. de la phyi rol gyi snod rnam pa yangs su ma bead pa rnam
par rig pa ni kun gzhi rnam par shes pa nang gi Jen pa 'i dmigs pa gang yjn pa de nyid la
brten nas/rtag tu rgyun mi 'chad par Jig rten dang snod kyi rgyun rnam par rig paste.
10
D4038.zhi.4a3•4 • (l.b )B.1 dmigs pa de ni Jig rten gyi mkhas pa rnams kyis kyang yangs
su gcad par dga' ba 'i phyir phra ba yin no. Translation: "The object is subtle because it is
difficult to discern even by worldly sages."
11
D4038.zhi.4a4 • (l.b )B.2. dmigs pa de ni rtag tu yodpa yin tel Jan 'ga 'gzhan du 'gyur la/
Jan ta 'gzhan du 'gyur ba ma yin no.
2
D4038.zhi.4a5 (l.b )B.3. kun gzhi rnam par shes pa de ni dmigs pa la skad cig pa yin
par blta bar bya ste/ skad cig pa 'i rgyun gyi rgyud kyis Jug pa yin gyil gcig pa nyid ni ma yin
no. The last phrase, "not eternal," is added in Xuanzang's Chinese translation only:
T1579.580a1s: ?F~~feiJifeichang.
Section 2: D4038.zhi.4b2. 7; T1579.580a 29-b8 ; T1584.1019b16-zz.
14
For more on these caittas, see the article by KRAMER in the present volume.
926 William s. wALDRON
perceive even for worldly sages." 15 They are, moreover, hedonically neutral
(neither pleasurable nor painful) and, since they are results, not causes, of actions,
they are also karmically indeterminate (avyakrta), i.e., they do not cause new
karma. Therefore they do not interfere with the karmic and hedonic nature of
supraliminal cognitive processes, and so may occur simultaneously with all types of
mental processes - a point we shall return to below.
3. The dynamism of this model of mind is most clearly evident in the third
section of the Pravrtti Portion, 16 which presents the ongoing, mutually causal
relationship between the subliminal alaya awareness and the supraliminal forms of
cognitive awareness (pravrttivijii.ana). It is in this section that we most clearly see
the Alaya Treatise's theory of cognition as a continuous, constructive process - a
theory that is itself based upon the innovative Y ogacara response to the problem of
the continuity of karmic potential in terms of momentary dharmas.
The text describes how alayavijii.ana arises in terms of mutual or reciprocal
causality (anyonya-pratyayata-pravrtti-vyavasthana). It first states that alayavijii.ana
provides the seed and the support for the traditional six forms of 'arising' or
'functioning' vijii.ana (pravrttivijii.ana) to occur. 'Being a seed' here means that the
causal potential for these forms of vijii.ana to occur (since vijii.ana is a result, a
vipaka) persists or is 'stored in' alayavijii.anawaiting, as it were, to come to fruition.
This function of 'storing seeds' is not only central to the notion of alayavijii.ana, the
'store-house' consciousness, but initiates one of Yogacara's main innovations to
Abhidharmic thought. This requires some explanation.
Seeds and the Problem of Karmic Potential in Abhidharma 17
All Buddhist schools posit a causal relation between actions and their results, that
is, the 'law' of karma. These results often occur long after their instigating causes,
traditionally even after many lifetimes. Hence, all Buddhist schools accepted the
idea that the potential for karmic results ( upacita) must persist in some fashion
throughout this intervening period (AKBh ad IV 120). Most also considered this
potential to be closely related to vijii.ana, the only one of the five components
(skandha) of human existence that continues from one lifetime to the next. But the
crucial question is: what exactly is the relation between this karmic potentiality and
the ongoing stream of mind? For as soon as Abhidharma thinkers held that all
phenomena ( dharmas) are momentary (AKBh ad IV 2b-3b) and that only present
dharmas are truly real (since the past is gone and the future has not yet come),
they found it difficult to explain how these karmic potentials could exist moment-
to-moment until they come to fruition. After all, if they were not present in each
and every moment, how could they possibly exist? (AKBh ad V 25b) And if they
were present, why wouldn't we be experiencing them in each moment?
As is well known, the Abhidharmakosa records many of the debates between
the Sarvastivadins and the Sautrantikas concerning just this question. To address it,
15
D4038.zhi.4b3 • (2.b)B.(2). jjg rten gyj mkhas pa rnams kyjs kyang rtog par dka' ba'j
phyt;:,hra _ba. . namanJpaip phalotpattau samarthaip sak~at parampaiyeIJa va; santatjparjIJama-vise~at). In
Section 3: D4038.zh1.4br5a7; T1579.580b 9_29 ; T1584.1019b 22-c6 •
17
The problems concerning the continuity of karmic potential, as well as of the latent
afflictions and the gradual nature of the path - the three major conundrums in
Abhidharma thought - have been traced from early Buddhism into Abhidharma and
Yogacara in my work, WALDRON (2003:55-80).
Alayavijiiana as Keystone Dharma 927
the Sarvastivadins posited a new, ad hoc dharma, 'possession' (prapti),_ to denot_e
the karmic potentials in one's mind stream ( cittasantana). But they considered this
, ossession' to persist outside of, or apart from, our moment-to-moment mental
processes; its precise relation to such processes was not explicitly prescribed. The
~arvastivadins thus never fully integrated this new dharma, 'possession,' into their
elaborate analyses of mind and mental processes in terms of momentary
dharmas. 18 The Sautrantikas agreed that karmic potential could not be related to
standard Abhidharmic analyses of momentary mental processes, but they argued
that this was because such potentials were not really dharmas at all, but merely
nominal entities (prajii.agtisat) best designated by the admittedly conventional
metaphor of seeds ( bija). 9 In short, ~either of these schools _successf~lly integrated
the ongoing influences of past actions, of past karma, mto thetr analyses of
moment-to-moment mental processes. This was a glaring omission for traditions
that so intently analyzed the relation between actions, their results, and the effect
of these results on our subsequent actions.
The concept of alayavijii.ana as described in the Alaya Treatise presents a
solution to this conundrum. Alayavijii.ana refers to a distinct kind of subliminal
mental process which "continuously arises in a stream of moments" in constant
dependence upon its own conditions: its distinct co~nitive objects,. distin~t
concomitant mental factors, etc. It thus follows the stnctures of Abhidharmic
analyses in terms of moment-to-moment arising of mental processes, yet it also
persists uninterruptedly throughout one'~ ~ntire lifet~me and int? the. n~xt.
Moreover, this mode of awareness, along with its concomitant factors, is subhmmal,
"subtle," "difficult to discern." Hence, the 'seeds' - ultimately a metaphor for karmic
potentiality - could readily persist in relation to the ongoing stream of alayavijii.ana
without contradicting the karmic or hedonic nature of supraliminal cognitive
processes (and their concomitants). Alayavijii.ana is therefore a most appropriate
medium for 'storing' the potentiality of karmic actions until they eventually come to
fruition - serving, again, as the key dharma that holds the two temporal dimensions
of karma together. But unlike either the Sarvastivadin notion of 'possession' or the
Sautrantika metaphor of seeds, alayavijii.ana is actually integrated into the analysis
of moment-to-moment mental processes; indeed, this integration constitutes the
core contribution of the Alaya Treatise.
To return to the text, the Alaya Treatise declares:
18 'Possession' (praptj) is considered 'dissociated from mind' ( cittavjprayukta). It has no
direct influence upon manifest cognitive processes and is therefore karmically neutral
(avyakrta). AKBh II 35a-b (SHASTRI, 1981:209): viprayuktas tu saipskaraiJ praptyaprapti
Translation: "Possession and non-possession are however karmic formations dissociated
[from mind]."
19 AK.Eh ad II 36d (SHASTRI, 1981:217). "What is called a seed? Any psycho-physical
organism (nama-nJpa) that is capable of producing a fruit, either mediately or immediately,
through a specific modification of the mental stream." (kiip punar jdaip bijaip nama? yan
his commentary on the Abhjdharmakosa, Yasomitra warns that a 'seed' is simply a nominal
entity. Vyakhya ad AK.Eh II 36 (SHASTRI, 1981:219). "Power, seed, and impression have the
same sense. The seed is a specific power ... What is called a seed doesn't really exist at all,
because it is nominally existent" (sakH bijaip vasana itj eka ayam arthaiJ ... saktjvise~a eva
bijam. na bijaip nama kincit asti, prajnaptisattvat).
 928 William S. w ALDRON
1Jayavfjn_~na functions as the co~~!!i?n (pratyaya) for [the forms of] ac-
tJv~. cog~1tive awareness _(pravrttJ_VJJnana) m ~o ways: by being their seed
( bIJabhava), and by prov1dmg their support ( asrayakara). 20
The t~xt states here that the ongoing and underlying mental processes that
com~r.ise alayavijnan~ also continuously condition the arising of supraliminal
cogmttve processes, ftrst by 'storing' the specific causal conditions, the seeds, for
these resultant processes to arise, and second by serving as a basal consciousness
the most basic level of embodied, sentient awareness. In this way, ' the concept 'ball,' etc. - most of which occur outside our immediate awareness.
when there i~ ~layavijiiana, which is the support of the mind (manas) and
mental cogmtive awareness (manovjjiiana) [as well as of the other five
groups of sensory_cognitiv~ awareness], then mind and mental cognitive
awareness [etc.] will also anse, but not when there is no [alayavjjiiana]. 21
This_ is _the fi~st halt~! the mutual conditionality ( anyonyapratyayata") between the
subhmmal alayavl)nana and the supraliminal forms of cognitive awareness
(pravrttivi/fiana).
Conversely, "the forms of supraliminal cognitive awareness function as the
condit~on o_f ii!ayavijnana
22
in two ways: by nurturing (or fattening, paripu~/1) the
seeds i~ this hfe," and by causing alayavijnana to persist on into the next life.
"Nurturmg see_ds in this_ !ife" mean~ that the kinds of actions beings perform,
whet~~r karmic~ll~ positive, negative, or neutral, continuously reinforce the
~onditi~ns for simtlar actions to occur again through the process of "infusing
impre~sion~ ~ vasa1:a bhavayati) into alayavijnana." As a consequence, these
behaviors will anse successively more well-nurtured well-tempered and di-
stinct. "23 ' '
In short, the_ text ~~p!cts an ~ngoing feedback process between the underlying
awareness of alayavi1nana, which supports the manifest forms of cognitive
aw~reness, and ~he effec~s that t~ese manifest forms of cognitive awareness (by
their accompanymg ~armic behavior) have on that supporting alayavijnana; as the
text states: the two kmds of vijfiana mutually condition each other. This process is
app~r~nt _m the ~radual acquisition of skills or habits, where repetition leads to
ro~tmization, refmement, and habituation, both physiological and psychological.
This process was difficult to explain in standard Abhidharma systems in which only
pres~nt dharmas were real and the effects of past experience were largely
consigned to ad hoc categories. A model of mind based on multiple, simultaneous
20
D4038.zhi.~?7· (3.b) ~- 'di la kun gzhi rnam par shes pa ni rnam pa gnyis kyis Jug pa 'j
rnallJipar shes p~ 1 rkyen gp bya ba ~yed de Isa bon gyignos po dang rten byedpas so.
!·
D4038.zh1.5a2-3- _(3.b )A.2. yi~ dang yid kyi rnam par shes pa 'i gnas kun gzhi rnam
par s~es pa yod na I pd dang pd kyJ rnam par shes pa yang 'byung bar 'gyur gyi med na ni
maymno.
22
D4038.zhi.51~3. (3.b )B.. de la Jug pa 'i rnam par shes pa ni rnam pa gnyis kyis kun gzhi
rnam par shes pa 1 rkyen gy1 bya ba byed de I tshe 'di la sa bon yongs su brtas par byed pa
~ng. .
23
D403~.zhi.5a4_6· (3.b)B.1. de la tshe 'dila sa bonyongs su brtas par byed pa ni/ji Jtaji
ltar kun gzh1 rnam par shes pa la brten pa Jug pa 'j rnam par shes pa dge ba dang! midge ba
d~ngl lung du ma ~stan pa 'byung bar 'gyur ba delta de ]tar rang gi rten la rten de dang Jhan
c1g skye ba dang gag pas bag chags sgo bar byed doll rgyu de dang rkyen des na Jug pa 'j
rnam par shes pa rnams kyang phyir zhing phyir zhing dge ba la sogs pa 'i dngos pos shin tu
brtas pa dang/ shin tu sbyangs pa dang! shin tu 'od gsal ba dag tu 'byung bar 'gyur ro.
Alayavijiiana as Keystone Dharma 929
and interactive processes, however, more easily explains the process of gradual
change in dharmicterms.
This process occurs simultaneously as well as sequentially, since both levels of
awareness are "arising and ceasing simultaneously" (lhan cig skye ba dang 'gag pas)
with each other. Even the perception of a simple object, such as a red ball, requires
the coordinated activity of both conscious and unconscious processes such as
attention, an unimpaired visual faculty, and cognitive predispositions that include
And since many of the manifest cognitive processes that are thought to occur in
every moment of mind, such as feeling ( vedana), are themselves the result of
previous causal ~~nditi_ons, there are very few moments in w~ich s~eds are not
coming into frmtton, JUSt as there are very few moments m which seeds or
impressions ( vasana) are not being 'infused' into alayavijfiana through one's
intentional actions. In sum, the mutual conditionality ( anyonyapratyayata)
between alayavijnana and pravrttivijnana is a continuous, accumulative, and
constructive process. This is a dynamic constructivist theory of cognition - in which
the way that objects appear is 'constructed' or determined by our capacities to
perceive and conceive them, while these capacities themselves only develop
through recurrent cognitive experience - that goes well beyond the Abhidharma
context in which it originated.
The text stated that it is the karmically positive, negative, or neutral actions
that seed and infuse alayavijfiana. It did not, however, indicate what instigates
those actions, that is, what makes them karmically effective. But for Buddhists, the
conative or volitional dimensions of behavior are even more important than the
cognitive dimensions. The Alaya Treatise thus proceeds to discuss these as well.
4. The next section of the Alaya Treatise 24 discusses the processes that arise
simultaneously with alayavijnana (sahabhu-pravrtti-vyavasthana), clearly establi-
shing its status as a distinct stream of mind, while introducing another distinctive
kind of process called 'mentation' (manas) - a continuous, yet subliminal sense of
self-centeredness. This is the second innovative concept in Yogacara cognitive
theory.
The text states that alayavijnana (which is both hedonically neutral and karmi-
cally indeterminate, avyak_rta), can occur simultaneously with all manner of mani-
fest mental processes:
In this way, alayavjjiiana arises and functions concurrently with the
[forms of] active cognitive awareness. It also arises and functions concur-
rently with [their] incidental (agantuka) feelings, as well as with [their] in-
cidental skillful, unskillful, and indeterminate mental factors ( caitasika-
dharma).
But it is not said to be conjoined (sa1!1prayukta) with them. Why is
that? Because it arises with a different object ( asamalambana). 25
24
Section 4: D4038.zhi.5ar7a 1; T1579.580b 29-58la 24 ; T1584.1019c 6-1020a 13 •
25
D4038.zhi.6~_5• (4.b)B.1. de ]tar na kun gzhj rnam par shes pa ni Jug pa'i rnam par
shes pa rnam dang yang Jhan cig 'byung zhing Jug go//glo bur gyi tshor ba rnams dang! glo
bur gyi chos dge ba dang! mi dge ba dang! Jung du ma bstan pa rnams dang yang lhan cig
'byung zhing Jug ste/ de ni de dag dang m tshungs par ldan pa yin par ni mi b1jod do// de ci'i
phyir zhe na/ dmigs pa mi mtshungs pa la Jug pa 'i phyir te.

930 William S. wALDRON
Since alayaVJj.iana has its own accompanying conditions, associated (saipprayukta)
mental factors, and cognitive objects, it constitutes a distinctive stream of mind in
its own right.
~~t eve~ before stating that alayavij.iana could arise simultaneously with the
traditional six forms of active cognitive awareness, the section introduces its new
notion of manas:
. Sometimes iilayavijniina arises concurrently (saha pravartate) with
JUSt on~ of the [forms of] active cognitive awareness, for example, with
mentat10n (manas).
. In this way, the mentation (manas) -whose mode (iikiira) is concei-
vm_g (manyanii) "~-making" (ah~1pkiir_a) and the conceit "I am" (asmi-
mana) -. always anses _a~d func~10ns simultaneously with iilayavijnana in
states with mental actlV!ty (sac1ttaka) and even in states lacking mental
activity (acittaka).
That (~ent~tion] has the _mode of taking iilayavijniina as [its] object
and conce1vmg [it] as "I am [this]" (asmitJ) and "[this is] I" (aham iti). 26
There are several remarkable points in this passage. First, the text states that there
!s a kind of continuous mental process - occurring in nearly all states of mind - that
1s preoccupied with the notion or sense of self, a process it calls 'mentation.' And
this process "always arises and functions simultaneously with alayavijiiana," which
s_~i:_ves ~s the o~ject of its ~elf-c~nceiving. From what we have seen of the alayavi-
;nana m the Alaya TreatJse this should not be surprising. For while it is often
difficult to clea~ly identify the referent of our sense of self, it is surely related to the
processes associated with alayavij.iana: the continuity of our bodily experience, the
persistence of our implicit cognitive schemas, and the ongoing effects of our
vari~us behavior patterns, all . of which exhibit considerable continuity and
consistency. For most people, this sense of self never fully disappears, though it is
usually implicit rather than explicit, lurking about in the shadows as it were. As the
text observes, this mentation "always arises ... even in states lacking mental
ac~ivity," su~h as in deep m~d~tation (nirodhasamapattJ). Like alayavij.iana itself,
this mentation, and the affhctive tendencies associated with it, are both constant
yet subliminal.
There are significant, systemic Abhidharmic reasons why the Yogacarins for-
1:1uiated our underlying sense of self in this way. This, too, requires some explana-
tion.
Mentation (manas) and the Continuity of Latent Afflictions
The second major conundrum created by Abhidharma theory was the continuity of
the kl~sas, t~e affl!ctive em_otions ai_id attitude~ that make actions karmically
deleterious. Smee, hke karmic potential, the klesas were also thought to persist
through various states of mind until very advanced stages along the path, Abhi-
26
D4038.zhi.6a4.5 • (4.b)A.l.(a)kungzhi rnampar shes pa ni (a) res 'ga'niJugpa'i rnam
par shes pa gcig kho na dang lhan cig tu Jug ste I 'di ]ta ste yid dang ngo II 'di !tar ngar 'dzin
pa dang! nga b snyam pa 'i nga rgyaf dang! rlom pa 'imam pa can gyi yid gang yin pa de ni
sems yod pa dang! sems med pa 'i gnas skabs dag na yang dus rtag tu kun gzhi rnam par shes
pa dang lhan cig 'byung zhing Jug st~/ de ni kun gzhi rnam par shes pa la nga b snyam pa
dang! bdag go snyam du dm1gs shmg rlom pa'i rnam pa can yin no. SCHMITHAUSEN
(1987.1:149) notes that this passage has "good chances of being the oldest occurrence of the
new manas."
Alayavijiiana as Keystone Dharma 931
dh rmic theory had a similarly difficult time accounting for their continuity within
t~eory in which only present dharmas are real. For if the klesas were present and
:ctive in each and every moment, then karmically skillful states could never arise
d liberation would be impossible. But if they were not present, they would not be
anlly 'real.' As with karmic potential, the Sarvastivadins and Sautrantikas also
fu
sed the concept of 'possession' 21 and the metaphor of seeds, 2s respective . I
y, to
~epresent the afflictions in an inert or latent state outside of_ or sep~rate from the
moment-to-moment processes of mind. But here, too, they failed to mtegrate th~se
concepts into their sophisticated analyses of mind ~nd mental processes, re~o~ti.ng
instead to factors effectively outside that analysis. And here, too, Yogacanns
posited a more systemic solution. Add~essing this problem ~he same way _t~ey
addressed the problem of the continmty of karmic potential, the Yogaca~ms
posited a subliminal stream of af~ictive disposit!o~s that continuously anses
simultaneously with, but not contrad1ctoiy to, suprahmmal mental processes.
This is clearly stated later in this section:
The mentation (manas) which was explained above always arises and
functions concurrently with ii/ayavijniina.
One should know that until that [mentation] is completely destroyed
[it] is always associated with the four afflictio~s (k!esa) whi~h by nature
arise innately (sahaja) and concurrently: a view of self-existence (s~t-
kayadrfti), the conceit "I am" (asmimiina), self-love (atmasneha), and ig-
norance ( avidyii).
One should see that these afflictions arise without impeding
(avirodha) the [karmic quality of] ~killfulness (kusa!a), etc., in states of
meditative collectedness ( samiih1ta) or non-collectedness, and are
29
obscured-indeterminate (nivrtavyakrta).
Although the afflictions of self-view, etc., arise simultaneous!~ with ?oth alaya-
vij.iana and the six forms of pravrttivij.iana in eve~ state of mmd u~til. far along
the path, they are not directed toward the same objects as the suprahmmal states
30
of mind and thus do not interfere with their karmic quality. This concept of
27 "The term 'latent affliction' is a figure of speech in the discourses for [the dharma]
'possession."' AKBh V ad ld-2a (SHASTRI, 1981:762): aupaciinko vii stltre 'nusayasabdafJ
priip_tau.
28 AKBh ad V ld-2a (SHASTRI, 1981:763): "What is called a 'seed-state'? It is the
capacity (sakti) of an individual for an affliction to arise born from a [previous] affliction."
ko 'y_a1p bijabhavo nama? atmabhavasya klesaja klesotp~danasak:i!J. .
29 D4038.zhi.6b _ ( 4.b )B.4. gang sngar bstan pa 'i pd gang Y(n pa de m dus rtag tu kun_
57
gzhi mam par shes pa dang /han cig 'byung zhing Jug ste/ de m yang dag par ma beam gyI
bar du dus rtag pa kho nar /han cig skyes pa 'i rang bzhin 'dra ba 'i kun nas nyon monf.s pa
rnam pa bzhi po Jig tshogs la !ta ba 'i kun nas nyon mongs pa dang! nga b snyam pa 1 nga
rgya! gyi kun nas nyon mongs pa dang! bdag la chags pa 'i kun nas nyon mongs pa dang! ma
rig pa 'j kun nas nyon mongs pa dang mtshungs par !dan pa yin par blta bar bya bl/ kun nas
nyon mongs pa rnam pa bzhi po de dag kyang mnyam P,~r bzhag pa danf?: mnyam par ma
bzhag pa 'i sa fa dge ba la sags pa dag la 'gal ba med par ;ug pa dang! bsgnbs /a lung du ma
bstan pa yin par b!ta bar bya b. . , . .
30 A similar discussion occurs in the Abh1dharmakosa regardmg the difference between
merely innate (sahajii) self-view, which presumably exists in anim~ls a~9 is k~rmicall~
neutral ( avyiikrta), and a self-view that is deliberate or conceptu~l ( vika!p1ta) ~nd 1s ~arm1-
cally unskillful (akusala). (ad V 19; SHASTRI, 1981:794: saha;a satkiiyadrf{lr a_vyakrta ...
vika!pitii tvakusa/eti). The concern here is finding the best model for the persistence of
innate afflictions.

932 William s. wALDRON
mentation (which the Mahayanasamgraha and later Yogacara texts will amend as
'afflictive men!ation,' kfj~famanas) constitutes a more systemic, a more 'dharmk,'
response to this problem than any of the other Abhidharma schools. For the latent
afflictions, ignorance, self-view, etc., are now systematically integrated into its
comprehensive model of mind.
But how, then, do actions become afflicted so they actually do lead to karmic
ent~n~lement? ~his req~ires some. connection between the latent (and neutral)
afflictions associated with mentatlon (manas) and the active afflictions that
actually affect manifest mental and physical processes. The Alaya Treatjse suggests
that the way we usually conceive things is intimately connected to this underlying
sense of self:
~ental-cognitive awareness (manovijnana) is said to be based on menta-
tlon becaus~ as long as mentation has not ceased then [mental-cognitive
awareness] is not freed fr?~ the bon<:Iage of perception ( vijnaptJ) in
regard to phenomena (mm1tta); but if [mentation] has ceased then
[mental-cognitive awareness] will be freed. 31 ' [their own future] realization throu~ ~aving nurtured [those very] seeds.
As long as this mentation, with its accompanying ignorance, self-view, and sense of
"I am" persists ("u1:1:t!~ it is completely destroyed"), so long will mental cognitive
a":'areness (manovljnana) be bound to cognize phenomena (njm1tta) in relation to
this sense. of self.. In other words, to the extent that our mental processes are
accompamed by this deep-seated, unconscious self-centeredness then no moments
of _mind will ever be entirely free from conceiving things in te;ms of subject and
obJect, self and other, etc., inviting all the erroneous and afflictive actions such self-
centeredness entails.
This section of the text does not, however, specify the circumstances in which
thes~ latent afflictions actually would (or would not) instigate afflictive actions
that 1s, karma. That question is not directly raised by the theoretical themes of th~
Pravrttj PorHon, b~t it ?oes ~elate to the practical concern~ of the Buddhist path,
the theme of the Nwrtt1 Portion, the closing section of the Alaya Treadse.
Nivrtti Portion
I~ cont:ast to ~he m~.1:1~nt~ry arisi~g or perpetuation (pravrftj) of the cognitive
d1mens1ons of alayav1Jnana m the Pravrttj PorHon, the Njvrttj Portjon discusses its
cessation (ni"vrt~1) in the long-term, saipsiirk dimension. Alayavjjfiana is virtually
equated here with _the roots of the defilements (saipklesamula) and the mass of
accumulated karm~c see~s, al?propri~t~ons ( upadana), and spiritual corruptions
( dau~fhulya) that bmd bemgs m the v1c1ous cycle of death and rebirth. As such, it
comp~i~es t~ose very processes - klesa and karma - that effectively constitute
~aipsanc existence and whose cessation (njvrttJ) therefore is tantamount to
l~berat~?~~ What is significant here AbhMharmkally is that the concept of
iilayav11n_ana also addresses the third major conundrum created by Abhidharmic
analysis m term_s of _momentary dharmas: how can one account for progress along
the pat~ - which 1s a .gradual process involving differing and often mutually
contradictory factors, skillful and unskillful, etc. - if only present dharmas are real?
And if iilayavijiiana were indeed nothing but the root of the defilements, then -
31 D4038.z~i.~b4. (4.b )A.2. yid kyi rnam par shes pa de ni yid la brten pa zhes bya ste/
rgyu_ mtshan g1 yid ma 'gags na rnam par rig pa 'i 'ching ba mi 'grol la/ 'gags na ni de 'grol ba 'j
phy1rro.
Alayavijiiana as Keystone Dharma 933
since it is the basis for all manifest mental processes - how could skillful states
(kusala) ever arise? . . . . . , , .
The short answer is that despite its close association with the seeds of defiled
dharmas and the afflictive processes cal~ed mentation _( manas),. alaya~ijfiana itself
·s karmically neutral (avyak[ta). Hence, 1t presents no mherent 1mped1ment to the
~resence or cultivation of skillful seeds. A~ the tex~ state~, iilayavijiiana ~l~o "holds
the seeds of the skillful roots conducive to liberation (mok~abhag1ya) and
32
conducive to penetrating insight (mivedhabhagiya)."
And just as the two-tier model of mind allows Yogacarins to more adequately
analyze how karmic habits become "successively more well-nurtured, wel!-
tempered, and distinct," so too does this model allow_ for a more adequate analysis
of the gradual nature of purification along the Buddhist path:
If these [skillful roots] do occur, other mundane skillful roots will become
very clear, and therefore they will have greater capacity (stimarthya-
vattara) to uphold their own seeds and will have greater strength towards
Skillful dharmas from those seeds will m turn become clearer, and subse-
quently more desirable and more pleasant results ( viptika) will also be
realized. 33
In this way, although "the alayavijiiana is the root of the defilements,'' it never-
theless eventually "ceases through the cultivation of skillful dharmas (kusala-
dharmabhiivanii)."34 Serious practitioners will come to "personally realize that they
are bound by the external bond of objective phenomena (njmjttabandhana) and
35
by the internal bonds of spiritual corruption ( dau~fhulya),'' wh!ch. occurs once
they have attained deep understanding of the Four Truths (satyabh1samaya) and
reached the Fully Determined Stage (saipyaktanjyiima) of the Disciple (sravaka)
or Bodhisattva. Until then, of course, the processes referred to by the term
alayavijiiana remain "subtle and hard to perceive even for the wise."
Once the skillful dharmas leading to "the wisdom (jiiana) which takes true
reality ( tathatii) as its object"36 have been assiduously cultivated, then the very basis
of saipsiirk consciousness, iilayavijiiana, will also be completely abandoned
(prahiJJa), along with all the defilements associated with it. At_ thi~ point, th~ text
claims, the latent afflictions will no longer have the power to mstigate karm1cally 37
efficacious actions so that "only the mere conditions of physical life remain,'' free
from compulsive drives or aims, ever mindful, responsive, and aware.
32 D4038.zhi.7arb3. (5.b) B.l kun gzhi rnam par shes pa thar pa'i cha dang mthun P_a
dang/ nges par 'byed pa 'j cha dang mthun pa 'i dge ba 'i rtsa ba rnam kyi sa bon yangs su 'dzm
pa gang yin pa.
33 D4038.zhi.7bn (5.b) B.1 de byung na de las gzhan pa jig rten pa'i dge ba'i rtsa ba
rnams ni ches 'od gsal bar 'gyur zhingl des na de dag rang gi sa bon yangs su bzung ba la
ches mthu dang Jdan pa dang sa bon yangs su brtas pas bsgrub pa la ches stabs dang ldan_
par 'gyur roll sa bon de las dge ba 'i chos de dag kyang ches 'od gsal bar 'grub pa dang! phyI
ma la yang rnam par smin pa ches sdug pa dang! ches 'clod pa 'grub par 'gyur ro.
34 D4038.zhi.7b5. (5.b)B.1. de ]tar na kun nasnyon mongs pa'i rtsa ba kungzhi rnampar
shes va de ni 'di ]tar dge ba 'i chos bsgoms pas rnam par ]dog par rig par bya 'o.
'S5 D4038.zhi.8a _ (5.b )B.2. de nang gi so so'i bdag nyid la phyi rol gyi mtshan ma 'i 'ching
12
ba dang/ nang gi gnas ngan Jen gyi 'chings bas bdag nyid beings pa rtog par byed do.
36 D4038.zhi.8a . de bzhin nyid la dmigs pa'i shes pa.
3
37 D4038.zhi.8b 2. (5.b )C.3. srog gi rkyen du gyur pa tsam kun tu gnas.
 934
William S. wALDRON
Conclusion
What, then,_ may we sa~ about alayavijiiana based upon this text? First, as we have
seen_, the Alaya Treaflse an~lyzes alayavijiiana in a systematically Abhidharmic
fash~o.n, as a_ ?harma that anses _from mom_ent-to-moment in dependence upon
spec1f1c cond1ti~~s. Furthermore, 1t analyzes 1t as a form of vijiiana that arises with
the s~me con~1~1ons_ oth~r. forms of v-fjiiana do, i.e., in dependence upon sense
faculties, c~S~1t1~e d1spos1tions, and objects. The main difference from traditional
forms of VlJnana 1s that 'alaya' vijiiana arises conditioned by all the sense faculties
by pote~t c_og~itive dispositions such as the "impressions of attachment to th~
fals~ly _d1scnmmated," and by an unusual object, the indistinct shared world that is
sub~1mmal: subtle, and "hard to discern" - as are, of course, the mental factors
( ~a1_tta) with which alayavijiiana is conjoined. In sum, alayavijiiana arises as a
d1_~~mct mental stream, similar to but separate from the traditional six forms of
Vl)nana. So far, it seems a standard, if strange, kind of dharma.
. Moreover, as _a distinct stream of mental processes, alayavijiiana is said to arise
simultaneously ':1~h t!1e tradit_ional six v-fjiianas, constantly interacting with them in
a mutuallf cond1ti~mng r~lationship that suggests a more robust cognitive theory
than previous Abh1dharm1c analyses had heretofore provided. For, in addition to
the standa_rd supraliminal con?itions for vj_(iiana to arise - attention, a sense faculty,
and an_obJect - we now also fmd several simultaneous subliminal conditions - the
~mbod1ed and implicit cognitive schemas, an indistinct external world, and, most
1mportan~ly, the 's~eds' or causal antecedents for the appearance of such cognitions.
Th~ s1multane1ty o~ these momentary processes is crucial, for it expresses in
dharm1c terms the multiple, _Yet i1:11plicit conditions necessary for ordinary cognitive
proce~s to occur - th~ phys1olog1cal schemas (saipskaraiJ) necessary for the sense
faculties to even receive and process sense impressions, the conceptual schemas
(saipskaraiJ) necessary for these to make any sense, and the causal conditions ( bija)
for them to ari~e in th~ _first place. All of these support the strongly constructivist
character of _this c~s~Itive t~eo~. As the text says, the six pravrttiv-fjiianas arise
based upon ~layavl)n~na, wh1~h 'supports" them through its close relation with the
sense !a~ult1es, the 1mpress1ons of the "falsely discriminated," and the sheer
potentiality for them to occur.
The dynamic na!ure of this mutually conditioning relationship is central to its
larger expl~natory aim: by analyzing behavior in terms of the constant interaction
betw~~n discrete, yet mterdependent, streams of mind, with all their attendant
conditions, we can better explain how habits are made and unmade in dharmic
te~ms. Bad_ h~bits become "well-nurtured, well-tempered, and distinct," while
skillful habits become very clear" leading to "more desirable and more pleasant
results."
It is the ~ot~nt combination of all these characteristics - the moment-to-
mon_-ie~t contmu~ty of the ac~umula~ing results of past actions that persist
subhmmally yet_ s1multane~u~ly !ntera~~ng with supraliminal cognitive processes _
that make the Alaya TreatJse s. alaya~1J1!ana such a keystone dharma. For it bridges
the past, pres~nt, an~ future m exphc1tly dharmic terms in the three arenas that
standa~d Abh1dh~rm~c theory found so problematic: the continuity of karmic
potential, the contmmty of the afflictions, and the gradual nature of progress along
the path. All three of these were essential to the Indian Buddhist worldview, but all
three were equally awkward and for the same reason: Abhidharmic theory based
~n momen!ary dh~r1:7a~ could n?t explain their continuity in a dharmically con-
sistent fashion. This mv1ted a senes of ad hoc solutions poorly integrated into the
Alayavijnana as Keystone Dharma 935
Abhidharma system. 38 Whatever its own limitations, the concept of alayavijiiana
did provide a comparatively parsimonious model for addressing these crucial
conundrums.
But one must wonder to what extent this presentation of alayavijiiana exceeds
the spirit of Abhidharma, not by its innovative cognitive theory but by transgressing
its methodological intent. As PIATIGORSKY (1988:202, n. 17) observes, "the
Abhidhamma does not deal with what is non-conscious, because the Abhidhamma
is a 'theory of consciousness,' and the rest simply does not exist in the sense of the
Abhidhamma." In this sense, designating subliminal awareness as a distinct dharma
demonstrates the limits of dharmic analysis as much as 'possession' or the meta-
phor of seeds do For the notion of alayav-fjiiana is, at bottom, built on the
metaphor of seeds - or more precisely, on the concept of potentiality - whether in
terms of karma, klesa, or one's evolving habits. And potentiality is not an empirical
as much as an inferential or theoretical concept, based not ·so much on the
observable regularities of one's behavior as on the arguable need for systemic
coherence. While few would question the claim that diverse kinds of mental
processes occur outside our conscious awareness, many would contest the specifics
or significance of their particulars. Nor it is clear that all such processes are best
subsumed under a single category. Since the conditions for the arising of alayavi-
jiiana are so various, the functions alayavijiiana plays are equally variegated. If the
Alaya Treatise illustrates anything, it is that alayavijiiana arises at the vortex of
numerous, multi-faceted processes. In this respect, it seems misleading to consider
alayavijiiana a single, substantive term. This has led to considerable ~onfusion.
However unorthodox a dharma it may be, alayav-fjiiana in the Alaya Treatise is
nevertheless, first and foremost, a dependently arisen form of awareness. The
thoroughly Abhidharmic mode of its analysis - the specific concepts, their systemic
relations, the very syntax of dependent arising - evinces the pre-eminence of
dharmic discourse throughout. These characteristics, and the problems to which
they are obviously addressed, not only bespeak a deep commitment to dharmic
analysis, but to the value of its systemic coherence as well. For early Y ogacarins at
least, the dharmic analysis of alayavijiiana surely supersedes the mere metaphor of
'storing seeds,' a metaphor whose precise sense is nearly always glossed in terms
of dharmas - never the other way around.
Conversely, when the conventional metaphor of storing seeds is allowed to
supersede dharmic analyses of alayavijiiana (inverting the conventional and ulti-
mate discourses, in Abhidharmic terms), then the notion of alayavijiiana takes on a
decidedly idealistic air, as if it literally and unilaterally "brought forth the animate
and inanimate worlds" 39 (rather than, for example, referring to the potentiality for
such experiences to arise depending upon multiple, requisite conditions). There
are plenty of passages in Y ogacara texts that, at first reading, invite this latter
38
As CONZE (1973:138) observed years ago: "the dogmatic assertion of instanta-
neousness could be made credible only by introducing a number of pseudo-permanencies."
He failed to appreciate iilayavijfiiina's contribution to these problems.
39
D4038.zhi.7a2+ (5.b)A.1,2. kun gzhi rnam par shes pa ni I mdor na kun nas nyon
mongs pa thams cad kyi rtsa ba yin no I 'di }tar (1.) de ni sems can gyi Jig r!en 'grub pa 'i rtsa
ba yin te .... snod kyi Jig rten 'grub pa 'i rtsa ba yang yin te. Translation: "Alayavijfiiina is, in
short, the root of all defiled [ dharmas]. Accordingly, it is the root of the coming about of
the animate world (sattvaloka) ... as well as the root of the coming about of the common
[inanimate] world ( bhiijanaloka)."
 936 William s. wALDRON
interpretation. But to sustain it, one would have to studiously ignore the Alaya
Treatise of the Yogacarabhumi

Abhidharmakosabhawam
Abhidharmakosavyakhya
Trif!Jsika-bhawa ofSthiramatJ;
Vijiiaptimatrata-siddhi
Yogacarabhumi-
Vini~cayasaJ!lgrahapi
Bibliography
Primary Sources
SHASTRI, S. D. (ed.) (1981): Varanasi: Bauddha Bhara-
ti Series. (Abbreviation: AKBh).
Y asomitra's commentary on Abhidharmakosa in
SHASTRI.
LEVI, Sylvain (ed.) (1925), Paris: Librairie Ancienne
Honore Champion.
Pravrtti/Nivrtti Portions are only available in Tibetan
and Chinese translations. Tibetan: Peking ed., 5539, Zi,
4a5-lla8; Derge. ed (abbreviated D), 4038, Zhi, 3b4-8b 7 •
Chinese: Xuanzang's translation: T1579.579c2r582a3 .
Paramartha's translation: T1584. 1019a25-1020c3•

Secondary Sources
CONZE, Edward (1973): Buddhist Thought in India, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press.
HAKAMAYA, Noriaki (~B-~Bm (1979): Viniscayasarµgraha9I ,~Bit Q 7-7-\'='~0)m
5E ["The Definition of Alayavijiiana in the ViniscayasaJ!lgrahapi"], in Toyo Bunka
Kenkyt1sho Kiyo (Jlil$:>e{l::JiJf~m*c:~)[Memo1rs of the Institute for Oriental
Culture] 79, pp. 1-79. [Reprinted in HAKAMAYA, 2001:362-445].
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (2001): Ywshikishisoronko(l!fE~}[~!J'~~i~) [Studies on
Vijiiaptimatra Thought], Tokyo: Daizo Shuppan (::k~t±:lM&).
PIATIGORSKY, Alexander (1984): The Buddhist Philosophy of Thought, London: Curzon
Press.
SCHMITHAUSEN, Lambert (1987): Alayavijiiana: On the Origin and Early Development of
a Central Concept of Yogacara Philosophy, Studia Philologica Buddhica Mono-
graph Series vol. IVab, Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist Studies.
WALDRON, William (2003): The Buddhist Unconscious: The Alayavijiiana in the Context
ofIndian Buddhist Thought, New York: Routledge.

Sanskrit Fragments of the S81J1dhinirmocanas0.tra
Kazunobu MATSUDA
The Samdhinirmocanasiitra, one of the basic scriptures of Y ogacara idealism, _is a
siitra co.mplex or a siitra mosaic consisting of ten ~hapters with a prologue s~ct10?.
Up till now, no Sanskrit original was kno~n to_ exist except for so_me qu~tations m
other Buddhist treatises. This short article 1s based on my d1scovenes of the
Sanskrit manuscript fragments of this siitra in the Nation~! Archi:es of Kath_ma~du
and in the German Turfan collection. Furthermore, I will examme how this sutra
complex may h~ve been created from each of the several chapter~ which w~re
originally independent siitras, based on my re~earch of t~~ Sansknt ~anuscr~pt
fragments, as well as a hitherto unknown quotation of the 'Aryar~tnavyuha, which
has a passage similar to that of the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra qu?ted m ~ commenta~
to the Yogacarabhiimi ( Yogacarabhiimivyakhya) that remams partially extant m
Tibetan translation.
1. Fragment from the National Archives, Kathm~ndu . Fragment Transcription
In my previous papers, I have presented my findings. on the Sa?sknt man~scnpt
fragments in the Cecil Bendall collection preserved m the National Archives _of
Kathmandu. Among the fragments I have identified so far is a mam_1sc~1pt
1
fragment set entitled Bauddhasastriyapatt:iIJJi, ~hich is an unu~ual compda~1on
comprised of one folio each taken from eight d1ff~rent m~nusc:1pts: ~hes~ e_tg_?t
folios written on palm leaves are, with one exception, w:1tten. m _Gilg1t/Bam1yan
Type II script or early Newari script, which palaeographically. md1cates that t_hey
are among the oldest extant manuscripts from the Nepal region. ~f these eight
folios, only one has previously been identified by BENDALL (1903) himself. I have
succeeded in identifying the other seven folios as follows (MATSUDA, 1990):
1. a folio from the ViniscayasasaipgrahaJJi section of the Yogacarabhiimi
2. a folio from the SaddharmapuJJefarikasiitra (MATSUDA & TODA, 1991)
3. a folio from the PramaJJaviniscaya (MATSUDA & STEINKELLNER,
1991)2 . , _
4. a folio from an unknown commentary to the Abh1dharmakosabha$ya
(MATSUDA, 2000) _ ,_ . yoganitarthanirdesa e~a maiteya yoganitarthanirdesarµ cainarµ dharaya ti
5. a folio from the GauefapadiyakarikabhiI$ya (AgamasastranvaraJJa)
(HARIMOTO, 2007) . .. . sahasral.).arµm anuttarayarµ samyaksarµbodhau cittany utpannani · trayal.).arµ
6. a folio from the Bhiksunikarmavacana (identified and pubhshed by
BENDALL, 1903)
7. a folio from the Satasahasrika Prajiiaparamita
8. a folio from the Pa.iyayasaipgrahaJJisection of the Yogacarabhiimi
1
Manuscript No. 1-1697 Vi Bauddhadarsana 64 Ka.
2
Cf. STEINKELLNER (2007:xxviii-xxix).
Sanskrit Fragments of the Saf!ldhinirmocanasiitra 939
Among the seven folios I have identified, two folios belong to the Yogacarabhiimi,
of which one is from the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJisection (no. 1) and the other is from
the Pa.iyayasaipgrahaJJi section (no. 8). Of the two folios, we should note the
ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi folio covers a special portion of the Yogacarabhiimi, that is,
its quotation of the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra. As is well known, the entire text of the
Samdhinirmocanasiitra, with the exception of the Prologue chapter, is quoted in
the· ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi section of the Yogacarabhiimi The present folio covers
the end portion of Chapter 8 (the Maitreya chapter) to the middle of Chapter 9
(the Avalokitesvara chapter). Although this is a ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi folio, the
actual text given here is that of the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra, and so it would be
more accurate to refer to this as a fragment of the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra. I have
already published the text of the Chapter 9 portion of this folio (MATSUDA, 1995)
and the other folio of the Pa.iyayasaipgrahaJJi section (MATSUDA, 1994).
Over ten years have passed since my publication of the first part, but I have yet
to publish the remaining part of the ViniscayasaipgrahaJJi folio, namely the end
portion of Chapter 8 in the Saipdhinirmocanasiitra. The reason for this delay is
that the five epilogue verses contained in this portion are written in Buddhist
Hybrid Sanskrit, making them very difficult to read and interpret. Furthermore,
the photograph is in such extremely poor condition that it is impossible to read the
text contained in the folio in its entirety. Yet, at this occasion, I would once again
like to take up where I left off ten years ago and make an attempt to read and
interpret the text. The results are shown below.3
rl Ill (atitana)[ga]ta}:l samyaksarµbuddhal) nirdi~tavarµtal) · nirdek~yarµti · sarvena
evam eva ayam atra kulaputrail) kuladuhitrbhir va fivravyayamair bhaviturµ 11 atha
bhagava(rµ)s tasyarµ velayarµm ima gatha abha~ate(sic) sma 11 dharmana prajfiap-
tivyavasthito yo hi yoge pramatta na mahartha so hi tarµ dharmarµ nisraya ye atra
yoge samyakprayukta te labha(rµ)ti bodhi 11 upararµbhaprek~a iti vadamok~a-
prek~a ye dharmarµ sarva pu ...... III
r2 Ill .. · 11 satvarthasaro na tu kara tebhyarµ viditva satvarthaprayukta dhiman*
tarµ kara anyenta(sic) labha{rµ}ti pritirµ sarvottararµ caiva nirami~arµ ca · 11 te
kamarµ tyaktva punar adadante · ye karaheto(sic) dharma uddisarµfi miicJha te tarµ
dharmamayarµ anagharatnarµ samasadya cararµti · bhik~arµ vivadasarµsarga-
praparµcasarµgan tasmad vihayottama virya krtva · sadevaloka uttarm;iartharµ
imasma yoge ~uprayukta(sic) bhotha 11 atha maitreyo bodhisatvo bhagavantam
etad avo Ill
r3 Ill [rmo]cane 's[mi](rµ) dharmaparyaye nirdesal) katharµ cainarµ dharayami
bhagavan asyavocat* asmin khalu punar nirdese nirdisyamane ~m;u.).arµ pral.).isata-
sravakasatasahasral.).arµ · virajo vigatamalarµ dharme~u dharmacak~ur utpannarµ
dvaivarddhasya sravaka( sata)sahasrasyanupadayasravebhyas cittani vimuktani ·
parµcasaptafi III
3
I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Harunaga ISAACSON who kindly sugge-
sted some corrections of my reading during my presentation of this paper in Seoul, 2008.
940 Kazunobu MATSUDA
r4 Ill mahayogamanasikarapratilarµbho 'bhut* 11 o 11
Sanskrit Text Reconstruction 4
LAMOTTE, viii 39.
( · · · a titan a )[ga]ta9 samyaksarµbuddha9 nirdi~tavarµta9 nirdek~yarµti sarvena
evam eva (I) ayam atra kulaputrai9 kuladuhitrbhir va tivravyayamair bhaviturµ 11
LAMOTTE, viii 40.
atha bhagava(rµ)s tasyarµ velayam ima gatha abha~ata sma 11
dharmana prajfiaptivyavasthito yo hi yoge pramatta na maha[rtha] so hi I
tarµ dharmarµ nisraya ye atra yoge samyakprayukta te labha( rµ)ti bodhi 11 1 11
upararµbhaprek~a iti vactamok~aprek~a ye dharmarµ sarva pu .. .. I
.. +++++++++++++++ ++++ .. 11211
satvarthasaro na tu kara tebhyarµ viditva satvarthaprayukta dhiman I
tarµ kara manyen na labhati pritirµ sarvottararµ caiva nirami~arµ ca 11 3 11
te kamarµ tyaktva punar adadante ye kamaheto dharma uddisarµti I
mugha te tarµ dharmamayarµ anagharatnarµ samasadya cararµti bhik~arµ 11 4 11
vivadasarµsargapraparµcasarµgan tasmad vihayottama virya krtva I
sadevaloka uttara:t;tartharµ imasma yoge suprayukta bhotha 11 5 11
LAMOTTE, viii 41.
atha maitreyo bodhisattva bhagavantam etad avo( cat I ko bhagavan namadheyo
sarµdhinir)[rmo]cane 's[mi](rµ) dharmaparyaye nirdesa9 (I) katharµ cainarµ
dharayami (I) yoganitarthanirdesa e~a maiteya (I) yoganitarthanirdesarµ cainarµ
dharayeti bhagavan asyavocat (I) asmin khalu punar nirdese nirdisyamane ~a:t;t:t;tarµ
pra:t;tisatasahasra:t;tam anuttarayarµ samyaksarµbodhau cittany utpannani (I)
traya:t;tarµ sravakasatasahasra:t;tarµ virajo vigatamalarµ dharme~u dharmacak~ur
utpannarµ (I) dvyardhasya sravaka(sata)sahasrasyanupadayasravebhyas cittani
vimuktani (I) parµcasaptati(narµ bodhisattvasahasra:t;tarµ) mahayogamanasikara-
pratilarµbho 'bhut 11
This single folio is a rather large fragment with ten lines of Gilgit/Bamiyan Type II
script on the recto side of the palm leaf, and nine lines on the verso side. (Note that
I am examining a microfilm and so it is impossible to determine the exact size).
Both ends have suffered damage, and in my estimation, this means that the first
four to seven syllables have been lost. Furthermore, at the end of each line, in
almost all of the lines, one or two syllables have been lost. As a result the folio
number, which should be written in the left margin, has also been lost. In terms of
its contents, chapter 8 ends around the middle of the fourth line of the recto side.
4
I have added the paragraph numbers created by LAMOTTE (1935:120-121). The
passage corresponds as follows to the Chinese tranlations by Xuanzang (T676.703a 17. 26 )
and *Bodhiruci (T675.679c29-680a9,), and the Tibetan Translation in LAMOTTE's edition
(1935:120-121).
Sanskrit Fragments of the Saf!ldhininnocanasutra 941
Next, there is a passage from the ViniscayasaI[JgrahaJJl itself that is sandwiched
between, and then chapter 9 begins.
Of course, the text introduced above is not a perfect one, and represents my
present assumption as to how to read and interpret it. This is especially the case
with the reading of the five gathas written in tn~fubh jagati meter, the rigorous
editing of which is confounded by the fact they are written in Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit. We may well expect the present version to later divulge places that are
unsatisfactory, and hence to undergo further revision. As far as the meaning of the
passages goes, I think that a comparison of the Chinese and Tibetan translations5
makes it possible for us to grasp the general drift of the text. This is especially true
of the Tibetan, which tends to follow the original text rather closely, line by line.
The second gatha, however, occurs in the places where the folio has been broken
off, and less than half of it legible. Another somewhat fine point I would like to
make is in the third gatha, where the word ''kara" appears twice in the accusative
form I believe. When we attempt to apprize its meaning, a comparison with the
Tibetan translation would indicate that the word means "to take" as in "to give and
take." Also, the third verse of the third gatha has been revised to follow the Tibe-
tan translation of ''manyen na '; even though the word would appear to be read
"anyenta"; however, I am not completely confident as to these revisions. Suffice it
to say that on some future occasion I hope to present an improved version of these
five gathas.
2. Fragment from the German Turfan Collection
The next is a small fragment, which indicates that there are other Sanskrit copies of
the Saf!ldhinirmocanasutra in other collections. This particular fragment is what I
discovered in Berlin in the Turfan Collection brought back by the German
expedition (No. 923). The fragment corresponds to the second chapter (Dhar-
modgata chapter) and third chapter (Suvisuddhamati chapter) of the Tibetan
translation. According to Dr. Lore SANDER of Berlin, who is the leading authority
on variant Indic scripts from Central Asia, this fragment brought from India to
Central Asia, is, judging from its script (Gupta Alphabet k), exceedingly old and
may date back as far as the end of the fifth century. 6 If this dating is correct, that
would mean this folio was produced not far from the time when Asatiga and
Vasubandhu were alive. The transliteration shown below is copied from Volume 3
of the "Sanskrit Manuscript Catalogue" of the Turfan Collection. 7
A (recto, Tib. P. ed., N 7ar 7b8)
1 Ill+ + paramartha[dhar]ma [vi]gatabhilapa9 11 atha kha[lu] Ill
2 Ill+ [ka] samayam=adrak~am=anyatamasmirµ prthivipradese + Ill
3 Ill+ [va]m=ahu I na hy=eva [sa]rµskaralak[~]a:t;tad=anyat=paramartha[l]. Ill
4 Ill+ [rme] bhagavat[y] =etad=abhavat=sarvva im[e] kulap(u)t(r)a ba Ill
5 Ill .. (e)[v]am=etat=sarvve [te] k(u)laputra bala9 mugha9 avyakt. Ill
6 Ill+ balapr[th](agjana9) d[rMasatya bhaveyu9 prthagja(n). Ill
B (verso, Tib. P'. ed., N 8ai- 9a2)
1111 nimittasy=a[bh]. + + + n=nimittabarµdhanad=avimukta9 sya[d]= .. Ill
5
For the pertinent passages, see fn. 4.
6
SANDER (1991 ).
7
WALDSCHMIDT (1971:180).
942 Kazunobu MATSUDA
2 Ill [bhu]ta ev=anuttararµ [y]( o )gak~emarµ nirvval)am=anuprapnoti [n=a] Ill
3 Ill + [m](a)rµ nir[v]al)am=anupr[a]pnoty=anuttararµ va punal;i
sarµmyaksarµ[b](o) Ill
4 Ill + [k~al;i] na yonisa iti[ 11] punar=apararµ suvisuddha .. Ill
5 Ill+ t=syat=tena sar[v]vasarµskaralak~al)e~u samanyalak~a Ill
6 Ill+ (s)[uvi]suddham=ane[na] yujyate · 11 punar=apararµ .... Ill
The first line of the recto side has "paramiirtha[dharjma': but it should be correc-
ted to "paramiirtha[dhar]mo''. It corresponds to a portion of the epilogue verse at
the end of chapter 2. In the folio, there is no colophon at the end of the verse, and
it starts immediately thereafter with the words of the opening verse of chapter 3,
''atha kha[luj". In the Tibetan translation as well as the Chinese translation by
*Bodhiruci, chapters 1 to 4 are each divided into chapters. In Xuanzang's transla-
tion, however, these are combined under the title *Paramiirtha-lak~aJJaparivarta. 8
Thus, regarding the question whether there originally were four chapters or not, I
think this manuscript fragment gives us a glimpse of its original form. One point
I would like to add is that, while we are unable to verify the case with the entire text,
unlike the aforementioned five giithiis of chapter 8, the verse of chapter 2 may not
have been written in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit, but in regular Sanskrit.
3. The Saip.dhinirmocanasiitra as a Siitra Complex
The above two Sanskrit fragments of the Saip.dhinirmocanasiitra are all I have
found, but the siitra is cited numerous times in Buddhist literature. Noteworthy
among them, there is the citation of the epilogue verse of Chapter 3 of Kamalasila's
Third Bhiivaniikrama9 and the epilogue verse of Chapter 5 which is cited numerous
times in the Yogacara treatises, such as Sthiramati's Triip.sikiibhii~ya. 10 As becomes
clear from an examination of the epilogue verses of these two chapters, the verse of
chapter 3 is written in regular Sanskrit, while the verse of chapter 5 is in Buddhist
Hybrid Sanskrit. Further, among the manuscript fragments introduced above, the
verse of chapter 8 contained in the Katmandhu fragment is in Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit, while the verse of chapter 2 contained in the Turfan fragment is in regular
Sanskrit.
8
Chinese tranlations by Xuanzang (T676.688-692) and *Bodhiruci (T675.665-669),
Tibetan Translation in LAMOTTE's edition (1935:34-54).
9
TUCCI (1971:1): uktai:µ ca bhagavata: nimittabandhanaj jantur atho dau~thula-
bandhanat I vipasyanai:µ bhavayitva samatha:ii. ca vimu(cyata iti). Cf. HAKAMAYA (1994:36)
and GYALTSEN Namdol (1985:223).
LEVI (1925:33-34), BUESCHER (2007:102-104): yathoktam I (1) tadyatha visalamate
10
I mahata udakaughasya vahatal). saced ekasya tarailgasyotpattipratyayal). pratyupasthito
bhavaty ekam eva tarailgai:µ pravartate I saced dvayor traya1;ai:µ sai:µbahalanai:µ tarail-
ga1;am utpattipratyayal). pratyupasthito bhavati I yavat sai:µbahulani tarailga1;i pravartante
I na ca tasyodakaughasya srotasa vahatal). samucchittir bhavati I na paryupayogal). praj:ii.a-
yate I (2) evam eva visalamate I tadoghasthan1yam alayavij:ii.anai:µ sai:µnisritya prati~thaya
saced ekasya cak~urvij:ii.anasyotpattipratyayal). pratyupasthito bhavati I ekam eva cak~ur-
vij:ii.anai:µ pravartate I saced dvayor traya1;ai:µ sacet paiicanai:µ vij:ii.ananam utpattipratyayal).
pratyupasthito bhavati I salqd yavat pa:ii.canai:µ pravrttir bhavati I (3) atra gatha I adana-
vij:ii.ana gabhfrasuk~mo ogho yatha vartati sarvab1jo I balana e~o mayi na prakasi ma haiva
atma parikalpayeyul). 11 iti 11
(1) = LAMOTTE, V 5, 1-6. (2) = LAMOTTE, v 5, 13-19. (3) = LAMOTTE, v 7.
Sanskrit Fragments of the Sarpdhjnfrmocanasiitra
943
It is highly unusual to find the language of the verses in a single siitra to be
different from one chapter to the next. Although all the various theories that
comprise the Yogacara system, such as the concepts of iilayavijiiiina, trisvabhiiva,
and vijiiaptimiitra, appear in the Saip.dhinirmocanasiitra, they are merely explained
in each chapter and are yet to be systematized thoroughly. There is no organically
consistent system as seen in the writings of Asail.ga and Vasubandhu. Furthermore,
chapters 7 to 10 have an epilogue phrase or paragraph that ordinarily appears at
the end of a siitra. This too is an unusual feature, which implies that the individual
chapters of the Saip.dhinirmocanasiitra first existed as independent siitras and only
later were woven together into this single siitra. This assumption is also supported
by the fact that in the Chinese translations, chapters 9 and 10 exist as independent
siitras, 11 and chapters 1 to 4 also exist as an independent siitra translated by Indian
monk *Paramartha. 12
Finally, I would like to introduce an interesting quotation occurring in the
Yogiiciirabhiimivyiikhyii. This is an incomplete commentary on the Yogiiciira-
bhiimi found in the Tibetan Tripi/aka. It seems to be part of a voluminous
commentary written by Jinaputra, citing a sutra titled *Aryaratnavyuha. The Tibe-
tan text and its translation are as follows. 13
I de bzhin du 'Phags pa rin po che bkodpa ( *Aiyaratnaryriiha) las kyang I
blo gros yangs pa rnam par shes pa des de ltar lus 'di nye bar bzung zhing
blangs pa na len pa'i rnam par shes pa zhes bya'o I de ltar de ni lus 'di la
grub pa dang bde ba gcig pa'i phyir 'brel pa dang rab tu 'brel pas kun gzhi
rnam par shes pa shes kyang bya'o I blo gros yangs pa len pa'i rnam pa'i
rnam par shes pa de la brten cing gnas nas rnam par shes pa'i tshogs drug
po <lag 'byung bar 'gyur te I de la rnam par shes pa dang bcas pa'i mig
dang gzugs rnams la brten nas mig gi rnam par shes pa 'byung bar 'gyur te
zhes bya ba la sags pa gsungs so I
In the same way in the *Aiyaratnaryriiha, it is explained, "O Visalamati,
when this consciousness ( vij.iiina) thus grasps and takes up this body, [it]
is called the iidiinavij.iana. In this way, this [ viJnana] binds this body at the
point of sharing the mutual status of safety [and danger] ( *ekayoga-
kJema), and because it binds it [at this point], it is also called the alaya-
vij.iiina. 0 Visalamati, based on this iidanaviJnana, depending on it, the
six consciousness group ($a<;Jvij.ianakiiya) arises. In this regard, the eye
consciousness (cakJurvij.iana) arises in dependence upon the eye (the or-
gan of sight) with its corresponding viJnana as well as in dependence
upon the riipa (the visual object perceived)" and so forth.
The cited passage bears a strong resemblance to a passage in chapter 5 of the
Saip.dh1nirmocanasiitra. 14 The differences are that in the Saip.dhinirmocanasiitra,
after the explanation of the iidiina- and iilayavijiiiina, there follows an explanation
of citta, furthermore all six vijiiiinas - in the explanation of the ~acjvijiiiina - are
explained in their entirety. Therefore, this quotation seems to be an abridged
version of the description found in the Saip.dh1n1rmocanasiitra. It should, of course,
be kept in mind that this is indeed a quotation from a different siitra entitled
*Aryaratnavyiiha, and not a quotation of the Saip.dhinirmocanasiitra from chapter
11
T678.714-718 and T679.718-720.
12
T677.711-714.
13
Q5544.99a1. 4 , D4043.8lb6-82a1.
14
LAMOTTE (1935:55-56).
 Kazunobu Sanskrit Fragments of the Sa1J1dh1nirmocanasutra 945 I,
944 MA TSUDA
;:
5. It signifies there might be other sutras that have similar contents to chapter 5 of (2000): 1JtiHi(1.1 Od-11) (;: x1T 0 *5;0 0) ~1J'R ~ lffiM
---;-;-;:-::,::-:c::--:-:--:-------,-------:- !
the Saipdhinirmocanasiltra. In considering the composition of the Saipdhi-
fiffl,'is; ["A Note on a Sanskrit Fragment from an Unknown Commentary to the Ab-
hidharmakosabhawa"], in Bukky6 Daigaku S6g6 Kenkyiijo J(jy6 ({~f!,z)cq=W,ti'i"
nirmocanasiltra, this fact serves as another piece to complete the whole puzzle. My .fiffnJ5fr*c~)[ Bulletin of the Research Institute of Bukky6 Universi(V] 7, pp. 105-
hypothesis here is there were a number of similar siltras produced around the same 114.
period of time, among which one came to be adopted as chapter 5 of the MATSUDA, K. and TODA, H. (1991): "Three Sanskrit Fragments of the Saddharma-
Saipdhinirmocanasutra. puJJ{jarikasiitra from the Cecil Bendall Manuscript Collection in the National
Archives, Kathmandu" in Memoirs of the Department of Ethics, College of
*I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. Dr. Ulrich Timme KRAGH for many valuable General Education, the Universilj'ofTokushima, No. 20, pp. 21-35.
suggestions and for correcting my English. MATSUDA, Kazunobu & Ernst STEINKELLNER (1991): "The Sanskrit Manuscript of
Dharmakirti's PramaJJaviniscaya: Report on a Single Folio Fragment from the
National Archives Collection, Kathmandu" in Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde
Bibliography Siidasiens35, pp. 139-149.
BENDALL, Cecil (1903): "Fragment of a Buddhist Ordination-Ritual in Sanskrit" in Album- SANDER, Lore (1991)" "The Earliest Manuscript from Central Asia and Sarvastivda
Kern. Opstellen geschreven ter eere van Dr. H Kern hem aangeboden door Mission" in Corolla Iranica: Papers in Honour ofProf Dr David Neil MacKenzie
vriended en leerlingen op zijn zeventigste verjaardag den 6den April 1903, edited on the Occasion ofHis 651hBirthday on April 8h, 1991, edited by R. E. EMMERICK
by Otto VON BOHTLINGK et al., Leiden: Brill, pp. 373-376. & D. WEBER, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 133-150.
BUESCHER, Hartmut (2007): Sthiramati's Trif!}sikavijnaptibhawa: Critical Editions of the STEINKELLNER, Ernst (2007): Dharmakirti's PramaJJaviniscaya: Chapters 1 and 2, Sanskrit
Sanskrit Text and its Tibetan Translation, Osterreichische Akademie der Wissen- Texts from the Tibetan Autonomous Region 2, Vienna: Verlag der Oster-
schaften, philosophisch-historische Klasse Sitzungsberichte, 768. Band, Beitrage reichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Beijing: China Tibetology Publishing
zur Kultur- und Geistesgeschichte Asiens Nr. 57, ed. by Ernst STEINKELLNER, House.
Vienna: Verlag der Osterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften. WALDSCHMIDT, Ernst (1971): Sanskrithandschriften aus den Turfanfunden, Teil 3, in
GYALTSEN Namdol, Acarya (1985): BhavanakramaiJ of Acarya Kamalasila (Tibetan collaboration with Walter CLAWITTER & Lore SANDER-HOLZMANN, Wiesbaden.
Version, Sanskrit Restoration and Hindi Translation, Sarnath: Central Institute of TUCCI, Giuseppe (1971): Minor Buddhist Text, Part Ill' Third Bhavanakrama, Serie
Higher Tibetan Studies. Orientale Roma no. 43, Rome: Istituto Italiano peril medio ed estremo oriente.
HAKAMAYA, Noriaki (~;§;@;BB) (1994): Yuishiki no kaishaku gaku· · IF Gejinmikky6JJ o
yomu (rJl~O)j§~'fRq= · IF f§~i?1!Uif*i JJ ~ §JC C )[ The Hermeneutics of Vijnapti-
matrata: Reading the Saf!Jdhinirmocanasiitra], Tokyo: Shunjusha (fff.kffi±).
HARIMOTO, Kengo (2007): "A Fragment of the AgamasastravivaraJJa" in Newsletter of the
NqMCP, No. 5, Hamburg University, pp. 16-21.
LAMOTTE, Etienne (1935): Saf!]dhinirmocana Siitra: L'explication des Mysteres, Recueil de
travaux; Ser. 2, 34, Louvain: Bureaux du Recueil and Paris: Adrien Maissoneuve.
LEVI, Sylvain (1925): Vijnaptimatratasiddhi: Deux traites de Vasubandhu, Vimsatika et
Trif!}sika, Bibliotheque de !'Ecole des Hautes Etudes, fasc. 245, Pari;: Libraire
Ancienne Honore Champion.
MATSUDA, Kazunobu (flffitD{§") (1982): Yogacarabhiimivyakhya (2:. :B (t {) 7 -7 -V~ t
<T 7,.0)f!,zfil(;: -:J~, -C (fPJJlliq:[fill(;::Btt 0~'f02 @J [ B:2fs:EPJ'.Jitq:{LJ!-zq:~ J
q:f,ltf::*:~*c~-2-)["Scriptural Evidence of Alayavijnana and KliHamanas in the
Yogacarabhiimivyakhya"], in Indogaku bukkyogaku kenkyii (EPJ'.Jit"f:{L)J&"f:W
~)[Journal ofIndian and Buddhist Studies] 30.2, pp. 667-668.
(1990): ;z, 1 \ - Iv*'~ M 'J;-J :2js: 0) *Jr tt ;E ["Newly
Identified Buddhist Sanskrit Fragments in the National Archives Collection,
Kathmandu"], in Indogaku bukky6gaku kenkyii (EPJ'.Jit"f:{b~"f:,u}f~)[Journal of
Indian and Buddhist Studies] 39.1, pp. 386-389.
(1994): IF ff.JfJJo§i JJ , no·H~:B- J O)J-txlffifJJ
["Sanskrit Fragments from the Paryayasaf!}grahaJJi of the Yogacarabhiimi"] in
Indo-Tetsugaku Bukky6gaku (EPJ'.Jitf:'rq={l~q=)(Hokkaido Journal of Indologi-
cal and Buddhist Studies) 9, pp. 90-108.
- - - - - - - - - (1995): IFf§~i*'fil*-IJJ (2:_:}3(t 0:gJ\ii+JfilO)Jit:3'.z:jf;f/4'
IF ff.J{iJD§!la JJ [mi::k:tR:B-] 0) fJ !- 7 /' f r'J lffi h J:: Y) ["Sanskrit Text of the Bodhi- I
! •
sattva's Ten Stages in the Saf!]dhinirmocanasiitra: Based on the Kathmandu
Fragment of the Yogacarabhiimi"], in Bukky6 Daigaku S6g6 Kenkyiijo J(jy6 ({~
f!,zjcq=W,tidiffj'cpfr*c~)[ Bulletin of the Research Institute of Bukky6 Universit;1
2, pp. 59-77.

What are Acaiyas or *Yaugacarabhiimikas
Doing in Abhidharmakosabha~a 3-28ab?
Changhwan PARK
1. Introduction: Who Were the Acaiyas in AKBh 3-28ab
Amid the controversy on the ideological identification of Vasubandhu, the Kosa-
kara (i.e., the author of AKBh), as to whether he was a Sautrantika-leaning Abhi-
dharmika or already a Y ogacara-Vijfianavadin when he composed the Abhi-
dharmakosabhaffa (AKBh), scholars have been drawn to one particular passage in
AKBh 3-28ab, which they believe to hold the key to resolving the complicated issue
at hand. That passage is a quotation from someone Vasubandhu calls "acaryas" or
"masters," who present their particular understanding of why the twofold formula
(paryayadvaya) of dependent origination (pratityasamutpada) was advanced by the
Buddha; that is, "when this exists, that exists; from the arising of this, that arises"
( asmin satidam bhavati I asyotpadad idam utpadyate). This passage (henceforth,
the "acarya-passage") is adduced as the second of the several interpretations of
anonymous masters ( apare, "others") on the twofold formula in the AKBh, and it
says:
Masters say: "[The first formula 'when this exists, that exists'] serves to in-
dicate the not-yet-abandoned [state of dependently arising factors], while
[the second formula 'from the arising of this, that arises' indicqtes] the
arising [of factors from such a not-yet-abandoned state]. [They say:]
"While ignorance is not-yet-abandoned, karmic forces are not abandoned
[either]. From the arising of that very (eva) [not-yet-abandoned igno-
rance] arise [karmic forces, etc.]," and so forth. 1
Numerous scholars 2 involved in the issue of Vasubandhu's school-affiliation have
been attracted, whether consciously or unconsciously, to this passage, because it
provides the possibility of interpreting these "acaryas" as Vasubandhu's own
teachers, from whom Vasubandhu inherited not only their doctrinal positions, but
also their school-affiliation. To our surprise, the following remark from the
Nyayanusara of Sarighabhadra, the primary Vaibha~ika critic of Vasubandhu's
Kosa and one of its earliest commentators, has strengthened this line of conjecture:
Moreover, the Sutra master (i.e., Vasubandhu) mentions the interpreta-
tion of his own masters ( *acaryas) on the meaning of the twofold formula.
Even though their interpretation involves a blunder, he (i.e., Vasubandhu)
does not point out [this blunder,] thereby showing his devotion and reve-
1
AKBh 139w 139 15 : aprahiIJotpattijiiapanartham jty acaryal; I avMyayam aprahiJJayaip
saipskara na prahiyante I tasya evotpadad utpadyanta jfj nstaralJ.
2
See MIYASHITA (1986:36 fn. 54); MUROJI (1986:70-71); FUKUDA (1989:48-49);
HARADA (1996:138-146); KRITZER (2005:160-161); and DELEANU (2006:159). For an in-
depth discussion of the views of these scholars, see PARK (2007:10-28).
What are Acaiyas or *Yaugacarabhumikas 949
rence [to them]. The master-student relationship should in principle be
like that. [But] I (i.e., Sarighabhadra) have inherited nothing from those
masters. Even if I criticize them, there would be no damage to [my] great
reputation. Therefore, I will clearly indicate its falsehood as it is. That is
to say, those masters interpret these two formulas as indicating [the exis-
tence of] cause and effect not-yet-abandoned and the arising [of factors
therefrom]. In other words, depending on ignorance not-yet-abandoned,
all karmic forces ( *saipskaralJ) are not abandoned [either]; from the ari-
sing of ignorance arise all karmic forces. The same process applies to the
rest [of the chain of dependent origination.] 3
As FUKUDA (1989:47-49) and HARADA (1996:140) have already pointed out, what
Sarighabhadra designates as "Vasubandhu's own acaryas" in this passage unques-
tionably indicates the "acaryas" who have put forward this particular interpretation
of the twofold formula of dependent origination in the AKBh. Having said that,
Sarighabhadra's depiction of the master-student relationship between these
acaryas and Vasubandhu is rather stunning but plausible enough to give some
historical clue to the scholastic identification of Vasubandhu, given the credibility
of Sarighabhadra as a Vaibhasika critic contemporary with Vasubandhu.
Sarighab~adra, accor?in? to tradition, spent twelve years critic~lly delv~n~ into the
Darstantika-Sautrantika background of Vasubandhu's doctrmal deviation from
the Vaibha~ika orthodoxy. 5 The questions then pose themselves: Who were these
masters (acarya) of Vasubandhu? What was their school-affiliation, if any? What
are they doing in the AKBh?
Except for the above remark, which is made rather in passing, Sarighabhadra
does not, however, provide any further comments on these masters of Vasubandhu
in his Nyayanusara, whose primary concern is fixated upon denouncing
Vasubandhu's ideological connection with the Dar~tantika-Sautrantikas. It is Yaso-
mitra, the ?1h-century commentator of the AKBh, who gives the often-quoted
identification of these acaryas as "earlier masters" (piirvacaryaiJ) in his Abhi-
dharmakosavyakhya (AKVy):
"Masters" indicates earlier masters (purvacaryal;). [The first and second
formula] serve to indicate the state [of factors] not-yet-abandoned and
[their subsequent] arising [therefrom respectively]. The first formula
shows that when ignorance exists, i.e., is not-yet-abandoned, karmic for-
ces exist, i.e., are not abandoned either. The second [formula] shows that
from the arising of that very (tasya eva) [not-yet-abandoned ignorance]
arise [the subsequent limbs of dependent origination]. The same applies
3
Nyayanusara T1562.483as.14: .X*-fil-1::izlH=l liLi'Mffi•= 'q]~ 0
Udf=q: f£1l!i!lff:f
0
~o@~~UoWW~fflo~~-~o~~~WogM*•o~ffl~~og~*
~
0
~~~~~WU# M~~W-~='oJ ffiml~*~ffi&~ M~g~~ffi~
0 0 0
fi~ffi
4
NPE.l3g~~~ ~fit~~ ~D~~ff '&·!Ji™
O 0 0 O 0
This particular appellation that puts two seemingly dis!inct school-lineages in a single
compound is used here in order to indicate exclusively Srilata and his followers who
attempted to convert their scholastic identity from Dar~tantika to Sautrantika by
proclaiming themselves to be Sautrantikas, i.e., someone who takes only sutras as their
valid means of authority. For a more detailed discussion of this transition of the sectarian
identity, see PARK (2007:100-104). This kind of compounding is often employed to refer to
the later blends or synthesis of earlier schools in such cases as the Sarvastivada-Vaibha~ika
and the Yogacara-Vijfianavada. For the background of the last two examples, see Cox
(1988:70 fn. 4; 1995:23-37), DELEANU (2006:13), and BUESCHER (2008:vii-viii).
5
For biographical information on Sarighabhadra, see Cox (1995:53-55).
950 Changhwan PARK
up to and including when birth exists, i.e., is not-yet-abandoned, aging
and death, etc., exist, i.e., are not abandoned either. From the arising of
that very [not-yet-abandoned birth] arise [aging and death, etc. ]6
Now the question at hand is who these "earlier masters" were. Do the "earlier
masters" indicate the same specific figures whom Sarighabhadra refers to as "Vasu-
bandhu's own masters," who had the master-student relationship with Vasubandhu?
A partial answer to this question is already given by Yasomitra in his commentary
to AKBh 3-15c, where the expression "earlier masters" (purviiciiryiiiJ) occurs again.
Therein, Yasomitra identifies these earlier masters more specifically as Y ogacaras
such as Asaiiga, sayinf "Earlier masters indicate Y ogacaras starting with the
venerable Asaiiga, etc." Inspired by this, HAKAMAYA (1986) has long claimed in
his seminal paper entitled Purviiciirya k6 that the expression "earlier masters"
(purviiciiryiiiJ), which occurs 11 times in the AKBh, stands for more theoretically
inclined early Y o~acaras, such as Asariga. He uses this expression in contrast to the
general run of Sravakayanika yoga-practitioners also designated "Yogacaras." 8
HAKAMAYA further observed that Vasubandhu, the Kosakiira, was therefore
already aware of the Yogiiciirabhumj ( YBh), a hitherto-unrecognized ideological
connection of Vasubandhu's AKBh with this early Yogacara text. HAKAMAYA
conceived of this appellation "earlier masters" as a doxographical designation
indicating a distinct group of scholastic masters with a different philosophical
orientation called "Yogacaras." This notion opened up a whole new exegetical
possibility to see whether Vasubandhu, the Kosakiira, had already aligned himself
with the ideology of the Yogacara-Vijfianavada at the stage of writing the AKBh. 9
6
AKVy 2981 8_23 : acarya iti purvacaryaiJ I aprahlpajiiapanartham utpattijiiapanartha!J1
ca I avidyayiilp satyam aprahlpayiilp saIJ1skara bhavanti na prahlyanta iti prathamena
paryayepa darsayati/ tasya evotpadad utpadyanta iti dvitlyena darsayati/ eval!J yavajjatyiilp
satyiilp aprahlpiiyiilp jariimarapadayo bhavanti na prahlyante I tasya evotpadad utpadyanta
iti
7
AKVy28; 21 _28 : purvacaryaJ;yogacara aryasaiigaprabhrtayaJ;.
8
For such Sravakayana meditation practitioners, see NISHI (1939), HAKAMAYA (1986:
100), SILK (2000), and DELEANU (2006:158).
9
HAKAMAYA's finding does not, however, automatically translate into the fact that
every purvacarya-passage in the AKBh stands for Y ogacara viewpoints. This is because
about half of the 11 passages have not yet been firmly identified with pertinent counter-
parts in the YBh and because many of them have been traditionally identified by
Xuanzang's (~~, 602-664) commentarial tradition as pertaining to earlier Sautrantika or
Vaibhasika masters, as conceded by HAKAMAYA ( 1986:93) himself. The purviicarya-
passages whose counterparts have been more or less identified in the YBh are as follows in
HAKAMAYA's numbering: (1), (5), (8), and (9). These exclude those passages simply
conjectured as YBh-related without any supporting evidence presented by HAKAMAYA: (4),
(6), and (10); those hitherto completely unidentified: (7); and those commented on as
connected with Yogacaras by Yasomitra in the AKVy: (2), (3), and (11) - but then, only
three purviiciirya-related passages are specifically identified by Yasomitra as Yogacara,
which shows that Yasomitra himself did not always use the term purviiciirya as a doxo-
graphical term but that he frequently used it as a generic expression. Given this, the term
purviiciiryiil; in the AKBh may not so much be a doxographical designation used in a
systematic or self-conscious way, like the term "Sautrantika" or "Vaibha~ika," other than a
somewhat generic designation representing old respectable masters whose points of view
deserve quotation as a viable alternative to the Vaibhasika positions. For an extended
argument for this position, see KWON (2008).
What are Acazvas or *Yaugacarabhiim1kas 951
Despite the rather incomplete corroboration of the alleged ideological connec-
tion between the AKBh and the YBh, it is perhaps undeniable that Vasubandhu,
the Kosakara, had access to the YBh, possibly at an earlier stage of this text, 10 at
the time of his composition of the AKBh and thus had some degree of doctrinal
connection with the YBh. 11 This is certainly true of the aforementioned "iicii.rya-
13
passage"12 in AKBh 3-28ab, given that a number of scholars have actually identi-
fied its possible parallel in the Savjtarkfidjbhumj of the YBh:
In what sense is it stated [by the Buddha] that "when this exists, that
exists"? It is stated in the sense that from a not-yet-abandoned condition
arises [a factor which] is distinct from it. In what sense is it stated [by the
Buddha] "from the arising of this, that arises"? It is stated in the sense
that from an impermanent condition arises [a factor] that is distinct from
it.14
Notwithstanding minor variations in wording and the omission of the second part
of the reason, i.e., the arising of factors from an impermanent \anjtya) condition,
perhaps due to Vasubandhu's abbreviating style of quotation, 5 it is unquestio-
nable that the iicii.rya-passage in the AKBh and its counterpart in the YBh are
virtually the same.
Further, the iicii.rya-passage's YBh-background is surprisingly confirmed by
Vasubandhu himself in his Pratityasamutpiidavyiikhyii (PSVy), 16 a post-AKBh
Yogacara-oriented text. 17 In the exact same context of examining a variety of
interpretations of the twofold formula at the beginning of the PSVy, Vasubandhu
this time more specifically identifies the position attributed to "the iiciiryas" in the
AKBh with that of "those who follow the YogiiciirabhumP' (* yaugiiciira-
,i. -
buum111.a.:1,-h) :18
1
° For a possible scenario of the historical formation of the YBh, see DELEANU
(2006:155).
11
As mentioned above, it still remains controversial as to how systematically Vasuban-
dhu attempted to incorporate these alternative opinions of the Yogacaras into his presenta-
tion of the Sarvastivada Abhidharma in the AKBh.
12
See fn. 1.
13
See MIYASHITA (1986:36 fn.54), MUROJI (1986:61, 70), HARADA (1996:143), and
KUSUMOTO (2006:156 fn. 579).
14
YBh 221 16 _17 : katham asmin satldalp bhavatlty ucyate I aprahipiit pratyayiit tadanyot-
padiirthena I katham asyotpadiid idam utpadyata ity ucyafe I anityat pratyayat tadanyot-
padarthena.
15
For the commentarial misunderstanding caused by this quotation style, see Section 4.
16
The reconstructed Sanskrit title of this text based on Tibetan translation is *Pratltya-
samutpadadivibhiiganirdesa, but MATSUDA (1982a:43) prefers the Pratltyasamutpiida-
ryakhya, a title attested in its Sanskrit fragments, which is also how I refer to it here.
17
MATSUDA (1982b:63-65; 1983:35; 1984:85) characterizes Vasubandhu's PSVy as a
still Sautrantika-oriented text which approaches Yogacara positions from a Sautrantika
point of view, as also seen in his Karmasiddhiprakarapa, on the grounds that except for the
introduction of alayavijnana, no other characteristically Yogacara doctrines are addressed.
MATSUDA (1983:35-36), however, notes that the PSVy shows the subtle shifting of Vasu-
bandhu's doctrinal position toward the Yogacara in that he adopted Y ogacara inter-
pretations, while still exhibiting the features of a Sautrantika supporter. For a detailed
discussion of this issue, see PARK (2007:7-10).
18
I owe this particular Sanskrit reconstruction to MATSUDA (1982a:50 fn. 16) and
HARADA (1996:144).
952 Changhwan PARK
The *Yaugiiciirabhiimikas say: "The two phrases (i.e., formulas) have
been stated in the sense of [factors] arising from a not-yet-abandoned
[condition] and from an impermanent condition. "When [A] exists" ( *sati)
means "[when A is] not-yet-abandoned" ( *aprahi1Ja) .. ."19
Besides the further elaboration provided in this text by the ensuing quotation of
pertinent sutra passages, though omitted in this quote, 20 the unquestionable
parallelism between the acaiya-passage in the AKBh and the position attributed to
the *Yaugacarabhumikas in the PSVy dispels any doubt on the connection
between the two parallel passages in the AKBh and the Yogacarabhum1:
Now, if the position presented under the rather generic appellation "masters"
( acaiyal;) in the AKBh can be traced back to its parallel in the Yogacarabhum1;
then the acaiya-passage could indeed be of great significance for probing into
Vasubandhu's intention of addressing a doctrinal position from the YBh in this
otherwise-predominantly scripturalist (Sautrantika) context as. shall be dealt with
in Section 2 below. A proper assessment of the role of the acaiya-passage in the
whole context may provide a chance to identify the doctrinal connection between
Vasubandhu, the Kosakara, and the Yogacarabhumi and thereby even deduce
Vasubandhu's sectarian identity in the AKBh, if any.
Consequently, the identification of the acaiya-passage's connection with the
Yogacarabhumi begs some serious questions: Does this single occurrence of the
YBh-connected acaiya-passage in the AKBh guarantee anything that uncovers the
sectarian identity of Vasubandhu, the Kosakara, as a so-called Yogacara-Vijfiana-
vadin? If so, why is the passage not adduced in the AKBh under the more explicit
reference of the *Yaugacarabhumikas, as seen in the PSVy, rather than simply
assigning the position to anonymous "acaiyas," as done in AKBh? What are the
*Yaugacarabhumikas then doing in the Abhidharmakosabha~ya?
Indeed, under KRITZER's and HARADA's assumptions, the way this acaiya-
passage, now identified as pertaining to *Yaugacarabhumikas, is adduced in the
AKBh alludes to the fact that Vasubandhu was already a Yogacara at the stage of
writing the AKBh, but that he deliberately attempted to disguise his own sectarian
identity as a Yogacara-Vijfianavadin under the rather vague references of
"acaiyas" and "purvacaiyas." The reason Vasubandhu did this was to avoid a direct
confrontation with the Abhidharmikas in whose scholastic milieu Vasubandhu
composed the AKBh, and nonetheless to construct "Yogacara footholds in the
Abhidharma-oriented text" in HARADA's (1996:160) terms, or a "crypto-Yogacara
abhidharma" in KRITZER's (2000:257) terminology, which would eventually contri-
bute to a smoother conversion of Hinayanists to the Mahayana (HARADA, 1996:
160).
19
PS Vy ( Q5496.5b 2. 6): rnal 'byor spyod pa 'i sa pa dag na re ma spangs pa 'i phyir dang/
mi rtag pa 'i rkyen las skye ba 'i don gyis tshig gnyis smos te I yod na zhes pa ni ma spangs pa
la bya ste I .. Through personal communicaton, Prof. KRAGH has kindly pointed out that
the Tibetan translator here must have mistaken the first ablative in *aprahil)iit (Tib. ma
spangs pa 'i phyir) as an ablative showing reason instead of being a regular ablative showing
origin; consequently, the correct Tibetan translation ought to have been *... ma spangs pa
dang I mi rtag pa'i rkyen las skye ba'i don gyi... , corresponding to *aprahil}iit anityiit ca
pratyayiit utpiidiirthena ... or eventually *aprahil}atviit anityiit ca pratyayii( utpiidiirthena ...
2
° For a full quotation of this passage with English translation in the body text, see fn.
105.
What are Ac,Iiyas or *Yaugacarahhumikas 953
While acknowledging some limited YBh traces already in AKBh, this line of
interpretation of the acaiya-passage seem~ to read undul~ much - a~d hard~y
·ustifiable - meaning into the passage than it deserves. I believe the gravity of this
kassage should be weighed against the whole conte~t of the ~ertinent s_ection
before making any sweeping statement of Vasubandhu s covert alignment with the
Yogacara-Vijfianavada. ?therwise, it will only ob_v!ate the. rather evident ~ve:all
context in AKBh of bemg part of a broader critique v01ced by a Sautrantlka,
wherein the acaiya-passage, though admittedly YBh-affiliated, is embedded as one
of the alternative minority views, directed against the orthodox Vaibha~ika inter-
pretation of dependent origination. . . ..
In this paper, I shall therefore focus on unraveling the contextual sigmficance
that the acaiya-passage bears in the given section by utilizing the relevant textual
sources, including the AKBh and its commentaries, the Nyayanusara, the YBh,
and the PSVy. This will show how the YBh-related acaiya-passage was incorpo-
rated by Vasubandhu into his extended critique of the Vaibha~ika dogmatics,
which he took to task from a scripturalist (Sautrantika} point of view, a stance assu-
1
redly inspired by the Sautrantika movement of Srilata; the actual architect of the
Sautrantika School. 22 Only the significance of the overall context, and not the
occurrence of the parallel in itself, can provide the acaiya-passage with any
legitimate authority on which to properly determine the sectarian identity, if any,
of Vasubandhu, the Kosakara.
2. The Scripturalist Overtones of the Sautrantika Portion
With this general outlook in mind, it is now possible to move further into analy-
23
zing what may be termed "the Sautrantika Portion" of AKBh 3-28ab (136w 14025),
wherein Vasubandhu presents a variety of interpretations of the twofold formula
of dependent origination (pratityasamutpada), one of which is the acaiya-passage
under discussion.
This section is termed "the Sautrantika Portion" for two reasons. First, it is
headed by Vasubandhu's explicit quotation of the "Sautrantika" critique of the
doctrinal excesses of the Vaibha~ika avasthika interpretation of dependent origina-
tion, according to which each limb of the twelve-membered series of dependent
origination is constituted of a distinct state or phase ( avastha) of all of the five
24
aggregates (skandha), and not only the respective limb itself. Secondly, the
21
For this view, see Section 3.
22 For this controversial issue, see PARK (2007:61-74, 104-107).
23 For a fully annotated Japanese translation of this portion, see KUSUMOTO (2006:
111-166). For its English translation with selections from the AKVy, see STALKER (1987:
181-203). Cf. DELA VALLEE POUSSIN/PRUDEN (1988.11:411-419).
24 As for the notion of avasthika, WILLEMEN, DES.SEIN & Cox (1998:27-28) explain
that in the Mahiivibhii!jii, four different types of dependent origination are differentiated:
momentary (k!fal)ika) causation, as when all twelve moments of the chain of dependent
origination are realized in a single moment of activity; causation by connection (siimban-
dhika), in which dependent origination is seen in reference to the relationship between
cause and fruit; extended (priikar!jika) causation, where the sequence of causation occurs
over three lifetimes; and segmented (iivasthika) causation, in which dependent origination
involves twelve distinct periods of the five aggregates; the Vaibha~ikas accept only
segmented dependent origination, with each moment of the chain of dependent origination
constituting a complex of the five aggregates. The actual passage in the AKBh pertaining to
this notion is rather brief: "Segmented [dependent origination refers to] the twelve states of
 954 Changhwan PARK
analytical implication of this Sautrantika critique permeates the entire portion.
While reviewing a variety of opinions of dependent origination, Vasubandhu em-
ploys the exegetical standards of strict scripturalism 25 presented under the title of
the Sautrantikas at the outset of the portion. That is to say, his aversion towards
any Abhidharmic exegetic deviations, Sarvastivada-Vaibhasika or Darstantika-
Sautrantika, from the literal meaning of the stltras generat~s a somewh~t scrip-
turalist-like spirit which he specifically attributes to the Sautrantikas, and this spirit
runs through the entire Sautrantika Portion, though the term "Sautrantika" is used
only once at the beginning.
To be sure, one may wonder whether the scripturalist stance can be considered
exclusively a Sautrantika trait, because any Buddhist school, including the Vaibha-
~ikas, takes recourse to scriptural authority (agama) for their argument. 26 Thus,
simply using a scripturalist strategy does not ensure that someone is a Sautrantika
in a sectarian sense.
Further, it can be argued that even Dar~tantika-Sautrantikas such as Srilata,
who was a pre-AKBh, North-Indian Sautrantika master, did not always stick to the
literal interpretation of scriptural passages. They addressed many novel dogmatic
conceptions in their exegesis in an effort to formulate their identity as a coherent
27
dogmatic school, despite their famous pledge to be Sautrantikas by declaring "we
are those who take the stltras as our authority, but not the sastras." 28 Therefore,
any scripturalist claim of being Sautrantika must be closely scrutinized to see how it
is utilized in the actual practice of exegesis and in dogmatic disputes.
With this precaution in mind, what may first be pointed out, as far as this por-
tion is concerned, is that Vasubandhu uses the term "Sautrantika" in the sense of
being a scripturalist who adheres to the literal interpretation of scriptures. What is
to be particularly noted in Vasubandhu's use of the term "Sautrantika" in the
present passage, is its ideal or non-sectarian overtone, which is thereby slightly
different from Srilata's claim of being a Sautrantika as an exegetical strategy to
revolt against the Vaibha~ika orthodoxy in order to establish a separate doctrinal
identity. In this portion, Vasubandhu critically reviews even Srilata, i.e., a self-
proclaimed Sautrantika's interpretation of dependent origination, and declares it
not to be in conformity with the sense of the stltra. This means that Vasubandhu
does not necessarily use the term "Sautrantika" in the sectarian sense to indicate a
the five aggregates connected with three immediately-successive lives" (AKBh 1339_10 :
avasthjko dvadasa pancaskandhjka avastha njrantarajanmatrayasambaddha.{1). See also
BUSWELL & ]AINI (1996:114).
25
A lexical definition of "scripturalism" would be a strict compliance with a literal
interpretation of scripture.
26
It is true that the scripturalist strategies were widely used among Abhidharmikas in
their efforts to nullify their rival schools' dogmatic basis. For a range of textual evidence
extracted from the Sarvastivadin textual corpus, see KWON (2009:144-173).
27
For the interpretation of the claim of being a Sautrantika as one of the strategies
employed by the Dar~tantikas, see, PARK (2007:88-107). In particular, I (op.cit.:102-103)
have argued: "Given this situation, Srilata and his Dar~tantikas' claim to being Scripturalists
would not simply be taken as a sign of their wholesale commitment to the literal meaning of
the sutra, rejecting any doc!rinal elaboration made by later Abhidharma treatises. They
themselves were basically Abhidharmikas, if minor, who wanted to revolt against the
Vaibha~ika orthodoxy by giving more precedence to the authority of the sutra and thereby
establishing their own doctrinal or institutional orthodoxy."
28
AKBh 1463_4: sutrapramapaka vayam na sastrapramapaka.{1.
What are Acaryas or *Yaugacarabhum1kas 955
articular dogmatic school, but rather in an idealized sense. His non-sectarian use
pf the term "Sautrantika" does not, however, automatically translate into the fact
~hat Vasubandhu made up his own novel concept of Sautrantika out of nothing. As
shall be extensively discussed in, Section 3, the doctrin al influence ?f ~o-called
1
sectarian-Sautrantikas, such as Srilata, on Vasubandhu s con.ceptuahzatlon .of a
scripturalist-Sautrantika is substantially tangible and compnses an undemable
kernel of Vasubandhu's scripturalist stance in the portion, as argued by
Sailghabhadra. . . . . . .
Accordingly, a contextual analysis of this portion 1s of crucial importance to
glimpse Vasubandhu's ideological identity as a scripturalist therein, if rather ambi-
valent, and thereby to properly assess the significance of the acaiya-passage
embedded in this ideally scripturalist context.
In what follows, I shall confine myself to describing the bare skeleton of
Vasubandhu's arguments for the scripturalist stance, skipping many irrelevant de-
tails of the arguments in the interest of brevity.
29
At the beginning of this portion, Vasubandhu recapitulates the Sautrantika
exegetical stance in what I shall refer to as "the Sautrantika Passage":
However, the Sautrantikas argue against this [tivasthjka interpretation]:
"[As for this entire aforementioned teaching from "avasthjka dependent
origination" to "what is dependent origination (pratityasamutpada)
cannot be dependently arisen (pratityasamutpanna),"] 30 are these ideas
someone's assertion or the sense of the sutra (sutrartha)? [You] say that
this is the sense of the sutra. If [you claim that it is] the sense of sutra,
then that is not so. Why is that? It is because, first of all, it has been stated
(yat tavad uktam): 'this dependent origination i~ ~va~thjk~ (~.e., seg-
mented). That is, the twelve limbs [of dependent ongma~10n] md1cate t~ ~
twelve states (avastha) made up of the five aggregates [m each phase]. 3
This [interpretation] is beyond the sutra ( utsutra) .. ~he .sutra elabo~a~es
differently upon [the twelve limbs of dependent ongmation]: 1What ~s ig-
norance? It is non-knowledge relating to the past,' and so on. 32 ~em~ _a
sutra of explicit meaning, it cannot suddenly become [a sutra] of 1mphc1t
meaning. Hence, this is not the sense of the sutra." 33
29
For a more detailed discussion of this portion, see KUSUMOTO's (2006:111-166)
excellent study on Vasubandhu's notion of dependent origination. For a summary of the
overall context of this portion, see KRITZER (1999:176-189).
3
° Cf. AKVy 292 13 _14: ldip khalv eta j~faya ucyanta jfj I avasth1ka.{1 pratiyasamutpada.{1
sytit / pratityasamutpado na pratityasamutpanna jty evamadya.{1). "The AKBh says: 'Are
these ideas [someone's assertion or the sense of the sutra ]?' [These ideas] indicate such
assertions as 'dependent origination could be avasth1ka (segmented)' and 'what is depen-
dent origination (pratityasamutpada) cannot be dependently arisen (pratityasamutpanna)."'
31
Here, Vasubandhu quotes the aforementioned avasth1ka position of the Vaibha~ikas.
However, this turns out not to be a literal quotation but a paraphrase by comparison with
what was actually said earlier in AKBh: "Segmented [dependent origination refers to] the
twelve states of the five aggregates connected with three immediately-successive lives"
(AKBh 1339_10 : avasthjko dvadasa pa.icaskandh1ka avastha mrantarajanmatrayasam-
baddha.{1). _
32
For the identification of this particular Pratityasamutpadasutra as Saipyuktagama
298 (T2.85awb 20 ) and Njdanasaipyutta 16.4, see PASADIKA (1989:58). For this sutra, see
also TRIPA'fHI (1962:147-164), KUSUMOTO (2006:23), and MUROJI (2006:156).
33
AKBh 136 14 _18 : atra tu sautrantjka vjjiiapayantj I kjip khalv eta j~faya ucyante ya
yasyesdr ahosvjt sutrartha.{1 / sutrartha jty aha I yadj sutrartho na1°{;a sutrartha.{1 I kathaip
k_rtva) yat tavad uktam avasthjka e~a pratityasamutpado dvadasa paiicaskandhjka avastha
956 Changhwan PARK
Vasubandhu's preoccupation with the genuine sense of the stltra (stltrartha)
reflected in this Sautrantika quotation is here unmistakable. In this passage, the
sense of the stltra is nothing but the explicit meaning (nitartha) propounded by the
Buddha in the Pratityasamutpadastltra. Any interpretation other than that is
rejected as being "beyond the stltra" ( utstltra) 34 on the grounds that "the stltra
elaborates differently upon it" (stltre 'nyatha nirdesat). 35 The scripturalist method
laid out in this Sautrantika Passage is of significance to understand the exegetical
stance that Vasubandhu adopts throughout the Sautrantika Portion, because it sets
the overall tone of the portion. 36
To this Sautrantika critique, the Vaibha~ika37 retorts that "not every teaching
of the Buddha conveys an explicit meaning," 38 which entails that the Pratitya-
samutpadastltra may not be the stltra of explicit meaning. In response to this,
Vasubandhu reminds the Vaibha~ika opponent that the Buddha's explanation of
each and every limb of dependent origination in the stltra is an explicit teaching
with no covert meaning that can be appropriated for the Vaibha~ika avasthika
39
interpretation. After another round of criticizing the absurdity of the avasthika
interpretation, Vasubandhu concludes this segment of the argument, emphasizing
again: "The sense of stltra (stltrartha) is as is propounded by the Buddha in the
stltra." 40
Vasubandhu carries on criticizing another interpretation of the Vaibha~ikas on
the distinction between dependent origination (pratityasamutpada) and depen-
dently originated factors (pratityasamutpanna), saying: "This [distinction] is again
beyond the stltra ( utstltra), because it is explained otherwise in the stltra." 41 He
then cites from the Pratityasamutpadastltra to vindicate his faithful reading of it. 42
Even from the mere outline provided here, it is fairly clear that as far as the
Pratityasamutpadastltra is concerned, Vasubandhu adheres to his scripturalist
stance, which emphasizes the compliance of exegesis with the literal meaning of
the stltra.
dvadasanganity etad utsutram I sutre 'nyatha nirdesad I avidya katama / yat tat purvante
Jiianam iti vistareJJa I yac ca nitarthaip na tat punar neyaip bhavatiti na1~a srltrarthal;. Cf.
DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN/PRUDEN (1988.11:411).
34
For further examples of this particular term in its Sautrantika context in the AKBh,
see MUROJI (2006).
35
Vasubandhu keeps hearkening back to this scripturalist criterion whenever possible
throughout the entire portion.
36
As discussed in sestion 3 below, this exegetical stance is a corollary ofVasubandhu's
adapted reproduction of Srilata's Sautrantika position.
37
To be sure, neither the AKBh nor the AKVy identifies who these opponents are.
The current identification is based on Xuanzang's Chinese commentarial tradition
reflected in DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN'S French translation. Cf. DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN/
PRUDEN (1988.11:411-412).
38
AKBh 13621 : na vai sarvam nirdesato nitartham bhavati:
39
AKBh 13626 -137 1: evam fhapy avidyadinaip p~ripl1rJJa eva nirdeso na savase~al;. "In
the same way, even in this srltra, the Buddha's explanation of ignorance, etc., is indeed
complete with no [sense] left out."
40
AKBh 137s, yathanirdesam eva srltrarthal;. For a full description of Vasubandhu's
critique of the avasthika theory, see fn. 79 and the associated passage in the body text.
41
AKBh 13710: etad apy utsutram I sutre 'nyatha nirdesat.
42
See KUSUMOTO (2006:118 fn. 493) and STALKER (1987:158).
What are Acaryas or *Yaugacarabhumikas 957
After the subsequent analysis of the varied etymological interpretations of the
term pratityasamutpada, Vasubandhu goes on to e~~mi~e the reason why the
twofold formula (paryayadvayam) of dependent ongmatlon was taught by the
Buddha. Vasubandhu first offers four brief accounts of the standard interpretation
of the twofold formula without any comments, and thereafter examines four
alternative opinions of the formula that are ascribed to four anonymous masters.
For the present purpose, we shall not get into the details of all eight opinions.
Instead, we shall only examine those opinions from (3) through (8), because these
primarily represent the views of Dar~tantik,a-Sautrantika affiliated masters,
including Bhadanta Rama, Vasuvarman, and Srilata. 43 The above-cited acarya-
passage is number (6) in !his list, which Vasuba_nd~-:: as m~ntioned - attributes to
unnamed acaryas, who m turn are called purvacaryas m the PSVy and then
identified as *Yaugacarabhumikas. It is of importance to reappraise the way in
which Vasubandhu assesses these three Dar~tantika-Sautrantika masters' opinions,
because it will offer a clue for estimating how Vasubandhu positions himself
towards these masters and thereby formulates his own scripturalist stance on the
basis thereof. Besides, it is the scripturalist context against which the role of the
acarya-passage under discussion is to be assessed.
According to the four standard interpertations, the twofold formula has been
taught: (1) for the purpose of restriction (avadhfiraIJfirtham), which means
determining the necessary causal relation between two given limbs in the chain of
dependent origination; (2) in order to show the succession of the limbs
(aligaparampara); (3) in order to show the succession of lives Uanmaparaippara);
and (4) in order to show the nature of the causal relationship (pratyayabhava)
between cause and effect, which operates either immediately (sak~at) or succes-
44
sively (paraipparyeIJa, i.e., over the course of time ).
43
On the attribution of these opinions, see also DE LA VALLEE POUSSIN/PRUDEN
(1988.II:516 fn. 206-212).
44
See AKBh 138 28 -139 6 : kimarthaf!l punar bhagavan paryayadvayam aha ''asmin
II
satidaf!l bhavati asyotpadad idam utpadyata iti I avadharaJJartham I yatha 'nyatraha
''avidyayiif!l satyaip saipskara bhavanti nanyatravidyayal; saipskara" iti I aligaparaipparaip
vii darsayitum I asminn alige satidaip bhavati asya punar aligasyotpadad idam utpadyata iti/
janmaparaf!Jparaip va / purvante sati madhyanto bhavati madhyantasyotpadad aparanta
utpadyata iti/ sak~at paraipparyeJJa pratyayabhavaip darsayati I kadacid dhi samanantaram
av1dyayal; saipskara bhavanti kadacit paraipparyeJJetI: English translation by FUKUDA
(2003:269-270): "Then, for what reason has the Lord taught [the discourse of dependent
origination] with two phrases: 'When this exists and that exists, from the arising of this that
arises'? A) For the purpose of defining [the specific cause], since it is said in other
[scriptures] 'When ignorance ( avidya) exists, conditioned forces ( saipskaras) exist, and
conditioned forces never [arise] from else-where other than ignorance.' [Thus the former
phrase indicates the specific cause, and the latter phrase postulates that there is no other
cause]. B) Otherwise, in order to indicate the succession of the members: 'When this
(ignorance) exists, those (conditioned forces) exist, and from the arising of these
(conditioned forces) that (consciousness) arises.' C) Or [in order to indicate] the succession
of the lifetimes: 'When the former life exists, the present life exists; from the arising of the
present life, the next life arises.' D) Or in order to indicate the difference between
immediate and mediate causation. In some cases the conditioned forces arise immediately
after ignorance, but in other cases, not immediately." Cf. DE LAVALLEE POUSSIN/PRUDEN
(l 988.11:415-416).
 958 Changhwan PARK
Of these four opinions, SaiJ.ghabhadra attributes (3) and ( 4) to Bhadanta Rama
45
a ~ar~yan~ika-_Sa:1trantika mas~e~. The Chinese commentator Piiguang (it:Yt),'
Xuanzang s d1sc1ple, sees op1mon (1) as Vasubandhu's own position, while
attributing the other three to Bhadanta Rama. 46 Yasomitra, on the other hand
identifies all four views as Vasubandhu's own opinions. 47 '
48
As for Bhadanta Rama's two views, (3) is the orthodox Vaibha~ika theory of
the twelve-membered dependent origination known as "three life times within
twofold causation," which is adopted by Bhadanta Rama (FUKUDA 2003:269),
while ( 4) represents the Sautrantika theory of the sequential model of causation,
which explains causal relations either by immediate causation or by mediate/
49
successive causation. Vasubandhu offers no judgmental comment whatsoever on
these two opinions in the AKBh. However, it is possible that Vasubandhu views
50
them positively in the AKBh, as they constitute the last two of the four standard
interpretations of the twofold formula, which are regarded by Yasomitra as
Vasubandhu's own opinions and, moreover, because Sautrantika opinion number
( 4) in particular constitutes the core of Vasubandhu's causation theory of "the final
qualification of the evolution of the karmic series" (saiptatJ'parip.amav1seJa). 51
4 to make a final argument for the reason why both formulas are reqmred ~o ensu~e
__ 5_Nyay!nusa!!! T156~.482bs-s:__:*:il~J!J ~Ef§fflJi ,[,,::f2tf 1IE!~§ (a)
O O O 0
~+ - ~ ,ff{:K-=~~HP~lllfrtA -=~~~~~Jt {:KJ!ti'f{~i'f &Jl:t±i&f~± (b) B::f
0 O O O 0
al~ HPJl:t= 1iJ PD~;'[~l~{$=1z9 ° ). English translation by FUKUDA (2003:269):
0 O
"Bhadanta Rama, who is not content to accept the explanation of his own teacher, also
offers another interpretation of his own: a) if it is permissible for the twelve members to be
classified into three lifetimes, then [this opening formula] would be the summary of the
teaching of dependent origination over the course of three lifetimes: 'When this (i.e., the
former life) exists, that (the present life) exists, and from the arising of this (present life),
that (future life) arises'; b) if it is not permissible, then these two phrases should indicate
i}llmediate and mediate causation, respectively." For Bhadanta Rama being the pupil of
Sri:lata, see FUKUDA (2003).
46
See Piiguang's Jushe Junji ({Jl~§ila§C) T1821.17lb2z-C3: ~~~~.3j)'iJ1'f~fi~
Jl:t--r~ Jl:t~§ilB-=tM J5Jrt)5ttt
0
O
... 3<'..~;'[~:¥~fin±~ ;,ttIE.f.l=+li =~
0 O
0
W±·&fflw~ ~L~fflr:*:~~*M ~~W±~*~=~ ~~~*M 0 0
Translation: "The Bhawa states 'for the purpose of defining [the specific cause]' up to
'conditioned forces [never] arise [from elsewhere other than ignorance.]' The answer given
here is the sastra master's (i.e., Vasubandhu's) opinion, which is laid out first. .. The Bhawa
states: 'Otherwise, in order to indicate [the succession of the members ... In some cases] the
conditioned forces arise [immediately after ignorance, but in other cases, not immediately.]'
Depending on Nyayanusara uuan] 25, 'the succession of the three lifetimes' and 'immediate
and mediate causation' are the opinions of Bhadanta Rama (:*:ii~* dade Ju6m6), a
student of the Sthavira. 'The succession of the members' is also the opinion of Bhadanta
Rama, judging from the fact that its meaning is identical to [that of] the three lifetimes."
Likewise, KUSUMOTO (2006:155) argues based on the PSVy that among this eighfold
intepretation of the twofold formula the first interpretation is Vasubandhu's final position
on this issue.
47
AKVy29726 : etat sarvam acaryamatam. "All of these are the thoughts of the master
[Vasubandhu]." In the PSVy, on the other hand, Vasubandhu rejects the last three opinions
as not48
being faithful to the siltra. For this issue, see KUSUMOTO (2006:152-155).
See fn. 45. This is Sailghabhadra's interpretation.
49
For a full discussion of this particular Dar~tantika-Sautrantika model of causation,
see PARK (2007:296-346).
50
51 See fn. 47 for Vasubandhu's modified attitude toward these opinions in his PSVy.
For this theory, see PARK (2007:333-346).
What are Acaryas or *Yaugacarabhumikas 959
s bsequent to these four standard opinions, Vasubandhu examines four other
u tive opinions of the twofold formula, which are ascribed to four anonymous
alterna
masters: (5) apare (ht. . 'others'); (6) acarya_.
- - -h (I'1t. 'masters ') ; (7) apare (l't
1 . ,~ th e_rs ')·,
1
and (8) punar aha (lit. '[others] further said). Commenta~~rs, such_ as_ Y_as~m1tra,
'd tify these masters respectively as (5) Vasuvarman, (6) purvacaryalJ, (7)
1
, ~l~t 53 and (8) Sri:lata.
54 This list shows that the acarya-passage under discus-
Sn a a,
sion is presented as one of t~e altern~tive _opini~ns of the twod1h,o
" Id f
orn:u
I · h'
a m th~s
subsection of the Sautrantika Portion, m which Vasuban u carries on 1s
scripturalist critique. . . . , .
More specifically, the first anonymous masters ( apare), identified by Yasom1tra
55
the Sautrantika master Vasuvarman, argue in (5): "[The Buddha stated] the
:ofold formula in order to refute ~he theo~ies ?f. non-causation and an eternal
cause." 56 Vasubandhu's critical reaction to this opm10n reads:
However, in this explanation (kalpana) the me~tion of the ~i~st formuJa
would be of no use, because only this [remark] from the ansmg of this,
57
that arises' would suffice to refute both theories.
Vasubandhu, however, afterwards allows Vasuvarman, or someone ~o that effect,
the exclusion of the unwarranted supposition of substrata such as a self (atman) m
58
the chain of dependent origination. Vasubandhu's ensuing silence in effect
52
For this attribution, see fn. 55.
53 See AKVy 298 23 _24 : sthityutpattisaf!Jdarsanartham ity apara ity bhadantasrilatafJ.
Translation: "The AKBh says: 'Some masters say that [the Blessed One stated the twofold
formula] in order to indicate abidin& (sthiti) and arising (utpattJ), [respectively]. 'Some
masters' here refers to the Venerable Sri:lata."
54
See AKVy 29832_33 : punar aheti Isa eva bhadantasrilatafJ. Trapslation: "The AKBh
says: 'Furthermore, [he] says.' 'He' [here] also refers to the Venerab!e S~i:lata.'.'
0 55
As for the identification of these anonymous masters, Yasomitra simply refers to
the Elder (sthavira) Vasuvarman (AJ~Vy ~~7 26 _27 : pratifed~~rtham ity apara ~ti s~h~~ir~-
0
vasuvarma). Sailghabhadra, however, identifies them as the followers of Sthavira Snlata s
faction" (Lgli:ff:W:). See Nyayanusara ('~1562.482c3): Lg[:ff:W: 1'f~~ni~lz;)',%'iz;)
0 0
Translation: "Those who follow Sthavira Sri:lata's faction offer their interpretation [of the
formula]: '[The Buddha stated the twofold formula] in order !o refute the theories ~f n?n-
causation and an eternal cause.'" Like Yasomitra, the Chmese commentator Puguang
identifies them as "the Venerable Vasuvarman, a variant Sautrantika master"; see
Puguang's Jushe Junji (T1821.17lc10-12): 1'f~§ffl~:¥~fif~±~ *,filfl~§'Mffl-~t!tW
0 0
_IE.f.lT~~L~ff{I Translation: "The [AKBh] passage from 'other masters argue' up to
O
'all conditioned factors arise' is [stated by] the Venerable Vasuvarman, a variant S~mtran-
tika master. He is someone whom the Nyayanusara calls 'those who follow Sthavira Sri:lata's
faction'.''
56
AKBh 1397 : ahetunityahetuvadapratifedhartham ity apare. .
57
AKBh 1398_9 : asyaf!] tu kalpanayaf!] piirvapadasya grahaJJam anarthakaf!l prapnotJ I
asyotpad idam utpadyata ity anenaivobhayavadapratifedhasiddhefJ.
58
See AKBh 13910-13: santi tarhi kecid ya atmani saty asrayabhiite Saf!]skaradina[!l
bhavaJ!l parikalpayanti avidyadinaf!J cotpadat tadutpattim I atas tam kalpa1_1af!1 paryu~asa-
yitum idaf!J nirdharayilf!l babhilva yasyaivotpadad yad utpadyate tasmmn eva satJ tat
bhavati nanyasmin / yadutavidyapratyayafJ saf!JskarafJ yavad evam asya kevalasya m_ahato
dufJkhaskandhasya samudayo bhavatiti Translation: "Then, the~e are those who posit that
the karmic forces, etc., exist, because there is a self (atman) havmg the nature of a support
(asraya) [of ignorance, etc.], and that they (i.e., the karmic forces, etc.) arise from the [very]
960 Changhwan PARK
leaves open the possibility of interpreting it as his acknowledgement of some
scriptural truth in it. We now skip the acaiya-passage (6), which shall be treated
separately in Section 4 below.
After the acaiya-passage, Vasubandhu carries on his scripturalist review of
opinion (7) of anonymous masters identified by Yasomitra as Srilata, supposedly
the actual founder of the Sautrantika movement, who first puts forth an interpreta-
tion of the twofold formula based on the notion of a series ( srotas), as opposed to
an interpretation based on the notion of separate moments (k~aIJa):
Some masters say that [the Blessed One stated the twofold formula] in
order [respectively] to indicate abiding (sthiti) and arising (utpatti).
[They] say that as long as the series of causes (karaJJasrotas) exists, the
series of effects (kaiyasrotas) exists. From the arising of the cause only,
the effect arises. 59
To sum up the gist of Srilata's interpretation, he argues that the Buddha taught a
temporally extended and hence perceivable serial causation in the twofold formula
of dependent arising. That is, a perceivable series of causes abides for a certain
period of time, which is then followed by a perceivable series of effects that also
abides for a certain period of time. Srilata puts forth this serial or sequential model
of causation in an effort to eschew the Vaibhasika's highly theorized moment-
based model of causation. 60 Srilata does not belie~e that the notion of the twofold
ignorance, etc., [that have such a self as a support]. Therefore, in order to refute this
supposition, this was specified: That which (i.e., karmic forces, etc.) arises because of the
arising of a certain thing (i.e., ignorance, etc.) exists only because that very thing (i.e.,
ignorance, etc.) exists, and not because anything else (i.e., atman) exists. For example,
'Dependent on [that very] ignorance are the karmic forces' up to and including 'the arising
of this whole great mass of suffering."' Cf. STALKER (1987:195) and DE LA VALLEE
POUSSIN/ PRUDEN (1988.II:416).
59
AKBh 139 15. 16: sthityutpattisaipdarsanartham ity apare I yavat karaJJasrotas tavat
kaiyasroto bhavati/ karal}asyaiva cotpadat kaiyam utpadyata iti. Commentators including
Yasomitra remain silent about the precise meaning of SrI!ata's interpretation except
Sanghabhadra, who restates the farmer's position thus: "Here, the Sthavira said, commen-
ting on the sutra (i.e., the Pratltyasamutpadasutra): 'The passage "this being, that exists"
( *asmin satldaip bhavati) means that a series of a cause ( *karaJJasrotas) precedes and then,
a series of an effect ( *kaiyasrotas) comes into existence and continues. Which [of the two]
arises first? Which arises thereafter and continues? In order to answer these questions, [the
Exalted One] again stated "Through the arising of this, that arises" ( *asyotpadad idam
utpadyate). This shows that cause arises first, and then effect arises and continues through
its series."' (NyayanusaraTl562.4l9a7-11: If:tcpJ::~ f'¥&~~§ {i'(If:ci'HN~:% If:t~~
0 0 0 the arising of this, that arises' should be stated first, and then, whe~ _this exists, that ex1~t~.
~ffl•m~ ~~~*ffl•®tt ~±m~ ~±Btt m~~m~~±~~±
0 0 0 0
I1:tJJE§±m~t>1:1&*±®r§•{1:
60
0
).
Sri:Iata's conception of serial causation stands in stark contrast to the Vaibha~ika
position of a strictly moment-based model of causation. This is exemplified in the following
statement by Sanghabhadra (Nyayanusara, T1562.419a 14-!6, {i'(~-~E§JW~-~* ~
ll~IE~E!:! 1FIEli'§tl1&1J~*i'§. ~IElJ:!31:
0 0 0
):
[If one says that] when there is a moment of thought [that acts as] a cause, there is
[another] moment of thought [that constitutes] an effect, this complies with reasoned
argument. Consequently, it is not the case that the series of the effect comes into existence
only after the series of the cause, because it goes against reasoned argument.
For Sanghabhadra, in the case of diachronically operating causes, such as a ripening cause
( vipakahetu), causation is something that occurs between the two distinct moments of
What arc Acaryas or *Yaugacarnbhumjkas 961
dependent origination teaches that when there is a perceivable fixed
tormu Ia Off a factor that acts as a cause, there 1s · another perce1va · bl e f"1xe d momen t
momen t O r that constitutes an effect. 61 Instead, Snlata , - -
conceptua1·1ze d h"1s
f a f aCto
ointerpretation · · h "h · o f ~ausesf
by introducmg non-scnp_tural c~ncepts sue as~ _t _e ~enes
" and "the abiding of the senes." This means that n 1ata s conception o
an d e ff ec ts . ·1
the twofold formula as representing serial ~ausation as suhc? 1s. ~ot nece~san Y
Sautrantika (scripturalist) but anot~er the?re_tical pr~duct of 1s cnhtlca1~e_a~tionhto
"bhasika exegesis. With a scnpturahst imperative, Vasuband u cntlc1zes t e
t h e V a1 . , . dS - "k . . "H owever, wh en
exge tl excesses of Srilata ' a self-proclaime autrant1 a, saymg.
·cal
· · g is referred to as a main subject [in the teaching of depen d ent ansmg · · ], w h a t
ansm be the expected consequence of mentlonmg . · ,a b"d"
1 mg o [ f th · ]'?. WhY
e senes
wou Id . . . . f d ?"62
Id the Blessed One first teach ab1dmg and thereafter ansmg out o or er.
wouVasubandhu also disapproves of the second interpretation of the twofold for-
mula suggested by Srilata (8):
Furthermore, he (i.e., Sr"ilata) says: '[the first formula] "it this e~ists, that
exists" signifies "if the effect exists, then the destructmn. of 1t_s cause
exists."' [In such a case,] one might think that the effect anses ~1thout a
cause [beca)-lse when the eff~ct arises, th_e cause has already per~shed.] In
response, [Srilata] says that 1t was not without a cause, because from the
. . of t h"1s, th at anses.
ansmg . 111163
entities (dharmas) that are defined by their intrinsi~ nature (s~abhava). !o ?e sure,
Sanghabhadra also acknowledges simultaneous causation (s~habh_uhetu), which ~s :a~sa-
tion between two entities at a given moment. For a further d1scuss1on of the Sarvast1vada-
Vaibhasika view of momentary causation, see PARK (2007:269-273, 306-308, 309-314).
6 1 For a full discussion of Srilata's interpretation of the twofold formula based on a
sequential or serial model of causation, see PARK (20?7:302-~0?). .
62 AKBh 139 _ : utpade tv adhikrte kalJ prasangalJ sth1t1vacanasya bhmnakramal!J ca
17 18
bhagavan kimartham acak~Ita prak sthitilp pascad utpadam. Yasomitra unravels t?~fu_ll
implications of the above passage as foll~ws: "The AKBh_says: 'Howeve~, w~en ansmg 1s
referred to [as a main subject].' [That 1s,] when [th~ sutr~ passage] I will teac~ you
dependent origination, 0 monks' is referre~ to [as a_ma~~ subject, th_e ~~h~h~as~J. what
is the expected consequence,' that is, what 1s the smtab1hty of ment1om_ng ab1dmg., [that
is,] with this [phrase] 'when this exists, that exists,'. [you] expl~in that 1t has the. se~se of
abiding in that 'as long as the series of cau_s~s remams, the senes_o_f effects remam~. Why
would then the Blessed One first teach ab1dmg and thereafter ansmg out of order. After
all, arising occurs first and abiding afterwards. S~nce abiding is depend~nt o_n arising, 'f~o~
1
0 However, it is not the case [in the actual teaching of dependent ansmg.] 1:here~o_re, th1~ 1s
not the meaning of [the twofold formula.]" (AKVy298 26 _3z: utpade tv adhikrta 1!1 I pratil[_-
asamutpadalp vo bhik~avo desayiwamlty adhikrte I kalJ prasailg~IJ kaf: P_rastav!IJ sth1t1-
vacanasya / asmin satldaip bhavatlty anena yavat karaJJasrotas tJ~fhatJ tav~t k~ryastotas
0 tj~fhatity evam asya sthityartho varl}yata iti I bhjnnakramaip ca bhagavan_ ~1n_i~rtha1!1
acak~Ita / utpattir hi prathamaip bhavati pascal sthitip I utP,a~tip~atibadd~a sth~tJr 1h krtva (
asyotpadad idam utpadyata itipurvaip vaktavyalp syat I pascad 1dam _asmm s~tJdalp bhavatJ
Ina tv evam / ato nayam artha iti). For a slightly different interpretat10n of this passage, see
STALKER (1987197-198). . · -
63 AKBh 139 _ : punar aha asmin satldaip bhavatltJ kaiye satJ karaJJasya vma~o
17 18
bhavatlti / syan ma tam ahetukaip tarhi kiliyam utpadyata ity ata aha nahetukam I yasmad
asyotpadad idam utpadyata iti Cf. STALKER (198719s).
 962 Changhwan PARK
Vasubandhu criticizes this strictly sequential, non-overlapping model of causa-
tion, 64 saying:
If this were the meaning of the siitra (siitriirtha), the Buddha would have
certainly stated 'When this exists, that does not exist.' That is, first he
would have stated the arising of the effect and thereafter, 'when this exists,
that does not exist.' For then the order is correct. Otherwise (i.e., when
the statement of destruction "that does not exist" comes first and arising
65
rollow~ as in your int~~pr~tation), wit_h reference to the meaning of
what 1s dependent ansmg and so on [m the Pratltyasamutpiidasiitra],
what would be the [proper] step to mention 'destruction'? Therefore this
is not the meaning of the siitra (siitriirtha). 66 ' Further, the affix "only" (miitra) here can be understood ~s havmg t~e role of
Her~ a~a~n Vasubandhu point~ out_ the idiosy?cracy of Sri:lata's exegesis, stressing
the s1gmficance of a contextualized mterpretat1on of the sutra.
Vasubandhu's scripturalist enterprise culminates at the end of the Sautrantika
Portion, in which he offers his final exposition of the chain of the twelve limbs of
dependent origination:
How.~o [you th~n interpret the entire sequence of] karmic forces arising
cond~t~oned by 1g?orance up to and including aging and death arising
cond1tioned by b!fth? We shall show only the connection (abhisam-
bandhamiitra) [between the limbs of dependent origination]. For a fool,
not u_n~erstanding that this dependently originated factor is only causally-
cond1t10ned (salpskiiramiitra) ... 67
64
~his i?~erp:etation of the ~ormula by Srilata seems to put stress on a strictly
sequen~1al ongmahon of factors, which does not allow for any overlapping between the two
phases m such a way that when an effect arises, its cause must already be destroyed. This
radi~al interpretation is c~rtainly consistent with the Dar~tantika-Sautrantika position of
the mstantaneous destruct10n of factors upon origination. That is, in each moment, due to
the assemblage of causes and conditions (hetupratyayasiimagrl), a single factor arises from
non-existence and perishes instantly before it is replaced by another originating factor in
the subseque~t moment. Strictly speaking, there is no overlap (i.e., coexistence) between
two consecutive moments of factors, but this does not mean that there is no causal
connection between the two ( ahetuka). For, according to Srilata, the fact that the arising of
the subsequent moment of a factor is somehow conditioned by the prior one is confirmed
by the secon~ half of the causation formula. For an extended discussion of this inter-
pretation
65
by Srilata and of Sanghabhadra's critique thereof, see PARK (2007:308-314).
On this translation, see KUSUMOTO (2006:163).
66
AKBh 13919-24: e~a cet siitriirtho 'bhaviwad asmin satldalp na bhavatlty eviicak~ata /
piirvalp ca tiivat kiiiyasyotpiidiin eviicak~ata pasciid asmin satldam na bhavatlti / evam hi
siidhul; krall}o bhavati I itarathii tu pratltyasamutpiidaf; katama{l ityiider arthe kaf; pra-
kramo viniisavacanasya I tasmiin naive~a siitriirthaf;. See STALKER (1987:198) and KUSU-
MOTO (2006:162-163). Yet, this criticism should not be taken as a wholesale attack on the
Sautr~nt~ka in general. Vasubandhu's positive attitudes towards the opinions of such
Sautranhkas as Vasuvarman and Bhadanta Rama are indicative of this, but the fact that
Vas~bandhu, presumably influenced by the Sautrantika movement led by Srilata, in turn
ap~bes those scriptural_ standards to the Sautrantikas themselves to assess the validity of
the1~ 7arguments makes 1t necessary to conside: what Vasubandhu is up to here.
. AKBh 13924-1402: kathalp punar andyiipratyayiif; salpskiirii yiivat jiitipratyayam
;ariimaral}iim iti I abhisalpbandhamiitralp darsayiwamaf; / biilo hi pratltyasamutpanna~
Salpskiiramiitram idam ity aprajiinan . . . ·
What are Acaryas or *YaugacarabhiJmjkas 963
In an unequivocal tone, Vasubandhu limits his interpretation to d~lineating the
onnection (abhisambandhamiitra) between the twelve constituents of the
mere C . · " · f t
chain of dependent origination. The phrase "only the ~onnectlon 1s o gr~a
· ·ficance in assessing Vasubandhu's exegetical strategies here. In the Indian
sign1 ll " · I
mmat ical tradition the term "abhisambandha" norma y means grammatlca or
gra ·c connection '
1168
Considering the overall context of emp as1zmg t e 1·1teral
· h · · h
semantl · . - ·k p ·
or faithful interpretation of scriptural passages m the Sautr~ntl a ortlon,
"connection" in this context most likely means "the causal connection between the
• • • 1169
twelve constituents of dependent ongmatlon. .
excluding any exegetical theorization other than . t~ e~plam the. basic causal
connection between the limbs of dependent ong~n~tlo~. ~or mstance, th_e
Vaibhasika's iivasthika interpretation of dependent ongmatlon 1s shunned by th~s
qualifie~ "only." With this exl?ression, _Y~subandhu cons~quently un~avels his
intention to confine his exegesis to clanfymg the unembellished_ °:ea~mg of t~e
causal connection between two consecutive limb~ of depe~de~t on~matlon; that 1s,
how the statement "Conditioned (pratyaya) by this, that exists a~plies to the cau~al
chain of dependently arising constituents. This presup~oses ne1~he~ any excessive
Abhidharmic theorizations, Vaibha~ika or Dar~tantlka-Sautrantika, nor non-
. · 70
Buddhist notions of permanent entitles.
68
For this see AKLUJKAR (1999:300).
69 A possible clue for the meaning of the word abh1sa1J1bandha can_ be proc~red from
Vasubandhu's own use of the same term elsewhere in the S~utra~hka Po!hon. What
Vasubandhu conceives of with the term is basically the relationsh_1p (abh1salpbandh_a)
between an agent and its action: more specifically the_ agent that anses ( utpattr) an_d 1~s
action of arising ( utpiida/utpatti), as seen in the followmg AKBh passage and Yasom1tra s
comment upon it:
AKBh 137zns: utpadas ca namotpattur bhavatjfj ko 'syavjdyadjbhk abhjsaf!IbandhalJ,
yatas te~af!I pratityasamutpada jty ucyeta.
The so-called [characteristic (lak~apa)] 'arising' ( utpada) belongs to the [conditi~~ed agent]
that arises (utpattr). What relationship (abhjsaf!Ibandha) would t~at [uncond1tJone~ de-
pendent arising (pratityasamutpada)] then have with such [co~~it1oned factors] a~ _igno-
rance, from which it could possibly be called the dependent ansmg of those [cond1t10ned
factors]?
AKVy294 14 _1i yathaudanena pakasyastj saf!IbandhalJ kartrkdyalak~apa fly_ odanasY_a pak~
jty ucyate / na hy akasariipayor abh1saf!7bandha utpattyutpattrlak~apo stJ, yena rupasya-
kasam jty ucyate/ evaf!] ko 'syandyadibhjr abhisaf!IbandhalJ.
As rice and cooking are in the relationship which is characterized by an agent (kartr) and
its action ( kdya), and hence it is called 'the cooking of rice,' while betw~en s~ace and form
there is no relationship characterized by arising ( utpatt1") and that which anses ( utpattr),
whereby it could be called 'the space of form,' so what relationship would then that
[unconditioned dependent arising] have with such [conditioned factors] as ignorance?
7o This sense of the causal dependency of a series of insubstantial compo~~nts is
further emphasized in another technical term cited above, viz. "only causally-cond1t10ned"
( salpskiiramiitra).
 964
Changhwan PARK
Vasubandhu's strict scripturalist exegesis seems to come from his belief that
the Pratftyasamutpadasiitra is a siitra of explicit meaning (nitarthasiitra), not of
71
implicit meaning (neyartha). He therefore carefully guards himself against any
over-involvement with sastric interpretations of siitra passages, which feature
reading or deriving as much sense as possible in favor of one's own dogmatic
system. When Vasubandhu quotes, in this conclusive section, the siitra as saying
that the limb of consciousness ( vij.ianaliga) in the chain of dependent origination
denotes the six kinds of consciousness (~a(jvij.ianakaya), 72 and not prafjsal!]dhi-
viffiana (rebirth-consciousness) as argued by the Vaibha~ikas, there is no doubt
73
that he means it literally. In this entire Sautrantika Portion, Vasubandhu is
undoubtedly determined to set up scripturalist standards to criticize any doctrinal
deviation, Sarvastivada-Vaibha~ika or Dar~tantika-Sautrantika, while seeking an
authentic purport of the siitra.
~
3. The Dar~tantika-Sautrantika/Srilata
Background of the Sautrantika Portion
The non-sectarian scripturalist presuppositions behind this entire Sautrantika
Portion are, in fact, rooted in the pre-AKBh sectarian Dar~tantika-Sautrantika
tradition. It is therefore necessary to look briefly into how SaiJ.ghabhadra com-
ments on the Sautrantika Passage under discussion in the Nyayanusara in our
effort to confirm its connection with the Daqtantika-Sautrantika tradition.
In the Nyayanusara, SaiJ.ghabhadra treats the Sautrantika Passage as a corol-
lary of Vasubandhu's deliberate encapsulation of the Vaibha~ika thesis of ava-
sthika in the skeptical phrase "according to them (i.e., the Vaibha~ikas), it is argued
that. .. " (1-$1lt74 chuan xii, *kile~faiJ), which occurs earlier in the verse (karika) of
AKBh 3-25a. Thereafter, SaiJ.ghabhadra cites a lengthy passage from Srilata's
unidentified textual source, presumably the non-extant *Sautrantika-vibha~a, 75
obviously implying its being a basis for Vasubandhu's skepticism about the
avasthika theory. This passage is of notable importance for the identification of the
sectarian orientation of the Sautrantika Passage and thus of the real inspirational
71
See AKBh 136 18 : yac ca nitarthalp na tat punar neyalp bhavatiti nai~a stltrarthafJ.
Translation: "Being a sutra of explicit meaning, it cannot suddenly become [a sutra] of
implicit
72
meaning. Hence, this is not the sense of the sutra."
See AKBh 1403•4: eva1P ca krtva tad upapanna1P bhavati vjjiiananganirdese
"vjj.ianalp katamat I ~a<fvij.ianakaya" iti Translation by STALKER (1987:199): "Taking it in
this sense, it then conforms to the definition of the consciousness limb, 'What is
consciousness? The six groups of consciousness."'
73
KRITZER (1999:203-204) tries to uncover the implied connection of vijiiananga,
identified by Vasubandhu as signifying ~a<fvijiiam1kaya, with alavijiiana at the stage of the
AKBh. However, the unquestionable imprint of SrHata on Vasubandhu in this matter can
easily be demonstrated in passage (A-6) attributed to SrHata, who also argues that
vjjiiananga stands for ~a<fvijiianakaya. For passage (A-6), see fn. 76.
74
See Nyayanusara (T1562.494b14-1s): §llffEl i±i*~§ffi ~{''f;lf::ll.ft {~{~:B-{51. lift
O O O 0
§f/~!EB
O
*~±~{§ 0
§}t{fii"f' §
0
Translation: "The Bhawa states: 'All Abhidharma
masters have made this statement "The Buddha taught dependently arisen factors based on
the notion of avastha (i.e., each limb of dependent origination consists of a distinct state of
the five aggregates)." The Stltra master (i.e., Vasubandhu) does not trust [it] so he uses the
phrase75
'according to them, it is argued that ... '."
For a more extended argument for the *SautrantikaVJbha~a, see PARK (2007:66-74).
What are Acaryas or *Yaugacarabhumikas 965
- y a su bandhu's scripturalist stance therein. Therefore, it deserves
sources for
uotation in full:
q The st havtra
· (i· .e ., Srilata) has erroneously denounced this [avasthika
theo~lt1~~~f: [each state ( *avastha) of the five a~g_regat;s] a~ises with-
t any interruption, no principle of dependent ansmg ( pratityasamut-
ou_da) can be applied to [their different states]. .
pa (A-1) For, it is unreasonable [to apply this _avasth1"(<.a them;' to] an
· t nt at the initial [moment of] rebirth ( *pratJsa1!]dh1). That 1s to say,
ex1s ffve a re ates present at the moment of r~birth ~ann~t equally ac_t as
theonditil~ ( iratyaya) for the series of a sentient bem~ ( sattvas!1P.'.~1!.a),)
~;cause it is simply stated in the stltra that [only] consc10usness ( VlJnana
enters the womb. . _ . · ] th s -
(A-2) Further, it is because [1f the avasthika th~ory ,is true, e. e
ential arising of things ( *vastu), defile~en~ ( klesa), and act10n
(~karma) would no longer be justifiable. That IS, It would nev~r be estab-
"shed that from the six sense-spheres ( *~a<fayat_ana) anse ~ont~ct
h:,.5 arsa) and sensation ( *vedana1 [respective~y], wh1~h 11: turn give nse
~o ~I defilements; defilements bring about action; action m turn propels
one into [another] life. . f []
(A-3) Further, it is because [if that is true,] the difference f! cause s
cannot be established. That is, if one says that all the precedmg agg!e-
gates of a sentient being act invariably as a ca1;1se. of all the_ succeedm'
then there would be no way of estabhshmg_ the ~hfference _o
ones, [ ] Although [a series of the five aggregates] anses without any m-
~ause :i~n it is not that any cause ( *sarvakiirapa) is able to create any !e-
s~~~(p*sa~akaiya). Just as mat~~ial existents ( *rtlpa), th_ough gepei°dt ~
u on external conditions in ansmg, are brought about 1m!Ile rnte Y o1
1Jwin their own force, so all thought and thought concomitants are f-(~
duceJ by their own distinct causes. If on_e ackno"."ledges the state (JJ. {~
fenwei, *avastha) [of the five aggregates m each hmb of dependent ong1
nation] there would be no difference of cause[ s]. .
(A-4) Further, it is because [if that is true,] ~n er;oi_: 'You!~ be m-
curred in the case of the stage of no more learnmg (_ asaik~a, 1.e., the
state of arhatship ). That is, if an Arhat attains. arhatsh1p at the stage of
~ravin ( *trsna) or of attachment ( *upadana), 1t ca1:not, ne~~rtheless, be
that c;nditioned by craving [arise~] attachment, while conditioned by at-
tachment [arises] a state ofbecommg. . Id
(A-5) Further, it is because [if that is true,] cravn~~ and so on wou
not arise repeatedly. That is, sensation acts a~ ~ cond1t10n and produc~s
cravin re eatedly, or craving acts as a cond1t1on and :produces attac -
ment fepe~tedly. If one acknowledges t~e state [of the five aggregates at
each limb of dependent origination], this wo~ld not be the case]beca~se
one has already passed those stages [of cravmg and attachment so t at
they no longer arise again. _ _ . . . .
(A-6) Further, the Pratityasamutpadasu_tra 1s of ex~hc1t meanmg
( *nitartha). That is, the Buddha himself h~s firmly determ1~ed t~e mea-
nin of the stltra ( *stltrartha), [by saying:] 'ignorance. of ~rev10us hves an?
so ~n is referred to as ignorance ( :~vldyaJ; _m.~~1t ( pupya), d~ment
( *a un a) and non-movement ( *anen1ya or *anm;ya) are referre .. !<? as
kar~iC~O;CeS ( *samskara); the six kinds of COilSCH~U~~-e_SS ( *~a<jVljflana~
kaya) and SO on are referred to as consciousness ( Vljflan~), and SO f1\
The Blessed One always encouraged [us] to rely on a sutra of exp 1~~
meaning ( *nitarthastltra). Therefore, one should not try to come up w1
a different interpretation . of th"1s. 1176
 966 Changhwan
In ~his passag~, Srilata denounces the Vaibha~ika avasthika theory by virtue of-
~anous_ reasonmgs (yuktJ) and scriptural authority (agama). We have already seen
m Section 2 that the Sautrantika Passage cited by Vasubandhu also features a
critiq1;1e of the avasthika theory based on his adherence to a sutra of explicit
meamng (nitartha). To the, extent that the above passage from the Nyayanusara
may be taken as reflecting Srilata's non-extant writings, it is reasonable to say that
Vasubandhu's Sautrantika Passage was formulated under the influence of Srilata's
gmch more detailed critique of the theory in question, and closely reproduces
Srilata's passage (A-6) in particular in terms of wording and spirit. 77
The similarity between Srilata's positions and those of Vasubandhu can further
be_ corroborated by another critique of the avasthika theory that Vasubandhu
v01ces shortly after the Sautrantika Passage in the same portion: 78
However, _why do YC?U intro?uce heterogeneous [factors] (i.e., the five ag-
gregates) mto [the limb of] ignorance? Even if the five aggregates exist in
those ~tates, (B-1) C?ne can only consider such [a factor], the existence or
nonexistence of which governs the existence or nonexistence of another
[factor], as _a limb [of dependent origination]. Moreover, (B-2) even
though the five aggregates (sensation, etc.) exist in the Arhat, he does not
possess any karmic forces (smpskara) caused by the former. What then?
[He possesses] only [karmic ~orces] caus~d by ignorance. Likewise, [the
Arhat does not possess consc10usness which leads one to merit, demerit,
~ff,fil{EL~~J\~~m: (A-2) x.~±~**m±fll:[t1 ° §;f;f7\~fli'3t *mm~11Hi
0
f'Jf'f'i~* *115 I± ~~filGMI: (A-3) 3Z.12SJ~3U~~fi1Gt3<: §;~3l1'f'II Jwf&~ff
0 0 0
~;%J!:{-§~~uffif&12S! ~U~:I'z:12Sl~3Ut!fEll[ fffflWf&fflliFsirm± ~1F-t7Jl2SJ~t±~t7J
0
0
!: tzo@1:tm ffff:>1H& ~§fl'.J:J fflliFsisrm ~,c,"C,,J5Jr ~3Ul2SJ± £§'r:5t
0 O 0 O
f11. 12SJ~fflli3U (A-4) x.:o'2-fflli~fi1Gi@I~m: §;rmrnUl ;;g:~~{.s'l ~:o'2':ir:sz.{.s'l f~fliiTm
0 O
0 O
;iJ ~fflli~f&Jf:SZ.R.~:SZ.~ff{.s'l: (A-5) X.~~~~~±651: §;'3tffif&~±a'2'~ ~~ffi
O
0
f& ~±:01Jf:SZ. £/'i'r~{.s'l Jlt~~fvG Jt{.s'l:Bi@I M,~;t!;\MI: (A-6) 3Z.~;t!;\ff,fil~ 7~
0 0 O
O O
Ml: 9;1lU~~ {~§~7 ° lW~*fflli'&~:fiffifflliEY=l ti1MJi'Ffl!J~3l:f'rffifi 7\~Jr~
0 0
:fi~F~ tf:t:9:'ll:HlfJ {~T~ff,fil ~t3<::o'2-cp~~~ff
O O O O
KRITZER (2005:156) concedes that Sanghabhadra relates Vasubandhu's Sautrantika
Passage to the last of the Sthavira's six detailed objections to the avasth1'ka interpretation.
Mu~mr (~00~:157-158) _als~ ~Ph?lds ~he yiew that Vasubandhu's Sautrantika critique of
the avasth1'ka mterpretat10n 1s m lme with Srilata's.
78
• Sanghabhadra, after quoting the same critique under the epithet of the Stltra master
(1.e., Vasubandhu), denounces it, saying, "This kind of understanding has no deep
meaning," as shown below. This quotation style indicates that Sanghabhadra regards this
passa~e as Vasu~andhu'~wn view_ of_!.he avast!!f_katheory; see Nyayanusara (T1562.496a _
~s\ ff~:=t:OJllt
3!-{"F~a ff:0'2'~{11.~ff~'flili ~-'---Jllll:~fffflli1BlJE1ffflli~ PJ:I'z:11:ti!ffi
0 O
O
{Bl1!:st ~_fliiimul ~ff1i*~ rmfflliffh JlltM1Fte!~l!Jfi~7Y~~~ ~m:ff,fil
O O 0 O
~ N~~DJ5Jr~3l tz~~ffr~ fflli1~fll[)OO Translation: "As for this (i.e., the issue of the
0 O 0 O
•
yaibha~1ka avasthjka mterpretat10n), the Stltra master further made this statement: 'Even
if ~11 of the five agg~egates exist i~ those states, one can only consider such [a factor], the
existence or nonexistence of which governs the existence or nonexistence of another
[factor]_, as a limb [~f d_ependent origination]. [Moreover,] even though the five aggregates
(sensat10n, etc.) exist m the Arhat, [he] does not possess any karmic forces (saIJ1skara)
icaused by t?e f?rmer.] What then? [He possesses] only [karmic forces] caused by
ignorance. [L1kew1se, the Arhat] does not possess consciousness which leads one to merit
deme~it, or non-movement. Nor does he possess craving, attachment, and so on. Hence, th~
meanmg of the stltra is to be taken literally as it is taught.' This kind of understanding has
no deep meaning ... "
PARK
What are AcalJ'aS or *Yaugacarabhumjkas 967
or non-movement. Nor does he possess craving, attachment, and so on.
[Hence,] the meaning of the stltra is to be taken literally as it is taught. 79
Here, passage (B-1 ), which emphasizes the specificity of a causa! relation between
the limbs of dependent origination, closely resounds the above-cited statemen~ (A-
3) by Sri:lata, which also underlines the distinctn~ss of each caus~l link. Be.sides,
Vasubandhu's passage (B-2) points out the absurdity of the avasthika theory m the
case of an Arhat, who still possesses the five aggr~gates.but i~ n? long~r su~j~~t t~
the vicious cycle of dependent origination. This agam comcides with Snlata s
statement (A-4) in words and spirit.
Srilata's extended critique (passage A) cited above is in effect followed by
Sanghabhadra's quite detailed and specific rejoinders to each and eve1?'. line of
Srilata's arguments. 80 Thereafter, Sati.ghabhadra launches a novel cntlq}-le of
Srilata's conception of the twofold exegetical principle; with this principle, Srilata
attempts to determine the sutras of explicit meani?g (nitartha) based on. ~o
stylistic criteria, namely whether or not a sutra contams the elements of outlmmg
79
AKBh l3hs: jatyantarasya tv avjdyayalJJ k1mkrtal; prak~epal; I yady apj ~a tasv
avasthasu pancaskandhii vjdyante (B-1) yasya tu bhavabhavayor yasya bhavabhavamyamal;
tad evaiigalJJ vyavasthapayjtum I (B-2) saty apj ca pancaskandhake 'rhatal; saIJ1skii~a n~
bhavantj pancaskandhahetukal; I kjlJJ tarhj /avjdyahetuka eva I tathii pw;iyapw;iyane_n-
jyopagalJJ ca vijnanalJJ (rg1adayas cetj / yathanirdesam eva stltrarthal;. Cf. DE LAVALLEE
POUSSIN/PRUDEN (1988.II:412).
O 0
so Here, however, we shall not go ,into the details of Sanghabhadr~'s counter-
0 O 0
arguments, but just sample his rejoinder to Srilata's argument (A-1) to see how 1t works:
0
O O 0
Nyayanusara (T1562.494c11-2 8): ~§;_tJ§eJifr:V:~12Sl M,-~§~:5t{.s'l~
O
o o
ffl ~W~± ~-fll:[~ llt~~12SJ ~00~Ml: fflW~±m ~ffl&~
0 0 0 0 0 0
0
0
Ml: ).."©ijta~ im~Jt~~ ~1FM'3t1&!~~-a:Jjg± :{-§~{~ff~cp B~
0 0 0 0 O
filG:I'z: m:~00~ ~)..-©ij~ ll:t~J5fr{Rfflli~§{Rf::,1Fff _t~§i3l {~tJ~
0
0 0 0 O O
v ;%J!~-tJJ,G,,G,J5Jri! m:~:stIB[•-w,e,"t,,J5Jr tzo{PJ~,,g ~ ns If~
O
O O 0 O O 0
~ii\:5±R~Oft§'r1'l~ 0
Now, it is to be said that none of the reasonings that the Sthavira (i.e., Srilata) has
put forth is able to refute the dependent origination of the state ( *avastha) of the
five aggregates in each limb. First of all, this [remark] 'it is unreasonable [to apply
this avasthjka theory to] an existent at the initial [moment of] rebirth
( *pratJsaIJ1dh1')' is not correct reasoning ( *hetu). For it is s~i~ _by virt~e of its
prominence ( *pradhana). That is to say, at the stage of m1tial reblfth, the
function of consciousness is the strongest, and hence, when one enters the womb
0
24
of the mother, it is spoken of with exclusive reference to the consciousness.
0
However consciousness cannot arise independently of sensation ( *vedana) and
ideation ' ( *salJljna). [This point] has been extensively demonstr~ted in the
sections on the associated cause ( *saIJ1prayuktakahetu) and the coexistent cause
( *sahabhtlhetu). For this reason, it is said [by virtue of i~s promine~ce] !hat
consciousness enters the womb of a mother. This shows that that on which thmgs
depend' ( *asraya, viz.,.consciousness) can never exist without '.the ~hings t~at
depend upon it' ( *a§rjta, viz., sensation and ideation). The Sthav1ra himself said:
'The Buddha generally referred to all thought and thought-concomitants with the
word consciousness.' How can he [then] entirely forget [what he said] and now
cite the stltra in order to prove that at the time of rebirth only consciousness is
acknowledged to exist.
 968 Changhwan PARK
topics ( uddesa) and their subsequent elaboration ( nirdesa). Saiighabhadra
provides several counter-examples to show that even sutra-passages of supposed
explicit meaning that contain both stylistic features of outlining topics and their
elaboration can still be counted as sutras of implicit meaning, while sutra-passages
of supposed implicit meaning that contain no such features can be counted as
82
sutras of explicit meaning. Moreover, Saiighabhadra criticizes Srilata's inconsis-
tency in applying his own hermeneutical principle for determining sutras of explicit
meaning; Saiighabhadra accuses Srilata of using exegetical strategies other than his
avowed exegetical principle, i.e., a variety of ludicrous reasoning to draw out
implicit meanings in his own favor in the interpretation of the Pratltyasamut-
padasutra. 83 Sanghabhadra concludes his refutation of Srilata by mocking the
nai:ve and self-contradicting character of the latter's Sautrantika declaration:
In this way, having never completely understood the distinctive character-
istics between siitras of explicit and implicit meaning, f the Sthaviral still
PJOclaims: "I am the one who takes siitras as a definite means of know-
l~Qg_e~ _(m!tJiI.i:f-fil~£.t £iJ.<Ing_ w<J_x_oJ]gJJJJK JV.E'i _djl]gjijl]g}. This is
therefore utterly unwarranted. Hence, it invites our Vaibhasikas to fre-
quently ridicule their established doctrines ( *siddhanta). 84 ·
In this passage, Salighabhadra, provoked by Srilata's assertion that he is a Sautran-
tika who takes sutras as a definite means of knowledge, criticizes the latter for not
even knowing the proper criteria by which to determine authoritative sutras. It is
precisely in this context, where the issue of the proper criterion to determine the
sutras of explicit or implicit meaning is in dispute between Srilata and the
Vaibha~ikas, that Vasubandhu's Sautrantika Passage is adduce,d by Saiighabhadra
as an object of refutation; subsequent to the above critique of Srilata's Sautrantika
claim, Saiighabhadra says:
81
For a detailed discussion of Srilata's twofold exegetical principle, see PARK (2007:
88-100).
82
For this, see PARK (2007:97-99).
83
See Nyayanusara (T1562.495C13-20): xHP~.!lUiMl~r~ !U{!fM('cpEHf§~ rm 0
1Ez:__t).6[ 13 tJ ts:,F5 ° ~f~1Ez:r~ 1W/l!1_t!OO ii {,m,"cs,!00 ° *eL't 1§• 1"1~•3t rm 13
0
0 O
0 O
~~o·~HP~ffl~~.o~~-··~~~i§o~~~-~~~)f!IBo~i§fi~o
¥A~tzD:ltJr 1§55U•t~ 1"1~7~ xr~~~ tJJ_if_lF5 ° Ji]~ti~ ~11:7~ ~
O 0 0 0
f\jpfr• 'i';,J<,'& §' Translation: "Further, despite the fact that the Buddha himself
0 0
outlines [topics] and elaborates them in this Pratityasamutpadasiitra, the Sthavira has
[further] interpreted the deep and implicit purport of the siitra from various perspectives
and [said] that first of all, the intention (.!f!IB y}qu, *abhipraya) of the Buddha [in this
siitra] is to refer to consciousness at the moment of rebirth as the limb of consciousness
( *v-finananga). Yet, [he] gives [another] interpretation of his own, saying: 'Consciousness is
nothing but the six types of consciousness, such as the visual [consciousness].' However, [in
fact], only the mental consciousness (manov-finana) is able to serve as a link to another life.
Isn't it, then, true that this [interpretation] more fully delineates the intention [of the
Buddha]? Who among the wise clings to the siitrawith a different, [implicit] intention (55U
:ir~ bie y} Jing) and designates it as a siitra of explicit meaning? Besides, [the notion of]
dependent origination has been extensively taught from various perspectives all across the
siitras, and yet, most of these are not [siitras] of explicit meaning. One should seek the
purports
84 of those siitras in a way appropriate to each case."
Nyayanusara (T1562.495c20-22): tzo~~;~ry~-f ~*~~55Ui'§ rm1'~fltJ'!H~~k
:I: 1&~11::E_t !3zJBflt~~~11>§fff 1f('1Ez:J5ff
0 O
O
* 0 ~~~il~F'r 0
0
What are Acal)'as or *YaugacarabhtJmjkas 969
81
f
As for this [issue o~ the siitr~s of explicit ~ea~nJ], ~~Ve S~tra ,ma,st~r e.,
Vasubandhu) fabncated this remark (ffeJ1.fFAE a pazuo sh1 yan). The
Sautrantika masters make this statement: 'Is ~h~t has been stated ~ere
ersonal fantasy or the sense of the siitr~?_ If this 1s t~e sense ~f the su!ra,
ihat is not so. Why is that? It is because 1t 1s taug~t ~hfferently m t~e sutra.
For example, it is stated in the siitra: 'What 1s 1gn?ra~ce? _It 1s non-
knowledge relating to the past, and so on and so forth. !h1s_[~utra] of.ex-
plicit meaning cannot suddenly become a siitra o! !mp!1c1t meanmg:
Hence, th_e afr_)re-mentioned theo~ of..dependent ongmation as avastha
is in conflict with the sense of the sutra. . .
This [Sautrantika passage] is to be refuted extensively m the same way
that the dogmatics of the Sthavira have been. 85
H Saiighabhadra quotes the same Sautrantika Passage cited by Vasuban~hU, 86
th~:gh in a somewhat abbreviated f?rm, ascribing it to Vasubandhu. Sangh~-
bhadra's final comment clearly indicates that _h~ unde~sto?d Vasuba~d~u s
du lication of the argument for the s~tras of e.:'pl_1c1t !ll_e~nmg I?. the Sautrant1ka
P p e to be in line with the Darstant1ka-Sautrantika/Snlata pos1tion or at least to
assag .. f S · h bh d
have been influenced thereby. Therefore, it is evident in the eyes o ang a _a ~a
that the afore-mentioned series of debates ~etwee~ Vasubandhu _and the Vaibha-
sikas subsequent to the ~autrantika Passa~e 1~ ~ect10n 2 closely mir_ror5s\hese early
proto-debates between Sri:lata and the Vaibha~1kas on the same subJect.
4. A Reappraisal of the Acazya-Passage
in the Scripturalist Context . ..
Considering Vasubandhu's scripturalist reappraisal of the a!ter~at~ve opm1~ns. of
various masters and his apparent indebtedness to the Dar~ta~tika-Sa~tran~1~a
tradition for the scripturalist point of view as discussed in the previous sectio~s~ it 1s
enigmatic why Vasubandhu does not provide any such comment on the acarya-
passage addressed in the s~me portio_n. As seen before, Vasu?~ndhu quotes the
passage in a terse manner without any Judgmental comment on 1t.
Masters ( acarya!J) say: "[The first formula 'when t~is exists, that exists']
serves to indicate the not-yet-abandoned (aprah11Ja) [stat~ ?f depe~-
0 dently arising factors], while [th_e _second formula 'from the ansmg of this,
that arises' indicates] the ansmg [of factors from such a not-yet-
abandoned state]. [They say:] "While ignorance is no~-yet-abandoned,
0 0
karmic forces are not abandoned [either]. From the ansmg of that very
( eva) ~not-yet-abandoned ignorance ]8 8 arise [karmic forces, etc.]," and so
forth.
Vasubandhu's mere quotation makes it necessary to co~sult the responses of th_e
AKBh-commentators to this passage in our effort to conJecture the reasons for his
silence. The commentators' overall responses to this aca.rya-passage are more
85 Nyayanusara (T1562.495c23-2s): r~J':1f('Jlt _". ffel{'f~~ !~g:~~§fp "_ {'ffD~~
0 0
!t
cpJ5fr§~ ~mtc·ft o ~~r~~ o ;g:~*~~~
0
0
*~~~!;t
J5trtJ~fPJ ;_r~~~~ tzo~
0
Mlrn~ ~fPJ~M,sA §;M~~M,W n.¥Ji:~ Jl:~7 ~~~ ~"ilftfP-p nJG~T ~ t31:11u
o
O O 0
,
0 0
J5fr§3l86 :5t1-1H:m *~~i'l'l~ Jl:ttzo__t~*••~:ii
O O 0 0
See fn. 33.
87
For a similar conclusion, see MUROJI (2006:159).
88 The emphatic particle "eva" makes it possible to paraphrase this sentence as
"avidyaya aprahiJJaya evotpadad... "
89 For the Sanskrit text, see fn. 1.

970 Changhwan PARK
lukewarm or negative than might be expected if this were the authoritative position
of Vasubandhu's own teachers. Having identified "masters" as "earlier masters"
(purvacaiyal; ), Yasomitra ( ca. J1h century CE), a self-declared Sautrantika, simply
offers his glosses on the passage, as noted previously. 90 Sthiramati ( ca. 6th century
CE), assuredly a Vij.ianavadin, goes so far as to gloss "abandoned" (prahiIJa) as
91
something tantamount to "destroyed" ( *na~fa), an interpretation which is vulne-
rable to the same condemnation that Vasubandhu made with reference to Srilata's
account of the first formula as "when this exists, that is not destroyed."
92
It is, in fact, Saiighabhadra (ca. 5th century CE), a Vaibha~ika proponent, who
speaks out loud of the implicit intention in Vasubandhu's silence. Saiighabhadra
already said that even though Vasubandhu knew the blunder of these acaiyas'
93
interpretation, he did not say so due to his reverence for them. Thereupon, on
Vasubandhu's behalf, Saiighabhadra verbalizes the possible criticism against these
acaiyas' position:
This interpretation is not tenable. If this is the intent of the sutra (i.e., a
not-yet-abandoned state of dependently arising factors), it should rather
have been stated [in the reverse order in the sutra]: "Karmic forces condi-
tion ignorance. That is, depending on karmic forces not-yet-abandoned,
ignorance is not abandoned [either]," because karmic forces and igno-
rance should be [abandoned by] the same antidotes ( *prahpak~a). It
should [likewise] have been stated [in the reverse order in the sutra] that
"in the state where attachment ( *upiidiina) is not-yet-abandoned, craving
( *tr~JJii) is not abandoned either" because they should be [removed by]
the same antidotes. [Hence, your interpretation only considers the co-
defiled state of two limbs linked by dependent origination, but not the
proper order of causation.] If [the iiciil)"as] argue that the word 'aban-
doned' in this [interpretation] is stated with reference to [the dependently
arising factors] in present operation ( *samudiicara, i.e., neither future
nor past), then the term 'arising' (1&± housheng) in the second [formula
of dependent origination] would be futile. [This is because] whenever ig-
norance ( *avidya) arises in present operation, it is [already] referred to
as 'arising' [in the first formula of dependent origination]. Why would it
[then] be necessary to repeat the same ['arising' by saying the second for-
mula]?94
The problem that Saiighabhadra points out here is that the first formula "when this
exists, that exists" is interpreted as meaning "when a certain defiled factor (for
example ignorance) is in present operation and not-yet-abandoned [by its antidote],
90
See fn. 6.
91
See Tattviirthii (D442l. Tho.377arb 1): ma spangs pa las ma spangs pa dang skye bar
shes par bya ba 'i phyir rnam grangs gnyis smos so zhes slob dpon snga ma dag zer ro / de
nyid bstan pa 'i phyir ma rig pa ma spangs na zhes rgyas par 'byung ngo I /ta ba ma spangs pa
la yang Jig pa 'i sgra rab tu sbyar ro/. Translation: "Earlier masters (purvaciiJYiifI) say: 'the
two formulas serve to indicate the state of [factors] not-yet-abandoned and [thus] arising
from [such] a not-abandoned state. [It is] in order to indicate that very point [that the sutra]
states 'while ignorance is not abandoned,' and so on. The term 'destruction' can be
employed even for the 'abandoning' of a [false] view."
92
See Section 2.
93
See fn. 3.
94
Nyiiyiinusiira (T1562.483a 13_1s): lftff:::f~ *~~£ffi 1:l'P#~m fi~ffl!i~ #
0 O O 0
~fi:::fffifflli~:::fffi ~fiWfflli~~ti~~ #~ffifil ®mm§ ~B:::fffi ~ti
0 0 0 0
ril~ £§1'H!:tg.t:EJH'rffim ~rJf&± § ~nlGffl!iffl ~fflli~-ffi!iSA:EJHi@:::f :g± 1Ii:i]~§/ '
~m 0
O
O O
What are Acal)'as or *Yaugacarabhumikas 971
another defiled factor (for example karmic forces) is likewise in present operation
and not abandoned either, because they are supposed to be removed by the same
antidote." If so, the first formula comes to mean that as long ~s one of the ~elve
limbs, such as ignorance, remains defiled and currently operative, the ot?er hmbs
causally connected with it must also remain defiled and currently operative. What
is brought to the fore in this interpretation is not so much the sequence of
causation as the co-defiled state of the linked factors that are to be treated by the
same remedy and thus, in principle, removed altogether at once. This interpreta-
tion then allows the first formula only to show the pervasiveness of the defiled
condition of all the limbs of dependent origination. After all, the first formula
would then represent a problematized state of a soteriological concern, not of a
causal one as would be expected.
Saiighabhadra's verbalization of the drawback of the acaiyas' position is not
simply his own idiosyncratic idea but is also, to some extent, reson~te~ by _Puguang,
who offers a similar line of interpretation of the acaiya-passage, highhghtmg:
The word 'not abandoned' refers to 'sharing the same bonds.' That is to
say, depending on ignorance ~at-yet-abandoned,. kar~ic forces _are 9pot
abandoned [either], and hence 1t says that when this eXIsts, that exists.
Puguang too understands the first formula as emphasizing the co-defiled_ state of
two causally-linked factors, which equally contribute to the perpetuation of a
shackled state of mind.
At this point, a question must be raised: is this particular interpretation that
emphasizes the current pervasiveness of a defiled state indeed what Vasubandhu
intended with inserting the acaiya-passage in the middle of his critical assessment
of the alternative interpretations of the twofold formula? The answer is probably
not. No matter what Vasubandhu's real intention was, however, one of the main
reasons that this acaiya-passage induced such reactions from the commentators
was due to Vasubandhu's rather partial or cryptic style of quotation, which does
not do justice to the actual view of the *Yaugacarabhumikas on the formula. This
becomes evident by comparison with the corresponding passage in the section on
pratityasamutpada found in the Savitarkadibhumi of the Yogacarabhumi, from
which the aforementioned acaiya-passage was quoted:
In what sense is it stated [by the Buddha] that "when this exists, that
exists"? It is stated in the sense that from a not-yet-abandoned ( aprahiJJiif)
condition arises [a factor which] is distinct from it (i.e., the non-yet-
abandoned condition). In what sense is it stated [by the Buddha] "from
95 Jushe JunJi (T1821.17lc2s-172a2): .t!LiewrnnEt1§"~JJ'ITTt~ ~JlHJL±?f(~*~.g~f}L
0
fifflWo~~~=+li~~~~~~.tfLfiW §:::fffi~o-~---·~~~~:::f
ffifflfi:::fffi ~§{~Ift~1Hl~ HPEBffi!iBA±~fflfif~± ~§ll:t±~iHl± JlUIJJJ'
O 0
0 0
m+ =~iIB Translation: "[The passage] from 'masters say ... ' to 'and so on' indicates that
O
the Sastra master (i.e., Vasubandhu) has inherited [elements] from Sautrantika masters.
Therefore, the Nyiiyanusiira, Juan 25, also says: 'the Sutra master (i.e., Vasubandhu) offers
the interpretation of his own iiciil)"as.' The word 'not-yet-abandoned' refers to.'sharing the
same bonds.' That is to say, depending on ignorance not-yet-abandoned, karmic forces are
0 not abandoned [either], and hence it says that when this exists, that exists. Then, from the
arising of ignorance, karmic forces can arise, and therefore, it says that from the arising of
0
this, that arises. This applies to all twelve limbs of dependent origination.''
972 Changhwan PARK
the arising of this, that arises"? It is stated in the sense that from an im-
permanent ( am'tyiit) condition arises [a factor] which is distinct from it. 96
This proto-aca"l)'a-passage in the YBh is unmistakably clear in that the first formu-
la "when this exists, that exists" is interpreted in light of a not-yet-abandoned
(aprahiIJa) condition, while the second formula "from the arising of this, that
arises" is taken as referring to an impermanent (am·tya) condition. That is to say, in
the YBh the concept of "aprahiIJa" is applied only to the first formula, not to the
second, but in Vasubandhu's actual reproduction of the YBh-opinion in the AKBh,
the aprahiIJa-concept is applied to both the first and the second formula, as seen in
the above-quoted acal)'a-passage, dropping entirely the notion of "anitya" in its
scheme. In other words, Vasubandhu's account, in the aca"l)'a-passage, of the
second formula - namely "' ... From the arising of that very [not-yet-abandoned
ignorance] arise [karmic forces, etc.],' and so forth" - is far from a faithful repro-
duction of the YBh's "anitya"-account of the second formula. Therefore, it cannot
be said that Vasubandhu's quotation was sufficiently judicious to deliver the full
dimensions of the YBh's two-part interpretation of the twofold formula.
Moreover, this fragmented and thus rather misleading representation of the
YBh's position prompted the AKBh commentators to miss its core message.
Considering the overall context of the section on pratityasamutpada in the
97
Savitarkadibhum1; the term "not-yet-abandoned" (aprahiIJa) is, by and large,
employed to indicate the inherent boundedness of causally-chained phenomena by
ignorance ( avidya), which is conceived of as being a primary cause of defilement.
Here is one example cited from the section on pratityasamutpada:
He (i.e., the yogin) abandons such ignorance and craving entirely by vir-
tue of that knowledge and vision. On account of the abandoning
(prahiiIJa) of it (i.e., ignorance or craving), the feeling, produced from
contact with ignorance, of one who does not understand its object-
support as it is, comes to be abandoned (prahiIJa) ... Such [dependently
originated factors] as karmic forces (sa1pskiira) and consciousness (n·-
jniina), [whose cycle of attaining its effects] ends in feelings (vedanii) in
the next life, [would arise,] if that ignorance were not_abandoned
.(J_q_sy;J_lJ}_ap1:.;t...hIIJ.i!Yi!!U!Yi&i.ff-1!11. 1'2.l!.t} on account of the cessation of his
ignorance, they do not arise.
"Not-yet-abandoned" here refers to the doomed state in which ignorance (avidya)
has not yet been eradicated so that the vicious cycle of dependent origination will
continue on. To be sure, the object of abandoning (prahaIJa) could be any of the
twelve limbs of dependent origination, not just ignorance (avidya). But ignorance
is thought of as being a primary cause, though not claimed to be the first cause.
The following passage, which occurs right before the proto-aca"l)'a-passage in the
section on pratityasamutpada in the Savitarkadibhumi, indicates that the earlier or
96
YBh 221 16_17 : katham asmin satidaip bhavatity ucyate I aprahil)iit pratyayiit tadanyot-
piidiirthena I katham asyotpiidiid idam utpadyata ity ucyate I anityiit pratyayiit tad-
anyotpiidiirthena.
97
For a general outline of this section, see KRITZER (1999:18 fn. 24, 24 fn. 35, 33-52).
98
YBh 202 2_8 : sa tena jniinadarsaneniise~iif!l tiiip ciividyiif!l prajahiiti tiilJl ca tr~IJiif!l I
tasyiis ca prahiiIJiid yat tadiilambanaip yathiibhrJ.tam aprajiinato 'vidyiisaipsparsaip vedita-
vyaip I tat prahiIJaip bhavati I ... tasyiividyiinirodhiid ye te tasyiim aprahiIJiiyiim avidyiiyiilp
saipskiiravijniiniidayo vedaniipaiyantii apariintam iirabhya te notpadyante.
What are Acaryas or *Yaugacarabhumikas 973
uppermost a limb of dependent origination is in the chain, the more pivotal its role
is in abandoning the entire chain of dependent origination:
However, later limbs [of dependent origination] cannot by nature serve
as a condition of earlier [limbs]. Why is that? For the sake of abandoning
later [limbs], one makes efforts to abandon earlier [limbs], because the
abandoning of later [limbs] hinges on that of those [earlier limbs]; how-
ever, it is not true that for the sake of abandoning earlier [limbs], one
makes efforts to abandon later [limbs.] Therefore, one should understand
that on)l those [earlier limbs] can serve as the condition for the [later
limbs.]9
In this scheme, the first limb of dependent origination is ignorance ( avidya), and
thus once ignorance is eradicated, the subsequent series of dependently arising
factors would all be eliminated too. Immediately following the above passage there
comes the first part of the proto-aca"l)'a-passage in the YBh:
In what sense is it stated [by the Buddha] that "when this exists, that
exists" (asmin satidaip bhavati)? It is stated in the sense that from a not-
yet-abandoned ( aprahil)iit) condition arises [a factor which] is distinct
from it ...
Now, if viewing the term "aprahiIJa" within the entire context of the section on
dependent origination in the Savitarkadibhumi as sketched above, it refers to the
perilous state in which ignorance, a primary cause, is not yet abandoned so that a
subsequent series of the factors of dependent origination will recur again and again.
This contextualized understanding is in stark contrast to the rather misguided
responses of the majority of commentators to the acal)'a-passage, which under-
lined the current pervasiveness of a defiled state without necessarily giving priority
to the role of causal sequence, as pointed out by Saiighabhadra.
The suspicion that the acal)'a-passage in the AKBh is a rather fragmented and
thus even misleading representation of the YBh's position is further demonstrated
by Vasubandhu's unabridged depiction of the same Yogacarabhumi position in the
PSVy, his post-AKBh Yogacara-leaning text, where he is understood as having
revealed a growing confidence in the Y ogacara tradition: 100
99
YBh 221 12 _15 : na tu punar adharaIJiim angiiniim uparime~u pratyayatvam I kena
kiiraIJena I yathodharima prahiil)iiyoparimaprahiiIJe yatnaiJ kriyate tatprahiiIJe 'dharima-
prahiiIJam iti krtva naivam uparimaprahiil)iiyiidharimaprahiiIJe I tasmiit tiivanty eva tat-
pratyayiini dra~favyam: BHATTACHARYA notes (fn. 3) that yathodharima is an emendation
based on the Tibetan translation og ma, i.e., *adharima or *adhara. The manuscript reads
uparima. It may here be added that the corresponding Chinese reading (T1579.326a 24 ) is
houzhi Cr&:SZ:), i.e., likewise *adharima.
100
SCHMITHAUSEN (1969:111-113) provides one particular perspective from which to
view the post-AKBh development ofVasubandhu's ideas in such texts as the VyiikhyiiyuktJ;
KarmasiddhiprakaraIJa, Pratityasamutpiidavyiikhyii, PaiicaskandhaprakaraIJa, Viipsatikii,
and Tri1J1sikii; this approach may be designated as a theory of Vasubandhu's "gradual
conversion" from Sautrantika to Yogacara. This view is now in marked contrast to that of
Vasubandhu's fixed identity as Yogacara already at the stage of writing the AKBh, a posi-
tion espoused by KRITZER (1999:204) and HARADA (1996:143 fn. 17, 159-160). MATSUDA
(1982b:63; 1983:35-36) has likewise endorsed the idea of a gradual development of
Vasubandhu's doctrinal positions from Sarvastivadin through Sautrantika to Yogacara
based on the gradual introduction of the notion of iilayavijniina in the course of the above-
mentioned series of texts credited to him. MATSUDA puts particular stress on the signifi-
974 Changhwan PARK
The *Yaugiiciirabhiimikas say: "The two phrases (i.e., formulas) have
been stated in the sense of [factors'] arising from a not-yet-abandoned
( *aprahipa) [condition] and from an impermanent ( *anitya) condition.
'When [A] exists' (sati) means '[when A is] not-yet-abandoned' ( *apra-
hipa). For example, it is stated in another siitra:
'As long as there are ( *santam) 101 sensual desires ( *kiimacchanda),
is [he] not aware of the internal desires? Or, [as long as] there are no
[sensual desires, is he not. .. ]' 102
[Further,] th~ nature of ['when this] exists', and so on are fully ex-
plained in the Adivise~avibhiigadharmapazyiiya[siitraj 103 There, when
asked about dependent origination ( *pratityasamutpiida), the Blessed
One proclaimed: 'O Bhik~us, the characteristic of dependent origination
is of three types: 1) the characteristic of [factors'] arising from an inactive
condition ( *nirihapratyaya); 2) the characteristic of [factors'] arising from
an impermanent condition ( *anityapratyaya); 3) the characteristic of
[factors'] arising from an effective condition ( *samarthapratyaya).' 104
Just these [three types of characteristics], which explain the first [formula]
( *iid1) (i.e., of the twofold formula), are here declared [by the
Buddha]." 105
cance of the Pratityasamutpiidar,yiikhyii, along with the Karmasiddhiprakarapa, as
specimens to demonstrate this ideological shift of Vasubandhu from Sautrantika to
Yogacara. MATSUDA (1982b:421) notes that the foregrounding of the notion of iilaya-
vijiiiina in the PSVy, a notion which was mediated by the Sautrantika notion of vipiika-
vijiiiina ( differently maturing consciousness) in the Karmasiddhiprakarapa, can be taken as
a sign ofVasubandhu's increasing confidence in the Yogacara concept. PASADIKA (1989:19)
and CORLESS (1989:458) too adopt a similar theory of Vasubandhu's conversion. For an
extended discussion of this issue, see PARK (2007:7-10).
101 Gui;iamati, the commentator of the PSVy, glosses "there are" ( *santam) with "not-
yet-abandoned" (ma spangs bzhin du, *aprahipa), which fits into the exegetical point made
here (PSVyT, Q5497.Chi.94a5_6): ci 'dad pa dang 'dun pa yod bzhin du zhes bya bani ma
spangs bzhin du zhes bya ba 'i tha tshig go. Translation: "In the phrase "As long as there are
( *santam) sensual desires ( *kiimacchanda)," [the phrase] "there are" means "not-yet-
abandoned"."
102 This passage can be traced back to the Pali Nikaya (DN.11.300 _ ): idha bhikkhave
10 13
bhikkhu santaip vii aJJhattaip kiimacchandaip 'atthi me a1Jhattaip kiimacchando ti'paJiiniiti,
asantaip vii ajjhatta1J1 kiimacchandaip n'atthi me ajjhattaip kiimacchando ti' paJiiniiti
English translation by RHYS DAVIDS, (1977:335): "Herein, 0 bhikkhus, a brother, when
within him is sensuous desire, is aware of it, reflecting: 'I have within me sensuous desire.'
Or again, when within him is no sensuous desire, he is aware of this."
103 The title of the siitra has been reconstructed by MATSUDA (1982a:42-43). This
siitra, the origin of which is yet to be traced, is quoted several times in the PSVy as
scriptural authority to vindicate such important concepts as 'differentially maturing
consciousness' ( vipiikavjjiiiina), a precursor of iilayavjjiiana. MATSUDA (1982a:48; 1983:32-
35) classifies this siitra as a Sautrantika-leaning scripture, though acknowledging its ample
Yogacara features in explaining the teaching of dependent origination. Its Chinese transla-
tion is the Fenbie yufmqi chiisheng [amen Jing (:B-'.5U*tiIBWM1i:U~*-fil, T717). For a full
discussion of this important siitra, see MATSUDA (1982a:48, 52 fn. 38) and KUSUMOTO
(2006:21).
104 Fenbie yuanqi chiisheng famenJing(T7l 7.840b1s-21): tlt#EEl ~s=r=::t§J!!9;0~
O dang po bstan pa 'dir rab tu bstan pa yin po zhes brjod de. For Japanese translations of this
iIB 105
O
~~rnffi!i;JJ{'f9;o~iIBtl=l =~rnttffiiim'9;o~iIBtl=l
O O
::::: ~El3flf:tilttm9;o~iIBtl=l
PSVy(Q5496.5b 2 _6 ): rnal 'byor spyodpa 'i sa pa dag na re ma spangs pa 'i phyir dang I
mi rtag pa 'i rkyen las skye ba 'i don gyis tshig gnyis smos te I yod na zhes pa ni ma spangs pa
la bya ste I Ji skad du mdo gzhan las I ci 'dad pa dang 'dun pa yod bzhin du nang gi 'dad pa
rnams la so sor mi myong ba yin nam I 'on te med pa yin zhes gsungs so I yod pa nyid la sags
pa'i dang po'i bye brag rnam par 'byed pa zhes bya ba'i chos kyi rnam grangs las ]hug par
What are AcaJYaS or *Yaugacarabhiimikas 975
In this passage, Vasubandhu first offers both the "aprahlJJa" and "am·tya" accounts
of the twofold formula of dependent origination as the *Yaugacarabhumika
opinion, which in fact corresponds_ t~ the ~ct~al YBh positio~ as describe~ above.
In addition, however, the *Yaugacarabhumikas are here cited as adducmg two
sutras to provide scriptural authority to their twofold interpretation of the formula.
Now the problem lies in the fact that it is not attested that these two scriptural
passages are actually cited in the YBh itself to vindicate the *Yaugacarabhumika's
twofold interpretation. 106 It seems, therefore, reasonable to suspect that Vasu-
bandhu is here referring to some other post- Yogacarabhumi commentarial
tradition or that it was actually Vasubandhu himself who adduced these scriptural
passages. The latter possibility, which is more likely, is founded on the following.
There is no evidence that the Adivise~avibhagadharmaparyayasutra (A VVS), the
second of the two quoted scriptural passages, was ever quoted in the current ver-
sion of the YBh. 107 This is in contrast to the significance of the same sutra in Vasu-
bandhu's PSVy, in which it is not only quoted several times but also plays a pivotal
role as scriptural authority in Vasubandhu's interpretation of dependent origina-
tion (MATSUDA 1982a:44; KUSUMOTO 2006:21-22) as demonstrated in the above
PSVypassage.
What is to be further noted is the fact that in the Savitarkadibhumi of the YBh
there is no passage which is tantamount to the final remark in the above passage
"just these [three types of characteristics], which explain the first [formula] ( *adi),
are here declared [by the Buddha]." As a matter of fact, the position of the
Savitarkadibhumi on the twofold formula was of two kinds (i.e., "aprahfJJa" and
"anitya"), as accurately summed up at the head of the above passage from the PSVy,
and not of three kinds as stated in the A VVS. Thus, it is legitimate to suspect that
this final remark was also added by Vasubandhu himself.
Right after the above passage in the PSVy, Vasubandhu appends his own con-
clusive comment on the *Yaugacarabhumika position, which further strengthens
the impression that it was Vasubandhu who turned the YBh's twofold interpreta-
tion of the formula into a threefold one on the basis of the A VVS:
"When this exists, that exists" indicates the characteristic of [factors'] ari-
sing from an inactive condition ( *nirihapratyaya). For it shows that the
mere existence [of this] ( *bhiivamiitra) acts as nothing but the condition
[for that]. "From the arising of this, that arises'' indicates the characteri-
stic of [factors'] arising from an impermanent condition ( *anityapratyaya).
For it shows that an arisen [factor], [which is impermanent], is nothing
but the condition. "That is to say, conditioned by ignorance [arise] karmic
forces" and so on indicate the characteristic of [factors'] arising from an
effective condition ( *samarthapratyaya). For the fixed sequence of the
gsungs te Ider rten cing 'brel par 'byung ba 'i mtshan nyid zhus pa dang I beam ldan 'das kyis
bka 'stsal ba I dge slang dag rten cin 'brel par 'byung ba 'i mtshan nyid ni rnam par gsum ste I
g-yo ba med pa 'i rkyen las byung ba 'i mtshan nyid dang I mi rtag pa 'i rkyen las byung ba 'i
mtshan nyid dang I nus pa 'i rkyen las byung ba 'i mtshan nyid do zhes gsungs te I de dag nyid
0 passage, see TAKADA (1958:75) and KUSUMOTO (2006:158-159).
106 Scholars who have touched upon this *Yaugacarabhiimika passage in the PSVy
have failed to notice this important point, so that the intent of Vasubandhu in this context
could not be properly discerned. See, for example, MUROJI (1986:70-71) and KUSUMOTO
(2006:157-160).
107
For later quotations of the A VVS, see MATSUDA (1982a:42, 44, 60-70).
976 Changhwan PARK
!/mbs (~f depend_ent originati_on] is n~thing but_ th~ [effective] condition.
Condiho~ed by 1gn_o_rance anse karmic forces" md1cates that ignorance is
the [effective] cond1t10n. The rest [of the chain of dependent origination]
is to be understood in the same way. 108
~c~ording to this final exposition by Vasubandhu, the first formula simply
mdicates that the subsequent constituents of dependent origination arise from the
mere existence of preceding constituents. That is to say, each condition is inhe-
rently deprived of any active role as a causal agent and simply remains static. 109
The sheer presence of these inactive or motionless defiled conditions themselves
somehow functions as a sufficient condition for the arising of the subsequent
factors ?f ~epe~dent origination. Therefore, there is no active causal agent of
production m this causal process, because a merely preceding defiled state acts as
the_ condition for the arising of the subsequent. In this passage, Vasubandhu
deliberately converts YBh's aprahiIJa-interpretation of the first formula into the
~iriha-interpretation in accordance with the A VVS, while YBh's amtva-interpreta-
tion of the second formula remains the same here. Further added is the samartha-
interpretation again adduced from the A VVS, which is intended to account for the
actual causation process of the twelve limbs of dependent origination. This change
shows that the concept of the inactivity or motionlessness (niriha) of causes is
?rought to the fo~e in Vasubandhu's explanation of the first formula in the PSVy
mstead of the notion of" aprahiIJa" used in the acaiya-passage in the AKBh and in
the Savitarkadibhumi of the YBh.
~hat is additionally to be noted here is that a passage subsequent to the afore-
mentioned proto-acaiya passage in the Savitarkadibhumi of the YBh includes two
further noti?ns, viz. niriha (inactive) and svasantanika (belonging to its own series),
as part of its account of the actual causation process of the twelve limbs of
dependent origination:
For what reason is it stated [by the Buddha] that "when birth exists aging
and ?eath ~xisr and "c~mditioned bY_ birth [arise] aging and death,'; up to
and mcludmg [when] ignorance [exists], karmic forces [exist,' etc.] [The
Bu~dha _conve~sJ ~y mean~ ?f this_ very expression the meaning that from
an machve (mrih_a~) condihon anses [a factor] which is distinct from it.
For what reas~m 1s It stated [by the Buddha] that "when birth exists, aging
and ?eath _[ ex1~t], but ~ot when anything other than [birth exists],'' up to
and mcludmg [when] ignorance_ [exists], karm~c forces [exist,'' etc]. [The
Buddh~ _conveY_s] by means of_th1s very expression the meaning that from
a con~Ih_on which _b~longs to Its own series {svasiintiinikiit) arises [a fac-
tor], d1stmct from 1t, m the very same series." 10
108
PfVy(Q5496._5b6:s): 'diyod na 'di 'byung zhe~ by~ bani g-yo ba med pa'i rkyen las
byung_ba 1 mtshan ny1d ym te I yod pa tsam rkyen ny1d ym par bstan pa 'iphyir ro / 'di skyes
pas 'c/1 skye ~a ste zhes by~. ban( mi rt~g_ pa 'i rkyen l~s byung ba 'i mtshan nyid yin te / skyes
pa rkyen 1!Y1d du ':stan pa 1 phyir ro I 'ciJ lta ste ma ng pa 'i rkyen gyis 'du byed ces bya ba la
sog_s pa m nus pa 'I rkyen las byung ba ,_,. mtshan nyid yin te / snga phyi'i yan Jag nges pas rkyen
n;,:id du bstan pa 'i phyir ro I ma rig pa 'i rkyen gyis 'du byed ces bya ba ni ma rig pa de rkyen
ym no I ]hag ma rnams kyang de bzhin du rig par bya o.
109
For a similar idea, see the Siilistambasutra (REAT 1993:32 38) and PARK (2007:
282-290). ' means 'the evolution of cause and effect in a homogeneous manner' ( anurupahetuphala-
10
. _1 YBh 2~11s-20: kena kiirapenajiityiiip satyiiipjariimarapaip bhavati/jiitipratyayaip ca
Jaramarap~m_ 1ty ucyate I yiivad avidyiisaipskiirM ca anenaiva vyapadesena nirihiit pratyayiit
tadanyotpadarthena I kena kiirapena jiityiilp satyiiip jariimarapaip niinyatra jiitipratyayal!]
What are Acaiyas or *Yaugacarabhumikas 977
In addition to the already-noted (1) aprahiIJa- and (2) anifya-interpretations of the
twofold formula, the (3) niriha- and the (4) svasantanika-interpretations are
further adduced to illustrate the actual arising of each limb in the chain of
dependent origination in the YBh. It can then be said that Vasubandhu may have
reshuffled this YBh four-part scheme (including the aforementioned twofold
interpretation) into a three-part model in the PS Vy in accordance with the A vvs;
(1) niriha; (2) anifya for the two formulas and; (3) samartha for the illustration of
the actual arising of the limbs of dependent origination respectively.
The question now arises: Why did Vasubandhu change the four-part scheme of
the YBh (including the twofold interpretation) into the three-part model in the
PSVy, which lacks the concept "not-yet-abandoned" ( aprahiIJa)? One possible
answer has to do with the relatively minor status of the concept "not-yet-
abandoned" (aprahiIJa) in the more standardized early Yogacara scheme of
explaining the teaching of dependent origination. 111 As briefly described before,
the notion of aprahiIJa plays a certain role in the section on dependent origination
in the Savitarkadibhumi because it represents the intrinsic boundedness of
dependently originated pheno-mena by ignorance. However, this rather scriptural
and thus archaic term finds no place among the more standardized eightfold
interpretation of the notion of "dependent origination" (pratifyasamutpada) in the
same section on dependent origination in the Savitarkadibhumi 112 Moreover, the
Abhidharmastimuccaya (AS) and its Bhawa (ASBh) preserve the three-part
interpretation of the twofold formula of the AVVS, and not the twofold (or, four-
part) scheme of interpretation seen in the YBh: (1) arising from an inactive
condition (nirihaprafyayotpatti); (2) arising from an impermanent condition
(anifyaprafyayotpatti); and (3) arising from an efficient condition (samartha-
jariimarapam ucyate I evaip yiivad avidyii saipskiiriis ca I anenaiva vyapadesena svasiintii-
nikiit pratyayiit svasantiina eva tadanyotpiidiirthena.
111 In fact, in the YBh's exegesis of the notion of dependent origination, it is the notion
of inactivity (niriha), which denotes the meaning of the conditioned origination of
phenomena without any causal agent, that plays the most significant role, not that of
aprahipa. On the significance of the notion of niriha in the YBh's explanation of dependent
origination, see MIYASHITA (1986:16-26).
112 YBh 20313_1 : pratityasamutpiidiirthaiJ katamaiJ I (l) niiJsattviirthaiJ pratityasamut-
8
piidiirthal; 1(2) sati niiJsattve 'nityiirthal; 1(3) saty anityattve itvarapratyupasthiipaniirthaiJ /
(4) satitvarapratyupasthiine paratantriirthaiJ I (5) sati paratantre nirihiirthaiJ / (6) sati
nirihiirthe hetuphalaprabandhiinupacchediirthal; /(7) sati hetuphalaprabandhiinupacchede
anurupahetuphalapravartaniirthal; I (8) saty anurupahetuphalapravartane karmasvabhii-
viirthaiJ pratityasamutpiidiirthal;. Translation: "What is the meaning of dependent
origination? (1) 'Insubstantiality' (niiJsattva) is the meaning of dependent origination; (2)
given [the meaning of] insubstantiality, it [also] means 'impermanence' (anitya); (3) given
[the meaning of] impermanence, it means 'remaining in change' (jtvarapratyupasthiipana);
(4) given [the meaning of] remaining in change, it means 'dependency' (paratantra); (5)
given [the meaning of] dependency, it means 'inactivity' (niriha); (6) given [the meaning of]
inactivity, it means 'the uninterrupted series of cause and effect' (hetuphalaprabandhiinu-
paccheda); (7) given [the meaning of] 'the uninterrupted series of cause and effect', it
pravartana); (8) given [the meaning of] the evolution of cause and effect in a homogeneous
manner, it means 'self-existence of action' (karmasvabhiiva). This is the meaning of
dependent origination." See also KRITZER (1999:54-55, 55 fn. 120).

978 Changhwan PARK
pratyayotpatti). 113 This entails that Vasubandhu was attempting to standardize
YBh's rather archaic scheme of interpretation with a newly-fashioned threefold
exegetical scheme by relying on scriptural authority, the AVVS.
In sum, in the PSVy, Vasubandhu attempts to modify the twofold scheme of
the YBh so that it can be in line with the threefold scheme of the AWS.
114
This
reinterpretation of the YBh's scheme in accodance with the scriptural authority
reminds us of Vasubandhu's old scholastic identity as a scripturalist in the
Sautrantik_a Portion in the AKBh, though the scripture he relied on had changed
from the Agamic Pratityasamutpadasiitra to the obviously later-fashioned AVVS.
Considering all this, it becomes clear that Vasubandhu's condensed account, in the
AKBh's acaiya-passage, of the *Yaugacarabhiim1ka-opinion as a merely singular
(aprahipa-centered) interpretation does not do justice to the latter's actual
position, which is twofold ( or four-part) in explaining the formula. If Vasubandhu
really wanted to represent the YBh's view of the formula, he would have more
carefully reproduced it; further, he would have more forcefully pressed for its
stance rather than simply remaining mute on the passage and later saying "we shall
show only the connection (abhisambandhamatra)" of the twelve limbs of depen-
dent origination. The unvoiced comment by Vasubandhu on the acaiya-passage in
the AKBh would have been something akin to the PSVy's, which is by nature a
113
AS 26 3_4 : kathaip Jak~aIJatafJ I niri[hajpratyayotpattitam upadaya anityapratyayot-
pattitam upadaya samarthapratyayotpattitam upadaya /. Translation by KRITZER (1999:24):
"How [should that which has originated conditionally be understood] with reference to its
characteristic? [It should be understood with reference to its characteristics on the basis of
the fact that: [i] [that which has originated conditionally] arises from conditions that are
inactive (nirihapratyaya); [ii] [that which has originated conditionally] arises from condi-
tions that are impermanent (anityapratyaya); and [iii] [that which has originated conditio-
nally] arises from conditions that are effective (samarthapratyaya)." Further, ASBh 31 1_8 :
tatra asmin satidaip bhavati nirihapratyayotpattitam upadaya I sati kevalaip pratyaye
phalaip bhavati, na tu phalotpadanaip prati pratyayasya kacid ihety arthafJ / asyotpadad
idam utpadyate anityapratyayotpattitam upadaya, na hy anutpadikaraIJat kiipcid utpadya-
manaip karya siddham iti krtva I avidyapratyaya!J saipskara ity evamadi samarthapratyayot-
pattitam upadaya I nirihakatvanityatve 'pi sati na yata!J kutascit pratyatyat sarvam eva
phalam utpadyate, kiip tarhi samarthat I tadyatha 'vidyata!J saipskara yavaj jatito jara-
maraIJam iti. Translation by KRITZER (1999:24-25): "[With respect to this]: i. [The Lord
said,] 'Since this exists, that exists,' on the basis of the fact that [that which has originated
conditionally] arises from conditions that are inactive. The meaning is as follows: merely
due to the fact that the condition exists, the result arises. And it is not the case that there is
any action on the part of the condition [aimed at] the origination of the result. ii. [The Lord
said,] 'Due to the arising of this, that arises,' on the basis of the fact that lthat which has
originated conditionally] arises from conditions that are impermanent because it cannot be
established that any result originates from a cause that has the nature of non-arising. iii.
[The Lord said,] 'Conditioned by ignorance, the Karmic Forces [exist], etc.,' on the basis of
the fact that [that which has originated conditionally] arises from conditions that are
effective. Even [conditions] are inactive and impermanent, it does not follow that every
result originates [indiscriminately] from any condition. Rather, [a result originates] only
from a [specifically] effective condition, as the Karmic Forces [originates] from Ignorance
[and so on,] up to Old Age and Death, [which originates] from Birth."
114
MUROJI (1986:70) notes that Vasubandhu did not uncritically reproduce the YBh
passage in the PSVy because he attempted a reinterpretation of it. KUSUMOTO (2006:159-
160) also agrees with the idea that Vasubandhu critically treats the YBh passage in the
PSVy.
What are Acal)'as or *Yaugacarabhiim1kas 979
scripturalist reformulation of the YBh's position, not a literal endorsement of it, as
seen above. If this conjecture is reasonable, then Vasubandhu may even have
adapted the aca~a-pass~ge in accordan~e with _a siitra, wh~le c~itically revi~w~ng
the alternative views agamst the authentic meamng of the sutra m the Sautrantlka
Portion. us But in reality Vasubandhu did not do so perhaps because - as
Sailghabhadra pointed out - he found it altogether disrespectful to disclose any
sign of adjustment or reintepretation of his own teachers' position and thus
refrained from saying anything negative, going against his scripturalist urge to do
so.
5. Conclusion
The intention of Vasubandhu's quotation of the acaiya-passage in the AKBh is of
ambivalent character. Our examination has shown that the overall context in and
around the passage in the Sautrantika Portion is not favorable enough to quote it
as the words of Vasuhandhu's revered Yogacara-Vijiianavada teachers. It is
embedded in the context of a predominantly scripturalist concern, in which
Vasubandhu's argument is normally premised on the imperative that one should
rely on the explicit meaning of siitras (siitrartha). The scripturalist stringency
exercised in his exegesis is embodied in Vasubandhu's conclusive remark in the
Sautrantika portion, "we shall show only the connection (abhisa1pbandhamatra)."
This exegetical attitude scarcely resembles any sophisticated Abhidharmic
attempts to theorize the teaching of dependent origination, be it Vaibha~ika,
Sautrantika, or Y ogacara. Therefore, there is little doubt that as far as the
Sautrantika Portion is concerned, Vasubandhu is fixated on recovering the genuine
purport of the teaching of dependent origination, prompted by his zeal for a
scripturalist understanding of it.
From this quintessential scripturalist perspective, Vasubandhu even criticized
the idiosyncratic ideas of Sri:lata, a self-proclaimed Sautrantika, for his deviation
from the meaning of siitras. That is, Vasubandhu critically reexamined the secta-
rian viewpoints of the Sautrantikas under the guiding spirit of strict scripturalism.
However, this criticism against the sectarian biases of the Sautrantikas should not
be taken as a wholesale attack on the Sautrantikas as a whole. Vasubandhu's
positive attitudes towards the opinions of such Sautrantikas as Vasuvarman and
Bhadanta Rama in this portion are, to some extent, i?dicative of this. Further, it
has already been demonstrated that the influence of Sri:lata's Sautrantika exegeti-
cal principle on the formulation of Vasubandhu's scripturalist stance was palpable
enough to be witnessed by Saiighabhadra, though Vasubandhu in turn applied the
Sautrantika standards to the Sautrantikas themselves to assess the validity of their
arguments, which entails that Vasubandhu was of a rather free, dogma-defying
character.
Further, the fragmented manner in which Vasubandhu cites the acaiya-
passage in the AKBh convinces us further that the opinion of the acaiyas, later
identified as the *Yaugacarabhiimikas, is not taken as seriously as it should be, if it
were his own revered teachers', in this overly scripturalist context. In the AKBh,
Vasubandhu offers the singular interpretation (i.e., aprahipa-centered) of the two
formulas under the name of "acaiyas" without any supporting comment; by
contrast, the YBh basically presents a twofold interpretation (i.e., aprahipa and
anitya). In the AKBh, Vasubandhu mentions the acazya-passage in passing as if he
115
For a similar argument, see KUSUMOTO (2006:160).
980 Changhwan PARK
did not have much interest in actually engaging it. If Vasubandhu really were intent
on introducing his own teachers' and thus his own school's viewpoint in the AKBh,
he would have been more careful to address the full version of the YBh's twofold
interpretation. This relatively marginalized status of the *Yaugacarabhtlm1ka
acii1J7a-passage in the AKBh entails that Vasubandhu, the Kosakara, was not keen
on utilizing the YBh's doctrinal system of dependent origination and thus
establishing any covert Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada footholds in the AKBh. Given that
the gist of the YBh's interpretation of dependent origination is seed-based ( bija-
based), 116 if Vasubandhu really wanted to represent his own school's standpoint,
the fac;ade of the "Sautrantika Portion" in the AKBh would have looked quite
different. Vasubandhu's treatment of the passage of the acii1J7as, though suppo-
sedly his own teachers at some level, is characterized by his suspension of judge-
ment, which is a sign of his hesitation for an unknown reason, and this non-comittal
hesitation within a clearly pronounced scripturalist context makes his perception of
these teachers debatable.
To be sure, when it comes to the PSVy, Vasubandhu's later Yogacara-oriented
text, Vasubandhu becomes more specific to identify these acii1J7as as the
*Yaugacarabhumikas. Even this identification, however, does not automatically
translate into the fact that Vasubandhu himself was a staunch *Yaugacarabhtlmika.
As we have seen, even at the stage of the PSVy, Vasubandhu's ideological stance is
of ambivalent character. In his comment on the two formulas in the PSVy,
Vasubandhu first reproduces the twofold interpretation as the *Yaugacarabhumi-
ka position and subsequently reinterpretes it as a threefold position, leaning upon
a scriptural source, i.e., the AVVS. That is, Vasubandhu still brings in another
scriptural passage to corroborate and unpack the full meaning of the YBh passage,
which is again an indication of his exegetical methodology being in line with the
scripturalist spirit. In Vasubandhu's own conclusive comment on the formula, in
which he gives his final endorsement to the niriha-centered threefold interpreta-
tion in the PSVy, there is no room for the term "aprahiIJa" favored in the AKBh
and the YBh. Given the rather unfavorable outcome of the analysis of the iicii1J7a-
passage, the most probable linkage between the AKBh and the YBh, it can
therefore be concluded that there is no convincing evidence that Vasubandhu was
already a Yogacara-Vijfi.anavadin at the stage of composing the AKBh. Further,
the acii1J7as or *Yaugacarabhumikas are playing a rather marginal role, which does
not make any visible impact on the overall scripturalist context in the AKBh, and
this kind of treatment would be almost unfathomable if the expressions acii1J7as or
*Yaugacarabhumikas actually refer to the teachers of Vasubandhu's own school,
the Yogacara-Vijfi.anavada.
116
For the argument that a bga-interpretation of pratftyasamutpada is peculiar to
Yogacara texts, see KRITZER (1999:211).
What are Acaryas or *Yaugaciirabhum1kas 981
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according to Vasubandhu"] in Koyashan Daigaku Ronso (~l!Ffr-l/:*:"¥:llm1ff) vol. ----Ac-:b-:-h-:-id-:-:'h-aJ:_m_a-;-by-R:;::-o;-be-rt Kritzer" in Bukkyogaku Seminii (1.lf!z$-t:: -t-) 72, pp.
28, pp. 23-59. 59-69.
(2006): "IF~PJm:i¥M1~%llm1e1 c:.t5tt{S 'utsutra"' (2003). "On the School Affiliation of Asvagho~a:
["The Term utsutra in the Abhidharmakosabhawa"] in Journal of Indian and 'Sautrantika' or 'Yogacara'?" in Journal of the International Association of
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pp. 155-159.
NISHI, Giyu (]3_§~:fttt) (1939): "fl'~JJ&f~~(:_1f~tt {SJlJr1{jJU@ffi t ,f O)f9'.tfLJ" ["The Yogacara
School of Buddhism and its Role"] in Bukkyo Kenkyu ( {L~,liJf'fE) vol. 3.1, pp. 1-
48.
PARK, Changhwan (liJ-% ~) (2007): The Sautrantika The01y of Seeds (bija) Revisited· with
special referenqe to the ideological continuity between Vasubandhu's theory of
seeds and its Srilata I D:lrf{:lntika precedents, Ph.D. dissertation, University of
California at Berkeley.
(forthcoming): Vasubandhu, Srilata, and the Sautrantika
Theory of Seeds, Wiener Studien zur Tibetologie und Buddhismuskunde, Vienna:
Arbeitskreis fur Tibetische und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.
PASADIKA, Bhikkhu (1989): Kanonische Zitate im Abhidharmakosabhawa des
Vasubandhu, Gottingen: Vandenhock & Ruprecht.
REAT, N. Ross (1993): The Salistambasutra, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
SCHMITHAUSEN, Lambert (1967): "Sautrantika-Voraussetzungen in Vilpsatika und
Trif!]sika" in Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde Siid- und Ostasiens 11, pp. 109-136.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ (1969): "Zur Literaturgeschichte der Alteren Yogacara-Schule"
in Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft supplementa 1.3, pp.
811-823.
- - - - - - - - - (1987): Alayavijiiiina: On the Origin and Early Development ofa
Central Concept of Yogacara Ph1losophy, Studia Philologica Buddhica Mono-
graph Series vols. Vol. 4a-b. Tokyo: The International Institute for Buddhist
Studies.
SCHOENING, Jeffrey D. (1995): The Salistamba Sutra and its Indian Commentaries, vol. I·
Translation with annotation, vol. fl· Tibetan Editions, Wiener Studies zur Tibe-
tologie und Buddhismuskunde 35.1-2, edited by Ernst STEINKELLNER, Vienna:
Arbeitskreis fur Tibetishe und Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien.
SILK, Jonathan A (2000): "The Yogacara Bhiksu' in Wisdom, Compassion, and the Search
for Understanding: Buddhist Studies Legacy of Gadjin M Nagao, Honolulu: Uni-
versity of Hawai'i Press, pp. 265-314.

A Study of the Saipskara Section
of Vasubandhu's Pa.icaskandhaka
with Reference to Its Commentary by Sthiramati
Jowita KRAMER
1. Introduction
In his treatise "On the Five Constituents of the Person" (Paiicaskandhaka)
Vasubandhu succeeded in presenting a brief but very comprehensive and clear
outline of the concept of the five skandhas as understood from the viewpoint of the
Y ogacara tradition. When investigating the doctrinal development of the five
skandha theory and of other related concepts taught in the Paiicaskandhaka, works
like the Yogacarabhumj, the Abhkiharmasamuccaya, and the Abhidharmakosa-
bhawa are of great importance. The relevance of the first two texts results from
their close association with the Paiicaskandhaka in terms of tradition. The
significance of the Abhidharmakosabhawa is due to the assumption of an identical
author of this text and the Paiicaskandhaka. 1 The comparison of the latter with the
other texts leads to a highly inconsistent picture of the relations between the works.
It is therefore difficult to determine the developmental processes of the teachings
presented in the texts under consideration and to give a concluding answer to the
question whether the same person composed the Abhidharmakosabha$ya and the
Paiicaskandhaka. What makes the identification of the interdependence between
the texts even more problematic is our limited knowledge of the methods the
Indian authors and commentators applied when they composed their works. It was
obviously very common to make use of whole sentences or even passages from
older texts without marking them as quotations. If we assume the silent copying of
older material as the usual method of Indian authors, then the question arises why
in some cases the wording they apply is not identical but replaced by synonyms or
completely different statements. Are all these divergences included deliberately by
the authors or do they result from a rather loose treatment of the sources, which
might be caused by the fact that the authors quoted from the older texts by memory
and not on the basis of written sources? Another question difficult to answer is that
of the consistency which was expected from an Indian author. There are instances
in the works of Vasubandhu and Sthiramati in which the authors seem to be in
conflict with statements they made on other occasions. Which conclusions are to be
I would like to thank Lambert SCHMITHAUSEN, Jens-Uwe HARTMANN, Kazuo KANO, and
Ralf KRAMER for offering very helpful comments and corrections to previous drafts of this
paper. I am also grateful for the support received from the German Research Foundation
(DFG) from 2007 until 2010, which enabled me to complete this article.
1
On the authorship of the works ascribed to Vasubandhu, see SCHMITHAUSEN (1987:
262f., n. 101).
A Study of the Saf!1skara Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 987
d awn from such occurrences? Do they imply that two different authors have to
b: assumed for the r~spective works? ~_r do they rather _indic~te that i~ was
ommon practice to adJust one's own position to the context m which a particular
\ntence, passage, or text was written, even if it contradicted a view one had been
s roposing somewhere else? Or might these inconsistencies simply result from an
~ccasional inaccuracy of the authors, who may have sometimes left their former
concepts unconsidered? . .
When trying to identify the relations between the teachmgs presented m the
texts under consideration, not only the similarity between the positions held but
also the closeness of the wording has to be considered. While analogies in contents
point to a general affiliation of the concepts to a certain philosophical and literary
context, only a parallel wording permits us to conclude that the presented
teachings definitely share a common textual source. As will become evident
through the examples provided below, both these kinds of relationships can be
identified with regard to the Paiicaskandhaka(vibhaJa) and the other Abhidharma
texts. One of my main concerns in this paper is to show that the relations between
the texts under discussion are very heterogeneous and any attempt to clarify them
requires a thorough comparative examination of the teachings presented in the
texts.
A few years ago, facsimiles of the Sanskrit manuscripts of Vasubandhu's
Paiicaskandhaka and its commentary by Sthiramati, the PaiicaskandhakavibhaJa,
were made available at the China Tibetology Research Center (cj:ll:EJif+utfJi:cp
{,, Zh6nggu6 zimgxue yanjiu zh6ngxin) in Beijing. An edition of the Paiicaskan-
dhaka by LI Xuezhu and Ernst STEINKELLNER has already appeared in print (LI &
STEINKELLNER, 2008), and the critical and diplomatic editions of the Paiica-
skandhakavibhaJa will soon be published (KRAMER, forthcoming 1). After
studying the sections on matter (rupa) and mind ( vijiiana) of these texts in two
publications (KRAMER, 2008, and KRAMER, forthcoming 2), I am now presenting
an investigation of the section on the fourth skandha, the saipskaras, 2 in which I
compare the definitions of the saipskaras provided in the Paiicaskandhaka to
parallel explanations in the Abhidharma texts mentioned above, namely the
Abhidharmasamuccaya, the AbhidharmakosabhaJya, and the "Basic Section" of
the Yogacarabhumi This comparison is supplemented with additional quotations
from these works as found in Sthiramati's commentary on the Paiicaskandhaka, viz.
the PaiicaskandhakavibhaJa, and with citations from the Abhidharmasamuccaya-
bhawa.
2
A proper English rendering of sa1pskiira as found in the Paiicaskandhaka is difficult,
since when this text was composed, the two original meanings of the term, i.e., "impulses"
and "all impermanent objects of experience," seem to have been intermingled in the course
of time, and the concept of the sa1pskiiras became a "receptacle" for all those factors that
could not be included in any other skandha, as for instance the "saipskiiras dissociated from
mind" ( cittaviprayuktiil; saipskiiriiiJ). I therefore leave the term untranslated in this paper.
 988 Jowita KRAMER A Study of the Saf!Jskara Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 989

2. The Section on Smpskaras On the other hand, the Abhjdh_arm~ko_sab1awa gives five different classes of
cajttas, referring to them as (maha)bhumjkas:
2.1 General Remarks (1) factors of great extension (maha~hrJmikl;) _ _ .
The original meaning of sarpskara has been discussed in detail by Tilmann VETTER (2) beneficial factors of great extension (kusalafl!aha_bhumika) _ _ .
in his study of the utilization of the five skandhas in canonical sources (VETTER, 3) factors of great extension, which are contammat10ns (kles~mahabhumika)
2000:27-63). According to VETTER, it is uncertain what exactly the early passages ~ 4) detrimental factors of great extens~o~ ( akusalam~hii~hrJmika)
(5) factors whose extension is that of hm1ted contammat10ns
mean when they employ the (Pali) term salikhara or the related verb (abhi)saJi- (parittaklesabhrJmika)
kharoti VETTER demonstrates that the term saJikhara was used in two different
ways in canonical sources: on one hand, it seems to point to external objects or Subsequently, an additional group of factors is listed as:
even to all impermanent objects of experience in general; on the other hand, in a
more specific sense, it refers to the factors that activate people to do something (6) undetermined (aniyata)
and activate life after death. Only very few canonical passages explain in detail
what these factors are. The well known triad of passion (raga), hatred ( dosa), and The first class of the Abhidharmakosabha~ya, the mahabhfimjka c_la~s,. consJsts of
delusion (moha) seems to be found often in this context. The explanation of the factors that accompany every moment of mind (1,KJ3h 5419), an~ 1t 1s. 1de~t1cal t~
fourth skandha as the sixfold intention ( cetana), which in later texts is provided as the categories (1) "universal" (sarvatraga) and (2) ~ound to certam O?Jects _(pr~tJ-
myatavj~aya) of the Paiicaskandhaka. These classes mclude the followmg ca1ttas:
the traditional interpretation of sarpskara, seems to be a later (though still
canonical) interpretation of the term. The clear distinction of harmful and
benevolent impulses activating good and bad deeds or leading to rebirth in a good Tab IA
e
AKBh PSkfV), TrBh AS y
or bad place also appears to be a later stage of development in the usage of the
term sarpskara. Class (1): Classes (1)-(2):
In Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka, the characterization of the fourth skandha 10 mahiibhrJmikas 5 sarvatraJ;a, 5 pratiniyatavisaya
has reached an elaborate level, the sarpskaras being differentiated clearly into 1. vedanii (feeling) 1. sparsa (contact) [cetanii] manaskiira
different classes, including the "factors associated with mind" ( cajtasjkfi dharmii{l 2. cetanii (intention) 2. manaskiira (attention) [vedanii] sparsa
or cajtta) and the "sarpskaras dissociated from mind" ( dttavjprayuktal; sarpskaral;). 3. salJJJnii (ideation) [3. vedanii (feeling)] [S81Jl}nii] vedanii
A very similar treatment of the sarpskaras is found in the Yogacarabhfimj and the
4. chanda (wish) [4. salJJ}nii (ideation)] manaskiira S81Jl}nii
AbhMharmasamuccaya. In the Abh1dharmakosabha~ya, however, we find a diffe-
rent stage of development. There the cajttas and dttavjprayuktal; sarpskaral; are 5. sparsa(contact) 5. cetanii (intention) sparsa cetanii
not part of the definition of the fourth skandha in the first chapter, but are treated 6. mati (determination) 1. chanda (wish) chanda chanda
as separate categories in chapter two. 3 (- prajnii, discrimination)
7. smrti (mindfulness) 2. adhimokJa (conviction) adhimokJa adhimokJa
2.2 Factors Associated with Mind ( Caitta) 8. manaskiira (attention) 3. smrti(mindfulness) smrti smrti
9. adh1inokJa (conviction) 4. samiidhi(absorption) samiidhi samiidhi
2.2.1 Classification of the Caittas 10. samiidhi (absorption) 5. prajna ( TrBh: dhi) prajnii prajnii
When we take a closer look at the classification of the factors associated with mind, (discrimination)
we find some divergences between the texts under discussion. On one hand, the
Paiicaskandhaka(vjbha~a) enumerates six categories of cajtasjkfi dharmal;: 4 .
The five items chanda, adhjmok~a, smrti, samadhi, and prajiia ( = matj) are sepa-
(1) universal ( sarvatraga) rated from the group of the ten cajttas that accompany every moment of mind and
(2) bound to certain objects (prat1niyatav1°{,aya)
(3) beneficial (kusala)
(4) contaminations (klesa)
(5) secondary contaminations ( upaklesa) 5
(6) factors that may be beneficial, detrimental, or neutrai5 6
PSkV19b6. . . .
Some of the following names of caitta categories are already mentioned m earlier
Abhidharma works. See WILLEMEN, DESSEIN & Cox (1998:72 and 208f.).
3 7
However, when explaining the fourth skandha, Vasubandhu mentions that the The differences between the listings in these works are marked in bold below. The
caittas and the cittaviprayuktiiiJ sa1JJskiiriiiJ are actually to be incorporated in the sa1J1skara- two factors vedanii (feeling) and salJJ}nii (ideation) are, striktly speaking, also "fact~rs
skandha (AKBh 11 1: tasmiid avasyam eJiilJJ sa1J1skiiraskandhasa1J1graho 'bhyupagantavyaiJ). associated with mind." But since they have already been explained as separate categones
4
In the Abhidharmasamuccaya (AS 1532ff.) and the YogiiciirabhrJmi ( Y l1 14ff.), the (i.e., as the second and the third skandhas), the Pancaskandhaka and the Abhidharma-
caittas are not subdivided into classes, but the group of caittas mentioned there includes samuccaya exclude these two terms from their definitions of the sa1J1skiiras. Therefore
the same items arranged in more or less the same order as in the Pancaskandhaka. these two categories are mentioned below in square brackets.
990 Jowita KRAMER A Study of the Saf!]skara Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 991

categorized as factors "bound to certain objects." This alternative classification

apparently indicates a Yogacara innovation. 2.kausidya 2. upanaha (resentment) upaniiha upanaha
2.pramiida
As for the remaining categories, the "beneficial factors of great extension" (careless- (idleness)
(kusalamahabhum1ka) comprise the same ten sa1pskaras as the parallel section (3) ness)
"beneficial" (kusala) in the Paiicaskandhaka, though the latter text adds an additio- 3. 3. mrakfa (concealment) mrakfa mrakfa
3. kausidya
nal item: (idleness) m~tasipitita
(loss of
Table B. mindfulness)
AKBh PSk(V), TrBh AS y 4.~pa 4.pradiisa pradiisa pradiisa
4. asraddhya
Class (2): Class (3): (absence of (distraction) (contentiousness)
10 kusalamahabhumikas 11 kusala trust)
5. avidyii 5. Irwa (envy) Irwa 1rwa
1. sraddhii (trust) 1. sraddha(trust) sraddhii sraddhii 5. styana
hri hri (dullness) (ignorance)
2. apramiida (care) 2. hri(shame in relation to miitsarya
6. uddhava 6. asampra- 6. miitsarya(avarice) matsarya
oneself)
(excitement) janya,
3. prasrabdhi (ease) 3. apatrapya (shame in apatrapya apatrapya
( == (absence of
relation to others)
auddhatva) mindfulness)
4. upekfii(equanimity) 4. alobha (absence of craving) alobha alobha 7. ayoniso- 7. miiyii (deceit) mayii miiyii
5. hri(shame in relation to 5. advefa ( absence of hatred) advefa advefa manaskara
oneself) (wrong
6. apatrapii (shame in relation 6. amoha (absence of a.moha a.moha attention)
to others) delusion) 8. mithyadhi- 8. siifhya (guile) safhya sa{hya
7. (alobha) (absence of 7. vllya ( energy) virya virya mo.fya
craving) (wrong
conviction)
8. (advefa) (absence of 8. prasrabdhi (ease) prasrabdhi prasrabdhi mada mada
9. auddhatya 9. mada (conceit)
hatred)
(excitement)
9. ahil[lsii (non-harm) 9. apramiida (care) apramada apramiida 10. vihil[lSii (harming) vihil[lSii vihil[lSii
10. pramiida
10. virya (energy) 10. upekfii(equanimity) upekfii upekfii (carelessness)
11. avihlipsii (non-harm) avihil[lsii ahil[1S8 Class (4):
2 akusalamahiibhumikas
Unlike the Abhidharmakosabha$ya, the Paiicaskandhaka adds "absence of delu- 1. ahrikya (shamelessness in 11. iihrikya (shamelessness iihrikya iihrikya
sion" (amoha) to this category. This is remarkable, as Vasubandhu explains in the relation to oneself) in relation to oneself)
Abhidharmakosabha$J7a (AKBh 55 22 ) that amoha is not to be mentioned among 2. anapatrapii (shamelessness 12. anapatriipya (shame- an- an-
the kusalamahabhum1kas, because - being included in prajiia - it is already part of in relation to others) lessness in relation to apatrapya apatriipya
the first group, the mahabhumikas, listed above in table A. others)
The caittas listed in the Abhidharmakosabha$ya in groups (3) to (5) are all but Class (5):
one found in the Paiicaskandhaka among the "secondary contaminations" ( upa- 10 varittaklesabhumikas
klesa) of section (5): 1. krodha (wrath) 13. stvana (dullness) styiina styiina
2. upaniiha (resentment) 14. auddhatva (excitement) auddhatva auddhatya
Table C. 3. siifhya (guile) 15. asraddhya ( absence iisraddhya iisraddhya
AKBh PSk(V), TrBh AS y of trust)
4. irsyii (envv 16. kausidva (idleness) kausfdya kausidya
Class (3):
Class (5): 17. vramiida (carelessness) oramada pramiida
6 klesamahabhumikas 5. p~adasa (contentiousness)
20 upaklesas 18.m~tas111{titii(lossof m~ta- m~ta-
(accepted) (reiected) 6. mrakfa (concealment)
mindfulness) smrtita smrtita
l.moha 1. asraddhya 1. krodha (wrath) krodha krodha
7. matsara (avarice) 19. ~pa (distraction) asam- adhi.lcyepa
(delusion) (absence of
prajanya (read:
trust)
~Da)
 992 Jowita KRAMER A Study of the Saf!lskara Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 993
8. maya(deceit) 20.asanJ_prajanya(absence vi/cye_pa 8SanJ- trust" (asraddhya), "dullness" (styana), and "excitement" (uddhava). He explicitly
of mindfulness) oraianva rejects the alternative listing of ten klesamahabhumikas found in some Abhid-
9. mada (conceit)
harma works. This alternative list includes: 1. "absence of trust" (asraddhya), 2.
10. vjhi1psa (harming)
"idleness" (kausidya), 3. "loss of mindfulness" (mu$ifasl[lrtita), 4. "distraction"
(vik$epa), 5. "ignorance" (avidya), 6. "absence of mindfulness" (asamprajanya), 7.
Th~ only item among the three categories mentioned in the Abhidharmakosa- "wrong attention" (ayonisomanaskara), 8. "wrong conviction" (mithyadhimok$a), 9.
bha$!a that does not occur in t~e Pa.icaskandhaka is "delusion" (moha). This is "excite-ment" (auddhatya), and 10. "carelessness" (pramada). Vasubandhu's
poss1~ly ~ecause moha - accordmg to_ the Abhidharmakosabha$ya - is a synonym rejection of the three items mu$ifasmrtita, vik$epa, and asamprajanya is remark-
of avidya (AJ_<B_h 566) and, the latter 1s one of the six caittas listed in the Pa.ica- able insofar as these three sal[lskaras are listed by Vasubandhu in his Pa.icaskand-
skand_haka ,;"1t?1~ 1 the _kles~ group. !he other five are "passion" (raga), "enmity" haka as being part of the upaklesa group (class 5). In the Abhidharmakosabha$ya,
1
(pratJgha\ pnde (maf!a), (f~lse) view" (d!$fi), and "doubt" (vicikitsa) - none of Vasubandhu excludes these three caittas from his klesamahabhrlmika list,
~hese k(esas are mentioned m the Abhidharmakosabha$ya list of caittas, but explaining that mu$i-tasmrtitais not different from contaminated (kli${a) smrti and
8
mterestmgly they are found together with avidya as the six latent defilements that vik$epa is nothing but contaminated samadhi (AKBh 56 15 ). Following this
( anusaya) in the fifth chapter of the text: assignment, all three are to be found in the first category of mahabhrlmikas. The
same applies to the other two caittas listed in the alternative group of klesamahab-
Table D.
humikas (AKBh 56rn): ayoniso-manaskara, which can be identified with ma-
AKBh PSki , TrBh AS y naskara, and mithyadhi-mok$a, which, most probably, has to be regarded as part of
Class (4): adhimoksa. It is notable that these two caittas are - in contrast to musitasmrtita,
6 k/esas v1k$epa, ~nd asam-prajanya-not mentioned in Vasubandhu's Pa.icaska~dhak~. 9
It is also remarkable that in the Abhidharmasamuccaya most of the twenty
listed in chapter five as secondary contaminations and the four factors that may be beneficial, detrimental,.
latent defilements (anusaya) or neutral are subordinated under the four factors "enmity" (pratigha), "passion"
(raga), "hatred" ( dve$a), and "delusion" (moha). It is interesting to note that neither
dvesa nor moha are mentioned in the caitta list of the Abhidharmasamuccaya. As
drsti alre.ady indicated above, the lack of moha might be explained by the fact that moha
vicildtsa is a synonym of avidya. The reason for not mentioning dvesa could be the latter's
close resemblance to pratigha. 10 The mentioning of both terms, pratigha and dve$a,
The four fact?r.s of the_ last group (6), "undetermined" (aniyata) or "factors that side by side within the group of the four superordinate categories is probably due
may be bene_ficial, detr~mental, or neutral," are identical in the Pa.icaskandhaka to the merging of two orininally independent systems.
and the Abh1dharmakosabha$ya:
Fourteen of the nineteen subordinated factors are ascribed to a single category,
Table E. whereas five are said to be part of two or even three factors:
AKBh PSk(V), TrBh y Table F. The system in AS of subordinating most of the 20 upaklesas and the 4 factors that may be
AS
Class (6): Class (6): beneficial detnmental or neutral under the four factors rati ha ra a dvesa and moha.
4 anjyata part of vjhjlpsa (harming), krodha (wrath), upanaha (resentment), pradasa
4 factors that may be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral
1. kaukrtva (regret) pratjgha (contentiousness)
1. kaukrtya (regret) mjddha kaulc_rtva
2. n"tarka (rough examina- enmi
2. mjddha (languor) kaulqtya m1adha
tion) matsarya (avarice), mada (conceit), auddhatya (excitement); maya
part of raga
3. vkara (subtle investiga- 3. vjtarka (rough
(deceit), safhya (guile); vik~epa ( distraction), ahrikya (shamelessness in
vjtarka vHarka (passion)
tion) examination) relation to onesel , ana atra a shamelessness in relation to others
4. m1adha (languor) 4. vkara (subtle investiga- vkara vkara 8
tion) Although Vasubandhu does not explicitly assign asamprajanya to any of the maha-
bhiimjkas of the first group, he most probably identifies it with contaminated prajna.
9
A list of upak/esas included in the VindcayasalpgrahaJJl also mentions mjthyadhj-
_The ques~ion _which items are to be included in class (3) of the mok~a and, additionally, mjthyacchanda ("wrong wish"). See AHN (2003:228, n. 244, and
Abidharmakosabhaffa (table C above), viz. the klesamahabhumika group seems 229, n. 249).
to ~ave_ been generally disputed at the time when Vasubandhu composed this text, 10
This assumption is supported by the fact that the opposite of hatred, i.e., adve~a, is
as IS evident from the author's reference to divergent opinions of the Abhidharma defined in the Abhjdharmasamuccaya as "absence of anger" (anaghata), from which it can
~aste~s .~AKBh 56 ~off). Vasubandhu accepts the following group of klesas: be concluded that aghata would be a synonym of dve~a. As aghata is also mentioned as a
1
delus10n (moha), carelessness" (pramada), "idleness" (kausidya), "absence of synonym of pratjgha in the Abhidharmasamuccaya, the meanings of pratigha and dve~a
seem to be very similar.
994 Jowita KRAMER A Study of the Sa0sk;1ra Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 995

part of dve>c1 ir~ya (envy); vjkt,epa (distraction), ahrikya (shamelessness in relation to
hatred oneself , ana atra a shamelessness in relation to others
mrak~a (concealment), kaukrtya (regret), styana (dullness), asraddhya
part of moha (absence of trust), kausidya (idleness), mjddha (languor); maya ( deceit),
(delusion) safhya (guile); vjk~epa (distraction), ahrikya (shamelessness in relation to
onesel , ana atra ya shamelessness in relation to others
Neither in the Paiicaskandhaka, the Yogficfirabhum1; nor the Abhidharmakosa-
bhawa are t~e ~aitt~s c~tegorized in such a way. Sthiramati sporadically mentions
parallel ascnptlons 1~ his commentary to the Paiicaskandhaka, probably quoting
them from the Abhidharmasamuccaya. 11 While the Abhidharmasamuccaya thus
subor?i?ates 17_ of the upaklesas and 2 of the category of factors that may be
beneficial, detnmental, or neutral to the four categories delineated above there
still remain three caittas of the upaklesa group and two caittas of the cateiory of
factors that may be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral, which are not assigned to
any of the four above categories. The five unassigned caittas are carelessness
(pra~~da), absence ~f ~indful?ess (asamprajanya), loss of mindfulness (mu~ita-
s1:17rt1ta ), rough exammatlon ( v1tarka), and subtle investigation ( vicfira). As for the
flr~t of them, pramfida, it is explained to be based (nisritya) on Jobha ("craving,"
bemg ~losely related t? ~figa), dve~a, and moha and to be accompanied by idleness
(kaus1dya). The remammg four factors are not described to be part of or to be
based on any. othe~- ~ategory. They seem, however, to be regarded as particular
forms of smrtJ, pra1na, and cetanfi.
Most of the factors found in classes (3) to (6) of the Abhidharmakosabhiisya
(tables C-E above) are also listed in the fifth ch aper of the text as the ten "fett;rs"
(pa1yavasthiina) and the six "defilements [consisting in] the contaminations"
(klesamala):
TableG.
AKBh
10 pa!J'avasthanas
1. ahrlkya (shamelessness in
relation to oneself)
2. anapatrapya (shamelessness
in relation to others)
3. Irwa(envy)
4. matsa1Ya (avarice)
5. uddhava (excitement)
6. kaukrtya (regret)
7. styana (dullness)
8. m1"ddha (languor)
9. krodha (wrath)
10. mrak~a (concealment)
6 klesamalas
11
See his comments on vjhj1J1S3, pradasa, matSalJ'a, auddhatya, safhya, styana, and
m1"ddha.
1. maya(deceit)
2. safhya (guile)
3. mad~~onceit)
4. pradasa (contentiousness)
5. upanaha (resentment)
6. vjhI°Jpsa (harming)
2.2.2 Comparison
In the following, I compare the definitions of the caittas as provided in the
Paiicaskandhaka(vibhii~fi), the Abhidharmasamuccaya, the "Basic Section" of the
Yogficfirabhllmi, and the Abhidharmakosabhawa. It can generally be assumed that
the formulations of the definitions of certain terms and concepts in Abhidharmic
texts follow a standardized model, the younger works adopting - at least parts of -
the formulations to be found in preceding scriptures. Thus, it is not surprising that
Vasubandhu also employs material from other Abhidharmic sources in the
Paiicaskandhaka and that Sthiramati supplements further quotations in his com-
mentary. However, some questions regarding Vasubandhu's and Sthiramati's way
of dealing with their sources remain unanswered: What were Vasubandhu's (and
Sthiramati's) criteria in adopting a certain definition of a term from an older
source and neglecting another? Are the innovations found in Vasubandhu's text
concepts newly developed by himself, or do they originate from a source unknown
to us? Which conclusions can we generally draw from the analysis of an author's
treatment of older material? Was it considered appropriate if the author modified
and restyled the traditional explanations? It is beyond the scope of the present
paper to answer all these larger questions, but the comparative presentation of the
definitions of the sa.1pskaras given in the following is intended to provide a well-
founded point of departure for future research, giving a rough overview of the
possible relations between the texts under discussion.
The explanations listed below are classified into four different categories. It
has been attempted to assign every sa.1pskfira to a single category, even though this
classification is not always unambiguous, as some of the definitions can be applied
to more than one category. In spite of this overlap, it appeared reasonable to put
the definitions into a structured order, which might help to understand the
relations between the texts.
Some of the disagreements documented below result merely from the applica-
tion of synonyms, as for instance in the definition of sparsa, in which Vasubandhu
uses the term "contact" (samavfiya) in the Paiicaskandhaka, whereas the Abhi-
dharmasamuccaya, the Yogficfirabhllmi, and the Abhidharmakosabhawa have
"encounter" (sannipata) in the same context. Although differences of this kind are
of no relevance to the contents of the definitions, they have been accounted for in
the comparison in order to point out variations in the wording and are emphasized
below by dashed underlinin_g.
12
Four distinct patterns of relationship can be ascertained among the texts:
12 The passages are found in PSk 54-13 10 ; AS 15 3rl8 17 ; Y60 1_9 and 162u-164 2; AKBh
5420 -61 15 , 281 19-282 10 , 284 23 -285 4 , and 312u-313 16 . Emendations to the Sanskrit text due to
the application of the classical rules of sandhj are not reported.
 996 Jowita KRAMER A Study of the Smpskc1ra Section of Vasuhandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 997

1) notable disagreements between PSk and AKBh prasrabdhj, ease:

2) notable disagreements between PSk and AS and/or Y
3) notable disagreements between PSk and AS, Y, AKBh
4) no or minor disagreements
In the following, the definitions of the caittas of the six classes found in the Paiica-
skandhaka will be listed under each of these four categories. 13
1) Notable disagreements (marked in bold) between PSk and AKBh
Universal (sarvatraga) caittas and caittas bound to certain objects (pratinivata-
.!ifava):
adhimokfa, conviction:
PSk niicite vastuni tathaivavadhiiranam
(certainty that a determined object rexistsl in just this manner)
AS niscite vastuniyathaniscayaip dharaIJii
(certainty that a determined object rexists l in the determined manner)
y yan niscite vastuni tatra tatra tadanugavadharaIJasaktil;
(capability of being certain with regard to an object, accompanying the
rmind and the universal caittas l here and there)
AKBh adhimuktih
( confidenc~)
PSk dau~fhulyapratipalcya.(1 kayacittakarmaIJyata
antidote to badness, flexibilit of bod and mind
AS kayacittadaufthulyaniiip pratiprasrabdhel; kayacittakarmaIJyata
(flexibility of body and mind [acquired) by means of the ease of the
badness of bod and mind
y
AKBh cittakarmaIJya ta
flexibilit of mind
upekfii, equanimity:
PSk sa evalobho yavad viryam, yiin niiritya cittasamatiiip cittaprasafhatarp
cittanabhogatiiip ca pratilabhate, yaya nirvasite$lJ kJi.sfe~u dharme~
asaiikli~tavihiirl bhavati
(it is [the four, beginning with) absence of craving up to energy, based on
which one attains equality, tranquility, 16 and effortlessness of the mind
and through which one remains in an uncontaminated state, after the
contaminated factors have been removed)
AS saviryakan alobhadvefiimohan nisritya ya saipkiI~taviharavairodhiki
cittasamata cittaprasathata cittasyanabhogavasthitata
( equality, tranquility, and effortlessness of the mind which is based on
absence of craving, hatred, and delusion being accompanied by energy
and which is oooosed to contaminated states)
y -

Beneficial (kusala) caittas: 14 AKBh cittasamata cittanabhogata

(equality and effortlessness of the mind)
apatrapya, shame in relation to others:
PSk Jokam adhipatim krtvavadyena lajja
Contaminations (kleia):
(embarrassment about a fault beine: related to common people)
AS R.aJ!Jt.Q 'vadyena Jajjana atimana, great pride:
(embarrassment about a fault beine: related to others)
y - PSk §.l!...cfrf.iJ.q_q/J..r§y4JJ. asmiireyasa va sa<fria itiya cittasyonnatil;
AKBh - (inflation of the mind [of someone who thinks] "I am superior" with
ree:ard to an equal or "I am eaual" with ree:ard to a superior)
AS -
ASr mtshungs pa bas che ba 'am I che ba dang mtshungs so snyam du sems
(94b,) khengs pa gang yin pa o
(sadrsac chreyan asmi ireyasa vii sadrsa itiya cittasyonnatil;) 17
(inflation of the mind [of someone who thinks] "I am superior" with
ree:ard to an equal or "I am equal" with regard to a superior)

15
This definition is followed by a discussion of the question whether kayakarma1;iyata
("flexibility of body") is also to be mentioned in connection with the explanation of prasrab-
13
The English translations of the quotations from AS and AKBh provided below are dhi. See AKBh 55 9ff.
16
base~ on the translations contained in PRUDEN (1988:189-202; 1989:776-785 and 842-844) On prasafha/prasafha (Tib. rnal du 'dug pa), see NAGAO (1991:97f.), who translates
and m BOIN-WEBB (2001:8-18). On several occasions, I have modified the translations "tran~uil flow."
when I considered it necessary. I PRADHAN (AS* 451r.) reconstructs: sadrsat sreyan asmi sreyasa sadrsa 'smlti va ya
14
No definitions of the beneficial caittas are included in Y. cittasyonnatil;.
998 Jowita KRAMER A Study of the Sa0skiira Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 999

y - y -
AKBh Samad vj51sfo 'smffj AKBh cittaudankata
([inflation of someone who thinks] "I am superior" with regard to an (grossness of the mind)
equal)
vkara, subtle investigation:
PSk pratyaveqako manojalpas tathmva I ya cittasya stlk~mata
Secondary contaminations (upaklesa) and the four factors that may be beneficial, ( analyzing mental verbalization, also [a particular kind of intention or
detrimental, or neutral: 18 discrimination l, subtlety of the mind)
AS cetanaip va ndn·tya prajiiaip va pratyavek~ako manojalpal; I sa ca cittasya
pramada, carelessness: suksmata
PSk yaj ragadve~ohakausidyai.(1 t[ei#f £i!tEW1 na ralcyati kusalaip ca na ( an~lyzing mental verbalization based on intention or discrimination,
bhavayati 9 subtlety of the mind)
(one does not protect the mind from contaminations because of passion, y -
hatred, delusion, and idleness, and does not cultivate the beneficial) AKBh cittastlksmata
AS sa kausidyan lobhadve~amohan msn·tya kusalanaip dharmaIJam abhavana (subtlety of the mind)
sasraveb!Jxas ca dharmebhyns cetaso 'naraksa
( non-cultivation of beneficial factors, which is based on craving, hatred,
and delusion being accompanied by idleness, and non-protection of the
mind against impure factors) 2) Notable disagreements (marked in bold) between PSkand AS and/or Y
y -
AKBh kusalanaip dharmaIJam abhavana, apramadavipalqo dharmat,.
(non-cultivation of beneficial factors, a factor which is the opposite of Universal (sarvatraga) cajttas and cajttas bound to certain objects (prafjnjyata-
care) 1:f~ava):
(none)
asamprajanya, absence of mindfulness:
PSk klesasamprayukta prajiia kayavagmanahpracaresv asamVJc/jtaviharita Beneficial (kusala) cajttas:
(discrimination associated with contaminations, a state lacking awareness
of the actions of body, speech, and mind)
sraddha, trust:
AS klesasaipprayukta prajiia yayasaipVIdita kayavak_citJf:J.q_a_rxtl" pravartate
(discrimination associated with contaminations, by means of which PSk karmaphalasatyaratn~ abhisampratyayas cetasaf; prasadal;
involuntary actions of body, speech, and mind arise) (firm belief [and] clarity of the mind toward karma, [its] results, the [four]
y - truths, and the fthreel jewels)
AKBh - AS astitvagu.pavattvasakyatve~ abhisaippratyayaf; prasado 'bhila~
(firm belief, clarity, [and] aspiration toward that which exists, toward that
which possesses virtues, and toward the capabilities)
vjtarka, rough examination:
y -
PSk pazye~ako manojalpas cetanaprajiiavise~ I ya cittasyaudarikata AKBh cetasaf; prasadaf; I
(investigative mental verbalization, a particular kind of intention or ( clarity of the mind); (view of "others" [apare]:) satyaratnakarma-
discrimination, grossness of the mind) phalabhjsampratyayaf; (firm belief in the [four] truths, the [three] jewels,
AS cetanaip va msrjtya prajiiaip va parye~ako manojalpaf; / sa ca karma, and fits l results)
cittasyaudarikata
(investigative mental verbalization based on intention or discrimination,
grossness of the mind) Contaminations (klesa):
(none)
18
No definitions of the secondary contaminations are included in Y.
19
Although the contents of this definition are very similar to the explanation in AS,
the variations in the formulations are remarkable.
20
PSkV39b 5: kiiyavakdttacaryfi.
 A Study of the Sarpskara Section of Vasubandhu's Panca~kandhaka 1001
1000 Jowita KRAMER

Secondary contaminations (upaklesa) and the four factors that may be beneficial, AKBh ceffj§_Q 'vyupasamal;
detrimental, or neutral: -r~stlessness of the mind

mrak~a, concealment: kaukrtya regret:

'
PSk atmano 'vadyapracchadana PSk cetaso vipratisaraiJ
(hiding of one's own faults) (repentance of the mind)
AS samyakcoditasya mohliipsikavadyapracchadana AS yad abhipretiinabhipretaip karBJJa.karBJJam (read: kar8fa.kBIBJJB1}1)
(hiding of faults by someone who has been justly accused; it is part of agamya mohamsikas cetaso vipratisaraiJ, kusalam akusalam avyiilqtam,
• 23
delusion) kale 'kale, yuktam ayuktaip ca · . . .
y - (repentance of the mind arising from_intentl?nal or not m~ent10nal ..
AKBh avadyapracchadanam [actions] that were done or not done m_ rela~ion to somethmg bene_flcial,
(hiding of faults) detrimental, [or] neutral, done at the nght time [or] at the _wrong time,
something appropriate or inap2ropriate; it is part of delusion)
Irwa, envy: y
PSK parasampattau cetaso vyiiro~aiJ AKBh cetaso vipratisaraiJ
( anger of the mind with regard to the success of others) ( repentance of the mind)
AS labhasatkaradhyavasitasya parasaJ!lpattivise~e dve~o~ 1
'm~as cetaso vyiiroJaiJ
( anger of the mind aroused by intolerance of someone who desires gains
and honors with regard to the extraordinary success of others; it is part of 3) Notable disagreements (marked in24bold)
hatred) between PSk and AS, Y, AKBh
y -
AKBh parasampattau cetaso vyiiroJaiJ Universal (sarvatraga) caittas and caittas bound to certain objects (pratinivata-
( anger of the mind with re_gard to the success of others)
yjJava):
mada, conceit: sparsa, contact·
PSk ~Y!J~[!_I!JJ2:J.tf:J.l!. raktasyoddh~ cetasa.lJ J!_ag;J_cj_f!_I!...a.PJ. trika~!J.!J!...ayfly_(}_ pariccheda.lJ . .
PSk
Uoy of someone who is excited about his own success, abolition of the ( determination [of the change ?f the sense_ !~~ulties] m the moment of
mind) contact of the three rindriya, VIsaya, and VJJnanal)
AS arogyaip vagamya yauvanaip va, dirghayu~alaqa.,J81J1 vopalabhyanyata- trika§f!.!J!JlfJ._iiJfJ indriyavikaraparicchedal; . .
AS
manyatamliip vii sasravliip sa1ppatti1P ragliipsikaip !l§!Hf[saumanasyam ( determination of the change of t~e sense fac_t:~t!es m the moment of the
Uoy and cheerfulness arising from health, youth, from a sign of longevity, encounter of the three rindrjya, Visaya, and VJJnanal)
or acquired from any im_I)ure success; it is part of passion) y
y trika§!J!J!JlfJ._iiJfJ.iJ .. _
-
( encounter of the three [indriya, visaya, and VJ/niinal)
AKBh ~Y!JQQ:J.f_I!J(}_ raktasya paryadanaip tu cetasalJ AKBh indriyaviJayavijnana§.l!.l!.PiJ2~taJii sp~fi};I .
( abolition of the mind of someone who is excited about his own qualities) (touch arisen from the encounter of the sense faculty, the obJect, and
perception)
auddhatya, excitement:
PSk .citff!.$.YiivyupasamalJ
(restlessness of the mind)
AS SUbhanimitfaJn aflUS8I8(0 IifgliipsikBSLL f(}__@§_Q 'vyupasamalJ
(restlessness of the mind in someone who pursues a pleasant object; it is 23 PSkV 40a 1 : kusalam akusalam ai,yakrtaip kale cakale (read: 'kale) yuktam ayuktaip
part of passion)
y - ca. 24 In the following section, passages in AS,. Y, and AKBh _are marked, which differ
from PSk In the quotations from the latter, disagreements with AS, Y, ~r AKBh _are
21 highlighted. Divergences between AS, Y, and AKBh have not been taken mto conside-
PSkV37a3 : Jabhasatkiirakulasilasrutiidin gupiin upalabhya dve~iif!Jsjkaf;.
22 ration.
PSkV39a2: riigiif!JSJKaf;.
 1003
A Study of the Sa1pskiira Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka
1002 Jowita KRAMER

cetana, intention: prajna, 1scnmmation·

tatraiva ( = upaparilcyye vastuni) p~avi~ayo yogayog~vihito 'ny~tha c~
PSk gu{lato do~to 'nubhayatas cittabhisamskaro manaskarma PSK (correct, incorrect, and other exammat1on [of the obJect to be mvest1-
(activating the mind [or] mental activity in relation to the virtuous
unvirtuous, and neither virtuous nor unvirtuous ' 11:atedl)
upaparik~ya eva vastuni dharmm;ull!l P1_"avicayal;. .
AS cittabhisaipskiiro manaskarma AS (examination of the qualities of the ob1ect to be mvestigated)
activatin the mind or mental activit
Y cittabhisaipskaral; y yat parik~ya eva vastuni tatra tatra tadanugo <!11~8{1!
(r~ad: . .
dharma{larp.) pravicayo yogavihitato vayogavih1tato va na1va yogavih1tato
activatin the mind
AKBh cittabhisaipskaro manaskanna nayogavihitata!J . . .
(correct, incorrect, or neither corr_ect nor m~orrect exam1~ation of t~e
activatin the mind or mental activi qualities of the object to be investigated, which accompames the [mmd
and the universal caittas1here and there)
chanda, wish:
AKBh mat.il;i prajiia dharmapravicayal; . . . . :)
PSk _ajJ_hiJ2.r..eJ(}_ vastuny abhila~ ( discrimination is determination, the exammat10n of the quahties
(craving for the desired object)
AS fp§.iJ~ vastuni tattadupasaiphata kartukamata
(the desire for action [directed at] a desired object, connected to this or Beneficial (kusala) caittas:
that rmind and these or those universal caittas l)
y yad !J!§..iJtJ. vastuni tatra tatra tadanuga kartukamata hri, sh ame m re1a f10 n to oneself·
(the desire for action [directed at] the desired object, accompanying the atmanam dharm.81Jl vadhipatilp Jqtvavadyena lajja .
rmind and the universal caittasl here and there) PSk (;~i;;;;assment about a fault being related to oneself or the doctnne)
AKBh karttr- (read: kartu-) kamata
AS svayam avadyena Jajjanii
(the desire for action) (;mbi;rassment about a fault being related to oneself)
y
smrh: mindfulness·
AKBh
PSk SaJpstute x_a§tl-!llY asampramo~as cetaso 'bhilapanata
( non-loss randl fixing of a familiar object by the mind)25
], bha, ab sence of er aving·
ao
AS sa1J1stute vastuni cetaso 'saippramo~al;
(the mind's non-loss of a familiar object) PSk Jobhapratipak§o nirvid anagrahaf,
y ( antidote to craving, disgust, absence of attachment) I
yat saipstute vastuni tatra tatra tadanugabhilapana 20

(fixing of a familiar object, which accompanies the [mind and the AS bhave bhavopakaraQ.e~u vanasakt.il;i • •

universal caittas l here and there) (non-attachment to existence or everyday necessities)

AKBh fi.!E!.lJ.1P!J!J{lsampramo~a.lJ y
(non-loss of an object) AKBh

samadh1; absorption: ad ve~a, absence of h a tred·

PSk upaparilcyye vastuni cittasyaikagrata PSk dve~pratipak§o maitri
(concentration of the mind on the object to be investigated) ( antidote to hatred, benevolence)
AS upaparilcyye vastuni cittasyaikagrata sattvesu du.pkhe du.pkhasthiiniye~u ca dh8:91e~ ana~ataf,
AS ( abse~ce of anger with regard to living bemgs, suffermg, and the factors
(concentration of the mind on the object to be investigated)
y y~t p~n1c~ye vastuni < tatra tatra> tadanugam upanidhyiinasaqmisritaJp belonging to suffering)
c1ttaikagzyam y
( concentration of the mind on the object to be investigated, which AKBh
accompanies the [mind and the universal caittas] here and there and
which is based on reflection)
AKBh cittasyaika~rata (concentration of the mind)
26 PSkV26a 1: bhave bhavopakaral}efU cilnflsaktil}.
25
On the translation of asampramofa and abhilapanatfl, see Cox (1992:83).
 A Study of the Saf!]skara Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 1005
1004 Jowita KRAMER

amoha, absence of delusion: Contaminations (klesa):

=--
PSk mohapratipak$o yathabhiltasampratipatfi11
( antidote to delusion, understanding of true reality) raga, passion:
AS vipakato vagamato vadhigamato vaj.ianaip pratisaqikhya PSk pa.icasilpadanaskl!1J(f!1eJU sneh~ 'dhyava:iinam
(knowledge [and] discernment [originating] from ripening, authoritative affection and elm m to the five constituents of a
scriptures, or examination) AS traidhatuko 'nunaya.l;l
y -
attachment belon in to the world o the three s heres
AKBh - y asatpuru~<saip>sevam agamyasaddharmasravai;,.am a-!ronitoma-
naskaraJP naigsargikaip va smrfisampramo~ yad bahirdha
<va>dhyatmaJP va nirdharitaJP < vanirdharitaJP
virya, energy: 28
ve>Jfavi.sayadhyavasiinam • • •
PSk kausidyapratip~ kusale cetaso 'bhyutsanal; (explicit or inexplicit affection to desired objects, out~ide or mside.
( antidote to idleness, effort of the mind toward the beneficial) [oneself] ' due to association with bad people, to heanng bad doctnnes, to
or due to s ontaneous loss o f mm . dfu lness
29
AS kusale cetaso 'bhyutsahaf; sannahe va prayoge valinatve vavyav,-ttau wron attention,
vasaiptu~tau va AKBh
(effort of the mind toward the beneficial, either in the preparation, or in
the practice, or the absence of dispiritedness, or in irreversibility, or in pratjgha enmity·
dissatisfaction) '
y - PSk sattveJv iighiital;
AKBh cetaso 'bhyutsahal; ( anger toward living beings)
( effort of the mind) AS sattveJu du/;lkhe du/;lkhasthiiniye~u ca dharme~ iighiitaf; .
( anger toward living beings, suffering, and the factors belongmg to
I suffering)
apramiida, care:
asatpll11zy8 <saip>sevam agamyasa<fdharmasravaJJ81!1 ay<?_niso-
PSk pramadapratipak$o 'lobho yiivad viryam, yiin njsdtyalruialan dharman I y
manaskaram naihsargikaip va s111{tJSampramo~ yadhyatmaip ba-
prajahati tatpratipa/cyalps ca kusalan dharmiin bhiivayatj .I hirdhadhyatmaq1 (read: yo bahirdha vadh~tmlll!! forta_dh~tmaJP
(antidote to carelessness, [the four, beginning with] absence of craving up
to energy, based on which one gives up the detrimental factors and
I bahirdhadhyatmaip) va nirdharito < va>nudhanto vam~taVJ~ya-
30
pratjghatal; . . . . .
cultivates the beneficial factors, which are their antidotes) ( explicit or inexplicit enmity toward undesired obJect~, outside or i?side
AS saviryakiin alobhiidveJiimohiin njsdtya yii kusaliiJJiil!l dharmiiJJii[!l [oneself], due to association with bad people, to ~eanng bad doctrmes, to
bhiivanii sasravebhyas ca dharmebhyas cittar~ wrong attention, or due to spontaneous loss of mmdfulness)
(cultivation of beneficial factors based on absence of craving, hatred, and AKBh
delusion accompanied by energy and protection of the mind against
impure factors) miina, pride (general definition):
y -
PSk sapta manal;; mano 'tjmano manatjmano 'smjmano 'bhjmana iinamano
AKBh kusaliiniim dharmiiniim bhiivanii
(cultiv~ti~n of beneficial factors) mjthyiimiinas ca .
(seven [kinds of] pride: pride, great prid<::, prid~ greater than pnde, the
notion "I am [this skandha ]," extreme pnde, pnde of not enough
avjhj[!lsii, non-harming: modest , and false ride
PSk vihkpsapratip~ karuga AS satkayat:fntisannisraye]Ja cittasyonnatiq·
( antidote to harming, compassion) inflation of the mind based on the satkii adrstJ
AS advesaikamsikal,/ karunatii ASr nga rgyal bdun te / nga rgyal dang I che ba 'j nga rgyal dang I nga rgy_al las
(com°passi~n which is part of the absence of hatred) (94a 8,) an n a r. al dan / n a 'a sn am a 'j n a r. al dan I mn on a '1 n a
y -
AKBh avihethana
28
(non-~rueltv) For the emendations, see AHN (2003:66).
29 For this translation, see AHN (2003:171f., n. 32).
3
° For the emendations, see AHN (2003:66).
27
31 PSkV29b 6t.: satkayadr1tisa1pnisrayepa pravartate I dttasya connatilak1apafJ.
PSk V29a I: adve1a1psafJ.
 1006 Jowita KRAMER
rgyal dang I cung zad snyam pa 'i nga rgyal dang I log pa 'i nga rgyal lo II
(* sapta miiniifJ I miino 'timiino miiniitimiino 'smimiino 'bhimana unamiino
mithyiimiinas ca)3 2
(seven [kinds of] pride: pride, great pride, pride greater than pride, the
notion "I am [this skandha]," extreme pride, pride of not enough
r modesty l, and false pride)
y
asatpuru~ <saip>seva.m iigamyasaddharmairav~am ayoniio-
manaskiiraip nai/;Jsargikaip vii sm,tisampramo~ iigamya yii < bahirdhii
vii>dhyiitmaip < vii> nirdhiiritii < vii>nirdhiiritii voccanicatiiyiilp
hinaprapltatiiyiilp ca unnatip 33
( explicit or inexplicit inflation, outside or inside [oneself], with regard to
[someone] being higher or lower or being inferior or superior due to
association with bad people, to hearing bad doctrines, to wrong attention,
or due to spontaneous loss of mindfulness)
YSOs: miino 'timano miiniitimano 'smimiino 'bhimana ilnamiino mithyii-
miinasca
(pride, great pride, pride greater than pride, the notion "I am [this
skandhal," extreme pride, pride of not enough fmodestvl, and false pride)
AKBh
sapta miiniiiJ I miino 'timiino miiniitimano 'smimano 'bhimana ilnamano
mithyiimiinas ca I abhedena cittasyonnatir miina uktaiJ
(seven [kinds of] pride: pride, great pride, pride greater than pride, the
notion "I am [this skandha ]," extreme pride, pride of not enough
[modesty], and false pride; in general the inflation of the mind is called
"pride")
aVJd ii, i norance:
PSk karmaphalasatyaratne~ ajiiiinam I sii punaiJ ~t:m_aj4,pgj/ffYpit__ii ca
(lack of knowledge of [the threefold division of] karma, [its] results, the
four truths, and the three ·ewels; it is either inborn or conce tualized
AS traidhiitukam ~iiiinam
lack of knowled e belon in to the world o the three s heres
Y asatpuru~ <saipseva.m iigamyiisaddharmairav~am ayoniiomanaskiiraip
nail;Jsargikaip vii> smrtisampramosaip yajj.ieye vastuni!li(_<fk.4!'f!!PP
4
_v_iipjr_d}J_fidJEYP vii .kli~tam ajiiiinami ( explicit or inexplicit contaminated
lack of knowledge of the object to be known, due to association with bad
people, to hearing bad doctrines, to wrong attention, or due to spontane-
ous loss of mindfulness
AKBh
( definition of "delusion" [moha]: avidyiijiianam asamprakhyiinam
i norance, lack of knowled e, non-clarit
32
See also PRADHAN's identical reconstruction in AS* 45 6 .
33
For the emendations, see AHN (2003:66). In the Viniscayasaipgraha1J1~ mana is sub-
divided into four kinds ( /ta ba mams dang I sems can la brten pa dang I 'dad pa la longs
spyod pa la brten pa dang I yang srid pa la brten pa o) or into two kinds ( mam par 'khrul
pa 'i nfa rgyal dang Imam par 'khrul pa ma yin pa 'i nga rgyal lo). See AHN 2003:99f. and 238.
3 36
For the emendations, see AHN (2003:68).
A Study of the Smpskfira Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 1007
... view of the five constituents [as being the self]:
satkiiyadrstI;
~PSk paiicopiidanaskandhiin iitmata iitmiyato va samanupasyato ya .kli~fii
pr~.iii . .
(contaminated discrimination of someone who regards the five constltu-
ents of appropriation as self or mine)
~AS paiicopiidiinaskandhan iitmata atmiyato va samanupasyato ya }cyiintirucir
mati.{J. prelqii $.!i/1 .
( an admission, an inclination, a notion, an opinion, [o~] ~ view of
someone who regards the five constituents of appropnatlon as self or
mine)
y asatpuru~ <saip>seva.m iigamyiisaddharmairav~a.<m
a> yoniiomanaskiiraip naipsargikaip vii puna.{1 sm{t1sampr8!110~
paiicopiidiinaskandhiin iitmano (read: iitmato) viitmiyato va samanu-
pasyato ya nirdhiiritii <viinirdhiiritii vii> kliftii prajiiii35
(explicit or inexplicit contaminated disc~i~ination of som~one who
regards the five constituents of appropnatlon as self or mme, due to .
association with bad people, to hearing bad doctrines, to wrong attention,
or due to spontaneous Joss of mindfulness)
AKBh iitma$.fir iitmiya$._tir vii
(view off the five constituentsl as self or mine)
... view of extremes:
antagriihadrsti,
PSk tam eviidhipatnp lqtvii i:J.~!Jl..l!...tf! ucchedato vii samanupasyato ya .kli~fii
praj.iii .
( contaminated discrimination of someone who, under the mfluence of.
this [satkiiyadrf/1], regards [the five constituents] as eternal or as breakmg
off fwithout requiring any spiritual effortl)
AS paiicopiidiinaskandhiiii chiisvatato vii ucchedato vii samanupasyato ya
}cyiintirucir matiiJ prelqii $.!i/1 . . .
(an admission, an inclination, a notion, an opm1on, [o~] ~ view of
someone who regards the five constituents of appropnatlon as eternal or
as breaking off)
y asatpuru~aipseva.m iigamyasaddharmairav~am ayoniiomanas~iiraip
naihsargikam vii puna.{1 sm,tisampramo~ paiicopiidiinaskandhan
iitdiato <vii> grhitvii(read: grhita.i) siisvatato vocchedato vii samanu-
pasyato ya nirdhiiritii < vii>nirdhiiritii vii klif/ii prajiiii36
( explicit or inexplicit contaminated disc~i~inatio~ of someone who .
regards the five constituents of appropnat10n, ':h1_ch he_ grasps as bemg
the self, as eternal or breaking off, due to association with bad people, to
hearing bad doctrines, to wrong attention, or due to spontaneous loss of
mindfulness)
AKBh tasyaiviitmiibhimatasya vastuno <;ffl1:._z1_v.fid[f/k ucchedadrftir viinta-
grahadrftiiJ I iiiivatocche<!iintagrahB?iit ,
(the view of the entity which one believes t_o ?e ones self as e~ern~l or as
breaking off is the view of extremes, for this 1s to ffalselyj believe m the
35
For the emendations, see AHN (2003:62).
For the emendations, see AHN (2003:62).
 1008 Jowita KRAMER
extremes of eterni breakin off
mithyiid[$/i, wrong view:
PSk hetwp vapavadatal; phalarp vii kriyarp vii sad vii vastu nasayato ya klzy_ta
praj.iii
(contaminated discrimination of someone who denies the cause, the
result, or the action, or who negates a really existing entity)
AS heturp vapavadatal; phalarp vii kriyarp vii sad vii vastu nasayato mithya vii
vikalpayato ya lqantirucir matip prelqa cill.tifi.
( an admission, an inclination, a notion, an opinion, [or] a view of
someone who denies the cause, the result, or the action, or who negates a
really existing entity or who conceptualizes wrongly)
y be the best. What is the infenor? It 1s everythmg impure, because the
asatpuru~<saip>sevam iigamyasaddharmasravapam ayoniso-
manaskaram, heturp vapavadatal; phalarp vii kriyarp vii sadbhavarp (read:
sad vii instead of sadbhavarp) vastu nasayato ya nirdhiiritaiva kliHii
37
prajiia
(the merely explicit contaminated discrimination of someone who denies
the cause, the result, or the action, or who negates a really existing entity,
due to association with bad people, to hearing bad doctrines, or to wrong
attention)
AKBh sati du.(ikhiidisatye nastiti $.fir mithyiid[$/il; I sarvaiva hi viparita-
svabhiivapravrtfii cill.tir mithyadr$/il; I ekaiva ttl.ktii I atisayavattviid
durgandhalcyatavat I e# hy apaviidikiinyiis tu samaropikii.{1 I
(wrong view is the view that this which really exists, the [four] truth[s] of
suffering and so on, does not exist; every dn;s'{iwhich is of an erroneous
nature is a "false view," but only one [ dr$/I] receives [this] name, because
it is the most [false of all], as the worse [odor is called] the bad odor; it is a
negation, whereas the other views are erroneous attributions)
d!$/iparamarsa, clinging to views:
PSk
tam eva trividharp dr$/iIJ1 tadasrayarps ca paiicopadanaskandhan agratal;
sre$/hato visi$/atal; paramatal; samanupasyato ya kli~ta praj.iii
( contaminated discrimination of someone who regards the threefold view
[of satkayadr$P; antagrahadr$/1; and mithyiid[$/I] and the five constituents
of appropriation, which are its basis, as the best, the most exellent, the
most distinguished, and the highest)
AS
dr$/irp dr$.tyiisrayarps ca paiicopadanaskandhan agratal; sre$/hato
visi$/atal; paramatas ca samanupasyato ya /qanti rucir mati.(i prelcyii dnfi!i
( an admission, an inclination, a notion, an opinion, [or] a view of
someone who regards the [threefold] view [of satkayadr$/1; anta-
grahadr$/1; and mithyiid[$/I] and the five constituents of appropriation,
which are its basis, as the best, the most exellent, the most distinguished,
and the highest)
y camargaippasyati
asatpuru~<saip>sevam iigamyiisaddharmasravapam ayoniso-
manaskaram, satkayadr$/Jm antagrahadr$/irp <mithyiidf$,tirp> sasrayarp
siilambanam sanidiinam <sa>sahabhiisampravol!am paradrstim
37
For the emendations, see AHN (2003:64).
A Study of the Saipskfira Section of Vasubandhu's Pancaskwdhaka 1009
- upanidhiiyiigratal; sreHhato visi$/atal; paramatas ca samanupasyato ya
nirdhii.Iitaiva kh~ta prajiiii 38
( the merely explicit contaminated ~iscriminati~n o! so~eone who r~gards
the satkayadr$/i, the antagrahad[$/I, and the m1thyadr$/I t?gether with
their [respective] basis, object, cause, and [the fa_ctors] w~1ch accompany
them and are associated with them, compared with the view of som~one
else as the best, the most exellent, the most distinguished, and the highest,
due to association with bad people, to hearing bad doctrines, or to wrong
attention)
~AKBh hfne 'gradr$/ir dr$/iparamarsal; I ldJp hinam I sarv,aip sasravam I iilyai.p
prampatviit / tasyiigrato grahapaip d[$/iparamarsal; I . .
("Clinging to views" is the vie:"' [of s?meone "'.ho ~egards] the mfenor to
nobles abandon it. To believe [falsely] that this is the best is "clinging to
views")
silavrataoaramarsa, clinging to morar1ty an d o b servances:
PSk silam vratam tadasrayams ca paiicopadanaskandhaii chuddhito muktito
nairyii-{likat~s ca saman;pasyato ya kli~ta praj.iii .
(contaminated discrimination of someone who ~eg_ards m?rahty [an~]
observance and the five constituents of appropnation, which are thelf
basis, as purification, liberation, and as conducive to emancipation)
AS silam vratam silavratasrayarps ca paiicopadanaskandhaii chuddhito
yuktito (rea.d: muktito) naiiya-{likatas ca samanupasyato ya lqantirucir
matifi. prelqa $.fi.li .
( an admission, an inclination, a notion, an opinion, [or] ~ view of .
someone who regards morality and observance and the five constituents
of appropriation, which are the basis o_f morality an_d o?servance, as
purification, liberation, and as conducive to emancipation)
y asatpuru~aipseviim iigamyasaddharmasrav'!!am aronisom~as_.t,aram,
yat tam eva drHirp tadd[$/yanucararp <ca> sI1arp ~a vra~arp va sa!rayarp
siilambanam sanidiinam sasahabhiisamprayogaip suddh1to muktito
naiiya-{likatas ca sama~upasyato ya nirdhiiritaiva kli$/a prajiia 39
(the merely explicit contaminated discrimination of ~ome~ne_who regards
this view and the morality or observance accompanymg this view together
with their basis, object, cause, and [the factors] which accompany them.
and are associated with them, as purification, liberation, and as conducive
to emancipation, due to association with bad people, to hearing bad
doctrines, or to wrong attention)
AKBh ahetau hetudrstir amarge margacJnfi.li silavrataparamarsal; I tadyathii
mahesvaro n~ hetur Jokiinam I taip ca heflllµ pasyatjprajapatim '!11~ vii
/ agnijalapravesiidayas ca na hetu/;l svargasya I tarps ca heflllµ pasyatJ I_ ,,
silavratamiitrakaip saipkhyayogaj.iiiniidayas ca na margo molcyasya I taips
..
(the view which [considers] as cause that which 1s not cause, or as the path
that which is not the path is the "clinging to morality and observances,"
38
For the emendations, see AHN (2003:64).
39
For the emendation, see AHN (2003:64 ).
 1010 Jowita KRAMER A Study of the Smpskiira Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 1011

namely to consider Mahesvara, Prajapati, or any other [entity] which are /a contentiousness·
pra c1.-as,
not causes of the world as causes [of the world]; to consider [rituals of ~PSK candavacodasita
suicide], like entering the fire or drowning, as a cause [of a heavenly (r~viling with rough speech)
41
rebirth], when they are not a cause of a heavenly rebirth; or to consider AS pratighmpsika.{1 krodhopanahapiirvaligamas cetasa agha(a.{1
only morality and observances and the knowledges of Sankhya, Yoga, ( anger of the mind, which is part of enmity, being preceded by anger and
etc., to be the path [to deliverance], when they are not a path to delive- resentment)
rance) y
AKBh savadyavastud{(:jhagrahita pradaso yena nyayasaipj.iaptilp n~ grhflati_
vidkitsfi, doubt: (contentiousness is the violent seizing of an objectionable obJect, which
PSk satyadi~u ya vimatil; causes one not to accept correct information)
(uncertainty with regard to the rfourl truths, etc.)
AS satye~u vimatil; mfitsarya avarice:
'
(uncertainty with regard to the rfour] truths) danl!_virodhi~§t__a..§!J agrahal;
y PSk
asatpuru~ <saipsevam agamyasaddharmasrav8f1am ayon- ( crttachment of the mind opposed to liberalitv)
iso>manaskaram,yaj.ieya <eva> vastuninirdharitaiva <vi>matiJ;40 AS Jabhasatkaradhyavasitasya pari_skare~u ragiiJpsikas4 L cetasa agrahal;
(the merely explicit uncertainty with regard to the object to be known, ( attachment of the mind of someone who desires gains and honors with
due to association with bad people, to hearing bad doctrines, or to wrong regard to necessities; it is part of passion)
attention) y
AKBh -
AKBh dharmfimi.sakausaJa12.r_a.sfJJ!lfJVirodhi_g{tfigrahaJ;
( attachment of the mind opposed to the generous distribution of
teachings or worldly possessions)
Secondary contaminations (upaklesa) and the four factors that may be beneficial,
detrimental, or neutral
maya, ece1:
krodha, wrath: PSk parava.icanabhiprayasya!J!J.fiJ;yJ}p1sandarsanata .
PSk (showing unreal things by someone having the intention ofbetraymg
.~art..aJJl@l!!!! apakaram agamya yas cetasa aghatal; others)
( anger of the mind when being presently offended)
AS AS /abhasafkaradhyavasitasya rfigamohmpsikafl!J[jt__agyl}f!Saipdarsanfi
PJf!lXJJ.P-a§t__hjt__t; 'pakaranimitte pratighmpsikas cetasa iighiital; (showing unreal virtues by someone who is attached to gain and honor; it
( anger of the mind, which is part of enmity, being caused by a present is part of passion and delusion)
offence) y
y -
AKBh AKBh paravaiicanfi
kaulqtyaip ca I vyapadavihilpsavarjita.{1 sattvasattvayor aghatal; (betraying others)
( anger with respect to living beings and to things, which is distinct from
regret, hostility, and harming)
sa wa, me:
upana a, resen t men t : PSk svado~12.i:..a.PfiJ.4.<!..tm..opayasaligrhitaip _c_eJfM..aJi kaufilyam
PSk ( dishonesty of the mind including the means for hiding one's own faults)
vairanubandhah
AS Jabhasatkaradhyavasitasya ragamohiiJpsika bhiltado~aY!...I!J@/.!i!J!l'+~
(continuation of hostility)
AS (hiding one's own real faults by someone who is attached to gain and
tata ilrdhvaip pratighmpsika eva vairasayasyanutsarga.{1 honor; it is part of passion and delusion)
(not subsequently abandoning the intention of hostility, which is part of y -
enmity)
y -
AKBh cittakautilyam sathyam vena vathabhiltam naviskaroti viksipaty
AKBh aghatavastubahulikara.fi
(being continuously focused on anger) 41
PSkV 37a2 : krodhopanfihapiirvaligamas cetasa fighfitasvabhfiva jfj pratJghfiIJ1s1ka
eve ti
42
PSk V37 a5r.: ffibhasatkfirfidhyavasjtasya jivjtopakaraIJe!fu rfigfiIJ1S1kal;.
43
PSkV 37b 6 : liibhasatkfirfidhyavasjto yfibhyfiIJ1 rfigamohfibhyfiIJ1 svado:japracchfi-
4
° For the emendations, see AHN (2003:68). danfirthaIJ1 paramohanfiya pravartate.
 1012 Jowita KRAMER
A Study of the Sa0skiira Section of Yasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 1013
aparisphufa!p va pratipadyate 44
resting on the side, and lying down; it is part of delusion)
(guile is the dishonesty of mind by means of which one does not reveal
fthings l as they really are, misleads, or obfuscates)
~

y
AKBh cetaso niibhyutsiiho ViJYaVIpakfaJ:i
vihhpsii, harming: (lack of effort of the mind; opposite of energy)

PSk sattvavihethana ·i smrtitii, loss of mindfulness·

mus1a
(hurting li~ing beings)
AS PSk ya k!J~!J smrtiJ:i kusalasyanabhilapanata
pratighmpsika nirgh{pata ni.skarupata nirdayata 4 ) (contaminated mindfulness, non-fixing of the beneficial [object])
(cruelty, absence of compassion, or pitilessness, which is part of enmity) AS k}.§§1J.~a.;p12.r_ayykt(~ smrtiJ:i
y -
(mindfulness associated with contaminations)
AKBh vihefh~na171 vihi1J1sii, yena praharaparu~adibhi.fi pariin vihe{hayate y
(harmmg 1s hurtmg, through which one hurts others by means of hitting AKBh smrtir eva hi klistii
insulting, etc.) ' (mindfulness th~t is contaminated)
styiina, du11 ness:
v1 sepa, d IS
· traction·
PSk cittasyiikarmaIJyatii staimityam
PSk paiicasu kamagUJJe$U ragadvefamohii;psiko yas cetaso visaraJ:i
( absence of flexibility fandl immobility of the mind) (dispersion of the mind into the five qualities of desire, which is part of
AS mohmpsika'+O cittakarma]Jyatii passion, hatred, and delusion)
( absence of flexibility of the mind, which is part of delusion) AS riigadvefamohii;psikas cetaso visaraJ:i'+~ .
y -
( dispersion of the mind, which is part of passion, hatred, and delusion)
AKBh ya karaguruta cittaguruta kayakarma.pyata cittakarma]Jyata y -
(heavmess of the body and of the mind, absence of flexibility of the body AKBh samadhir eva ldi$.ta{I.
and of the mind)
(absorption that is contaminated)
_, ddhya, absence of trust:
asra
mjddha, Ian uor
PSk karmaphalasatyarafne$V anabhisampratyayas cetaso 'prasadah
sraddhavipalqa.{i . PSk asvatantrav,-ttis ftJ_{!J.§.Q 'bhisalikfepaJ:i
com ression of the mind that arises uncontrollabl
( absence of firm belief [and] of clarity of the mind toward karma, [its] AS middhanimittam agamya mohmpsikas cetaso 'bhisa;pk$epaJ:i, kusala.{1,
results, the ffourl truths, and the fthreel jewels; opposite of trust) akusala.{1, avyiilqta.{1,51 kale vakale va,yukto vayukto va .
AS moha.1f1Sika.{1 kusale$U dharme$u cetaso 'nabhisa;ppratyayo 'prasado (compression of the mind, being part of delusion, due to a [cer~am] ~ause
'nabhila$a.[i
of languor; [it may be] beneficial, detrimental, neutral, at the nght time or
( absence of firm belief, of clarity, [and] of aspiration of the mind with at the wron time, a ro riate or ina ro riate
regard to beneficial factors; it is part of delusion) y
y -
AKBh AKBh kayasa;pdhara.pasamarthas ~itJtj_bhisa;pkfepaJ:i . .
cetaso 'prasiidalJ sraddhiivipakfaiJ the mind's inabili to maintain the bod ; com ress1on of the mmd
( absence of clarity of the mind; opposite of trust)

aus1 rva, 1 eness:

PSk .kusale cetaso 'nabhyutsiiho viiyavipalqa.{i
(lack of effort of the mind with regard to the beneficial; opposite of
energy)
AS nidraparsvasayanasukhallikam agamya moham.SikBS41 Ce{aSQ 47
PSk V39a5 : nidnipiirsvasayanasukham iigamya yo mohiiipsika <l;>.
'nabhyutsiihah (lack of effort of the mind due to comforts like sleeping, 48
PSk V39b 2: k/J~feti k/esasamprayuktii. . .
49
Subsequently AS 184r. lists six different kinds of doubt, which are mentioned neither
in PSknor in AKBh.
;: PSkV37bs: kJip~ty ~P_arisphufaip vii pratipadyate. 50
PSk V 40b 1: middhanimittaip [... ] iigamya mohiiipsikaiJ.
51
46 PSkV38a5: pratJghaf1kii (read: pratighiiipSJkii) nirghp;atii niJkaruJJatii nirdayatii ca. PSk V 40a 6r.: kusa/o 'kusa/o 'vyiikrtaiJ.
PSkV39a 1: mohiiipse. 52
PSk V 40a 4r.: kiiyasandhiiraJJiisamarthii.
 1014
Jowita KRAMER
A Study of the S,upskara Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 1015
Definitions being similar to PSk and mentioned in AKBh as the view of "others"
[anva]: Beneficial (kusala) caittas
(none)
fihrikya, shamelessness in relation to oneself:
PSk svayam avadyenfilajja I'!
Contaminations (klesa)
(lack of embarrassment about a fault in relation to oneself)
AS ragadve~ohaipsika svayam avadyenala;/ana 53
m:Jna' pride (specific definition):
(lack o~ embarrassment about a fault in relation to oneself, which is part
of passion, hatred, and delusion) PSk hinfic S:P[~fi_n_ asmi_sJ1.fi.rf...e.J1j1_ v:J .sJlJ!dl! itiY_fi cit~~syonnatiiJ. •

y - (inflation of the mind [of someone who thmks] I am supenor11 with

AKBh aguruta I gupe$lJ gupavatsu cagauravata apratisata abhayam avasavartita /
ahrikyaip gauravapratidvandvo dhannafi ASr
(94b11)
(lack of veneration; lack of veneration, disrespectfulness, and lack of
fearful submission with regard to virtues and to those who possess virtues;
regard to an inferior or "I am equal" with regard to an equal)
chung ba bas bdag che ba 'am I mtshungs pa dang mtshung! so sn_yam
<du> sems khengs pa gang yin pa b ( *hinfic chreyfin asm1 sacf.rsena
vii sacf.rsa itiyfi cittasyonnatiiJ)5 4 . • •

shamelessness in relation to oneself is a factor opposed to respect)
( anye:) fitmapeksayji dosair alaJ/anam
( others: lack of embarrassment about a fault in relation to oneself)
anapa travva,
- sh ame essness in relation to others:
PSk
R_af!JlQ Y@ifx.t:.nalajja
(lack of embarrassment about a fault in relation to someone else)
AS
ragadve~ohaipsika parato 'vadyenalajjana (lack of embarrassment
about a fault in relation to someone else, which is part of passion, hatred,
(inflation of the mind [of someone who thmks] 11 I am supenor 11 with
regard to an inferior or "I am equal" with regard to an equal)
y
AKBh hinad visistah samena vii samQ 'smitimanyamfinasyonnatiiJ
(inflati;~-~f ~;~e~;~-wh·; thinks "I am superior" with regard to an
inferior or "I am equal" with regard to an equal)
m:Jn:Jtimana, pn e_greater th an_pn"d e:
PSk ¥.PY@~l!iJ_SffX<!.l!. asmitiya cittasyonnatil; . • •

and delusion) (inflation of the mind [of someone who thmks] 11 I am supenor11 with
y - regard to a superior)
AKBh avadye bhayadarsitvam ASr che bas kyang bdag che osnyam du sems khengs pa gang yin pa o
( disregard of the fear [of unpleasant consequences) of one's fault) (94b,) ( *sreyasal; sreyfin asmitiya cittasyonnatiiJ( • •

( anye:) R_arapeksaya [dosa1r ala1/anam) (inflation of the mind [of someone who thmks] 11 I am supenor 11 with
regard to a superior)
(others: lack of embarrassment about a fault in relation to someone else) y
AKBh visist:Jd visisto 'smiti
([i~fl;ti;~ ~f the mind of someone who thinks] "I am superior" with
regard to a superior)
4) No or minor disagreements

Universal sarvatra a caittas and caittas bound to certain ob·ects ratini ata- asmimfina, notion "I am this skandha ":
yj~ava) PSk pa.icopadanaskandh:Jn fitmata fitmiyato vii §@IJIJl!JJ!.J!@&.!11Q ya cittasyon-
natih
manaskara (attention) (infl.ation of the mind of someone who regards the five constituents of
PSk cetasa abhogafJ a ro riation as self or mine
(exertion of the mind) ASr ar
AS cetasa abhogaiJ
(exertion of the mind)
y cetasa iibhogaiJ 53
( exertion of the mind) For the "general definition" see above, under "Notable disagreements between PSk
AKBh cetasa abhogaiJ and AS, Y, AKBh." . . .
54
As the Tibetan translation of the Abhidharmasamuccaya 1s identical to t?e tr~ns-
( exertion of the mind) lation of the Paiicaskandhaka, the Sanskrit original was most probably also identical.
PRADHAN (AS* 45 6t.) reconstructs: hinan sreytin asmi sadrsena sadrso 'smiti vti ya citta-
syonnati.{J. . . *
55
See also PRADHAN's identical reconstruction m AS 459.
1016 Jowita KRAMER
(94b,r) rjes su /ta ba 'i sems khengs pa gang yin pa o ( *paiicopadanaskandhan
atmata atmiyato va samanupasyato ya cittasyonnatil;)5 6 inflation of the
mind of someone who regards the five constituents of appropriation as
self or mine)
y -
AKBh paiicopadanaskandhan atmata atmiyato va manyamana§Ya
([inflation of the mind] of someone who thinks that the five constituents
of approoriation are self or mine)
abhimana, extreme pride:
PSk aprapta uttare vise:jadhigame prapto mayetiya cittasyonnatil;
(inflation of the mind [of someone who thinks] toward the highest,
distinguished attainments he does not possess, "I possess rtheml")
AST gong ma'i nga rgyal(read: khyad par instead of nga rgyal) thob par bya ba
(94b4) ma thob par bdag gis thob bo snyam du sems khengs pa gang yin ga o
( *aprapta uttare vise:jadhigame prapto mayetiya cittasyonnatil;) 7
( inflation of the mind [of someone who thinks] toward the highest,
distinguished attainments he does not possess, "I possess rthem l")
y -
AKBh aprapte v1se:jadhigame prapto mayeti
([inflation of someone who thinks] toward distinguished attainments he
does not possess, "I possess rtheml")
llnamana,
PSk bahvantaravisi:jfad alpantarahino 'smiti ya cittasyonnatil;
(inflation of the mind [of someone who thinks] "I am [only] slightly
inferior" with re ard to someone who is read su erior
AST ches 'phags pa bas bdag cung zad cig gis chung ngo snyam du sems khengs
(94bs) pa gang yin fa o(*bahvantaravisi:jfad a!pantarahino 'smitiya citta-
syonnatiiJ)5
( inflation of the mind [of someone who thinks] "I am [only] slightly
inferior" with re ard to someone who is reatl su erior
y ing and hindering the mind from realizing the true reality of the object to be
AKBh bahvantaravisi:jfad alpantarahino 'smiti
([inflation of the mind of someone who thinks] "I am [only] slightly
inferior" with re ard to someone who is read su erior
mith fimana, false ride:
PSk agw;avato gupavan asmitiya cittasyonnatil;
(inflation of the mind [of someone who thinks] "I possess [distinguished]
ualities" when one does not assess them
AST yon tan ma yin pa dang ldan pa la bdag yon tan dang ldan no snyam du
(94b,r) sems khen s a an 11 a o *a unavato unavan asmiti ii cittas on-
56
PRADHAN (AS* 45 10 ) reconstructs: paiicasupadanaskandhe!jv atmatmiyabhinivesad
ya cittasyonnatil;.
57
See also PRADHAN's identical reconstruction in AS*45 11 •
58
See also PRADHAN's identical reconstruction in AS*45 12 •
A Study of the Sa1pskiira Section of Vasubandhu's Pancaskandhaka 1017
natl.n)'g
-
(inflation of the mind [of someone who thinks] "I possess [distinguished]
qualities" when one does not possess them)
y -
AKBh agupavato gupavan asmiti
([inflation of the mind of someone who thinks] "I possess [distinguished]
qualities" when one does not oossess them)
Secondary contaminations (upaklesa) and the four factors that may be beneficial,
detrimental, or neutral
(none)
In addition it should be noted that Sthiramati regularly mentions a phrase in his
commentary that also appears almost in the same wording in the Abhidharma-
samuccaya at the end of the definition of each caitta and which decribes the activity
of the respective factor. In the case of chanda ("wish"), for instance, it is stated that
its activity is providing the basis for producing energy, 60 whereas the activity of
samadhi ("absorption") is described as providing the basis for insight. 61
To sum up, it can be stated that the majority of the definitions found in the
Paiicaskandhaka diverges to a certain extent from the parallel explanations in the
other texts. Only seven of the definitions are more or less identical in all texts and
about half the definitions include notable variations in comparison to both the
Abhidharmasamuccaya and the Abhidharmakosabha:jya. In a few cases, the expla-
nations given by Vasubandhu in the Paiicaskandhaka seem to be combinations of
statements found in the Abhidharmasamuccaya and the Abhidharmakosabhawa. 62
However, in numerous instances the disagreements seem to be either innovations
introduced by Vasubandhu himself or to stem from other sources, not consulted
for the present investigation.
One of the terms for which we find varying definitions is avidya, "ignorance." In
addition to the explanations of the Paiicaskandhaka, the Abhidharmasamuccaya,
and the "Basic Section" of the Yogacarabhumi provided above, the following
description is given in the Viniscayasaf!]grahapi: 63 "It is characterized by obstruct-
known." In the Abh1dharmakosabha:jya, avidya is not mentioned within the listing
of the caittas. Its equivalent moha, "delusion," is paraphrased as "ignorance, lack of
knowledge, non-clarity" (AKBh 566 : avidyajiianam asamprakhyanam). In chapter
five, where avidya is referred to as one of the six anusayas, the term is not explai-
ned in more detail. In the context of dependent arising (pratityasamutpada), avidya
is specified as "the opposite of vidya ("knowledge"), a separate factor" ( vidya-
vipakJo dharmo 'nyal;), the latter explanation indicating that it is not simply the
59
See also PRADHAN's identical reconstruction in AS* 45 13 •
60
PSkV 21a6 : viryavakasa- (read: viryarambha-) sannisrayadanakarmakal;. See also
AS16?.
61
- PSkV22a 2 :jiianasannisrayadanakarmakaJ;. See also AS16 4r.
62
See for instance the definitions of maya (p. 20 above) and asraddhya (p. 21 ).
63
Q5539.zi.114b5r.: shes bya'i de kho na rtogs par bya ba la sems la 'gebs par byed pa
nyid dang sgrib par byed pa nyid do. See also AHN (2003:101 and 240).
1018 Jowita KRAMER
absence of vjdya (AKBh 141 lff). Interestingly, even the TrjJ!l§jkflvijiiaptjbhawa,
which usually follows the wording of the Paiicaskandhaka when explaining the
cajttas, gives a slightly different characterization of "ignorance" and uses the terms
mu<;lha ("perplexity")6 4 and moha instead of av1dyfl: "delusion is the lack of
knowledge of bad states of existence, the pleasant state, nirvflJJa, the causes fixing
one in those [stages], and of their correct cause-result relation" ( TrBh 84m: moho
'payeJu sugatau nirvflJJe tatpratjJ!hflpflkeJu hetuJu teJflJ!l cflviparite hetuphala-
sa1!7bandhe yad ajiiflnam).
The only expression used in every of the above-mentioned definitions ( apart
from the definition in the Viniscayasa1!7graha1Ji) is the term ajiiflna, a synonym of
avMyfl. The objects of this "lack of knowledge" are named in different ways. The
objects listed in the TrjJ!lsikavijiiaptibhawa have just been mentioned. The
Paiicakskandhaka has karma, its results (phala), the four truths (satya), and the
jewels (ratna) as objects of ajiiflna. In the "Basic Section" of the Yogflcflrabhumi,
the latter refers to "the object to be known" (jiieye vastunj) and in the Abhid-
harmasamuccaya ajiiflna is simply qualified as "belonging to the [world of] the
three spheres" ( tra1dhatuka).
Another remarkable point in connection with av1dya is its determination as
being of two different kinds, which is found in the Yogflcflrabhumi, the Paiica-
skandhaka, and - though not in such an explicit manner as in the other texts - in
the AbhMharmakosabhawa. There is no reference to this twofold distinction in the
Abhidharmasamuccaya. The "Basic Section" of the Yogflcflrabhumj applies the
terms "inexplicit" ( anirdhan·ta) and "explicit" (nirdharita) to avidya in this context,
whereas the Vindcayasa1!7graha1Ji subdivides it into "independent" ~flvel}jka)
5 closely related to the phrases found in the other three texts. It is, however, possibl
A Study of the Saipskiira Section of Vasubandhu's Paiicaskandhaka 1019
general lack of knowledge of the existence of something, whereas the conceptua-
~zed ignorance can be interpreted as a misconception of something known. This
understanding of inborn ignorance is similar to the definition of the "delusion due
to a lack of understanding" ( *anavagamasaJ!lmoha) mentioned in the Vinj§caya-
samgrahal}i The specification of the conceptualized ignorance seems to be related
0 68
to the "contaminated delusion" (kfjJfasaJ!lmoha) of the VinjscayasaJ!lgrahaJJi,
. d. . 1169
which is explained as "the lack of knowledge o f someone wh ose mm 1s m error.
Another notable example illustrating the multilayered relationship between
the works under discussion is the definition of the fivefold klesa "[false] view"
( d!Jfl} It is obvious that the explanations of the d(His in the Paiicaskandhaka, th_e
Abhjdharmasamuccaya, and the Yogflcflrabhum1 have a common source. It 1s
remarkable, however, that the Abhidharmasamuccaya regularly substitutes the
phrase kliJ!fl prajiifl, "contaminated discrimination," which appears . in th~
Yogacflrabhumi and the Paiicaskandhaka, with the phrase kJanti ruc1r matjf;
prekJfl d[J!ii;, "an admission, an inclination, a notion, an opinion, [or] a view."
Another notable peculiarity is the fact that the terms nirdhan·ta and anirdhadta,
which are used in the Yogflcflrabhum1; are omitted regularly in the Abhjdharma-
samuccaya and the Paiicaskandhaka. The same holds true for the phrase
asatpuruJaSaJ!lsevflm flgamyflsaddharmasravaJJam ayondomanaskflram, "due to
association with bad people, to hearing bad doctrines, or to wrong attention,"
which appears at the beginning of the definition of each drJP in the Yogacflra-
bhumj but is not used in the Abhidharmasamuccaya and the Paiicaskandhaka.
When comparing these definitions of the drHis with the explanations of the
AbhjdharmakosabhflJya it becomes visible that the wording of the latter is not